critical thinking model decision making

Critical Thinking Models: A Comprehensive Guide for Effective Decision Making

Critical thinking models are valuable frameworks that help individuals develop and enhance their critical thinking skills . These models provide a structured approach to problem-solving and decision-making by encouraging the evaluation of information and arguments in a logical, systematic manner. By understanding and applying these models, one can learn to make well-reasoned judgments and decisions.

Key Takeaways

Fundamentals of critical thinking.

Definition and Importance

Core cognitive skills, influence of cognitive biases.

To counter the influence of cognitive biases, critical thinkers must be aware of their own assumptions and strive to apply consistent and objective evaluation criteria in their thinking process. The practice of actively recognizing and addressing cognitive biases promotes an unbiased and rational approach to problem-solving and decision-making.

The Critical Thinking Process

Stages of Critical Thinking

Values play a significant role in the critical thinking process. Critical thinkers assess the significance of moral, ethical, or cultural values shaping the issue, argument, or decision at hand. They determine whether these values align with the evidence and logic they have analyzed.

Application in Decision Making

Critical thinking models, the red model.

The RED Model stands for Recognize Assumptions, Evaluate Arguments, and Draw Conclusions. It emphasizes the importance of questioning assumptions, weighing evidence, and reaching logical conclusions.

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical model that classifies cognitive skills into six levels of complexity. These levels are remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. By progressing through these levels, individuals can develop higher-order thinking skills.

Paul-Elder Model

The halpern critical thinking assessment.

These four critical thinking models can be used as frameworks to improve and enhance cognitive abilities. By learning and practicing these models, individuals can become better equipped to analyze complex information, evaluate options, and make well-informed decisions.

Evaluating Information and Arguments

Evidence assessment, logic and fallacies, argument analysis, enhancing critical thinking, strategies for improvement, critical thinking in education.

In the field of education, critical thinking is an essential component of effective learning and pedagogy. Integrating critical thinking into the curriculum encourages student autonomy, fosters innovation, and improves student outcomes. Teachers can use various approaches to promote critical thinking, such as:

Developing a Critical Thinking Mindset

Critical thinking in various contexts, the workplace and beyond.

In the workplace context, critical thinkers are able to recognize assumptions, evaluate arguments, and draw conclusions, following models such as the RED model . They can also adapt their thinking to suit various scenarios, allowing them to tackle complex and diverse problems.

Creative and Lateral Thinking

In conclusion, critical thinking is a multifaceted skill that comprises various thought processes, including creative and lateral thinking. By embracing these skills, individuals can excel in the workplace and in their personal lives, making better decisions and solving problems effectively.

Overcoming Challenges

Recognizing and addressing bias.

By adopting these practices, individuals can minimize the impact of biases and enhance the overall quality of their critical thinking skills.

Dealing with Information Overload

By implementing these techniques, individuals can effectively manage information overload, enabling them to process and analyze data more effectively, leading to better decision-making.

Measuring Critical Thinking

Assessment tools and criteria.

Furthermore, criteria for assessing critical thinking often include precision, relevance, and the ability to gather and analyze relevant information. Some assessors utilize the Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment , which measures the application of cognitive skills such as deduction, observation, and induction in real-world scenarios.

The Role of IQ and Tests

Frequently asked questions, what are the main steps involved in the paul-elder critical thinking model.

The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Model is a comprehensive framework for developing critical thinking skills. The main steps include: identifying the purpose, formulating questions, gathering information, identifying assumptions, interpreting information, and evaluating arguments. The model emphasizes clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness throughout the critical thinking process. By following these steps, individuals can efficiently analyze and evaluate complex ideas and issues.

Can you list five techniques to enhance critical thinking skills?

What is the red model of critical thinking and how is it applied, how do the ‘3 c’s’ of critical thinking contribute to effective problem-solving.

The ‘3 C’s’ of critical thinking – Curiosity, Creativity, and Criticism – collectively contribute to effective problem-solving. Curiosity allows individuals to explore various perspectives and ask thought-provoking questions, while Creativity helps develop innovative solutions and unique approaches to challenges. Criticism, or the ability to evaluate and analyze ideas objectively, ensures that the problem-solving process remains grounded in logic and relevance.

What characteristics distinguish critical thinking from creative thinking?

What are some recommended books to help improve problem-solving and critical thinking skills, you may also like, critical thinking for strategic intelligence: a comprehensive guide, critical thinking questions for your boyfriend, decision making framework: a guide to smarter choices, common critical thinking fallacies, download this free ebook.

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Critical Thinking and Decision-Making  - What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking and decision-making  -, what is critical thinking, critical thinking and decision-making what is critical thinking.

Critical Thinking and Decision-Making: What is Critical Thinking?

Lesson 1: what is critical thinking, what is critical thinking.

Critical thinking is a term that gets thrown around a lot. You've probably heard it used often throughout the years whether it was in school, at work, or in everyday conversation. But when you stop to think about it, what exactly is critical thinking and how do you do it ?

Watch the video below to learn more about critical thinking.

Simply put, critical thinking is the act of deliberately analyzing information so that you can make better judgements and decisions . It involves using things like logic, reasoning, and creativity, to draw conclusions and generally understand things better.

This may sound like a pretty broad definition, and that's because critical thinking is a broad skill that can be applied to so many different situations. You can use it to prepare for a job interview, manage your time better, make decisions about purchasing things, and so much more.

The process

As humans, we are constantly thinking . It's something we can't turn off. But not all of it is critical thinking. No one thinks critically 100% of the time... that would be pretty exhausting! Instead, it's an intentional process , something that we consciously use when we're presented with difficult problems or important decisions.

Improving your critical thinking

In order to become a better critical thinker, it's important to ask questions when you're presented with a problem or decision, before jumping to any conclusions. You can start with simple ones like What do I currently know? and How do I know this? These can help to give you a better idea of what you're working with and, in some cases, simplify more complex issues.  

Real-world applications

Let's take a look at how we can use critical thinking to evaluate online information . Say a friend of yours posts a news article on social media and you're drawn to its headline. If you were to use your everyday automatic thinking, you might accept it as fact and move on. But if you were thinking critically, you would first analyze the available information and ask some questions :

• What's the source of this article?
• Is the headline potentially misleading?
• What are my friend's general beliefs?
• Do their beliefs inform why they might have shared this?

After analyzing all of this information, you can draw a conclusion about whether or not you think the article is trustworthy.

Critical thinking has a wide range of real-world applications . It can help you to make better decisions, become more hireable, and generally better understand the world around you.

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How to build critical thinking skills for better decision-making

It’s simple in theory, but tougher in practice – here are five tips to get you started.

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Have you heard the riddle about two coins that equal thirty cents, but one of them is not a nickel? What about the one where a surgeon says they can’t operate on their own son?

Those brain teasers tap into your critical thinking skills. But your ability to think critically isn’t just helpful for solving those random puzzles – it plays a big role in your career. 

An impressive 81% of employers say critical thinking carries a lot of weight when they’re evaluating job candidates. It ranks as the top competency companies consider when hiring recent graduates (even ahead of communication ). Plus, once you’re hired, several studies show that critical thinking skills are highly correlated with better job performance.

So what exactly are critical thinking skills? And even more importantly, how do you build and improve them? 

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is the ability to evaluate facts and information, remain objective, and make a sound decision about how to move forward.

Does that sound like how you approach every decision or problem? Not so fast. Critical thinking seems simple in theory but is much tougher in practice, which helps explain why 65% of employers say their organization has a need for more critical thinking. 

In reality, critical thinking doesn’t come naturally to a lot of us. In order to do it well, you need to:

• Remain open-minded and inquisitive, rather than relying on assumptions or jumping to conclusions
• Ask questions and dig deep, rather than accepting information at face value
• Keep your own biases and perceptions in check to stay as objective as possible
• Rely on your emotional intelligence to fill in the blanks and gain a more well-rounded understanding of a situation

So, critical thinking isn’t just being intelligent or analytical. In many ways, it requires you to step outside of yourself, let go of your own preconceived notions, and approach a problem or situation with curiosity and fairness.

It’s a challenge, but it’s well worth it. Critical thinking skills will help you connect ideas, make reasonable decisions, and solve complex problems.

7 critical thinking skills to help you dig deeper

Critical thinking is often labeled as a skill itself (you’ll see it bulleted as a desired trait in a variety of job descriptions). But it’s better to think of critical thinking less as a distinct skill and more as a collection or category of skills. 

To think critically, you’ll need to tap into a bunch of your other soft skills. Here are seven of the most important. 

Open-mindedness

It’s important to kick off the critical thinking process with the idea that anything is possible. The more you’re able to set aside your own suspicions, beliefs, and agenda, the better prepared you are to approach the situation with the level of inquisitiveness you need. 

That means not closing yourself off to any possibilities and allowing yourself the space to pull on every thread – yes, even the ones that seem totally implausible.

As Christopher Dwyer, Ph.D. writes in a piece for Psychology Today , “Even if an idea appears foolish, sometimes its consideration can lead to an intelligent, critically considered conclusion.” He goes on to compare the critical thinking process to brainstorming . Sometimes the “bad” ideas are what lay the foundation for the good ones. 

Open-mindedness is challenging because it requires more effort and mental bandwidth than sticking with your own perceptions. Approaching problems or situations with true impartiality often means:

• Practicing self-regulation : Giving yourself a pause between when you feel something and when you actually react or take action.
• Challenging your own biases: Acknowledging your biases and seeking feedback are two powerful ways to get a broader understanding. 

Critical thinking example

In a team meeting, your boss mentioned that your company newsletter signups have been decreasing and she wants to figure out why.

At first, you feel offended and defensive – it feels like she’s blaming you for the dip in subscribers. You recognize and rationalize that emotion before thinking about potential causes. You have a hunch about what’s happening, but you will explore all possibilities and contributions from your team members.

Observation

Observation is, of course, your ability to notice and process the details all around you (even the subtle or seemingly inconsequential ones). Critical thinking demands that you’re flexible and willing to go beyond surface-level information, and solid observation skills help you do that.

Your observations help you pick up on clues from a variety of sources and experiences, all of which help you draw a final conclusion. After all, sometimes it’s the most minuscule realization that leads you to the strongest conclusion.

Over the next week or so, you keep a close eye on your company’s website and newsletter analytics to see if numbers are in fact declining or if your boss’s concerns were just a fluke. 

Critical thinking hinges on objectivity. And, to be objective, you need to base your judgments on the facts – which you collect through research. You’ll lean on your research skills to gather as much information as possible that’s relevant to your problem or situation. 

Keep in mind that this isn’t just about the quantity of information – quality matters too. You want to find data and details from a variety of trusted sources to drill past the surface and build a deeper understanding of what’s happening. 

You dig into your email and website analytics to identify trends in bounce rates, time on page, conversions, and more. You also review recent newsletters and email promotions to understand what customers have received, look through current customer feedback, and connect with your customer support team to learn what they’re hearing in their conversations with customers.

The critical thinking process is sort of like a treasure hunt – you’ll find some nuggets that are fundamental for your final conclusion and some that might be interesting but aren’t pertinent to the problem at hand.

That’s why you need analytical skills. They’re what help you separate the wheat from the chaff, prioritize information, identify trends or themes, and draw conclusions based on the most relevant and influential facts. 

It’s easy to confuse analytical thinking with critical thinking itself, and it’s true there is a lot of overlap between the two. But analytical thinking is just a piece of critical thinking. It focuses strictly on the facts and data, while critical thinking incorporates other factors like emotions, opinions, and experiences. 

As you analyze your research, you notice that one specific webpage has contributed to a significant decline in newsletter signups. While all of the other sources have stayed fairly steady with regard to conversions, that one has sharply decreased.

You decide to move on from your other hypotheses about newsletter quality and dig deeper into the analytics. 

One of the traps of critical thinking is that it’s easy to feel like you’re never done. There’s always more information you could collect and more rabbit holes you could fall down.

But at some point, you need to accept that you’ve done your due diligence and make a decision about how to move forward. That’s where inference comes in. It’s your ability to look at the evidence and facts available to you and draw an informed conclusion based on those. 

When you’re so focused on staying objective and pursuing all possibilities, inference can feel like the antithesis of critical thinking. But ultimately, it’s your inference skills that allow you to move out of the thinking process and onto the action steps. 

You dig deeper into the analytics for the page that hasn’t been converting and notice that the sharp drop-off happened around the same time you switched email providers.

After looking more into the backend, you realize that the signup form on that page isn’t correctly connected to your newsletter platform. It seems like anybody who has signed up on that page hasn’t been fed to your email list. 

Communication

3 ways to improve your communication skills at work

If and when you identify a solution or answer, you can’t keep it close to the vest. You’ll need to use your communication skills to share your findings with the relevant stakeholders – like your boss, team members, or anybody who needs to be involved in the next steps.

Your analysis skills will come in handy here too, as they’ll help you determine what information other people need to know so you can avoid bogging them down with unnecessary details. 

In your next team meeting, you pull up the analytics and show your team the sharp drop-off as well as the missing connection between that page and your email platform. You ask the web team to reinstall and double-check that connection and you also ask a member of the marketing team to draft an apology email to the subscribers who were missed. 

Problem-solving

Critical thinking and problem-solving are two more terms that are frequently confused. After all, when you think critically, you’re often doing so with the objective of solving a problem.

The best way to understand how problem-solving and critical thinking differ is to think of problem-solving as much more narrow. You’re focused on finding a solution.

In contrast, you can use critical thinking for a variety of use cases beyond solving a problem – like answering questions or identifying opportunities for improvement. Even so, within the critical thinking process, you’ll flex your problem-solving skills when it comes time to take action. 

Once the fix is implemented, you monitor the analytics to see if subscribers continue to increase. If not (or if they increase at a slower rate than you anticipated), you’ll roll out some other tests like changing the CTA language or the placement of the subscribe form on the page.

5 ways to improve your critical thinking skills

Beyond the buzzwords: Why interpersonal skills matter at work

Think critically about critical thinking and you’ll quickly realize that it’s not as instinctive as you’d like it to be. Fortunately, your critical thinking skills are learned competencies and not inherent gifts – and that means you can improve them. Here’s how:

• Practice active listening: Active listening helps you process and understand what other people share. That’s crucial as you aim to be open-minded and inquisitive.
• Ask open-ended questions: If your critical thinking process involves collecting feedback and opinions from others, ask open-ended questions (meaning, questions that can’t be answered with “yes” or “no”). Doing so will give you more valuable information and also prevent your own biases from influencing people’s input.
• Scrutinize your sources: Figuring out what to trust and prioritize is crucial for critical thinking. Boosting your media literacy and asking more questions will help you be more discerning about what to factor in. It’s hard to strike a balance between skepticism and open-mindedness, but approaching information with questions (rather than unquestioning trust) will help you draw better conclusions. 
• Play a game: Remember those riddles we mentioned at the beginning? As trivial as they might seem, games and exercises like those can help you boost your critical thinking skills. There are plenty of critical thinking exercises you can do individually or as a team . 
• Give yourself time: Research shows that rushed decisions are often regrettable ones. That’s likely because critical thinking takes time – you can’t do it under the wire. So, for big decisions or hairy problems, give yourself enough time and breathing room to work through the process. It’s hard enough to think critically without a countdown ticking in your brain. 

Critical thinking really is critical

The ability to think critically is important, but it doesn’t come naturally to most of us. It’s just easier to stick with biases, assumptions, and surface-level information. 

But that route often leads you to rash judgments, shaky conclusions, and disappointing decisions. So here’s a conclusion we can draw without any more noodling: Even if it is more demanding on your mental resources, critical thinking is well worth the effort.

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Critical thinking models: definition, benefits, and skills

In the age of memes and misinformation, critical thinking is a must. It's a crucial skill to differentiate between what may be true or false and develop (and explain) reasons for your beliefs.

The hardest part of critical thinking is knowing when to do it. Most of the time, it's easier to accept things as fact rather than to dig deeper to reach a conscious conclusion. This happens for various reasons. The most common being the ease of following the crowd and the fact it would be rather cumbersome to think critically about every single thing in the world!

How then do we know what to think critically about? How do we get the right answers, and how do we know they're correct? This is where a critical thinking model comes in. In this article, we’ll share three critical thinking models, essential critical reasoning skills, and why improving your critical thinking process is a good idea.

What Is Critical Thinking?

"Critical thinking is reasonable and reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do.” This is how renowned professor and author Robert Hugh Ennis defines it. Put another way, the definition of critical thinking is careful consideration and analysis of information to reach a rational conclusion or decision. We practice critical thinking to inform—and own—our beliefs and actions and ensure they truly align with our values and intentions.

That said, critical thinking is not our natural way of thinking . Most of us are never aware of our brain's metacognitive actions, conceptualizations, or synthesis. Instead, we rely on habits, patterns, and competencies from past experiences to understand and interact with the world. While this may save us time and effort, it doesn’t always provide the best results—and often results in fallacies.

What Are Critical Thinking Models?

A critical thinking model provides the structure for practicing this type of thinking. It helps us notice our own thinking biases and allows us to try viewing the world objectively all while providing guidelines for asking the right questions, reaching logical conclusions, and explaining how we did it.

3 Critical Thinking Models That Are Useful in Everyday Life

There are thousands of critical thinking models for almost any subject or discipline. Let’s take a look at three models of critical thinking we find useful in everyday life.

Proximate vs. Root Cause

The proximate vs. root cause critical thinking model encourages people to discover the primary cause of an event. A proximate cause is closest to the observed result or immediately responsible for it. In contrast, the root cause is the actual cause of the result. Both are causes of the event, but the root cause is the main cause, while the proximate cause is the immediate next cause.

This mental model forces you to look beyond obvious reasons to determine the core reason for impact. It helps with innovative problem-solving, so instead of relying on “Band-Aid solutions” or improving currently-existing solutions, you uncover the root of the matter and create something altogether new.

Example: You've gained a lot of weight since March 2021. Upon investigation, you may draw the following inferences:

• Proximate cause: You burn fewer calories than you consume (moving less and eating more due to boredom or food accessibility), thus the weight gain.
• Root cause: Your habits changed because of the lifestyle change from working at the office to working from home.

When you know the root cause of an issue, you can begin to deal with it to reduce the odds of recurrence. In this case, change your habits to fit the work-from-home lifestyle better. The proximate vs. root cause model improves your critical thinking ability and helps formulate a proper understanding of issues before working on them.

Cognitive Bias

Cognitive bias is a tendency to think in ways that can lead to deviations from rationality and objectivity. We all have cognitive biases. This error in thinking happens because of our tendency to process and interpret information swiftly, which can affect our decision-making and the eventual outcome of a situation.

Example: A soccer player scores a goal. In his mind, that means he's a great player. But if he had missed, he would reason that it was because the grass was wet. In self-serving bias, the tendency is to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. In other words: if there's a success, it's because I did something right. If there's a failure, it's something else's fault, not mine.

When you only pay attention or engage with news sources, stories, and conversations that confirm your worldview, you limit yourself from other perspectives and opinions that may be good for you without realizing it. Being aware of your own cognitive bias allows you to create some distance between how you expect the world to be and become more open to how it actually is on any given day.

The human brain is a powerful machine, but it has its limitations. One of them is neglecting facts and evidence to make sense of the world quickly and easily. This habit of mind may allow us to make faster decisions, but it doesn't serve us optimally. When unchecked, cognitive biases hinder fair-mindedness, inclusion, and impartiality.

Hanlon's Razor

"Never attribute to malice that which is adequately explained by incompetence."

Hanlon's Razor promotes good thinking and teaches us not to assume the worst intentions about people's actions without investigation. It helps regulate our emotions and improve relationships and decision-making. It also helps us develop empathy by giving others the benefit of the doubt and not assuming negative intent with evidence.

Example: You get to work earlier than usual on a Monday morning and notice your things scattered around. This must mean someone used your office! You immediately think a certain coworker did this to annoy you. But when you pause and consider, you realize that a coworker may have used your office during the weekend because it was vacant and they forgot their keys at home.

The stories we tell ourselves about why things happen the way they do are rarely true. It's worth spending some time to objectively view situations and choose a positive narrative that leads to better outcomes in our mental and emotional health and relationships.

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Critical Thinking Skills and Their Benefits

Critical thinking skills are useful for everyone. They help us think coherently and make advancements with our personal and professional goals. Some of the benefits you can gain from critical thinking are:

• Greater reflective thinking and self-awareness
• Ability to audit new information
• Better interpersonal relationships
• More creative thinking and problem-solving skills
• Expanded open-mindedness
• Improved communication and presentation skills
• Freedom from past experiences and attachments

To gain these types of benefits, it’s important to practice the critical thinking skills listed below.

1. Observation

Observation is the foundation for critical thinking. It’s the ability to notice and predict opportunities, problems, and solutions. Taking the time to observe helps you process information better. Positive habits like meditating, journaling, and active listening will help you improve your observation skills.

2. Analysis

After observing, it's time to analyze the information. Analyzing helps you gain a clearer grasp of the situation at hand. Ask questions that help you get a clearer picture of the subject and get to the root cause or reason. For example, if you’re analyzing a controversial tweet you read, you may ask questions such as:

• Who wrote this?
• What is it about?
• When was it written?
• Why did they write it? Do they have a hidden agenda?
• How sound is the premise?
• What if this tweet was altered to send a misleading message?

These questions help you break your subject into rational bits and consider the relationship between each one and the whole.

3. Inference

Inference is the ability to draw conclusions from the information you've analyzed and other relevant data. It's a higher-level critical thinking skill that helps you reach careful decisions rather than hastily drawn (and likely biased) conclusions.

4. Communication

Once you have a solid foundation for your beliefs, communicating your theory is the next essential part of critical thinking. Share your point of view and get feedback from others to know if it holds up. You can improve your communication skills by participating in thematic forum discussions and sharing your research and insights with others in your community, both online and offline.

5. Problem-solving

Problem-solving is one of the main reasons for critical thinking. The end goal of critical thinking is using your new conclusion to close gaps and solve problems. You start by identifying your viewpoint, analyzing relevant information, and deciding on the right solution for a particular scenario. You can improve your problem-solving skills by self-learning the subject at hand and considering hidden, alternative outcomes.

Tap Into the Power of Critical Thinking

Becoming a critical thinker is challenging but oh-so worth it. It leads to continuous growth in all areas of your life: better relationships, confidence, and problem-solving skills. Critical thinking helps us overcome familiar patterns and ways of thinking, opening us to new perspectives.

To improve your critical thinking, spend time honing the five crucial critical thinking skills: observation, analysis, inference, communication, and problem-solving. Have fun with the process as you pay more attention to your beliefs and experiences and other people's perspectives and experiences as well.

You can use critical thinking models to guide your critical thinking journey, prompting you to realize when to pause and ask questions and when to accept the answers you have and move on. For example, in today’s age of misinformation, you may learn that it’s almost always counterproductive to engage with news and information from unknown sources.

Critical thinking is needed to remove scales from our eyes and improve our knowledge and experience of the world, but it’s also important to know when to turn our attention to focus on a new subject and move on.

Improve your critical thinking with ABLE

Ask better questions and get better answers with ABLEs integrated web search, annotation and note-taking features. Check how ABLE helps you to improve your critical thinking.

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• Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework

Critical thinking is that mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. (Paul and Elder, 2001). The Paul-Elder framework has three components:

• The elements of thought (reasoning)
• The  intellectual standards that should be applied to the elements of reasoning
• The intellectual traits associated with a cultivated critical thinker that result from the consistent and disciplined application of the intellectual standards to the elements of thought

According to Paul and Elder (1997), there are two essential dimensions of thinking that students need to master in order to learn how to upgrade their thinking. They need to be able to identify the "parts" of their thinking, and they need to be able to assess their use of these parts of thinking.

Elements of Thought (reasoning)

The "parts" or elements of thinking are as follows:

• All reasoning has a purpose
• All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some question, to solve some problem
• All reasoning is based on assumptions
• All reasoning is done from some point of view
• All reasoning is based on data, information and evidence
• All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, concepts and ideas
• All reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data
• All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications and consequences

Universal Intellectual Standards

The intellectual standards that are to these elements are used to determine the quality of reasoning. Good critical thinking requires having a command of these standards. According to Paul and Elder (1997 ,2006), the ultimate goal is for the standards of reasoning to become infused in all thinking so as to become the guide to better and better reasoning. The intellectual standards include:

Intellectual Traits

Consistent application of the standards of thinking to the elements of thinking result in the development of intellectual traits of:

• Intellectual Humility
• Intellectual Courage
• Intellectual Empathy
• Intellectual Autonomy
• Intellectual Integrity
• Intellectual Perseverance
• Confidence in Reason
• Fair-mindedness

Characteristics of a Well-Cultivated Critical Thinker

Habitual utilization of the intellectual traits produce a well-cultivated critical thinker who is able to:

• Raise vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely
• Gather and assess relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively
• Come to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
• Think open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
• Communicate effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems

Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2010). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools. Dillon Beach: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.

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How to Think Critically: Strategies for Effective Decision-Making

Annie Walls

Critical thinking is an essential skill that allows individuals to analyze information, evaluate arguments, and make informed decisions. By employing critical thinking strategies, individuals can overcome biases, consider multiple perspectives, and arrive at well-reasoned judgments. In this article, we will explore the concept of critical thinking, discuss strategies for developing critical thinking skills, examine how critical thinking can be applied in decision-making, and provide tips for improving critical thinking abilities. By the end, readers will have a better understanding of how to think critically and make effective decisions.

Key Takeaways

• Critical thinking involves analyzing information, evaluating arguments, and making informed decisions.
• Developing critical thinking skills requires practicing analytical thinking, logical reasoning, problem-solving, and creativity.
• Applying critical thinking in decision-making involves gathering and evaluating information, identifying assumptions and biases, considering multiple perspectives, and making informed judgments.
• Cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias and availability bias, can hinder critical thinking and decision-making.
• Improving critical thinking skills can be achieved through reflection, seeking feedback, engaging in debates, and continual learning.

Understanding Critical Thinking

Defining critical thinking.

Critical thinking is a vital skill that allows individuals to analyze and evaluate information objectively, enabling them to make informed decisions. It involves the ability to question assumptions, consider multiple perspectives, and identify biases. By developing critical thinking skills , individuals can enhance their problem-solving abilities and become more effective decision-makers.

Importance of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a crucial skill that enables individuals to analyze and evaluate information objectively. It helps in making informed decisions, solving complex problems, and avoiding biases and fallacies. Developing critical thinking skills is essential in today's fast-paced and information-driven world.

Characteristics of a Critical Thinker

A critical thinker possesses several key characteristics that set them apart from others. They have the ability to think independently and objectively, questioning assumptions and seeking evidence to support their conclusions. Curiosity is a fundamental trait of a critical thinker, as they are constantly seeking new information and perspectives. They are also open-minded, willing to consider different viewpoints and evaluate them based on their merits. Additionally, critical thinkers are analytical and have strong problem-solving skills, allowing them to break down complex issues into manageable parts and develop effective solutions.

Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Analytical thinking.

Analytical thinking is a crucial skill for critical thinkers. It involves breaking down complex problems into smaller components and examining them systematically. By analyzing data, facts, and evidence, individuals can gain a deeper understanding of the issue at hand. Analytical thinking allows for objective evaluation and logical reasoning, enabling individuals to make informed decisions.

One effective way to present structured, quantitative data is through a Markdown table. Tables can provide a clear and concise overview of information, making it easier to identify patterns and trends. When using a table, it is important to ensure that the formatting is correct and the data is presented in a succinct manner.

In addition to tables, bulleted or numbered lists can be used to present less structured content. Lists are useful for outlining steps, qualitative points, or a series of related items. They provide a clear and organized format that is easy to follow and understand.

Remember, when analyzing data and information, it is important to remain objective and consider all perspectives. Avoid biases and assumptions that may cloud your judgment.

Improving analytical thinking skills requires practice and continual learning. By regularly engaging in analytical exercises and seeking feedback, individuals can enhance their ability to think critically and make sound decisions.

Logical Reasoning

Logical reasoning is a crucial aspect of critical thinking. It involves the ability to analyze and evaluate arguments based on their logical structure and validity. Sound reasoning allows us to make rational decisions and draw accurate conclusions. Here are some key points to consider when engaging in logical reasoning:

• Identify the premises and conclusions of an argument
• Evaluate the strength of the evidence and reasoning
• Recognize logical fallacies

Remember, logical reasoning is not about personal opinions or emotions, but rather about using objective and rational thinking to arrive at well-founded judgments.

Tip: When evaluating arguments, it can be helpful to break them down into their components and assess each part individually.

Problem Solving

Problem solving is a crucial skill in critical thinking. It involves identifying and analyzing problems, generating potential solutions, and evaluating the effectiveness of those solutions. Creativity plays a significant role in problem solving as it allows for the generation of innovative and out-of-the-box solutions. When faced with a problem, it is important to approach it with an open mind and think creatively to find the best possible solution.

Here are some strategies that can be helpful in problem solving:

• Brainstorming : This technique involves generating a large number of ideas without judgment. It encourages free thinking and allows for the exploration of various possibilities.
• Mind mapping : Mind mapping is a visual technique that helps organize thoughts and ideas. It allows for the identification of relationships between different elements and can aid in finding creative solutions.

Remember, problem solving requires both analytical thinking and creativity. By combining these two skills, you can approach problems from different angles and find innovative solutions.

Creativity and Innovation

Creativity and innovation are essential components of critical thinking. Creativity involves generating new ideas, concepts, and solutions, while innovation is the process of implementing these ideas to create value. In the context of decision-making, creativity and innovation play a crucial role in finding unique and effective solutions to problems.

To foster creativity and innovation, individuals can employ various techniques and strategies. Some of these include:

• Brainstorming : This technique involves generating a large number of ideas without judgment or evaluation. It encourages free thinking and allows for the exploration of different possibilities.
• Mind Mapping : Mind mapping is a visual technique that helps organize thoughts and ideas. It allows for the connection of related concepts and the exploration of different relationships.
• Divergent Thinking : Divergent thinking involves thinking outside the box and considering multiple perspectives and possibilities.

By incorporating these techniques, individuals can enhance their creative and innovative thinking abilities, leading to more effective decision-making processes.

Applying Critical Thinking in Decision-Making

Gathering and evaluating information.

Gathering and evaluating information is a crucial step in the critical thinking process. It involves collecting relevant data and facts from reliable sources to inform decision-making. This step helps ensure that decisions are based on accurate and up-to-date information. To gather information effectively, it is important to:

Identifying Assumptions and Biases

When making decisions, it is important to be aware of the assumptions and biases that may influence our thinking. Assumptions are beliefs or ideas that we take for granted without questioning them. They can shape our perception of a situation and affect the choices we make. Biases, on the other hand, are preconceived notions or prejudices that can cloud our judgment. They can lead us to favor certain options or overlook important information.

To identify assumptions and biases, it is helpful to engage in critical thinking and reflection. We can ask ourselves questions like:

• What assumptions am I making about this situation?
• Are these assumptions based on evidence or personal beliefs?
• Am I favoring certain options because of my biases?

By challenging our assumptions and biases, we can make more informed decisions and avoid potential pitfalls. It is important to approach decision-making with an open mind and consider multiple perspectives. This can help us overcome biases and make choices that are based on rational thinking and evidence.

Considering Multiple Perspectives

When making decisions, it is important to consider multiple perspectives to gain a comprehensive understanding of the situation. Empathy plays a crucial role in this process, as it allows us to put ourselves in others' shoes and understand their viewpoints.

One way to incorporate multiple perspectives is by engaging in active listening . This involves giving full attention to the speaker, suspending judgment, and seeking to understand their point of view. By actively listening, we can gain valuable insights and challenge our own assumptions.

Another strategy is to seek diverse opinions . This can be done by involving individuals with different backgrounds, experiences, and expertise in the decision-making process. By doing so, we can uncover blind spots, identify potential risks, and generate innovative solutions.

It is also important to consider the long-term consequences of our decisions. This requires thinking beyond immediate outcomes and considering how different perspectives may impact various stakeholders over time.

Remember, considering multiple perspectives allows us to make more informed and well-rounded decisions.

Making Informed Judgments

Making informed judgments is a crucial aspect of critical thinking. It involves carefully evaluating the available information and considering multiple perspectives before reaching a conclusion. By gathering and analyzing relevant data, we can make more informed decisions that are based on evidence rather than assumptions or biases. It is important to be aware of our own biases and assumptions and actively seek out diverse viewpoints to ensure a well-rounded judgment. Additionally, considering the potential consequences of our decisions can help us make more ethical and responsible choices.

Overcoming Cognitive Biases

Confirmation bias.

Confirmation bias is a common cognitive bias that affects our decision-making process. It refers to the tendency to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms our preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. This bias can lead us to ignore or dismiss evidence that contradicts our beliefs, and instead, focus on information that supports what we already think.

One way to overcome confirmation bias is to actively seek out information that challenges our beliefs. By exposing ourselves to different perspectives and considering alternative viewpoints, we can broaden our understanding and make more informed decisions.

Here are a few strategies to help overcome confirmation bias:

• Engage in critical thinking and question your own assumptions.
• Seek out diverse sources of information and consider multiple viewpoints.
• Challenge your own beliefs and be open to changing your mind.

Remember, overcoming confirmation bias is crucial for effective decision-making and critical thinking.

Availability Bias

Availability bias is a cognitive bias that occurs when people rely on immediate examples or information that comes to mind when making decisions or judgments. It is a mental shortcut that can lead to errors in thinking and decision-making. When people are influenced by availability bias, they tend to overestimate the likelihood of events or situations that are easily recalled or readily available in their memory. This bias can impact various aspects of life, including personal relationships, financial decisions, and even professional judgments.

Anchoring Bias

Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias that occurs when individuals rely too heavily on an initial piece of information (the anchor) when making decisions or judgments. This bias can lead to errors in judgment and decision-making, as it limits the consideration of other relevant information. For example, if a person is given a high price as the anchor for a product, they may perceive any subsequent lower price as a good deal, even if it is still relatively expensive.

To overcome anchoring bias, it is important to be aware of its influence and actively seek out additional information and perspectives. By considering a wider range of information and challenging the initial anchor, individuals can make more informed and unbiased decisions.

Here are some strategies to overcome anchoring bias:

• Question the initial anchor: Instead of accepting the initial information as the sole basis for decision-making, question its validity and consider alternative anchors.
• Seek diverse perspectives: Engage with different viewpoints and gather a variety of opinions to broaden your understanding of the situation.
• Use decision-making frameworks: Utilize structured decision-making frameworks that encourage a systematic evaluation of all relevant factors.

Remember, anchoring bias can limit your ability to make objective decisions. By actively challenging the initial anchor and considering a wider range of information, you can overcome this bias and make more informed choices.

Hindsight Bias

Hindsight bias is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency of individuals to believe that an event was more predictable or foreseeable than it actually was, after it has occurred. This bias often leads people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome or to believe that they would have made different decisions if they had known the outcome beforehand.

To overcome hindsight bias, it is important to recognize that the outcome of an event does not necessarily reflect the quality of the decision-making process. It is crucial to evaluate decisions based on the information available at the time and to avoid judging them solely based on the outcome.

Here are some strategies to help overcome hindsight bias:

• Practice self-reflection and analyze your decision-making process without the influence of hindsight.
• Seek feedback from others to gain different perspectives and insights.
• Consider alternative explanations and possibilities that could have influenced the outcome.
• Continually learn and update your knowledge and skills to make more informed decisions in the future.

Remember, overcoming hindsight bias requires conscious effort and a willingness to challenge your own assumptions and beliefs.

Improving Critical Thinking Skills

Practicing reflection.

Reflection is a crucial component of developing critical thinking skills. It involves taking the time to analyze and evaluate our thoughts, actions, and experiences. By reflecting on our decision-making processes, we can gain valuable insights and identify areas for improvement.

One effective way to practice reflection is through journaling. By writing down our thoughts and experiences, we can better understand our own biases, assumptions, and patterns of thinking. Journaling also allows us to track our progress and identify any recurring challenges or obstacles.

Additionally, engaging in meaningful conversations with others can provide different perspectives and challenge our own beliefs. By actively listening and considering alternative viewpoints, we can broaden our understanding and enhance our critical thinking abilities.

Remember, reflection is not a one-time activity but an ongoing practice. By regularly reflecting on our thoughts and actions, we can continue to refine our critical thinking skills and make more informed decisions.

Seeking Feedback

Seeking feedback is an essential part of developing critical thinking skills. By actively seeking input from others, we can gain valuable insights and different perspectives that can help us refine our ideas and improve our decision-making. Feedback can come from various sources, such as colleagues, mentors, or even customers. It is important to approach feedback with an open mind and a willingness to learn and grow. Receiving constructive criticism can be challenging, but it is an opportunity for personal and professional development. By incorporating feedback into our thought process, we can enhance our critical thinking abilities and make more informed judgments.

Engaging in Debates

Engaging in debates is a valuable way to enhance critical thinking skills and broaden your perspective. It allows you to challenge your own beliefs and consider alternative viewpoints. When engaging in debates, it is important to approach the discussion with an open mind and a willingness to listen to others. Active listening is key to understanding different perspectives and finding common ground.

To make the most out of debates, consider the following:

• Prepare : Research the topic beforehand to gather relevant information and evidence to support your arguments.
• Stay focused : Stick to the topic at hand and avoid personal attacks or getting off track.
• Respectful communication : Use respectful language and tone when expressing your opinions and engaging with others.

Remember, the goal of a debate is not necessarily to win, but to exchange ideas and gain a deeper understanding of the topic. By engaging in debates, you can sharpen your critical thinking skills and become a more effective decision-maker.

Continual Learning

Continual learning is a key aspect of developing critical thinking skills. It involves actively seeking out new knowledge and information, and continuously expanding one's understanding of various subjects. By engaging in continual learning, individuals can stay updated with the latest developments in their field and broaden their perspectives. This can be done through various methods such as reading books and articles, attending workshops and seminars, taking online courses, or participating in professional development programs. Embracing a growth mindset and being open to learning from different sources can greatly enhance one's critical thinking abilities.

Improving Critical Thinking Skills is essential in today's fast-paced and complex world. It allows us to analyze information, solve problems, and make informed decisions. Whether you're a student, professional, or entrepreneur, honing your critical thinking skills can greatly benefit your personal and professional life. By developing the ability to think critically, you can navigate through challenges, identify opportunities, and come up with innovative solutions. If you're looking to enhance your critical thinking skills, visit Keynote Speaker James Taylor's website. James Taylor is an internationally recognized leader in business creativity and innovation. His website offers valuable resources, insights, and strategies to help you improve your critical thinking abilities. Don't miss out on this opportunity to take your thinking to the next level!

In conclusion, developing critical thinking skills is essential for effective decision-making. By employing strategies such as analyzing information , evaluating evidence , and considering alternative perspectives , individuals can make more informed choices. Critical thinking allows us to navigate complex situations, challenge assumptions, and arrive at well-reasoned conclusions. It is a valuable skill that can be honed through practice and application in various aspects of life. So, start cultivating your critical thinking abilities today and enhance your decision-making prowess.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is critical thinking.

Critical thinking is the ability to analyze and evaluate information objectively, using logical reasoning and evidence-based decision-making.

Why is critical thinking important?

Critical thinking is important because it helps individuals make informed decisions, solve problems effectively, and avoid biases and fallacies.

What are the characteristics of a critical thinker?

Critical thinkers are open-minded, curious, logical, reflective, and able to consider multiple perspectives.

How can I develop analytical thinking skills?

You can develop analytical thinking skills by practicing observation, analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of information and data.

What is logical reasoning?

Logical reasoning is the process of using valid and reliable evidence to support arguments and make logical conclusions.

How can critical thinking be applied in decision-making?

Critical thinking can be applied in decision-making by gathering and evaluating relevant information, identifying assumptions and biases, considering multiple perspectives, and making informed judgments.

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Critical Thinking: Step 6: Decision Making

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Decision Making Process

Step 6: Decision-Making as a Process

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7-Step Decision Making Process Infographic

The rational decision making process consists of a sequence of steps designed to rationally develop a desired solution. Typically these steps involve: 

• Identify a problem or opportunity
• Gather information
• Analyze the situation
• Develop options
• Evaluate alternatives
• Select a preferred alternative
• Act on the decision

The infographic below walks through this decision-making process, click on the image to view it full screen.

Decision-Making Toolkit

Mehentee, J. (2014, January 4).  Decision making toolkit: PrOACT - introduction  [Video file]. Retrieved from  https://youtu.be/5MunrGUIgwc?list=PLXZcOGxnrPsJ07IrspMmFrvdn1NBQLvOn

When making an important decision, one that will impact some part of your life, such as your work, your family or your health, you need a decision-making process that will increase the likelihood of realizing a successful outcome. Watch the video above for some helpful advice.

Cuzzle #3 of 5 (Critical Thinking Puzzle)

A friend tells you someone stashed a $50 bill in a novel in the neighborhood library. The friend doesn't know the title of the novel, but goes on to say that the money is between pages 201 and 202 of the unnamed novel.

With this information, do you ransack the library looking for the right novel and the money? Why?

After you spend some time deciding on your answer, click on the image to see if you made the right choice.

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Global Cognition

Critical thinking in decision making.

by Winston Sieck updated September 12, 2021

Critical thinking is often talked about as a stand-alone activity. Like some other individual activities, thinking critically may just feel good. Yet, critical thinking seems most useful when it aids other cognitive processes, such as applying critical thinking in decision making.

Anne Helsdingen from the Open University of the Netherlands and her colleagues studied an interesting issue about critical thinking in decision making. They wanted to know whether teaching critical thinking skills can improve judgment and decision making in general.

Helsdingen and her team define critical thinking as reasoned thinking with a purpose. They also describe some core critical thinking skills and abilities, such as being able to:

• Appreciate that your own opinions may be wrong
• Accept statements as true even when they conflict with your own views
• Temporarily adopt an initial position with which you disagree, and then reason from that starting point

A challenge, according to these researchers, is how to teach skills for critical thinking in decision making so that they transfer to new decision making problems. Transfer means being able to apply what you have learned to new tasks or new situations.

To tackle this problem, they start with a useful cognitive model of how decisions are made . Numerous researchers have worked with similar versions of the model of the years. One version is called “explanation-based decision making,” or the “story model.”

The idea is that people encounter situations. When they do, they recognize important parts of the situation from past experience. They then create a story (or explanation) about what’s going on and what will happen. They make decisions based on their story, and how things have turned out in similar stories past.

A problem with making decisions this way is that our stories tend to be less complete than we think – a failure of metacognition. We also overlook inconsistent details because we’re sucked in by the good story. According to Helsdingen, we might improve our intuitive approach by bringing critical thinking in the decision making process.

The researchers tested a method for including critical thinking in decision making. First, they explained the story model of decision making. Then, they prompted the learners to reflect on their story and thinking critically about it. Some of the questions they included to prompt critical thinking were:

• Do you have all the necessary information?
• Is there any conflict in the evidence?
• The devil’s advocate tells you that your story is wrong. Make up an alternative story. Is it more plausible than the original?

The students in the study read through cases about crimes that had been committed. Their job was to decide on the priority of each case for the police. They got feedback, so they could learn what makes cases more important in police work.

Some of the students received the critical thinking skills training while making these decisions. Others did not.

How well they made these crime decisions was not the most important thing, though. The main thing was how well they would do in a different situation after learning about critical thinking in decision making. That is, would their new skills transfer?

The researchers tested for transfer by having the students make different decisions about traffic offenses. The overall results suggested that the training on how to include critical thinking in decision making was effective. The benefits did transfer to the new decision making task.

As you come across decisions that you need to make, pay some attention to the stories you are telling yourself in the process. Use some of the ideas above and other critical thinking skills to improve your story and decision. Writing is also an excellent strategy for making good decisions . It may seem like a bit of extra work at first, but with practice will become more natural for your future decisions.

Image Credit:  Critical thinking asylum

Helsdingen, A., van Gog, T., & van Merriënboer, J. (2011). The effects of practice schedule and critical thinking prompts on learning and transfer of a complex judgment task. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103 (2), 383-398 DOI: 10.1037/a0022370

About Winston Sieck

Dr. Winston Sieck is a cognitive psychologist working to advance the development of thinking skills. He is founder and president of Global Cognition, and director of Thinker Academy .

Reader Interactions

January 13, 2013 at 6:36 pm

Thanks for sharing this research and the ‘story’. We are often asked whether you can learn to be a better critical thinker – I wouldn’t be teaching it if I didn’t believe it to be the case! But it helps to have research to support this belief.

Our work is focused on critical thinking in organizational, workplace settings with all sorts of employees, including managers and executives. My experience is pretty similar to that you gave in the case; in the moment, on a particular case, the ‘decision’ may not be improved.

As the researchers and you point out, the proof is in the pudding. Can people learn and apply simple critical thinking techniques, consistently and effectively, and, does this lead to better outcomes?

We find that it can be overwhelming to try to teach too much at a clip. We boil it down to simple questions, job aids, and worksheets that can help people – especially people working on teams – to establish a common vocabulary, and create an environment that reinforces critical thinking rather than viewing it as generating conflict and controversy.

February 21, 2014 at 4:02 am

I am interested in teaching critical thinking skills to Law Enforcement, specifically to a group of people age 14 to 18 who are interested in pursuing a Law Enforcement Career (The Police Explorer Program) but then later to already established officers.

A law enforcement officer (LEO) is called upon to make decisions and wield power which effect others lives, and they are often required to do this on the spot, with a limited amount of time and information available. They make these decisions every day and I am looking for ways to sharpen their skills and help them make the best decisions possible with the information they have on hand.

I couldn’t help but notice that this study happened to be centered on LEO scenarios. I was wondering if I could adapt this study to a class for young people. Any thoughts?

Also, how could I get the specifics of this study, to include the specific scenarios used?

February 21, 2014 at 9:34 am

That sounds really interesting, Eric. I contacted Anne Helsdingen on your behalf, and shared your contact information with her.

February 28, 2016 at 11:40 pm

For the last five years I have taught CT to serving LEOs, although only slowly at first; it is a sharp departure from traditional police training. While new theories come out on how to fix a profession currently under enormous pressure, many of them have been around for 10 or 20 years whereas CT has been developed over at least 25 centuries. I would be happy to share my work and experiences to to hear of others’ work too.

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Critical Thinking Is About Asking Better Questions

by John Coleman

Summary .   

Critical thinking is the ability to analyze and effectively break down an issue in order to make a decision or find a solution. At the heart of critical thinking is the ability to formulate deep, different, and effective questions. For effective questioning, start by holding your hypotheses loosely. Be willing to fundamentally reconsider your initial conclusions — and do so without defensiveness. Second, listen more than you talk through active listening. Third, leave your queries open-ended, and avoid yes-or-no questions. Fourth, consider the counterintuitive to avoid falling into groupthink. Fifth, take the time to stew in a problem, rather than making decisions unnecessarily quickly. Last, ask thoughtful, even difficult, follow-ups.

Are you tackling a new and difficult problem at work? Recently promoted and trying to both understand your new role and bring a fresh perspective? Or are you new to the workforce and seeking ways to meaningfully contribute alongside your more experienced colleagues? If so, critical thinking — the ability to analyze and effectively break down an issue in order to make a decision or find a solution — will be core to your success. And at the heart of critical thinking is the ability to formulate deep, different, and effective questions.

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Diane halpern’s four-part model.

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Halpern extensively describes the model in Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking , a text popular for use in stand-alone critical thinking courses at colleges and currently in its fifth edition.  Halpern embeds the four parts of the model within the definition she provides for critical thinking. Halpern defines critical thinking as “the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome” and further labels critical thinking as “purposeful, reasoned…goal-directed” and “involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions” (8). The definition also stipulates that the thinker must be using appropriate skills for a particular “context” and “type of thinking task” (8). The four-part model then aligns with these definition components and elaborates upon them.

The model’s first part is the overt teaching and learning of specific critical thinking skills and is also delineated in the book’s appendix (Halpern 563-92).

The model’s part two, that “develop[ing] the disposition” of a critical thinker relates to essential “attitudes” such as the “willingness to plan…flexibility…persistence… [and] admit[ting] errors,” as well as “chang[ing] your mind when the evidence changes.” Halpern indicates these attitudes undergird all thinking that raises the chances of attaining goals and solving problems (18-25).

Halpern’s part three centers on student transfer of the critical skills. Along with teaching students specific critical thinking skills, instructors also need to teach students to identify circumstances that require those skills and which skills are necessary in a particular circumstance (Halpern 25-6). To transfer skills, Halpern argues that students must move past “the domain-specific surface characteristics” to identify the “structural aspects of the problem or argument” that “trigger the recall of the thinking skill” (25).

Finally, the fourth part requires students to use metacognition to track the effectiveness of their thinking (Halpern 27). Decisions, goals, and problem solving feature significantly in Halpern’s definition and model. Both the definition and model account for uncertainty in the decision-making process because the result of critical thinking skills need not be “a desirable outcome” but instead a higher chance of such an outcome (8).

Works Cited

Halpern, diane f.  thought and knowledge: an introduction to critical thinking.  5th edition, psychology press, 2014..

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The power of critical thinking: enhancing decision-making and problem-solving.

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Dr. Ron Young, Founder and Board Chair of Trove, Inc . Ron specializes in psychological coaching & transition consulting.

Critical thinking is a fundamental cognitive process that enables individuals to objectively analyze, evaluate and interpret information to make informed decisions and solve complex problems. It involves employing reasoning and logic, questioning assumptions, recognizing biases and considering multiple perspectives. It requires self-monitored, self-directed, self-disciplined and self-corrective thinking. Critical thinking is essential in a world of information and diverse opinions. It helps us see things more clearly and avoid being misled or deceived.

Importance Of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is crucial in various aspects of life, including education, professional endeavors and personal decision-making. In academic settings, it allows students to comprehend and engage with complex subjects while discerning valid arguments from fallacious ones. In the workplace, critical thinking empowers individuals to analyze problems, devise creative solutions and make informed judgments. In everyday life, it helps individuals navigate an increasingly complex world by making sound choices and avoiding cognitive biases. It is our primary defense against misleading or "spun" information.

Benefits Of Critical Thinking

There are many benefits of critical thinking.

Enhanced Decision-Making

Critical thinking helps us trust our gut feelings and think independently. It enables individuals to make logical and well-reasoned decisions based on evidence and objective analysis. It encourages the consideration of all relevant factors and the evaluation of potential consequences, leading to more informed choices.

Effective Problem-Solving

Critical thinking facilitates the identification of underlying issues, the generation of innovative solutions and the evaluation of their viability. It encourages individuals to approach problems from different angles and consider various perspectives, increasing the likelihood of finding effective resolutions.

Reduction Of Cognitive Biases

Critical thinking supports self-reflection. It helps individuals recognize and challenge cognitive biases that hinder clear judgment. Individuals can better overcome confirmation bias, groupthink and the availability heuristic (judging the likelihood of an event based on recall of similar events) by understanding and questioning their assumptions and beliefs. It requires a commitment to overcoming the tendency to see the world from a narrow, self-centered perspective.

Enhanced Communication Skills

Practicing critical thinking fosters effective communication by enabling individuals to articulate and defend their ideas with logical reasoning and evidence. It encourages active listening, empathy and the ability to evaluate and respond to counterarguments, leading to more constructive and meaningful discussions.

More United Citizens

Using critical thinking enables citizens to see the whole picture by better protecting against biases and propaganda. It reduces partisanship and a “we/they” mentality.

Cultivating Critical Thinking

How can you cultivate critical thinking?

Be curious and inquisitive.

Foster a mindset of curiosity and an eagerness to explore and understand the world. Talk with people from different backgrounds, cultures, political affiliations or religions. Ask probing questions, seek new perspectives and engage in active learning. Learn from people who hold different viewpoints.

Develop analytical skills.

You can do this by learning to break down complex problems into manageable parts, recognize patterns and identify cause-and-effect relationships. Remember, not all opinions are equal, and some are flat-out wrong.

Evaluate information.

Develop skills to evaluate the credibility and reliability of information sources. Be aware of bias, assess evidence and differentiate between fact and opinion. Guard against "swallowing information whole" or believing that "If it's on the internet, it must be true."

Practice reflection.

Engage in reflective thinking by evaluating your thoughts, beliefs and assumptions. Consider alternative viewpoints, and be open to changing your perspective based on new information.

Embrace intellectual humility.

Be humble and aware that you could be wrong. Knowledge is an ongoing process; be open to admitting mistakes or gaps in understanding. Embrace a growth mindset that values continuous learning and improvement.

Develop your sense of belonging.

The third tier in Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a sense of belonging. One aspect of belonging is connection. All humans have this need. Without critical thinking, we are vulnerable to making our group's beliefs our own rather than evaluating which beliefs align with our values.

Align your view and your values.

Rather than defining yourself by a particular view, ask whether a different view aligns with your values. When we identify ourselves by the beliefs of our reference group (religious, political, etc.), we look for ways to justify our ideas. In doing so, we deny ourselves access to critical thinking.

Evidence Of Critical Thinking

When you practice critical thinking, it will be evident in several areas:

Evidence-Based Decision-Making

Rely on facts rather than emotions or personal biases. Follow five distinct steps, called the five A’s : ask, access, appraise, apply and audit. Gather relevant information, evaluate the evidence objectively and consider different perspectives before making decisions. Then reevaluate them as you learn new information.

Problem-Solving

Approach problems systematically by defining the issue, gathering relevant data, brainstorming potential solutions and evaluating feasibility. Engage in collaborative problem-solving to benefit from diverse perspectives. Open-mindedly consider alternative systems of thought. Recognize assumptions, implications and practical consequences, then adjust as needed.

Effective Communication

Solve complex problems by clearly and effectively communicating with others. Utilize critical thinking skills to articulate your thoughts clearly, listen actively and engage in respectful and constructive dialogue. Challenge ideas through logical arguments and evidence rather than resorting to personal attacks. Respecting people with different views does not mean you agree with their opinions. Evaluate, formulate and communicate questions with clarity and precision.

Continuous Learning

Apply critical thinking to ongoing personal and professional development. Seek opportunities for further education, engage in intellectual discourse and actively challenge your beliefs and assumptions.

Using Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a powerful cognitive tool that empowers individuals to navigate the complexities of the modern world. Critical thinking enhances decision-making, problem-solving and communication abilities by fostering logical reasoning, analytical skills and an open mindset. It enables individuals to overcome cognitive biases, evaluate information effectively and make informed choices. Cultivating and applying critical thinking skills benefits individuals and contributes to a more thoughtful and rational society. Embracing critical thinking is essential for fostering intellectual growth, facilitating progress and addressing the challenges of the 21st century.

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Evidence-based practice for effective decision-making

Effective HR decision-making is based on considering the best available evidence combined with critical thinking.

People professionals are faced with complex workplace decisions and need to understand ‘what works’ in order to influence organisational outcomes for the better. 

Evidence-based practice helps them make better, more effective decisions by choosing reliable, trustworthy solutions and being less reliant on outdated received wisdom, fads or superficial quick fixes. 

At the CIPD, we believe this is an important step for the people profession to take: our Profession Map describes a vision of a profession that is principles-led, evidence-based and outcomes-driven. Taking an evidence-based approach to decision-making can have a huge impact on the working lives of people in all sorts of organisations worldwide.

This factsheet outlines what evidence-based practice is and why it is so important, highlighting the four sources of evidence to draw on and combine to ensure the greatest chance of making effective decisions. It then looks to the steps we can take to move towards an evidence-based people profession. 

On this page

• What is evidence-based practice?
• Why is evidence-based practice important?
• What evidence should we use?
• How can we move towards an evidence-based people profession?
• Useful contacts and further reading

At the heart of evidence-based practice is the idea that good decision-making is achieved through critical appraisal of the best available evidence from multiple sources. When we say ‘evidence’, we mean information, facts or data supporting (or contradicting) a claim, assumption or hypothesis. This evidence may come from scientific research, the local organisation, experienced professionals or relevant stakeholders. We use the following definition from CEBMa :

“Evidence-based practice is about making decisions through the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of the best available evidence from multiple sources… to increase the likelihood of a favourable outcome.”

In search of best available evidence

The reasons why evidence-based practice is so important, the principles that underpin it, how it can be followed and how challenges in doing so can be overcome.

Information overload

In their report Evidence-based management: the basic principles , Eric Barends, Denise Rousseau and Rob Briner of CEBMa outline the challenge of biased and unreliable management decisions. 

People professionals face all sorts of contradictory insights and claims about what works and what doesn’t in the workplace. As Daniel Levitin puts it:

"We're assaulted with facts, pseudo facts, jibber-jabber, and rumor, all posing as information. Trying to figure out what you need to know and what you can ignore is exhausting."

While assessing the reliability of evidence becomes more important as the mass of opinion grows, with such a barrage of information, we inevitably use mental shortcuts to make decisions easier and to avoid our brains overloading.

Unfortunately, this means we are prone to biases. Our reports a head for hiring and our minds at work outline the most common of these:

• Authority bias: the tendency to overvalue the opinion of a person or organisation that is seen as an authority
• Conformity bias: the tendency to conform to others in a group, also referred to as 'group think' or 'herd behaviour'
• Confirmation bias: looking to confirm existing beliefs when assessing new information
• Patternicity or the illusion of causality: the tendency to see patterns and assume causal relations by connecting the dots even when there is just random 'noise'.

So-called ‘best practice’

Received wisdom and the notion of ‘best practice’ also creates bias. One organisation may look to another as an example of sound practice and decision-making, without critically evaluating the effectiveness of their actions. And while scientific literature on key issues in the field is vital, there’s a gap between this and the perceptions of practitioners, who are often unaware of the depth of research available.

Cherry-picking evidence

Even when looking at research, we can be naturally biased. We have a tendency to ‘cherry-pick’ research that backs up a perspective or opinion and ignores research that does not, even if it gives stronger evidence on cause-and-effect relationships. This bad habit is hard to avoid – it's even common among academic researchers. So we need approaches that help us determine which research evidence we should trust.

Our ‘insight’ article When the going gets tough, the tough get evidence explains the importance of taking an evidence-based approach to decision making in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. It emphasises and discusses how decision makers can and should become savvy consumers of research.

How can evidence-based practice help?

Our thought leadership article outlines the importance of evidence-based practice in more detail but, essentially, it has three main benefits:

• It ensures that decision-making is based on fact, rather than outdated insights, short-term fads and natural bias.
• It creates a stronger body of knowledge and as a result, a more trusted profession.
• It gives more gravitas to professionals, leads to increased influence on other business leaders and has a more positive impact in work.

The four sources of evidence

The issues above demonstrate the limitations of basing decisions on limited, unreliable evidence. Before making an important decision or introducing a new practice, an evidence-based people professional should start by asking: "What is the available evidence?" As a minimum, people professionals should consider four sources of evidence.

• Scientific literature on people management has become more readily available in recent years, particularly on topics such as the recruitment and selection of personnel, the effect of feedback on performance and the characteristics of effective teams. People professionals’ ability to search for and appraise research for its relevance and trustworthiness is essential.
• Organisational data must be examined as it highlights issues needing a manager’s attention. This data can come externally from customers or clients (customer satisfaction, repeated business), or internally from employees (levels of job satisfaction, retention rates). There’s also the comparison between ‘hard’ evidence, such as turnover rate and productivity levels, and ‘soft’ elements, like perceptions of culture and attitudes towards leadership. Gaining access to organisational data is key to determining causes of problems, and finding and implementing solutions.
• Expertise and judgement of practitioners, managers, consultants and business leaders is important to ensure effective decision-making. This professional knowledge differs from opinion as it’s accumulated over time through reflection on outcomes of similar actions taken in similar contexts. It reflects specialised knowledge acquired through repeated experience of specialised activities.
• Stakeholders, both internal (employees, managers, board members) and external (suppliers, investors, shareholders), may be affected by an organisation’s decisions and their consequences. Their values reflect what they deem important, which in turn affects how they respond to the organisation’s decisions. Acquiring knowledge of their concerns provides a frame of reference for analysing evidence.

Combining the evidence

One very important element of evidence-based practice is collating evidence from different sources. There are six ways – depicted in our infographic below – which will encourage this:

Evidence based practice infographic

• Asking – translating a practical issue or problem into an answerable question.
• Acquiring – systematically searching for and retrieving evidence.
• Appraising – critically judging the trustworthiness and relevance of the evidence.
• Aggregating – weighing and pulling together the evidence.
• Applying – incorporating the evidence into a decision-making process.
• Assessing – evaluating the outcome of the decision taken so as to increase the likelihood.

Through these six steps, practitioners can ensure the quality of evidence is not ignored. Appraisal varies depending on the source of evidence, but generally involves the same questions:

• Where and how is evidence gathered?
• Is it the best evidence available?
• Is it sufficient to reach a conclusion?
• Might it be biased in a particular direction? If so, why?

Evidence-based practice is about using the best available evidence from multiple sources to optimise decisions. Being evidence-based is not a question of looking for ‘proof’, as this is far too elusive. However, we can – and should – prioritise the most trustworthy evidence available. The gains in making better decisions on the ground, strengthening the body of knowledge and becoming a more influential profession are surely worthwhile.

To realise the vision of a people profession that’s genuinely evidence-based, we need to move forward on two fronts. 

First, we need to make sure that the body of professional knowledge is evidence-based – the CIPD’s Evidence review hub is one way in which we are doing this. 

Second, people professionals need to develop capacity in engaging with the best available evidence. Doing this as a non-researcher may feel daunting, but taking small steps towards more evidence-based decisions can make a huge difference. Our thought leadership article outlines a maturity model for being more evidence-based in more detail, but to summarise, we’d encourage people professionals to take the following steps:

• Read research : engage with high-quality research on areas of interest through reading core textbooks and journals that summarise research.
• Collect and analyse organisational data : in the long-term, developing analytical capability should be an aim for the people profession. More immediately, HR leaders should have some knowledge of data-analytics, enough to ask probing questions and make the case for the resources needed for robust measures.
• Review published evidence , including conducting or commissioning short evidence reviews of scientific literature to inform decisions.
• Pilot new practices : evaluate new interventions through applying the same principles used in rigorous cause-and-effect research.
• Share your knowledge : strengthen the body of knowledge by sharing research insights at events or in publications.
• Critical thinking : throughout this process, question assumptions and carefully consider where there are gaps in knowledge.

Developing this sort of capability is a long journey but one that people professionals should aspire to. As the professional body for HR and people development, the CIPD takes an evidence-based view on the future of work – and, importantly, what this means for our profession. By doing this, we can help prepare professionals and employers for what’s coming, while also equipping them to succeed and shape a changing world of work.

Our Profession Map has been developed to do this. It defines the knowledge, behaviours and values which should underpin today’s people profession. It has been developed as an international standard against which an organisation can benchmark its values. At its core are the concepts of being principles-led, evidence-based and outcomes driven. This recognises the importance of using the four forms of evidence in a principled manner to develop positive outcomes for stakeholders. As evidence is often of varying degrees of quality, it’s important that people professionals consider if and how they should incorporate the different types of evidence into their work.

Evidence-based practice is a useful concept for understanding whether practices in HR lead to the desired outcomes, and whether these practices are being used to the best effect. 

Both our guide and thought leadership article offer a detailed, step-by-step approach to using evidence-based practice in your decision making.

All our evidence reviews are featured on our Evidence Hub . For a learning and development perspective, listen to our Evidence-based L&D podcast. There's also Using evidence in HR decision-making: 10 lessons from the COVID-19 crisis , part of our coronavirus webinar series.

Center for Evidence-Based Management (CEBMa)  

ScienceForWork - Evidence-based management  

Books and reports

Barends, E. and Rousseau, D. (2018)  Evidence-based management: how to use evidence to make better organizational decisions . Kogan Page: London

Levitin, D. (2015) The Organized Mind: Thinking Straight in the Age of Information Overload . London: Penguin. 

Randell, G. and Toplis, J. (2014)  Towards organizational fitness: a guide to diagnosis and treatment . London: Gower.

Visit the  CIPD and Kogan Page Bookshop  to see all our priced publications currently in print.

Journal articles

Petticrew, M. and Roberts, H. (2003) Evidence, hierarchies, and typologies: horses for courses . Journal Of Epidemiology And Community Health . Vol 57(7): 527.

Rousseau, D. (2020) Making evidence based-decisions in an uncertain world.  Organizational Dynamics . Vol 49, No 1, January-March. Reviewed in Bitesize research.

Severson, E. (2019) Real-life EBM: what it feels like to lead evidence-based HR.  People + Strategy . Vol 42, No 1, pp22-27.

CIPD members can use our  online journals  to find articles from over 300 journal titles relevant to HR.

Members and  People Management  subscribers can see articles on the  People Management  website.

This factsheet was last updated by Jake Young: Research Associate, CIPD

Jake’s research interests cover a number of workplace topics, notably inclusion and diversity. Jake is heavily involved with CIPD’s evidence reviews, looking at a variety of topics including employee engagement, employee resilience and virtual teams.

Tackling barriers to work today whilst creating inclusive workplaces of tomorrow.

Related content

We all know that being evidence-based helps us make better decisions, but how can we turn this into a reality?

A case study on using evidence-based practice to better understand how to support hybrid workforces

A case study on using evidence-based practice to reinvigorate performance management practices

A case study on using evidence-based practice to review selection processes for promoting police officers

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Critical Thinking: A Model of Intelligence for Solving Real-World Problems

Diane f. halpern.

1 Department of Psychology, Claremont McKenna College, Emerita, Altadena, CA 91001, USA

Dana S. Dunn

2 Department of Psychology, Moravian College, Bethlehem, PA 18018, USA; ude.naivarom@nnud

Most theories of intelligence do not directly address the question of whether people with high intelligence can successfully solve real world problems. A high IQ is correlated with many important outcomes (e.g., academic prominence, reduced crime), but it does not protect against cognitive biases, partisan thinking, reactance, or confirmation bias, among others. There are several newer theories that directly address the question about solving real-world problems. Prominent among them is Sternberg’s adaptive intelligence with “adaptation to the environment” as the central premise, a construct that does not exist on standardized IQ tests. Similarly, some scholars argue that standardized tests of intelligence are not measures of rational thought—the sort of skill/ability that would be needed to address complex real-world problems. Other investigators advocate for critical thinking as a model of intelligence specifically designed for addressing real-world problems. Yes, intelligence (i.e., critical thinking) can be enhanced and used for solving a real-world problem such as COVID-19, which we use as an example of contemporary problems that need a new approach.

1. Introduction

The editors of this Special Issue asked authors to respond to a deceptively simple statement: “How Intelligence Can Be a Solution to Consequential World Problems.” This statement holds many complexities, including how intelligence is defined and which theories are designed to address real-world problems.

2. The Problem with Using Standardized IQ Measures for Real-World Problems

For the most part, we identify high intelligence as having a high score on a standardized test of intelligence. Like any test score, IQ can only reflect what is on the given test. Most contemporary standardized measures of intelligence include vocabulary, working memory, spatial skills, analogies, processing speed, and puzzle-like elements (e.g., Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Fourth Edition; see ( Drozdick et al. 2012 )). Measures of IQ correlate with many important outcomes, including academic performance ( Kretzschmar et al. 2016 ), job-related skills ( Hunter and Schmidt 1996 ), reduced likelihood of criminal behavior ( Burhan et al. 2014 ), and for those with exceptionally high IQs, obtaining a doctorate and publishing scholarly articles ( McCabe et al. 2020 ). Gottfredson ( 1997, p. 81 ) summarized these effects when she said the “predictive validity of g is ubiquitous.” More recent research using longitudinal data, found that general mental abilities and specific abilities are good predictors of several work variables including job prestige, and income ( Lang and Kell 2020 ). Although assessments of IQ are useful in many contexts, having a high IQ does not protect against falling for common cognitive fallacies (e.g., blind spot bias, reactance, anecdotal reasoning), relying on biased and blatantly one-sided information sources, failing to consider information that does not conform to one’s preferred view of reality (confirmation bias), resisting pressure to think and act in a certain way, among others. This point was clearly articulated by Stanovich ( 2009, p. 3 ) when he stated that,” IQ tests measure only a small set of the thinking abilities that people need.”

3. Which Theories of Intelligence Are Relevant to the Question?

Most theories of intelligence do not directly address the question of whether people with high intelligence can successfully solve real world problems. For example, Grossmann et al. ( 2013 ) cite many studies in which IQ scores have not predicted well-being, including life satisfaction and longevity. Using a stratified random sample of Americans, these investigators found that wise reasoning is associated with life satisfaction, and that “there was no association between intelligence and well-being” (p. 944). (critical thinking [CT] is often referred to as “wise reasoning” or “rational thinking,”). Similar results were reported by Wirthwein and Rost ( 2011 ) who compared life satisfaction in several domains for gifted adults and adults of average intelligence. There were no differences in any of the measures of subjective well-being, except for leisure, which was significantly lower for the gifted adults. Additional research in a series of experiments by Stanovich and West ( 2008 ) found that participants with high cognitive ability were as likely as others to endorse positions that are consistent with their biases, and they were equally likely to prefer one-sided arguments over those that provided a balanced argument. There are several newer theories that directly address the question about solving real-world problems. Prominent among them is Sternberg’s adaptive intelligence with “adaptation to the environment” as the central premise, a construct that does not exist on standardized IQ tests (e.g., Sternberg 2019 ). Similarly, Stanovich and West ( 2014 ) argue that standardized tests of intelligence are not measures of rational thought—the sort of skill/ability that would be needed to address complex real-world problems. Halpern and Butler ( 2020 ) advocate for CT as a useful model of intelligence for addressing real-world problems because it was designed for this purpose. Although there is much overlap among these more recent theories, often using different terms for similar concepts, we use Halpern and Butler’s conceptualization to make our point: Yes, intelligence (i.e., CT) can be enhanced and used for solving a real-world problem like COVID-19.

4. Critical Thinking as an Applied Model for Intelligence

One definition of intelligence that directly addresses the question about intelligence and real-world problem solving comes from Nickerson ( 2020, p. 205 ): “the ability to learn, to reason well, to solve novel problems, and to deal effectively with novel problems—often unpredictable—that confront one in daily life.” Using this definition, the question of whether intelligent thinking can solve a world problem like the novel coronavirus is a resounding “yes” because solutions to real-world novel problems are part of his definition. This is a popular idea in the general public. For example, over 1000 business managers and hiring executives said that they want employees who can think critically based on the belief that CT skills will help them solve work-related problems ( Hart Research Associates 2018 ).

We define CT as the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome. It is used to describe thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and goal directed--the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions, when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task. International surveys conducted by the OECD ( 2019, p. 16 ) established “key information-processing competencies” that are “highly transferable, in that they are relevant to many social contexts and work situations; and ‘learnable’ and therefore subject to the influence of policy.” One of these skills is problem solving, which is one subset of CT skills.

The CT model of intelligence is comprised of two components: (1) understanding information at a deep, meaningful level and (2) appropriate use of CT skills. The underlying idea is that CT skills can be identified, taught, and learned, and when they are recognized and applied in novel settings, the individual is demonstrating intelligent thought. CT skills include judging the credibility of an information source, making cost–benefit calculations, recognizing regression to the mean, understanding the limits of extrapolation, muting reactance responses, using analogical reasoning, rating the strength of reasons that support and fail to support a conclusion, and recognizing hindsight bias or confirmation bias, among others. Critical thinkers use these skills appropriately, without prompting, and usually with conscious intent in a variety of settings.

One of the key concepts in this model is that CT skills transfer in appropriate situations. Thus, assessments using situational judgments are needed to assess whether particular skills have transferred to a novel situation where it is appropriate. In an assessment created by the first author ( Halpern 2018 ), short paragraphs provide information about 20 different everyday scenarios (e.g., A speaker at the meeting of your local school board reported that when drug use rises, grades decline; so schools need to enforce a “war on drugs” to improve student grades); participants provide two response formats for every scenario: (a) constructed responses where they respond with short written responses, followed by (b) forced choice responses (e.g., multiple choice, rating or ranking of alternatives) for the same situations.

There is a large and growing empirical literature to support the assertion that CT skills can be learned and will transfer (when taught for transfer). See for example, Holmes et al. ( 2015 ), who wrote in the prestigious Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , that there was “significant and sustained improvement in students’ critical thinking behavior” (p. 11,199) for students who received CT instruction. Abrami et al. ( 2015, para. 1 ) concluded from a meta-analysis that “there are effective strategies for teaching CT skills, both generic and content specific, and CT dispositions, at all educational levels and across all disciplinary areas.” Abrami et al. ( 2008, para. 1 ), included 341 effect sizes in a meta-analysis. They wrote: “findings make it clear that improvement in students’ CT skills and dispositions cannot be a matter of implicit expectation.” A strong test of whether CT skills can be used for real-word problems comes from research by Butler et al. ( 2017 ). Community adults and college students (N = 244) completed several scales including an assessment of CT, an intelligence test, and an inventory of real-life events. Both CT scores and intelligence scores predicted individual outcomes on the inventory of real-life events, but CT was a stronger predictor.

Heijltjes et al. ( 2015, p. 487 ) randomly assigned participants to either a CT instruction group or one of six other control conditions. They found that “only participants assigned to CT instruction improved their reasoning skills.” Similarly, when Halpern et al. ( 2012 ) used random assignment of participants to either a learning group where they were taught scientific reasoning skills using a game format or a control condition (which also used computerized learning and was similar in length), participants in the scientific skills learning group showed higher proportional learning gains than students who did not play the game. As the body of additional supportive research is too large to report here, interested readers can find additional lists of CT skills and support for the assertion that these skills can be learned and will transfer in Halpern and Dunn ( Forthcoming ). There is a clear need for more high-quality research on the application and transfer of CT and its relationship to IQ.

5. Pandemics: COVID-19 as a Consequential Real-World Problem

A pandemic occurs when a disease runs rampant over an entire country or even the world. Pandemics have occurred throughout history: At the time of writing this article, COVID-19 is a world-wide pandemic whose actual death rate is unknown but estimated with projections of several million over the course of 2021 and beyond ( Mega 2020 ). Although vaccines are available, it will take some time to inoculate most or much of the world’s population. Since March 2020, national and international health agencies have created a list of actions that can slow and hopefully stop the spread of COVID (e.g., wearing face masks, practicing social distancing, avoiding group gatherings), yet many people in the United States and other countries have resisted their advice.

Could instruction in CT encourage more people to accept and comply with simple life-saving measures? There are many possible reasons to believe that by increasing citizens’ CT abilities, this problematic trend can be reversed for, at least, some unknown percentage of the population. We recognize the long history of social and cognitive research showing that changing attitudes and behaviors is difficult, and it would be unrealistic to expect that individuals with extreme beliefs supported by their social group and consistent with their political ideologies are likely to change. For example, an Iranian cleric and an orthodox rabbi both claimed (separately) that the COVID-19 vaccine can make people gay ( Marr 2021 ). These unfounded opinions are based on deeply held prejudicial beliefs that we expect to be resistant to CT. We are targeting those individuals who beliefs are less extreme and may be based on reasonable reservations, such as concern about the hasty development of the vaccine and the lack of long-term data on its effects. There should be some unknown proportion of individuals who can change their COVID-19-related beliefs and actions with appropriate instruction in CT. CT can be a (partial) antidote for the chaos of the modern world with armies of bots creating content on social media, political and other forces deliberately attempting to confuse issues, and almost all media labeled “fake news” by social influencers (i.e., people with followers that sometimes run to millions on various social media). Here, are some CT skills that could be helpful in getting more people to think more critically about pandemic-related issues.

Reasoning by Analogy and Judging the Credibility of the Source of Information

Early communications about the ability of masks to prevent the spread of COVID from national health agencies were not consistent. In many regions of the world, the benefits of wearing masks incited prolonged and acrimonious debates ( Tang 2020 ). However, after the initial confusion, virtually all of the global and national health organizations (e.g., WHO, National Health Service in the U. K., U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) endorse masks as a way to slow the spread of COVID ( Cheng et al. 2020 ; Chu et al. 2020 ). However, as we know, some people do not trust governmental agencies and often cite the conflicting information that was originally given as a reason for not wearing a mask. There are varied reasons for refusing to wear a mask, but the one most often cited is that it is against civil liberties ( Smith 2020 ). Reasoning by analogy is an appropriate CT skill for evaluating this belief (and a key skill in legal thinking). It might be useful to cite some of the many laws that already regulate our behavior such as, requiring health inspections for restaurants, setting speed limits, mandating seat belts when riding in a car, and establishing the age at which someone can consume alcohol. Individuals would be asked to consider how the mandate to wear a mask compares to these and other regulatory laws.

Another reason why some people resist the measures suggested by virtually every health agency concerns questions about whom to believe. Could training in CT change the beliefs and actions of even a small percentage of those opposed to wearing masks? Such training would include considering the following questions with practice across a wide domain of knowledge: (a) Does the source have sufficient expertise? (b) Is the expertise recent and relevant? (c) Is there a potential for gain by the information source, such as financial gain? (d) What would the ideal information source be and how close is the current source to the ideal? (e) Does the information source offer evidence that what they are recommending is likely to be correct? (f) Have you traced URLs to determine if the information in front of you really came from the alleged source?, etc. Of course, not everyone will respond in the same way to each question, so there is little likelihood that we would all think alike, but these questions provide a framework for evaluating credibility. Donovan et al. ( 2015 ) were successful using a similar approach to improve dynamic decision-making by asking participants to reflect on questions that relate to the decision. Imagine the effect of rigorous large-scale education in CT from elementary through secondary schools, as well as at the university-level. As stated above, empirical evidence has shown that people can become better thinkers with appropriate instruction in CT. With training, could we encourage some portion of the population to become more astute at judging the credibility of a source of information? It is an experiment worth trying.

6. Making Cost—Benefit Assessments for Actions That Would Slow the Spread of COVID-19

Historical records show that refusal to wear a mask during a pandemic is not a new reaction. The epidemic of 1918 also included mandates to wear masks, which drew public backlash. Then, as now, many people refused, even when they were told that it was a symbol of “wartime patriotism” because the 1918 pandemic occurred during World War I ( Lovelace 2020 ). CT instruction would include instruction in why and how to compute cost–benefit analyses. Estimates of “lives saved” by wearing a mask can be made meaningful with graphical displays that allow more people to understand large numbers. Gigerenzer ( 2020 ) found that people can understand risk ratios in medicine when the numbers are presented as frequencies instead of probabilities. If this information were used when presenting the likelihood of illness and death from COVID-19, could we increase the numbers of people who understand the severity of this disease? Small scale studies by Gigerenzer have shown that it is possible.

Analyzing Arguments to Determine Degree of Support for a Conclusion

The process of analyzing arguments requires that individuals rate the strength of support for and against a conclusion. By engaging in this practice, they must consider evidence and reasoning that may run counter to a preferred outcome. Kozyreva et al. ( 2020 ) call the deliberate failure to consider both supporting and conflicting data “deliberate ignorance”—avoiding or failing to consider information that could be useful in decision-making because it may collide with an existing belief. When applied to COVID-19, people would have to decide if the evidence for and against wearing a face mask is a reasonable way to stop the spread of this disease, and if they conclude that it is not, what are the costs and benefits of not wearing masks at a time when governmental health organizations are making them mandatory in public spaces? Again, we wonder if rigorous and systematic instruction in argument analysis would result in more positive attitudes and behaviors that relate to wearing a mask or other real-world problems. We believe that it is an experiment worth doing.

7. Conclusions

We believe that teaching CT is a worthwhile approach for educating the general public in order to improve reasoning and motivate actions to address, avert, or ameliorate real-world problems like the COVID-19 pandemic. Evidence suggests that CT can guide intelligent responses to societal and global problems. We are NOT claiming that CT skills will be a universal solution for the many real-world problems that we confront in contemporary society, or that everyone will substitute CT for other decision-making practices, but we do believe that systematic education in CT can help many people become better thinkers, and we believe that this is an important step toward creating a society that values and practices routine CT. The challenges are great, but the tools to tackle them are available, if we are willing to use them.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.F.H. and D.S.D.; resources, D.F.H.; data curation, writing—original draft preparation, D.F.H.; writing—review and editing, D.F.H. and D.S.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

No IRB Review.

Informed Consent Statement

No Informed Consent.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Problem Solving 101 – How to Make Better Decisions

This decision-making guide is designed to understand better what problem-solving and critical thinking entail. Not only will you learn about how to make better decisions in business, but these ideas can also make you a better problem solver at school or in your personal life when faced with challenges. Additionally, throughout this guide, we will provide you amazing online tools, videos, and resources to help you continue to learn how to make decisions better in your daily activities.

• Chapter 1 – The Importance of Problem Solving
• Chapter 2 – Critical Thinking in the Decision Making Process
• Chapter 3 – Are You Asking the right Questions?
• Chapter 4 – 6 Effective Methods for Problem Solving

The Importance of Creative Problem-Solving in Business and Life

Problem-solving is one of the leadership skills that successful business professionals and entrepreneurs are expected to have, yet many struggles with the simplest decisions. What makes solving daily problems so natural for one person and such a struggle for the next?

The truth is, even experienced decision-makers continually hone and perfect their creative problem-solving skills. And there are many compelling reasons to do so. Not only do those who make better decisions have more job opportunities, get promoted more often, and increase their work productivity, but they are generally happier. In a recent study from the University of Chicago School of Business, the research found that happiness depends more on opportunities to make decisions (i.e., freedom) rather than money or connections. This means that the ability to make decisions leads to more and better opportunities for success, which improves your quality of life. In other words, the better a decision-maker you are, the happier and more successful you’ll be.

This concept goes against what many business leaders believe – that it’s what and who you know that makes you successful. In fact, how you understand and solve problems that are the key to success.

Fortunately, problem-solving and decision making are skills that can be improved upon, studied, and mastered. By learning specific problem-solving and decision-making techniques, you can see problems sooner and make decisions faster. This allows you to make more confident decisions in your job and gives you more control over the happiness and productivity in every part of your life.

Critical Thinking in the Decision Making Process

Critical thinking is the practice of methodically gathering, analyzing, and evaluating information. It is one of the most vital parts of the problem-solving and decision-making process, as it is the act of clearly thinking through options that will lead to a final choice. While decision making is the process that leads to actionable conclusions, critical thinking is the element that defines whether the choice is sound. Think about it this way: If problem-solving is the car that gets your business to its goals, critical thinking skills are the gas.

Although humans have been thinking critically since the first Homo Habilis picked up a stone tool, critical thinking as a process has only become one of the most valuable business skills in the last century. John F. Dewey, the inventor of the Dewey library system and a noted educational philosopher, began touting the importance of teaching critical thinking skills in his 1938 paper, Logic: The Theory of Inquiry . This educational reform may have inspired the rising generation to explore the concepts more, as a resurgence of interest in the subject presented itself between 1950-1970. Many new decision-making strategies (relying heavily on critical thinking career skills) were created over this time period, including CATWOE, PEST, and the Cause and Effect Analysis model.

Since that time, critical thinking and decision making are synonymous with business skills expected of corporate leaders. Still, many people don’t truly understand exactly the underlying concepts that make critical thinking an effective process. There are four key structures that all critical thinking is based on:

Logic – An individual’s ability to see direct relationships between causes and effects. This is one of the most important decision-making skills, as logic provides accurate predictions about what kinds of effects a potential solution will have on individuals and systems.

Truth – The unbiased data of an event. Unbiased and unemotional facts are an important part of the problem-solving process. Good critical thinking culls out these biases and focuses on the historical and documented data that will support the conclusion.

Context – A list of extenuating pressures and factors that will or should be impacted by the final solution. Critical thinking must consider the historical efficacy of similar solutions, decision-makers’ physical and abstract stressors, and the assumptions or agendas of different shareholders. All of these outside elements must be considered to engage in a critical decision-making process truly.

Alternatives – Potential solutions not currently in use. Ineffective critical thinking, the individual can consider new ways of approaching problems that meet real-world goals and are based on accurate, unbiased data. This is the case, even if alternative solutions are not used or when outside determinants are unexpected.

When you understand each of these underlying factors, you will become more aware of personal biases and be more engaged in the critical thinking process. Also, improving your necessary thinking skills leads to faster, more confident, and more productive decision making. The essential fuel of thinking is the secret ingredient that will drive your business’s success.

Are You Asking the Right Questions?

Thought leader Clayton M. Christensen observed that business leaders often think so much about action that they fail to consider why they are acting in the first place. Unfortunately, good action isn’t possible without considering the right critical thinking questions. Critical questioning allows you to clearly distinguish facts from biases, stakeholders from observers, and solutions from potential solutions. If critical thinking is the lens by which you see solutions, questioning is the telescope that gives that lens shape, structure, and purpose.

Since questioning is how critical thinking and decision-making are accomplished, consider whether you truly understand what a good question looks like. A good question will result in an actionable answer, usually one that provides additional information to reach a final solution. But, how can you formulate questions that do this?

There are a few ways to know whether the question you’re asking is a good one. If you don’t have good question-asking instincts, interrogate your initial question with a few of these.

1. Is Your Purpose Clear?

A good question is carefully designed to meet a particular goal. For example, instead of asking, “When can I meet with you?” a clearer questioner would ask, “Would you prefer to meet on Monday morning or Wednesday morning?” The narrower range of options encourages a quicker, more decisive answer, which can, in turn, be acted upon. To get the most actionable information possible, you need to have a distinct idea of the kinds of information you are looking for. You can then make your questions more intentional and directed as you come closer to what you are looking to know. Specific purposes of questions may include:

• Definition: What does “work ethic” look like in our organization?
• Comparative: What parts of our marketing strategy are different from our competitor?
• Causal: If we invest in this new technology, what are some potential positive and negative outcomes?
• Evaluative: What about this product is working for our consumers? What isn’t?

Knowing which types of questions to ask in each situation, you’ll have a more targeted discussion that leads to actionable answers.

2. Is The Question Framed Correctly?

Even with a clearly defined purpose, the question’s framing can still help or hinder its overall effectiveness. For example, asking, “Why should we invest in a Halloween party when clown costumes are so expensive?” will not be as effective as “Why should we invest in a Halloween party when, historically, they have not improved business culture?” The first question suffers from its poor framing, as it assumes that a Halloween party must include the investment in a clown costume. Poorly framed questions can be identified through various smaller issues, including false comparisons, false dilemmas, and ambiguity. A good question deals with only one issue and avoids bundling disparate concerns into a single blanket assessment.

3. Is Your Question Closed or Open?

One of the questioning process’s biggest pitfalls is asking questions with a predefined or “closed” set of answers. These yes or no questions don’t require synthesis, analysis, or evaluation of facts. They are often asked by leaders who already know the answer and have no interest in additional information. While these can be useful when only a handful of acceptable answers exist, they don’t lead to creative thinking or better management decisions.

In contrast, an open question requires thought and evaluation to answer. These questions can open the door to outside ideas and collaboration and lead to more productive conversations than closed questions. These questions are designed to bring additional information to light and often lead to a more in-depth understanding of the problem and potential solutions.

4. Are You Following Up?

Initial questions offer a vital starting point for any critical thinking and decision-making discussion. Unfortunately, some people stop there, and that can be the death knell of effectiveness and efficiency. To get the best answers, you must engage in a series of follow-up questions to support your initial inquiry.

Consider this question: “What are some areas we can cut to meet our yearly budget?” On its own, it will get you some information but may miss the crucial further discussion. Questions like “Who will be affected if we cut that department?” or “What will the impact of that departmental cut be on our production processes?” will provide additional actionable information and lead to smarter, safer cuts. In fact, the highly effective Five Whys system of problem-solving is built solely upon the idea of targeted follow-up questioning.

By incorporating effective questioning into your critical thinking equation, you will get clear answers that will help you to create actionable solutions.

6 Methods and Techniques for Problem Solving and Decision Making

Even with good critical thinking and questioning skills in place, it can be difficult to maintain problem-solving consistency. Organizations aren’t individuals but employ various people with different personalities, skill sets, and strengths, making solving group problems virtually impossible without a clearly defined framework. For that reason, many top-level organizations choose to incorporate a standardized problem-solving methodology. Not only does this provide the consistency a business needs, but it often leads to more focused and productive discussions. This newfound productiveness, in turn, leads to more actionable plans and clearly defined goals for success.

Even though these processes have mainly been designed for large organizations, organizations of any size can adapt these concepts to suit their needs. Large businesses, small businesses, and individuals can all benefit from these simple problem-solving and decision-making methods. They have proven to be effective at maintaining a structured problem-solving process regardless of the structures in which they see use.

6 Step Problem Solving Method

Although many have made variations on the 6-Step Problem Solving Method, the only research-based version of this methodology was invented by Dr. Sidney J. Parnes and Alex Osborn in the 1950s. After working with and observing high-level advertising employees throughout the brainstorming and implementation process, Parnes and Osborn recognized that creative people go through a series of stages as they create, organize, and choose good solutions for problems. Their findings were published in 1979 under the title, Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Thinking. In their original work, the 6-Step model was termed, “The Creative Problem Solving (CPS) Method,” and included these key segments:

• Objective Finding
• Fact Finding
• Problem Finding
• Idea Finding
• Solution Finding
• Acceptance Finding

These six segments were further organized into three key phases of problem solving: Exploring the Challenge, Generating Ideas, and Preparing for Action.

After Parnes and Osborn released these creative problem solving techniques, many different groups and businesses adapted them to fit their needs and organizational culture, providing a consistent framework for making daily decisions. One of these popular adaptations was created by Yale University, and includes an evaluative segment that provides for continual optimization of the final decision. This model also incorporates some elements from the Soft Stage Management model (SSM), which provides a seven-stage approach to problem solving. The Yale adaptation has been adopted by businesses and organizations worldwide, and includes these six steps of action:

• Define the Problem
• Determine the Root Cause of the Problem
• Develop Alternative Solutions
• Select a Solution
• Implement the Solution
• Evaluate the Outcome

Comparative Decision Making – Another situation in which the 6-Step Model shows its strength comes when comparing the efficacy of your organization’s ideas against a competitor. The method’s group-think structure allows for a logical discussion of potential best-case and worst-case scenarios resulting from each potential course of action. Not only is this a good thing when formulating new ideas or action plans, but it works magnificently when determining strategies to take in a competitive marketplace. The method’s evaluative phase allows for research and comparison with outside ideas and models, such as those of major competitors, which eventually will lead to a better product or idea.

Long-Term Restructuring – This model deals particularly well with long-term changes or processes in need of consistent evaluation and restructuring. Since the evaluation process leads back into the initial phases of defining problems and developing solutions, the method develops a circular flow that allows the user to tackle even the most daunting decision-making projects. It also adapts to the size of the project or system in which it is used, so as a small project or system gets larger and more complex, the 6-Step model remains effective and can even be applied to individual components and subsystems as necessary.

PEST – Analysis Political Economic Social Technological

Noted as one of the most widely-used decision-making techniques, the PEST model derives from the concept that several influencing factors can affect an organization, namely Political, Economic, Social, and Technological factors. By carefully analyzing and evaluating these factors, organizations can make more informed decisions and better understate choices for long-term implications.

The PEST model of decision making was introduced by Francis J. Aguilar, a Harvard Business professor. In 1967, he published a book including the PEST model (originally the EPST model) entitled, Scanning the Business Environment. Arnold Brown reorganized the acronym STEP (Strategic Trend Evaluation Process) sometime after the book’s publication. It was adapted further by several authors in the 1980s into acronyms including PEST, PESTLE, and STEEPLE. It is still well-known by some of these alternative nomenclatures, and each retains the core elements of the system introduced by Aguilar.

Although it was originally designed to understand the business arena’s unique layout, PEST quickly became a consistent way for leaders to understand both the internal and external pressures that affected their organizational processes and products. It can also be easily adapted for acquisitions and mergers, potential investments, and marketing campaigns. After decades of its use, the PEST model has proven to be especially effective in these specific situations:

Surveying Business Markets – Since this was its initial function, PEST functions best as a market surveying tool. The four key elements of the model can easily be adapted to any market, regardless of size or scope. The permutations of the model, like PESTLE, include additional pressures that help to understand further the potential marketplace, such as legal and environmental factors. This makes the PEST model perfect for political ventures, building projects, or even human resource concerns.

Evaluating Strategies or Markets – Another area in which the PEST model shines is evaluating current strategies for flaws and inconsistencies. Because the model structures itself around rigorous evaluation, it allows all decision-making team members to have a clear idea of the chosen course of action’s potential impaction. By adding a weighting system to each of these elements, those in the discussion can clearly see which strategies have the greatest potential for success and meet their goals. Such a system also figures in strongly when comparing markets or courses of action. It results in data points to illustrate the projected gains and losses for each potential solution.

Large-Scale Change Including Complex Elements – Finally, the model allows for a methodical consideration of various influences so that large-scale change can be managed in advanced and intricate detail. The PEST method highlights weaknesses in potential mergers or campaigns, allows for detailed speculation about future partnerships or markets, and gives insight in each action course the regulatory or political drawbars. Applying the PEST model makes it relatively easy to create a concise checklist of items to be addressed. This makes it one of the most actionable decision-making tools for corporate-level change.

SWOT Analysis – Strengths Weakness Opportunity Threats

The SWOT model of analysis sets out to help businesses analyze their company and better understand the arenas in which they operate. In this method, the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats of a company are outlined in a grid fashion, allowing the leadership to identify toxic processes and behaviors quickly.

Albert S. Humphrey usually receives the credit for creating the SWOT framework, as he presented it during his work with Stanford. In reality, the concept may have originated earlier than his 1960s presentation of the concept. Several researchers, including George Albert Smith, Jr., C. Roland Christiensen, and Kenneth Andrews of the Harvard Business School, reportedly worked with a concept prototype during the 1950s. Their model, published in 1965 as Business Policy, Text and Cases, had a slightly different set of values: Opportunities, Risks, Environment, and Competition. This research likely held some sway over the Stanford research model, which Humphrey initially referred to as SOFT Analysis (Satisfactory, Opportunity, Fault, and Threat). Researchers Urick and Orr changed this to SWOT by 1964, and the name stuck.

SWOT lets users evaluate potential business risks and rewards for business ventures based on environmental pressures. Like other models, SWOT also lends itself to discourse that leads to making better decisions. Though it doesn’t work very well as a standalone decision-making model, it makes an excellent supplement to another more action-based system. Some of the situations where SWOT really shines include:

Brainstorming and Strategy Building – SWOT lends itself to sharing and discussing potential benefits and drawbacks of a single idea or course of action. Its simple format also plays well for situations involving big picture ideas and concepts. At the planning stage, it makes large issues readily obvious and illustrates key benefits for each idea. When deciding on the strategy for a particular product, plan, or business, SWOT can make an organization’s position and the benefits of each situation acutely obvious. A plan that has a strong strengths-opportunities correlation will support an aggressive strategy, while a plan that has a strong weaknesses-threats connection should be approached defensively.

Business and Product Development – The SWOT matrix’s simplicity is perfect for quickly identifying a business or product’s strengths and weaknesses. This model helps encourage discussion about the competitive advantages or gaps in the capabilities of a specific idea. It also helps bring to light clear threats for a course of action, such as political, technological, or environmental pressures that must be overcome before progress can be made. And, because it is such an adaptable model, it can be used for large-scale and small-scale problems. This flexibility makes SWOT a good choice as a standardized decision-making tool.

Gathering and Organizing Data – SWOT can be a good choice at the brainstorming level of creative problem solving, but can also prove itself an excellent tool during the researching phase of a task. The simple matrix can help present and organize data in preparation for action. Also, it can easily show where research is lacking or where more information needs to be gathered.

FMEA Analysis

As one of the first systematic techniques for observing organizations’ weaknesses, the Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) system often see used as a diagnostic tool for companies and other large groups. FMEA puts forth the idea that all of the elements of a structure have inevitable failure modes, which are points at which they will break down under stress or over time. Then, the goal of FMEA is to identify the probable failure mode for each component and project the impact that these failures will have on the overall success of the plan.

The US military and surrounding industries began using this method as early as 1949 to identify potential military equipment and weapons weaknesses. Adopted in the early 1960s by contractors working with the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), FMEA helped these organizations produce parts and processes that would guarantee a high success rate shuttle program. In 1967, the Society for Automotive Engineers (SAE) published a version of FMEA, which, with revisions, has remained the standard failure mode model for the public aviation industry. Versions of FMEA have been used by the Automotive Industry Action Group, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Henry Ford was the first leader to widely incorporate the FMEA model to identify process weaknesses within a business. He adapted the FMEA model into two main areas: Process FMEA (PFMEA) and Design FMEA (DFMEA). PFMEA helps leaders to identify potential breakdowns of production, supply, and market failure for an organization, while engineers and other technical personnel use DFMEA to assess the ramifications of potential weaknesses and safety issues in their designs. The areas in which these two types of FMEA are most effective include:

Manufacturing and Assembly Processes – The initial goal of the FMEA model was to identify problems and potential failures of elements within a manufacturing process. Because of this, the FMEA model is a good choice for businesses that are heavily involved in manufacturing and production. It guides the participant through each point of the production cycle and allows them to foresee potential risks associated with parts, labor, and processes. Often, this results in fewer risks and unnecessary redundancies, which leads to a safer work environment and a more cost-effective business.

Business Strategy – Another area in which FMEA is highly efficient in any major change preparation stages. This model focuses on potential risks at every point in the new process, motivating leaders to understand and overcome challenges long before they arise. If a clear goal or emphasis is not established before beginning the FMEA process, this can become overwhelming and even paralytic, encouraging stagnation within a company. By assigning a Risk Priority Number (RPN) to each failure mode element, those using this model can make it much more obvious which failure modes require immediate attention.

Customer Satisfaction and Safety – Both PFMEA and DFMEA can help bolstering customers’ satisfaction and well-being. As processes are analyzed and evaluated closely, organizations become quicker and more cost-effective, often without sacrificing the final product’s quality. Because process flaws are identified and eliminated before taking the product or process to the customer, dissatisfaction becomes much less common. The DFMEA portion of the process becomes more reliable and safer as the model has applied time and time again, leading to higher employee retention and more loyal customers.

Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) is a decision-making process designed to tackle real-world problems with no formal definition or scope. In this system, users must consider six areas in order to solve these kinds of soft system problems:

• Transformation
• Environmental Constraints

CATWOE systematically incorporates these elements into a discussion about potential actions, looking at how these actions will influence the major players in a transition or other major problem. Originally developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson, this problem-solving system has been constantly assessed and improved through continuing action research over the last 30 years. Initially, it was designed in response to the systems engineering approach to management problems. In 1966, a team of researchers at Lancaster University led by Gwilym Jenkins found that the systems engineering approach only worked when a problem could be clearly and narrowly defined. In cases wherein no clear definition was available, they found that the system was not effective for solving real and complex management problems. With Checkland and Wilson taking the lead, the SSM model was established. CATWOE was the problem-solving format that arose from their research.

CATWOE, by definition, works most effectively when it is being used to manage complex, real-world management problems. This broad approach means it can assist in solving virtually any issue that is not easily defined. However, some organizational situations still lend themselves more to CATWOE than other commonly accepted models, despite this adaptability. Some common CATWOE-friendly issues include:

Implementing Solutions – The CATWOE method also presents some strong tools when preparing to take action steps. Because CATWOE focuses on considering the influencing factors, people, and environments that will be integral to a solution, this method ensures that all of those elements are in place before the implementation. CATWOE also assesses each team member’s roles in the change, breaking individuals down into broad categories such as client, actor, or owner. Since these roles are defined in the CATWOE structure itself, each person has a better idea of how they contribute to the project’s success and can be easily held accountable for their responsibilities.

Cause and Effect Analysis

In Cause and Effect Analysis, also called Fishbone Diagrams or Ishikawa Diagrams, thinkers assess a single effect in an attempt to find its potential causes. During this four-step model, participants identify a problem, work out the involved factors, identify potential causes, and analyze the final diagram in preparation for action.

This problem-solving model was created in 1968 by University of Tokyo engineering professor Kaoru Ishikawa, although the Cause and Effect Analysis framework dates back to the 1920s. It was first included as one of the Seven Basic Tools of Quality Control, which W. Edwards Deming presented to post-war Japanese engineers, including Ishikawa himself. Of these seven tools, Cause and Effect Analysis deals with critical thinking the most extensively and uses compartmentalization and categorization to define which influencers contribute to the effect in question and how.

Each industry often develops its own unique set of categories that can be used with the Ishikawa design. The manufacturing industry, for example, uses the six Ms (Manufacturing, Method, Material, Man Power, Measurement, and Mother Nature), while the service industry uses the five Ss (Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills, and Safety). These categories are often used in conjunction with the Five Whys methodology for questioning, making the root causes of any effect clearer.

The Cause and Effect Analysis model has held sway for a long time thanks to the instances in which it outperforms many newer models. The most effective implementations include:

Group Decision Making – The Cause and Effect Analysis model works best with a key group of invested stakeholders, preferably from each of the main categories that the diagram will incorporate. This allows for the most in-depth analysis of the root causes of a problem from most people’s perspectives with that aspect of the business. The Cause and Effect Analysis model also lends itself to a discussion and can uncover fine details that may be closely connected and make analysis better. This happens most often in a group setting, where multiple members can become aware of the correlations of seemingly disparate parts of the business process.

Clearly Defined Problems – In complete opposition to decision-making models like CATWOE, which deal with ill-defined, nebulous issues, this model works best with concrete, tangible problems. This decision-making method starts by defining the problem, and without defining a problem clearly, the Cause and Effect model begins to break down. If the effect is vague or misunderstood by team members, analyzing its potential causes can be difficult. Framing is essential to effective use of Cause and Effect Analysis, as problems like “68% Employee Turnover” can be much more efficiently dissected than “Employees Unhappy.”

Complex, Interrelated Effects – Where this method really shines is in arenas where effects may have multiple, interrelated causes. This makes the Cause and Effect Analysis model perfect for large institutional changes like mergers and acquisitions. Even on a small scale, this method does a stellar job of highlighting how seemingly unrelated processes or production elements affect one another. Much like the PEST model, the Cause and Effect Analysis model assesses each segment of business operations that could change the outcome. This gives each stakeholder insight into the small changes that can be made within their part and helps them understand what might make the process or product more efficient and productive.

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11 Modeling Critical Thinking

Tutors spend lots of time working with students to develop critical thinking skills. Using Socratic questioning, we guide students from memory, to comprehension, to analysis and evaluation. We coach them through the problem solving process so that they make progress with their studies. Facilitating critical thinking is an important part of what we do.

It’s equally important that tutors do not forget to practice critical thinking themselves. In this section, we review the important components of critical thinking, why they’re important, and how we can actively practice critical thinking in our tutoring sessions.

Defining Critical Thinking

We use the words “critical thinking,” quite a lot, but what does it actually mean? The National Counsel for Excellence in Critical Thinking describes critical thinking as an “intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully using one’s observations, communication, and moments of reflection, to understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information.” 1 Let’s break that down:

• “ Intellectually disciplined ”- Using the critical thinking process is a skill. It takes practice. It takes discipline.
• “ Actively and skillfully ”- Critical thinking is an active process. It requires intention and effort. It’s often not something we automatically do, even once we’ve developed our skills.
• “ Observations, communication, and moments of reflection ”- The critical thinking process begins with how we take in information. We first reflect on the things we observe, the material we read, and the exchanges we have with people.
• After we’ve made observations, we can proceed with the Critical Thinking Process. The definition lists the steps that are included in the process: “understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and synthesize .”

An important characteristic of critical thinking, as defined here, is that it is universally applicable across disciplines and situations. The same process can be applied in a science class, when reading the news, when modifying a recipe in the kitchen, or when tutoring a student. It’s a skill that we can use in all areas of our lives, and it encourages a type of introspection called metacognition . Metacognition occurs when we think about our own thinking. No matter what task we may encounter, applying critical thinking forces us to question our perceptions and reactions. It creates opportunities for us to reflect on the questions we haven’t yet asked, and perspectives we haven’t yet considered. 2

The Critical Thinking Process

There are many models that exist to describe the critical thinking process. One Model of Learning Theory, called Bloom’s Taxonomy, 3 describes the different ways we can “know” something. Bloom’s Taxonomy arranges these ways of knowing into a hierarchy according to the effort required to achieve that level of understanding (See Figure) The more critical our thinking, the higher we move up the hierarchy.

The stages of Remembering and Understanding information, require the least critical thought. These stages include the observations and reflection mentioned earlier and are preliminary to the critical thinking process. True critical thinking begins when, once we have observed new information and understood it, we begin to Apply and Analyze it. 4 We test it out, place it in various scenarios, and begin to ask more probing questions. These are the stages where we “take the idea apart,” breaking it into its components to better understand what they are and how they fit together.

After a certain level of questioning, scrutiny, and reviewing information from a variety of perspectives, we can begin to make assessments, judgements, and evaluations. Evaluation calls us to bring new information into the situation. Here we’re making judgements based on our prior experience and knowledge in other areas. We also make judgements based on our personal values, our goals, and objectives.

Finally, the most critical stage of thought is the Creation or Synthesis stage. Here is where we take in everything we’ve already learned and create a new idea. Creating solutions, proposing alternatives, and generating new thoughts based on what we’ve learned requires the most effort and is the result of much critical thought. 4 , 5

(Ideas which prove to be exceptionally bad, are likely the result of a lack of critical thought. When we skip over the lower stages of the hierarchy, and attempt to start from the very top, we miss all the critical thinking that informs good ideas.)

How Tutors Can Apply Critical Thinking

It’s easy to see how critical thinking can help students, but we may wonder how we should be applying critical thinking when we’re acting as tutors. Remember that the critical thinking process can be applied to any subject or discipline. It can also be applied to situations outside of the classroom. It’s likely that we’re using some degree of critical thinking in our tutoring sessions already. Recognizing how we already use it, and how we can more actively apply the process, lead to more effective assistance during sessions. 6, 7

Let’s walk through what critical thinking might look like for a tutor (see Figure 2.):

We first begin with observations and information gathering. In a session, this means learning what assignment a student is working on, but also observing the student.

• Is this student new to tutoring, or familiar?
• Do they seem to be embarrassed to ask for help, or are they comfortable sharing their struggles?
• Does the student know exactly what’s giving them trouble, or are they unclear on what piece is challenging them?
• Is the student organized, or do they have trouble finding assignments?
• Can they read and understand their notes from class?

All these observations can inform how we proceed with the tutoring session, if we apply critical thinking.

Next, we move onto our Socratic questioning. In addition to giving us the opportunity to make more observations, these interactions with the student help us to better analyze the student’s situation .

• Which parts does the student understand, and which are elusive?
• Are the student’s notes organized and legible?
• Does the student struggle with the language used in their textbook?

This kind of analysis can give us a more holistic view of the student and their particular case.

After learning as much as we can about the situation, we can begin to evaluate and make assessments . This informs how we move forward with the session, and where we ask the student to focus.

• Perhaps we can confidently assess which parts of a process the student has misinterpreted, and so can guide the student to better understand them.
• Perhaps we have identified patterns in the students’ work and choose to focus our attention on addressing something more systemic, rather than working through the specific assignment.
• It might be the case that you evaluate the student’ understanding of a concept and conclude that the underlying issue is that they can’t read their notes from class, or don’t have access to the textbook, or can’t find the assignment instructions due to poor organization.

With this information, a tutor might choose to spend some time addressing these issues with the student, concluding that they are the greater hindrance to the student’s success.

Finally, the tutor moves on to the creation/synthesis stage of critical thinking. The priority for the tutor is to help the student develop their own solutions to the problems they encounter, but this doesn’t mean that the tutor isn’t creating solutions of their own.

Tutors may synthesize a new strategy or approach, in response to the evaluation the tutor has made of the student’s need.

• The tutor’s solution may be to create some practice problems to demonstrate to the student how the concept is applied.
• The tutor may devise a solution that grounds the concept in real-life scenarios or uses creative metaphors to assist the student’s comprehension.

The tutor’s creative solutions and strategies are informed by the assessments made in the previous stages of the critical thinking process.  Solutions and strategies are not always appropriate or effective unless we first take time to observe, analyze, evaluate, and gain a better understanding of the student and their needs.

Quickwrite Reflection

How do you currently use critical thinking in your interactions with students during a tutoring session? Are you actively making observations and responding? Have you adapted your approach with a student based on your observations?

Take a moment to reflect on how you may already be integrating critical thinking into your interactions with students.

How can you improve your critical thinking in your interactions with students?

Pitfalls to Avoid

We can always find ways to improve, no matter how skilled we are in applying the critical thinking process. In addition, it’s important to recognize that we can also fall into bad habits in our critical thinking, if we’re not careful. Many of the habits that influence our reasoning involve unconscious biases, predispositions, and other beliefs that we may not even realize we carry.

This is where our metacognition and self-reflection become important. It’s always a good idea to remember to check in with ourselves, and ask if there are underlying factors that could be influencing our decision making. Even when we have applied critical thinking appropriately, self-awareness is important in understanding what may be influencing our observations, our conclusions, and the solutions we propose. 8

Some of these factors that can unconsciously influence our critical thinking process include:

• Unintentional Prejudices
• Unconscious Biases
• Social Taboos
• Situational Distortions
• Acceptance of Established Social Norms
• Vested Interest in a Particular Outcome
• Our Own Self-Interest

Even the world’s most logical thinkers know that emotions, prior experiences, and unintentional biases can influence how we view situations. This can impact our ability to truly think critically about them. When other factors begin influencing our critical thinking, it can often be difficult to notice. How do we combat this? We can’t eliminate the influence of these factors entirely. That’s why it’s essential that we remain self-aware and maintain an attitude focused on improvement. 9

What might these pitfalls look like for a tutor? Here are a few examples:

1. The tutor has a party to attend later tonight, and if they finish working with a student early, they have more time to get ready. Instead of taking time to carefully evaluate the student’s need, they apply a strategy that is quick.

Is it a bad strategy? Not necessarily. Is it the best strategy? Maybe not.

In this case the tutor’s critical thinking was influenced by their personal motivations.

2. The tutor is working with a student who has an accent. The tutor automatically begins applying strategies they’ve used for students who struggle reading texts in English.

Are these strategies appropriate here? Maybe not.

By automatically focusing on the student’s language proficiency this way, the student has skipped over the preliminary stages of critical thinking, and went directly to creating a solution. What’s more, is that the student could be offended that the tutor made assumptions about their language proficiency.

3. The tutor is assisting a student with an essay on current events. They start the session by asking helpful questions to assist the student in identifying their stance on the issue and to structure their ideas for the paper. The tutor subtly convinces the student to adopt arguments and stances that more closely align with the tutor’s own beliefs and position on the current event issue.

In this example, evaluation of the student’s situation led the tutor to use guided questioning as a strategy to help the student discover their ideas about the assignment topic. However, the tutor allowed their own beliefs about the issue to interfere with the student’s critical thinking process, sabotaging the original goal to help the student to make their own conclusions.

Something to Try

Take the social attitudes implicit bias self-assessment offered by Project Implicit ® https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/

Reflect on your results. Are you surprised? Did you learn something new about yourself? How do you think the results of your assessment impact how you approach your role as a tutor?

Alternatively, take a moment to reflect on the following questions:

• Think back to your childhood. Remember who your teachers were. Can you remember your school principal, your sports coaches, police officers, community leaders? When you were young, did people in positions of authority in your life look like you?
• What did your household look like? Were you raised by parents? Two parents? One parent? Grandparents? Someone else?
• Think about the movies you see. The books you read. Magazines, music, video games, and other popular media. Do the characters and people in these media look like you? Do these media explore topics that you can relate to?
• When you want to go to a new restaurant, theater, or event, how often do you have to research whether or not they can accommodate you?

Our answers to questions like these reveal the lens by which we see the world, and can help us to understand others whose beliefs and perceptions are different from our own, based on their own set of life experiences.

Effective tutoring requires tutors to be well-versed in the critical thinking process. We use the process to guide students through practicing critical thought in their coursework, and we use it ourselves in our sessions assisting those students. We simultaneously focus on the student’s thinking, and on our own approach.

A thorough understanding of the process, and the importance of each of its parts, can provide tutors a solid foundational knowledge when navigating sessions. Metacognition is an important skill in applying the critical thinking process, and self-reflection is an important component in assessing the effectiveness of our own critical thinking.  With lots of practice and an attitude of continuous improvement, we can advance our tutoring skills and better assist the students with whom we work.

• The Foundation For Critical Thinking. (2019). Defining Critical Thinking. The Foundation for Critical Thinking. http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766. Accessed 26 Apr. 2021.
• Sanavi and Tarighat . (2014). Critical Thinking and Speaking Proficiency: A Mixed-method Study. Theory and Practice in Language Studies . 4(1), 79-87. http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol04/01/12.pdf.
• Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, Krathwohl. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company. https://www.uky.edu/~rsand1/china2018/texts/Bloom%20et%20al%20-Taxonomy%20of%20Educational%20Objectives.pdf.
• Fahim and Masouleh. (2012). Critical Thinking in Higher Education: A Pedagogical Look. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 2(7), 1370-1375. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267426179_Critical_Thinking_in_Higher_Education_A_Pedagogical_Look.
• McLoughlin, and Luca. (2000). Cognitive engagement and higher order thinking through computer conferencing: We know why but do we know how? In A. Herrmann, & M. M. Kulski (Ed.), 9th Annual Teaching Learning Forum (pp. 4-15). Perth: Curtin University of Technology. http://cleo.murdoch.edu.au/confs/tlf/tlf2000/mcloughlin.html..
• Cosgrove. (2011). Critical thinking in the Oxford tutorial: a call for an explicit and systematic approach. Journal of Higher Education Research and Development. 30(3), 343-356. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2010.487259.
• Crook. (2006). Substantive Critical Thinking as Developed by the Foundation for Critical Thinking Proves Effective in Raising SAT and ACT Test Scores. Foundation for Critical Thinking. http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/substantive-critical-thinking-as-developed-by-the-foundation-for-critical-thinking-proves-effective-in-raising-sat-and-act-test-scores/632.
• Ashwin. (2006). Variation in academics’ accounts of tutorials. Studies in Higher Education. 31(6), 651–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070601004234.
• Anderson and Soden. (2001). Peer Interaction and the Learning of Critical Thinking Skills. Psychology Learning & Teaching. 1(1), 37-40. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2304/plat.2001.1.1.37 .

Additional Resources:

Paul and Elder. (2020). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and Tools, 8th Ed. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Inc. https://rowman.com/isbn/9781538134955.

Tutor Handbook Copyright © 2021 by Penny Feltner and gapinski is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What Is a Decision-Making Model and How To Choose a Best One

Every decision, whether it’s about long-term strategy or day-to-day operations, impacts the path a company takes. To simplify business planning and ensure smart choices, it’s helpful to understand and use different decision-making models. In this guide, we’ll cover some of the best models that business leaders can use to improve their planning processes.

What is a Decision Making Model?

A decision making model is a tool that helps people and organizations make well-informed choices. These models often include a series of steps or criteria that guide the decision-making process , ensuring that all relevant factors are considered. They can be used for simple decisions as well as complex strategic planning , and can be customized to fit different situations.

Key characteristics of a decision-making model:

• Provide step-by-step guidance for decision makers, from problem definition to solution evaluation.
• Offer a structured framework for gathering information, assessing criteria, and considering options.
• Emphasize using data and logical reasoning over emotions or biases.
• Can be adjusted for different situations, from personal choices to complex business decisions.
• Use tools like decision tree templates , cost-benefit analysis, SWOT analysis , or scenario planning to aid in decision making.

Different decision-making models have specific strengths and weaknesses. The model chosen depends on factors such as decision complexity, available information, and the decision maker’s preferences. Ultimately, decision-making models offer a structured approach to improve decision quality and effectiveness in various contexts.

Why Use a Decision Making Model

Using a decision-making model offers several advantages that can significantly improve the quality and effectiveness of decision-making processes:

• Structured approach : It organizes decision-making into clear steps, making it easier to understand and follow.
• Objectivity : Models encourage using facts and logic rather than emotions, leading to more reliable decisions.
• Better evaluation : They help compare options thoroughly, ensuring the best choice based on defined criteria.
• Risk management : Models consider risks, helping to minimize potential negative outcomes.
• Improved communication : They promote transparency and clear reasoning, improving understanding and support.
• Adaptability : Models can be adjusted for different situations, from personal decisions to complex business choices.
• Continuous improvement : Using models allows learning from outcomes, improving decision-making over time.

Decision Making Model - Which One to Use?

Here are 6 structured decision-making models for businesses to make effective decisions to minimize risks, optimize resources, and achieve sustainable growth.

1. Rational Decision Making Model

The Rational Decision-Making Model is a structured and sequential approach to decision-making, aimed at making logical and well-thought-out choices. This model involves a series of steps designed to ensure that decisions are made based on objective data and thorough analysis, minimizing the influence of biases and emotions.

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Steps in the rational decision making process

• Identifying the decision : Clearly defining the problem or opportunity that requires a decision.
• Gathering information : Collecting relevant data and information related to the decision.
• Analyzing information : Assessing the information to identify potential solutions.
• Developing alternatives : Generating possible options or courses of action.
• Evaluating alternatives : Comparing alternatives based on predetermined criteria.
• Making the decision : Selecting the best alternative based on the analysis.
• Implementing the decision : Putting the chosen decision into action.
• Evaluating the outcome : Assessing the results and adjusting strategies if necessary.

When to use it

The rational model is ideal for strategic decisions such as market entry strategies, product launches, and major investments where a thorough analysis of costs, benefits, and risks is crucial.

• Decisions need to be made based on clear, objective criteria.
• There is sufficient time to gather and analyze information.
• The decision has significant long-term implications.
• Multiple stakeholders are involved, and a transparent process is required.

Criticisms and limitations

Critics argue that real-world decisions often involve uncertainty and incomplete information, making strict adherence to the rational model impractical in all situations.

2. Intuitive Decision Making Model

The intuitive decision-making model relies on a person’s instinct and gut feelings rather than structured analysis. This model is often used when time is limited, and decisions need to be made quickly. It leverages the decision-maker’s experience and subconscious knowledge to arrive at a solution.

• Intuitive decision-making is particularly useful in situations where:
• Time is of the essence, and a quick decision is required.
• There is a high level of uncertainty and limited information available.
• The decision-maker has significant experience and expertise in the relevant field.
• Creative solutions are needed, and traditional models may not apply.

Benefits and limitations

Like any decision-making model, the intuitive approach has its pros and cons:

• Speed: Decisions can be made quickly, which is crucial in fast-paced environments.
• Flexibility: Allows for creative and innovative solutions that structured models might overlook.
• Experience-based: Utilizes the decision-maker’s expertise and subconscious knowledge.

Limitations

• Subjectivity: Decisions can be biased by personal feelings and experiences.
• Lack of transparency: The rationale behind decisions may not be clear to others.
• Risk of error: Without structured analysis, there is a higher chance of making mistakes.

3. Bounded Rationality Decision Making Model

The bounded rationality decision-making model acknowledges that while individuals aim to make rational decisions, their cognitive limitations and the complexity of the environment often constrain them. This model, introduced by Herbert A. Simon, suggests that decision-makers operate within the bounds of their knowledge and cognitive capacity, leading to ‘satisficing’—seeking a solution that is good enough rather than optimal.

This model is particularly useful in scenarios where:

• Information is incomplete or imperfect.
• Time constraints limit the decision-making process.
• Complexity and uncertainty are high.
• Decision-makers have limited cognitive resources.

For instance, in fast-paced business environments where quick decisions are necessary, the bounded rationality model helps in making practical and timely choices.

Benefits and Limitations

Understanding the benefits and limitations of the bounded rationality model can help in its effective application:

• Encourages practical decision-making within real-world constraints.
• Reduces the pressure to find the perfect solution, thus speeding up the process.
• Helps in managing complexity by focusing on feasible options.

Limitations:

• May lead to suboptimal decisions due to limited information and cognitive biases.
• Can result in satisficing rather than optimizing, potentially overlooking better alternatives.

4. Vroom-Yetton Decision Making Model

The Vroom-Yetton decision-making model is a leadership-based framework that helps managers determine the best approach to decision-making based on the situation. Developed by Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton, this model emphasizes the importance of situational factors in choosing the most effective decision-making style. It categorizes decisions into five types, ranging from autocratic to consultative to group-based, allowing leaders to adapt their approach to the specific needs of the situation.

Steps in the Vroom-Yetton Model

The Vroom-Yetton model involves a series of steps to guide leaders through the decision-making process:

• Identify the problem: Clearly define the issue that needs to be addressed.
• Determine the decision’s importance: Assess the significance of the decision and its potential impact on the organization.
• Evaluate the level of team involvement: Decide how much input from team members is necessary for making the decision.
• Select the decision-making style: Choose the appropriate style (autocratic, consultative, or group-based) based on the situational factors.
• Implement the decision: Execute the chosen course of action and monitor its outcomes.

When to use the Vroom-Yetton model

The Vroom-Yetton model is particularly useful in situations where the decision’s complexity and the need for team input vary. It is ideal for:

• High-stakes decisions that require thorough analysis and team consensus.
• Situations where the leader needs to balance efficiency with team involvement.
• Scenarios where the decision’s impact on team morale and commitment is significant.

By using this model, leaders can ensure that they are making informed decisions that consider both the situational context and the team’s input.

5. Recognition-Primed Decision Making Model

The Recognition-Primed Decision-Making (RPD) model is a decision-making process that relies on the experience and intuition of the decision-maker. Developed by Gary Klein, this model is particularly useful in high-pressure situations where quick decisions are necessary. The RPD model combines situational assessment with pattern recognition to arrive at a decision without extensive analysis.

Steps in the recognition-primed model

• Situation assessment : The decision-maker quickly assesses the situation based on their experience and knowledge.
• Pattern recognition : They identify patterns that match previous experiences.
• Action generation : The decision-maker generates a course of action based on the recognized pattern.
• Evaluation : The proposed action is mentally simulated to predict its outcome. If the outcome is satisfactory, the action is implemented; if not, another action is generated and evaluated.

When to use the recognition-primed model

The RPD model is ideal for situations that require rapid decision-making, such as emergency response, military operations, and high-stakes business decisions. It is particularly effective when the decision-maker has extensive experience and can quickly recognize patterns and predict outcomes.

• Enables quick decision-making in high-pressure situations.
• Leverages the experience and intuition of the decision-maker.
• Reduces the need for extensive data analysis.
• Relies heavily on the experience of the decision-maker, which may not always be accurate.
• May lead to biased decisions if the decision-maker’s experience is limited or flawed.

6. Consensus Decision-Making Model

The consensus decision-making model is a collaborative approach where all members of a group contribute to and agree on a decision. Unlike majority rule, consensus seeks to find solutions that everyone can support, or at least live with. This model emphasizes inclusivity, equal participation, and the integration of diverse perspectives, making it particularly effective in team settings and organizational planning.

Steps in consensus decision-making

• Proposal development: A proposal is created based on the group’s initial discussions and ideas.
• Open discussion: The proposal is discussed openly, allowing all members to voice their opinions, concerns, and suggestions.
• Modification: The proposal is modified to address concerns and incorporate suggestions, aiming to reach a version that everyone can support.
• Agreement: The group seeks unanimous agreement or at least a general consensus where no one strongly opposes the decision.
• Implementation: Once consensus is reached, the decision is implemented with the full support of the group.

When to use the consensus decisionnmaking model

The consensus decision-making model is ideal for situations where:

• Inclusivity and equal participation are crucial.
• The decision impacts all members of the group significantly.
• Long-term commitment and buy-in from all members are necessary.
• There is a need to integrate diverse perspectives and expertise.

Understanding and using different decision-making models can greatly improve how decisions are made in both personal and professional situations. Whether you are using structured approaches like rational decision making and decision tree analysis, relying on intuition and creativity, or embracing models that acknowledge practical constraints like bounded rationality, each model has its unique benefits and insights, helping to enhance the effectiveness and outcomes of decision-making processes.

Choosing the right decision making model based on the specific situation helps stakeholders to be clear, objective, and aligned with organizational goals. Continuously evaluating and adapting these models enables individuals and teams to improve their decision-making skills over time, leading to better outcomes and sustainable success. Using a variety of decision-making models empowers leaders to navigate complexities, seize opportunities, and effectively manage risks in today’s dynamic environments.

• Decision Making Techniques
• Decision Making Frameworks

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Amanda Athuraliya is the communication specialist/content writer at Creately, online diagramming and collaboration tool. She is an avid reader, a budding writer and a passionate researcher who loves to write about all kinds of topics.

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Critical Thinking: Where to Begin

• For College and University Faculty
• For College and University Students
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If you are new to critical thinking or wish to deepen your conception of it, we recommend you review the content below and bookmark this page for future reference.

Our Conception of Critical Thinking...

"Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness..."

"Critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in a fairminded way. People who think critically attempt, with consistent and conscious effort, to live rationally, reasonably, and empathically. They are keenly aware of the inherently flawed nature of human thinking when left unchecked. They strive to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies. They use the intellectual tools that critical thinking offers – concepts and principles that enable them to analyze, assess, and improve thinking. They work diligently to develop the intellectual virtues of intellectual integrity, intellectual humility, intellectual civility, intellectual empathy, intellectual sense of justice and confidence in reason. They realize that no matter how skilled they are as thinkers, they can always improve their reasoning abilities and they will at times fall prey to mistakes in reasoning, human irrationality, prejudices, biases, distortions, uncritically accepted social rules and taboos, self-interest, and vested interest.

They strive to improve the world in whatever ways they can and contribute to a more rational, civilized society. At the same time, they recognize the complexities often inherent in doing so. They strive never to think simplistically about complicated issues and always to consider the rights and needs of relevant others. They recognize the complexities in developing as thinkers, and commit themselves to life-long practice toward self-improvement. They embody the Socratic principle: The unexamined life is not worth living , because they realize that many unexamined lives together result in an uncritical, unjust, dangerous world."

Why Critical Thinking?

The Problem:

Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed, or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our lives and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated.

A Brief Definition:

Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it. The Result: 

  A well-cultivated critical thinker:

• raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
• gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively;
• comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
• thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
• communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.

Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities, and a commitment to overcoming our native egocentrism and sociocentrism. Read more about our concept of critical thinking .

The Essential Dimensions of Critical Thinking

Our conception of critical thinking is based on the substantive approach developed by Dr. Richard Paul and his colleagues at the Center and Foundation for Critical Thinking over multiple decades. It is relevant to every subject, discipline, and profession, and to reasoning through the problems of everyday life. It entails five essential dimensions of critical thinking:

At the left is an overview of the first three dimensions. In sum, the elements or structures of thought enable us to "take our thinking apart" and analyze it. The intellectual standards are used to assess and evaluate the elements. The intellectual traits are dispositions of mind embodied by the fairminded critical thinker. To cultivate the mind, we need command of these essential dimensions, and we need to consistently apply them as we think through the many problems and issues in our lives.

The Elements of Reasoning and Intellectual Standards

To learn more about the elements of thought and how to apply the intellectual standards, check out our interactive model. Simply click on the link below, scroll to the bottom of the page, and explore the model with your mouse.

Why the Analysis of Thinking Is Important If you want to think well, you must understand at least the rudiments of thought, the most basic structures out of which all thinking is made. You must learn how to take thinking apart. Analyzing the Logic of a Subject When we understand the elements of reasoning, we realize that all subjects, all disciplines, have a fundamental logic defined by the structures of thought embedded within them. Therefore, to lay bare a subject’s most fundamental logic, we should begin with these questions:

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The Critical Thinking Bookstore  

Our online bookstore houses numerous books and teacher's manuals , Thinker's Guides , videos , and other educational materials .  

Learn From Our Fellows and Scholars

Watch our Event Calendar , which provides an overview of all upcoming conferences and academies hosted by the Foundation for Critical Thinking. Clicking an entry on the Event Calendar will bring up that event's details, and the option to register. For those interested in online learning, the Foundation offers accredited online courses in critical thinking for both educators and the general public, as well as an online test for evaluating basic comprehension of critical thinking concepts . We are in the process of developing more online learning tools and tests to offer the community.  

Utilizing this Website

This website contains large amounts research and an online library of articles , both of which are freely available to the public. We also invite you to become a member of the Critical Thinking Community , where you will gain access to more tools and materials.  If you cannot locate a resource on a specific topic or concept, try searching for it using our Search Tool . The Search Tool is at the upper-right of every page on the website.

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Critical Thinking Frameworks: Your Path to Analytical Excellence

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Are you ready to dive deeper into the world of critical thinking? Today, we’ll focus on the essential concept of critical thinking frameworks. These frameworks provide us with a structured approach to analyzing information, solving problems, and making sound decisions. So, let’s explore the power of critical thinking frameworks and discover how they can enhance our thinking process.

Understanding Different Critical Thinking Frameworks

When it comes to critical thinking frameworks, there are various models and approaches to explore. In this section, we’ll examine some popular frameworks such as the Paul-Elder model, the RED model, and Bloom’s Taxonomy. Each framework brings its unique perspective and structure to guide our critical thinking journey. Get ready to unlock a wealth of knowledge!

The Paul-Elder Model: A Holistic Approach to Critical Thinking

At the core of the Paul-Elder model lies the belief that critical thinking is an active and intentional process, driven by disciplined thought. It provides us with a set of intellectual standards and dimensions to guide our thinking, ensuring that we’re thorough, accurate, and clear in our analysis. So, let’s explore the key components that make up this remarkable framework.

Clarity: Shining a Light on Our Thoughts

The first component of the Paul-Elder model is clarity. It’s all about expressing our thoughts and ideas in a clear and unambiguous manner. By striving for clarity, we ensure that our message is easily understood and that we’re able to communicate our thinking effectively. This involves being aware of our language, avoiding jargon, and using precise terminology to convey our ideas with precision.

Accuracy: Seeking Truth in All Its Forms

The pursuit of accuracy is crucial in critical thinking. It involves challenging assumptions, verifying facts, and seeking evidence to support our claims. By striving for accuracy, we aim to align our thinking with reality and separate the truth from falsehoods. This component encourages us to be meticulous in our research, to question sources, and to analyze information critically before accepting it as truth.

Relevance: Focusing on What Truly Matters

In a sea of information, it’s essential to determine what’s relevant to our thinking. The relevance component of the Paul-Elder model urges us to filter out the noise and focus on what truly matters. It requires us to identify the key elements, concepts, and ideas that are most significant to the task at hand. By embracing relevance, we can streamline our thought processes, saving time and energy for what truly counts.

Logic: Unraveling the Threads of Reasoning

Logical thinking forms the backbone of the Paul-Elder model. This component encourages us to analyze the coherence and consistency of our reasoning. It prompts us to identify any logical fallacies or inconsistencies that may weaken our arguments. By using logical reasoning as a guiding principle, we can build well-structured and sound arguments that carry weight and persuade others effectively.

Depth: Digging Beneath the Surface

Critical thinking is not just about skimming the surface; it’s about diving deep and exploring the underlying complexities. The depth component of the Paul-Elder model challenges us to go beyond the obvious, to question assumptions, and to explore alternative perspectives. By delving beneath the surface and seeking a profound understanding, we enrich our thinking and unlock valuable insights.

Fairness: Embracing Objectivity and Open-Mindedness

Fairness is an integral part of the Paul-Elder model and critical thinking as a whole. It involves approaching information and ideas with an open mind, free from bias or preconceived notions. Fairness recognizes the importance of considering multiple perspectives, including those that challenge our own beliefs. By fostering a fair and impartial mindset, we encourage intellectual growth and broaden our understanding of the world.

Putting the Paul-Elder Model into Action

Now that we understand the key components of the Paul-Elder model, it’s time to put it into action. By incorporating these elements into our thinking process, we can enhance our critical thinking skills and become more effective problem solvers. As we practice this holistic approach, we’ll find ourselves making better decisions, evaluating information more effectively, and communicating our thoughts with clarity and conviction.

In the journey toward mastering critical thinking, the Paul-Elder model serves as a guiding light, providing us with the tools to navigate the vast sea of information that surrounds us. By embracing clarity, accuracy, relevance, logic, depth, and fairness, we can cultivate a well-rounded thinking process that empowers us to tackle complex issues head-on.

The RED Model: Break it Down to Think Clearly

In this section, we’re diving into the world of the RED model, a powerful framework designed by the brilliant minds of Dr. Richard Paul and Dr. Linda Elder.

This model acts as a compass, guiding us to think critically and clearly by breaking down the thinking process into three simple steps: Recognize, Evaluate, and Draw Conclusions. So, let’s dig in and discover how the RED model can help us navigate the complexities of our thoughts.

Recognize: Shining a Light on Our Thinking Patterns

The first step of the RED model is all about recognizing and becoming aware of our thinking. It challenges us to examine the patterns, assumptions, and biases that shape our thoughts. By shining a light on our thinking process, we can identify any potential flaws or limitations. This step is crucial as it lays the foundation for unbiased and objective reasoning.

To recognize our thinking, we must pause and reflect. Are we making assumptions without solid evidence? Are we being influenced by personal biases? By being aware of these thought patterns, we can approach information with a more critical eye and open ourselves to new possibilities.

Evaluate: Putting Our Thinking Under the Microscope

Once we’ve recognized our thinking, it’s time to evaluate it with precision. This step involves analyzing the quality of our reasoning, the strength of the evidence, and the validity of our arguments. Are our claims supported by sound evidence? Are there any logical fallacies in our thinking? By evaluating our thoughts, we ensure that they’re built upon a solid foundation.

Evaluation also requires us to consider different perspectives and challenge our own assumptions. It’s about seeking out diverse viewpoints and weighing them against our own beliefs. This step allows us to build a more comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand.

Draw Conclusions: Illuminating the Path Forward

After recognizing and evaluating our thinking, it’s time to draw conclusions. This step is about making informed decisions based on our analysis. By drawing conclusions, we reach a point where we can confidently articulate our thoughts and take action.

Drawing conclusions involves synthesizing the information we’ve gathered, considering all relevant factors, and coming to a well-reasoned resolution. It’s about being clear and concise in our communication of ideas, ensuring that others can understand and engage with our thoughts effectively.

The Power of the RED Model in Action

By breaking down the thinking process into three simple steps, the RED model empowers us to think clearly and critically. It provides a structured framework that guides us through the complexities of our thoughts, helping us avoid jumping to conclusions or being swayed by bias.

The RED model encourages a disciplined and systematic approach to thinking. It prompts us to question our assumptions, evaluate evidence with care, and communicate our thoughts with clarity. Through practice and repetition, this model becomes ingrained in our thinking process, enabling us to make more informed decisions and solve problems effectively.

Applying the RED model in our daily lives

The beauty of the RED model is its versatility. We can apply it to various situations, from personal decision-making to problem-solving in our professional lives. Whether we’re analyzing an argument, evaluating a piece of information, or making a strategic choice, the RED model helps us approach these tasks with a clear and critical mindset.

As we embrace the RED model and make it a part of our thinking routine, we’ll notice a transformation in our analytical abilities. We’ll become more adept at recognizing our thinking patterns, evaluating evidence objectively, and drawing well-grounded conclusions. The RED model empowers us to think critically and make thoughtful decisions in an increasingly complex world.

Bloom’s Taxonomy: From Knowledge to Evaluation

Developed by educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom, this taxonomy provides a roadmap for mastering new concepts and deepening our understanding. So, let’s dive right in and explore how Bloom’s Taxonomy can fuel our learning adventures.

Building Blocks: Knowledge and Comprehension

At the foundation of Bloom’s Taxonomy lie two essential building blocks: knowledge and comprehension. Knowledge involves acquiring facts, terms, and basic concepts about a subject. It’s the starting point where we gather the essential information necessary to understand a topic. Once we have this knowledge, we can move on to comprehension.

Comprehension goes a step beyond knowledge. It’s about grasping the meaning of the information we’ve acquired. This phase involves interpreting, explaining, and summarizing concepts in our own words. Comprehension helps solidify our understanding and fuels our ability to analyze and apply knowledge effectively.

Putting Ideas into Practice: Application and Analysis

With a solid foundation of knowledge and comprehension, we’re ready to put our ideas into practice. The next two levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, application, and analysis, take us into the realm of practicality and critical thinking.

Application invites us to take what we’ve learned and apply it to real-life situations. It’s about utilizing our knowledge and comprehension to solve problems, make connections, and demonstrate our understanding. This level of Bloom’s Taxonomy encourages us to think creatively and transfer our knowledge to new contexts.

Analysis takes our thinking a step further. It involves breaking down complex information, examining its parts, and understanding the relationships between them. Analysis challenges us to think critically, identify patterns, and draw conclusions based on evidence. This level hones our ability to delve deeper and unravel the complexities within a subject.

Reaching New Heights: Synthesis and Evaluation

As we ascend Bloom’s Taxonomy, we encounter the higher-order thinking skills of synthesis and evaluation. These levels push us to tap into our creativity, critical thinking, and judgment.

Synthesis prompts us to integrate various ideas, concepts, and information to create something new. It’s about putting the puzzle pieces together in a unique way and constructing a cohesive whole. Synthesis stretches our imagination and encourages us to think outside the box, fostering innovation and originality.

Finally, we reach the pinnacle of Bloom’s Taxonomy: evaluation. This level challenges us to make judgments, form opinions, and assess the value and effectiveness of ideas or arguments . Evaluation requires us to consider evidence, weigh different perspectives, and make informed decisions. It’s the critical thinking skill that empowers us to be discerning, reflective, and confident in our assessments.

Mastering Bloom’s Taxonomy for Lifelong Learning

By embracing the levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, we unlock the power to become lifelong learners. This framework equips us with the tools to progress from knowledge to evaluation, building a solid foundation of understanding along the way. Whether we’re studying for exams, conducting research, or simply expanding our knowledge, Bloom’s Taxonomy serves as our trusty guide, motivating us to think critically and deeply explore the subjects we’re passionate about.

As we climb the ladder of Bloom’s Taxonomy, let’s embrace each level as an opportunity for growth and personal development. Let’s ask questions, seek answers, and challenge ourselves to reach new heights of understanding. By nurturing our curiosity and honing our thinking skills, we’ll become lifelong learners, continuously expanding our knowledge and making meaningful contributions in our chosen fields.

By focusing on critical thinking frameworks, you’ve equipped yourself with valuable tools for analyzing information and making informed decisions. Remember, applying these frameworks is a continuous journey of practice and refinement. Embrace the versatility of different frameworks, experiment with their integration, and be open to new perspectives.

Now, armed with this newfound knowledge, you’re ready to tackle complex challenges with confidence and precision. Whether you’re a student, professional, or lifelong learner, mastering critical thinking frameworks will empower you to navigate the world with analytical excellence.

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5 Critical Thinking Skills For Your Decision-Making

Table of Contents

You need to learn to think for yourself and realize that all the leaders are gone. Now it’s your turn if you want to answer the call! What this is saying is that critical thinking skills make you safe and trustworthy as a leader.

Overview About Critical Thinking Skills

If you asked 100 different professionals what are critical thinking skills it is likely that you get 100 different answers.

There’s a lot of confusion about this subject just as there is about the facts about many soft skills.

Here are some open-ended questions to get us into the territory

• What does it mean to critically think? Think about what’s the most important thing first
• How do you develop critical thinking skills? Training, training, training
• What are some examples of critical thinking skills? Keep reading this article
• How to make critical thinking part of your thinking tools that you reach out to in your everyday tasks?

Learn, use it and get a good coach that doesn’t let you escape into your comfort zone

What is Critical Thinking?

What Is Intelligence & How Does It Apply To Critical Thinking Skills & Leadership?

Intelligence is the inner knowledge a person has about a subject. That knowledge needs to come from 2 sources to turn into intelligence.

• The first source is by learning something new.
• The second source comes from putting what one learns to practice.

The moment you do that you start becoming intelligent about the subject and through your own efforts you learn new things that no one can teach you.

This is critical to understand! That’s why I use this explanation to explain what critical thinking skills are all about.

You have to understand the difference between knowledge and intelligence if you are an aspiring professional or a leader, otherwise, you never develop your skillset.

When you put what you know to practice you learn what the knowledge can do for you, why it is important to use it, or not.

You learn what consequences it leads to, you learn how to do it, and you learn what is its greater purpose and what it is connected to that you had no idea before.

What you also learn is how you feel about it, what obstacles you meet, how that affects you, what you can gain or lose, and much more.

To make the answer clear, the difference between intelligence and knowledge is the fact that when knowledge is used it turns into intelligence.

When you just know something you are not yet intelligent about it and if you let too much time go between learning something and putting into use you’ll eventually lose it (within about a week).

As the saying goes, “use it or lose it”, but now you know how it relates to critical thinking skills.

More Of How To Connect to Critical Thinking Skills

Simple…if you want to change anything you need to understand that it is not enough reading or learning about something.

It is the understanding that it is critically important for you to use something to become intelligent about it in a way that others can value and appreciate the level of your professionalism.

Here is a great example of critical thinking skills…

It is to do with leadership and it is the difference between the leader that uses their leadership position to control others as compared to a leader who only ever leads by example, which means that they have intelligence about what they are saying because they have done it.

Critical thinking skills for leadership, therefore, is to never preach what they do not do themselves.

Instead to only ever lead by example. There are only a few of those around, unfortunately.

A Starking Note About Leadership Today

Leadership today is turned on its head. It’s mostly upside down to where it needs to be.

Instead of leading by example, leadership has become self-serving and creates chaos and despair. Not all, but a very worrisome percentage.

That is because the Ego has got the better part of most leaders and it has been endorsed by the silence of their followers who are accomplices to the madness by becoming YES people for their own perceived personal gains.

So it’s the blind leading the blind.

This situation can only be ameliorated by leadership taking on regular training to improve their critical thinking skills specifically, and their soft skills generally.

Considering Different Kinds Of Intelligence & Critical Thinking Skills

There are different kinds of intelligence to consider.

As has been explained, after knowledge is put to practice it gradually becomes an intelligence, which can be used again to gather more intelligence…it should never stop.

This is critical to understand and should be part of the critical thinking skills of any professional, leader, or scholar.

Don’t think you understand things before you have actually practiced them.

Furthermore, nothing natural is static, and therefore thinking anew about things is critical because everything in our world is on the move, especially now.

It’s all in the process of evolution and refinement.

So “ What Is Intelligence For? ”  one asks…well, to be the base for the next intelligence. This is at the very core of the power of positive thinking , which is a valuable thinking tool, mostly ignored.

The 5 Intelligence – A Critical Thinking Skills Tool

“The 5 Intelligence” is a masterful & versatile thinking tool that will strengthen your critical thinking skills, and show you how to maximize your thinking capacity by having a system and an order that saves you from dispersion and making unnecessary mistakes.

Colors, of course, are linked to nature. Find where these colors appear in nature and you’ll start understanding the intelligence associated with them.

Different colors have different energies, which can be best understood by looking for examples of how these colors appear in our lives.

Colors have been part of our life ever since we were born. We see them everywhere, and we relate to them mostly on a subconscious level throughout our lives.

We get influenced by colors but are not aware of their influence most of the time. It can be said that colors feed our minds with information constantly.

Our responses to the frequencies and wavelengths of colors are mostly semi-conscious and subconscious and that is why it is such an important part of critical thinking skills.

When we connect our thinking to natural basic colors we develop a powerful system in our minds that always covers all the basics.

This thinking tool connects critical thinking skills to colors which makes it easy to apply when you need to think about an issue, solve a problem, or engage in decision-making.

Using colors As A Powerful Thinking Tool

• White  relates to the questioning sentence “Did You Know facts?” Relates to fundamental structures, fresh starts, observation, cleanliness, and purity (bones, snow, marriage, white-collar professions, white of the eye, white blood cells, etc. are but some examples of where the color white can be observed). The final stage in this process, providing we decided to retain the embodied idea, is to translate all the process from Green to Red, to the infallible facts ( White ), as part of a  functiona l building block for the future.
• Red relates to the question “What is the motivating reason behind the action”   Finding THE reason to do something, which energizes and invigorates the action, relates to energy, vigor, actionable repetition, reasons, and comparison (blood, red stop lights/signs, red flowers, red Indians, red blood cells, etc.). The actionable process( Red ) reveals to us ways, means, and understanding we could not have had before we put it to action. When we “Do” something and try to give it life by our actions we start to learn about it all sorts of things that we couldn’t understand before. This Actionable Intelligence lets us know whether or not this is a practical idea that we need to retain or get rid of. This is the Red test; Does it work? or doesn’t work? But you do not try this once, you need to try several times, without jumping to early conclusions.
• Blue relates to the question “What Is The Governing Principle” Blue is a link to policing & guidelines, big-picture understanding that leads to principles (Colour of police uniform, the color of the planet, high beams in cars, blue-collar jobs, etc.). We begin to understand what boundaries and borders it needs to be maintained and functional
• Yellow relates to the question “What is it all connected to” when you understand the emotion you understand the greater motive. It naturally links to warmth, guidance, communication, and togetherness, (Sun!!!) This part has to do also with sharing and contemplation, as the new idea starts to reveal more of itself.
• Green relates to the question “ What is the greater purpose ”  Green is a link to new growth, ideas, creativity, and innovation (Greenlights “go”, the Green in spring!!!). Think! Yellow and Blue make Green…what does it mean? It’s Gree n , it’s new, we get excited, contemplate the idea, examine it’s potential (You know…you’ve done it a lot in your life and if you forgot then look at children).

What makes this thinking tool such an important part of critical thinking skills is that it can be applied to any situation or decision and reveal hidden issues that can cause problems and help you make safe decisions.

Our past experiences can be used against us or for us. The way you use it right is by “considering now first and then moving backward, never the other way around”

Never let go of the NOW by considering your experience first.

Summary Of Critical Thinking Skills

• The ability to consider NOW facts without bias
• The ability to know clearly why you do what you do
• The ability to locate the guiding principle or the Big Picture of any situation and decide what is the most important aspect that needs to be adhered to.
• It is critically important to solicit views from other people to make sure you are not an “Island Unto Yourself”
• It is important to locate the greater purpose of anything you want to make a decision about

It is safe to say that if professionals would stick to these 5 critical thinking skills a lot of mistakes that we see in our world could have been avoided.

Example of Critical Thinking skills

That one should be easy for you to see…

So here we are having to deal with an unknown virus that has taken us all by surprise. What do we do?

Do we get gripped by panic & fear or do we develop caution & gather unbiased facts?

Do we try to go back to what was and develop false expectations or do we find out what the new situation requires of us and adapt accordingly?

Do we make a fuss over the fact that our comfort zone was pulled from underneath us and react emotionally or do we grow up and live with the minimal requirements to keep us and others safe?

Do we develop self-discipline, keep some distance from one another, wear face masks when needed, and wash our hands or do we get childish and petulant about being free? ( That’s all that has been asked from us. We weren’t asked to starve for 10 days and not sleep for a month)

Are we stuck in our own limited opinions or do we develop a long term vision?

That is the best example I can give you here on how to apply critical thinking skills. That’s how simple it is and yet it eludes most people.

Why? It’s for you to answer…

This is probably not the article you expected on critical thinking skills, but that’s exactly what they are.

The ability to think clearly, ask the right questions, don’t run to second base before you hit first base, and learn to do the right thing instead of doing your version of doing things right as you have been taught somewhere in the past.

This does not work today.

You need to learn to think for yourself and realize that all the leaders are gone and now it’s your turn if you want to answer the call.

The human race needs good leaders who think and act in a way that is not messy. Those people who developed a set of critical thinking skills and use them regularly because they don’t want to mislead anyone or use leadership in all the wrong ways.

What this is saying is that critical thinking skills make you safe and trustworthy as a leader.

So, what do you think?

The Life Coach for Professionals™

Image Source: Pixabay, Flickr, Wikimedia Commons

Certain colors do make you feel different or change your mood, whenever the rain falls, the plants tend to give off a different shade of green and gives you a feeling of rebirth., however, didn’t’ have no idea that we were also thinking subconsciously and also making decision in color.

Yes. Not only we think in colours but colours affect our decision making process. This is an eye opener for the professionals I work with and makes a huge positive difference in their productivity.

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How to Use Socratic Questioning to Improve Your Critical Thinking Skills

• The Speaker Lab
• September 13, 2024

Table of Contents

Socratic questioning isn’t merely a philosopher’s technique but a formidable asset for enhancing one’s critical thinking and articulation abilities. Want to improve your communication skills? Then this powerful tool is perfect for you too!

In this article, you’ll learn why this age-old technique still matters today and how it can transform conversations in your daily life. From understanding its roots to applying it in education and beyond, we’ll guide you through mastering Socratic questioning. Plus, we’ll tackle common challenges and even compare the Socratic method with other ones used for teaching. Ready to boost your analytical abilities? Let’s get started.

Understanding Socratic Questioning

Socratic questioning isn’t just a debate technique from ancient Greece. It’s like the Swiss Army knife of conversation tools, ready to dissect ideas and shine light on the truth.

This practice roots back to Socrates himself, who famously used it to challenge assumptions and foster critical thinking among his peers. But don’t let its age fool you—these questions are as useful today as they were over two millennia ago. Through the art of inquisitive interrogation, we strip down preconceived notions and unveil profound understandings about our convictions and choices.

The beauty of Socratic questioning lies in its versatility. It thrives anywhere curiosity lives, and isn’t confined to philosophy classes or legal chambers. If navigating personal quandaries or dissecting intricate work-related puzzles, embracing this method can turn ordinary chats into thoughtful dialogues.

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Types of Socratic Questions

Socrates, the renowned philosopher from ancient Athens, knew a thing or two about sparking insight. His method? Asking the right kinds of questions. Let’s break down these types of questions and look at them more closely.

Clarification Questions

First up are clarification questions. Imagine you’re trying to get to the bottom of why your friend always chooses odd vacation spots. You might ask, “What draws you to these places?” This type of open-ended question nudges someone to think more deeply about their initial statement or choice.

In practice, it’s like peeling an onion, because each layer reveals more until you hit the core truth. In this way, clarification question stay true to their name, offering a way to gain insight and better understanding.

Assumptions Probing

Next in line is probing assumptions, and using these is a bit like playing devil’s advocate. For instance, if someone says “All great speakers are born with talent,” you could counter with “Why do we assume talent can’t be developed?” These questions challenge underlying beliefs and open doors for fresh perspectives.

By adopting this method, we unearth concealed prejudices and prompt a reevaluation of our core convictions, paving the way for enlightenment and development.

Evidence Examination

Lastly we have examining evidence, and this is where critical thinking kicks into high gear. If your colleague claims “Our marketing strategy isn’t working,” dig deeper by asking “What data supports this conclusion?” This question not only scrutinizes the basis of assertions but promotes a fact-based discussion rather than one led by emotions or vague observations. In other words, this approach changes our dialogues from speculative arguments to discussions anchored in the tangible world.

By weaving Socratic inquiry into our daily dialogues, we cultivate spaces where authentic revelations and meaningful conversations flourish. The key lies in being curious enough to go deeper than surface-level exchanges and brave enough to question our own as well as others’ viewpoints rigorously.

Implementing Socratic Questioning in Everyday Life

So now you’ve been introduced to Socratic questioning and its brain-boosting powers. But how do you use it without sounding like a philosopher at dinner? Believer it or not, it’s simpler than you think.

Incorporating Into Daily Conversations

Mixing Socratic questioning into your daily conversations doesn’t mean turning every coffee run into a debate club meeting. Instead, start with simple introspection, asking yourself why you believe what you do about common topics, whether it’s politics, education, or even the best burger joint in town.

To navigate conversations effectively, aim to ignite a spark of curiosity rather than sparking heated debates. Ask open-ended questions that invite people to explain their views more deeply. While there’s nothing wrong with the occasional yes-or-no inquiry, avoid using them exclusively as they typically shut down discussion.

Mastering this method doesn’t just mean you shine in debate victories. It’s equally adept at helping you navigate significant and minor choices alike. Applying this level of scrutiny can lead to better choices by ensuring all angles are considered before jumping in headfirst.

Becoming Your Own Thoughtful Critic

As mentioned earlier, apply these methods inwardly too. When facing personal dilemmas or life choices, being able to dissect your own reasoning can clarify what you truly want. It can also help you identify what might simply be an impulsive desire. Employed thoughtfully, they foster self-reflection leading to more informed choices aligned with one’s values.

By practicing Socratic questioning regularly, you’ll develop a knack for critical thinking that rivals ancient philosophers.

Socratic Questioning in Education

Imagine walking into a classroom where the air buzzes with curiosity, and every question leads to another. Because of its exploratory nature, Socratic inquiry is perfect for transforming every classroom into a hive of exploration.

Using Socratic Questions in the Classroom

Using the three different types of Socratic questions, students can gain deeper understanding and insight into a variety of topics. For instance, suppose students in a history class used evidence-based questions to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a democratic government. Similarly, an English class could use clarification questions to dive deeper into a text and characters’ motivations. Science teachers could even use assumption questions to introduce scientific phenomena like centrifugal force or buoyancy.

The rationale behind someone’s arguments becomes clearer through Socratic questioning. By following a line of inquiry, students can dissect how certain conclusions were reached. As a result, students gain a greater understanding of other perspectives, putting them in an ideal position to experience empathy and broaden their own viewpoints.

The Challenges of Socratic Questioning

Despite its many benefits, Socratic questioning can prove challenging in the classroom. Some find it leads to confusion or frustration due to its open-ended nature or when improperly applied without consideration for individual learning styles or emotional readiness.

Navigating these challenges effectively requires patience along with an understanding of what students are prepared to handle. And of course, a little practice goes a long way.

The Challenges and Criticisms of Socratic Questioning

Socratic questioning, though effective in fostering deep thought, comes with its own set of obstacles. Diving into this approach, we often bump into a few stumbling blocks and critiques that are worth mentioning.

Can Lead to Frustration

At times, diving headfirst into the pursuit of profound insights can end up making individuals feel even more bewildered than they were to begin with. Imagine you’re trying to find your way out of a maze, but every turn you take leads to another question instead of an exit. That’s how some folks feel during intense sessions of Socratic questioning. It requires patience and resilience from all parties involved.

In addition, Socratic questioning demands a high level of engagement which might be draining over long periods. The key here is balance, knowing when to dive deeper and when to surface back with the answers found.

Potential Power Imbalance

In scenarios where one person holds all the questions (and thereby controls the direction of conversation), there can be an unintended power imbalance. This dynamic might make some participants hesitant to share their thoughts openly or challenge ideas being presented.

To mitigate this issue, facilitators need careful training on creating an inclusive environment where everyone feels empowered to contribute equally.

Risk of Misinterpretation

Questions are open-ended by nature. This means there’s room for interpretation in responses received as well as in subsequent questions asked. Misunderstandings can occur if either party reads too much between lines or assumes knowledge not actually possessed by others.

Clear communication is crucial here, and asking follow-up questions helps ensure everyone remains on the same page throughout discussions.

Comparing Socratic Questioning with Other Teaching Methods

Socratic questioning demonstrates the power of asking questions that encourage deep thought and learning. In contrast to conventional educational tactics, which frequently emphasize memorization, this strategy nurtures analytical reasoning by prompting learners to explore and conclude independently.

Traditional Lectures

In traditional lectures, information flows one way: from teacher to student. As a result, students might find themselves drifting off or lost in a flurry of note-taking, barely connecting with the essence of what’s being taught. When you bring Socratic questioning into play, however, the classroom becomes a dialogue rather than a monologue. Students become active participants in their education, not just passive receivers of information.

In addition to increased attention, students can also gain a deeper understanding of fundamental concepts. For instance, instead of simply memorizing historical facts, students might explore why certain events unfolded as they did and how they could have been different under other circumstances.

Group Projects

Group projects aim to foster collaboration but sometimes fall short when some voices dominate while others fade into the background. Integrating Socratic questioning encourages every group member to voice their thoughts and question each other’s assumptions critically—a key skill in both academic settings and real-world problem-solving scenarios.

By dissecting intricate concepts, this technique ensures all participants can grasp and add value to the conversation, thereby enhancing inclusivity and efficacy in learning among varied groups.

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Resources for Further Exploration of Socratic Questioning

If you’re eager to dive deeper into the world of Socratic questioning, a wealth of resources awaits. From books that lay the foundational principles to interactive websites offering practical exercises, there’s something for every level of curiosity and expertise.

Books That Challenge and Inspire

If reading is your thing, there are plenty of books that delve deeper into Socratic questioning. Take, for instance, “The Art of Socratic Questioning,” which delves into the nuances of this timeless technique, offering readers insights into crafting questions that stimulate deep thinking.

Meanwhile, “Socrates’ Café: A Fresh Taste of Philosophy” brings philosophy out of the academy and into everyday life, demonstrating how Socratic questioning remains as relevant today as it was in ancient Greece. (And speaking of ancient Greece, have you ever heard of the three rhetorical appeals? Check them out here .)

Lastly, “Socrates in the Boardroom” delves into the application of these philosophical approaches within leadership spheres, urging individuals to scrutinize their decision-making methods critically.

Websites Offering Interactive Learning Experiences

The digital age brings with it innovative ways to engage with classical education methods. Websites like The Critical Thinking Community offer extensive guides on implementing Socratic techniques in educational settings or personal growth endeavors. For those looking for a more hands-on approach, Socrative , allows users to create real-time quizzes inspired by the probing nature of Socratic inquiry. This tool is perfect for educators aiming to invigorate their classrooms or for individuals keen on testing their critical thinking skills.

FAQs About Socratic Questioning

What is an example of socratic question.

An example of a Socratic question would be, “What evidence supports your thinking?” This question encourages a deep dive into reasoning, pushing for clarity and proof.

What is the Socratic method of questioning?

It is a form of inquiry that challenges beliefs through systematic questioning, aiming to uncover assumptions and improve understanding.

What are the 4 stages of Socratic questioning?

The four stages include clarifying concepts, examining assumptions, seeking evidence or reasons, and exploring implications or consequences.

What is Socratic questioning in CBT examples?

In CBT, it might involve asking “How does this thought affect your actions?” to link thoughts with behavior patterns.

So now you have a better handle on Socratic questioning. It’s not just ancient philosophy; it’s a tool for the critical thinkers of today. Not only does it sharpen your thinking, it ups your conversation game. By challenging us to think deeper, Socratic questioning boosts analytical skills, making every moment of curiosity matter.

While there are some hurdles to the method, there are plenty of ways to overcome those obstacles. And in comparison to other techniques, it has plenty of advantages and benefits.

Beyond sharpening minds in dialogue or education lies the power of asking better questions—and that’s where real growth happens.

• Last Updated: September 12, 2024

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