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Significance of Bitter Leaf (Vernonia Amagdalina) In Tropical Diseases and Beyond: A Review

2014, Malaria Chemotherapy Control and Elimination

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Vernonia amygdalina Delile is a small tree with brittle branches, up to 10 m tall and commonly called as bitter leaf due to its bitter taste. It is native of tropical Africa but widely found on riverside and lakes areas, in woodland and grassland up to 2800 m altitude, in areas where the average rainfall is 750-2000 mm. The plant is considered as a medicinal herb and mostly used in traditional medicine system. The principal phytoconstituents of the plant are oxalate, phytates, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, cyanogenic glycosides, alkaloids, terpenes, anthraquinone, steroid, coumarins, lignans, xanthones, edotides and sesquiterpenes and phenol. The plant attributed with anti-cancer, antidiabetic, anti-malarial, anti-inflammatory, cathartic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, antioxidant, chemo protective and cytotoxic, Analgesic, anthelmintic, Anti-pyretic, hypolipidaemic properties and also used as Hemolytic, Antimutagenic, Anti-leishmanial, Spermatogenic, anti-platelet and abortifaci...

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Malaria is one of the most important of infectious diseases in the tropics and sub-tropics. The search for antimalarial compounds has been necessitated by P. falciparum resistance to almost all antimalarial drugs. In this study, the in vitro antimalarial activities of the aqueous and ethanolic crude extracts of Vernonia amygdalina , a plant used by traditional healers to treat malaria and other diseases, was evaluated against 14 fresh isolates of P. falciparum from Damboa, Borno State, Nigeria. Acute toxicity test and antiinflammatory activity of the extracts were also determined. There was a significant inhibition in schizont maturation relative to control (P = 0.05). Ethanolic extract exhibited higher antimalarial activity of 78.10 %, IC50 of 11.2 μg/ml and aqueous extract had an activity of 74.02 %, IC50 of 13.6 μg/ml. Both extracts showed moderate antimalarial activity. The extracts exhibited negligible toxicity in rats and showed a good measure of anti-inflammatory activity. Th...

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Vernonia amygdalina was assessed for phytochemicals. The results showed that the leaf extract of the plant possessed the biologically active substances; cardiac glycosides, alkaloids, saponins and tannins. The presence of these bioactive constituents has been linked to the antimicrobial activity of the plant. The disc diffusion method was used to determine the antimimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeroginosae, Streptococcus species, Klebsialla pneumonia and Salmonella typhi. Aqueous extract of the leaves showed antimicrobial activity against all the tested bacteria with the exception of Proteus vulgaris in the order of sensitivity as Klebsialla pneumonia> Pseudomonas aeroginosae> Staphylococcus aureus> Salmonella typhi> Escherichia coli> Streptococcus species. The leaves of Vernonia amygdalina can be used as a source of oral drugs to fight infections caused by susceptible bacteria. Original Research Article Yar'adua et al.; BMRJ, 10(1): 1-6, 2015; Article no.BMRJ.19581 2

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Significance of Bitter Leaf (Vernonia Amagdalina) In Tropical Diseases and Beyond: A Review

Clement O. Egharevba , E. Osayemwenre , +7 authors A. Falodun
Published 10 June 2014
Environmental Science, Medicine

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Diabetes and vernonia amygdalina delile (asteraceae), the effects of vernonia amygdalina leaves on lipid profile in cadmium-induced rat, african bitter leaf (vernonia amygdalina delile) - a medicinal and nutritional wonder of family asteraceae, laxative effect of ethanol leaf extract of vernonia amygdalina del. (asteraceae) in wistar strain albino rats, evaluation of vernonia amygdalina leaves for gastroprotective activity on experimental models of gastric ulcer in rats, antimicrobial activity and phytochemical screening of methanolic leaf extract of vernonia amygdalina, antihyperglycemic activity of vernonia amygdalina leaf extracts, hibiscus esculentus fruit extract and garcinia kola seed extract from kisangani plants, evaluation of nutritional and phytochemical compositions of two bitter leaf (vernonia amygdalina) accessions in nigeria, the methanol leaf extract of vernonia amygdalina ameliorates cardiomyopathy in alloxan-induced diabetic rats, genotoxicity study of ethiopian medicinal plant extracts on hepg2 cells, 134 references, a clinical trial of the traditional medicine vernonia amygdalina in the treatment of uncomplicated malaria., antioxidative and chemopreventive properties of vernonia amygdalina and garcinia biflavonoid, an ethnobotanical study of plants used for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases (njovhera) in guruve district, zimbabwe., nutritive value and haemolytic properties (in vitro) of the leaves of vernonia amygdalina on human erythrocyte, in vitro screening of two nigerian medicinal plants (vernonia amygdalina and annona senegalensis) for anthelmintic activity., ethnomedicinal and bioactive properties of plants ingested by wild chimpanzees in uganda., observations on the illness and consumption of a possibly medicinal plantvernonia amygdalina (del.), by a wild chimpanzee in the mahale mountains national park, tanzania, the analgesic and antiplasmodial activities and toxicology of vernonia amygdalina., antioxidant constituents in vernonia amygdalina. leaves, bioactive sesquiterpene lactones from the leaves of vernonia amygdalina., related papers.

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REVIEW article

Vernonia amygdalina : a comprehensive review of the nutritional makeup, traditional medicinal use, and pharmacology of isolated phytochemicals and compounds.

1 Traditional and Modern Medicine Research and Development Directorate, Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2 Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
3 Natural Resource Management Department, Debre Berhan University, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia
4 Department of Applied Chemistry, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia

Vernonia amygdalina is a perennial shrub that belongs to the family Asteraceae. The herb is an indigenous African plant that grows in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa. It is probably the most used medicinal plant in the genus Vernonia. Previous studies on the traditional medicinal value, nutritional composition, classes of phytochemical or compound isolation, and evaluation of their pharmacology activity are numerous. This provokes us to review and provide up-to-date evidence-based information on the study plant. A systematic online search using the databases of Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Wiley, Elsevier and Sci-Hub was carefully applied, using some important key words to get appropriate information. The leafy part of Vernonia amygdalina contributes greatly to the nutritional requirements for human health and to food security since it contains enough concentrations of proximate composition, minerals, and vitamins. The plant parts are used in traditional medicine for many human and animal healthcare purposes, including diarrhea, diabetes, wound healing, tonsillitis, evil eye, retained placenta, headache, eye disease, intestinal parasite, bloating, hepatitis, toothache, anthrax, malaria, urine retention, gastritis, stomach disorders, and snake bites. The chemical analysis revealed the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, triterpenoids, sesquiterpene lactones, steroids, cardiac glycosides, oxalates, phytates, cyanogenic glycosides, and phenols. Additionally, various compounds such as vernolide, luteolin, vernodalol, vernoamyoside A, vernoamyoside B, isorhamnetin, glucuronolactone, and 1-Heneicosenol O-β-D-glucopyranoside were isolated. Some of the isolated compounds pharmacological activity was evaluated against some diseases and showed antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antihelmintic, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory potencies. Thus, the review provides comprehensive information about ethnomedicinal value, nutritional composition, isolated classes of phytochemicals, and compounds, including an evaluation of the pharmacological activity of the isolated compounds of Vernonia amygdalina . A review with this much information could be extremely valuable for future research on developing innovative nutraceutical products.

1 Introduction

Vernonia amygdalina (VA) is a perennial shrub or small tree in the genus Vernonia of the Asteraceae family ( Ijeh and Ejike, 2011 ). When completely grown, it can reach a height of roughly 23 feet. It has flaky, rough bark colored gray or brown ( Echem and Kabari, 2013 ). The leaves are medium to dark green, oblong-lanceolate, usually measuring 10–15 cm in length and 4–5 cm in width. They have visible red veining, a tapering apex and base, an almost symmetric base, a complete or finely toothed margin, and a petiole that is typically very short but can reach 1–2 cm in length. Its little, creamy white, Thistle-like flower heads measure 10 mm in length. They are packed densely in axillary and terminal clusters to form enormous, flat clusters that have a lovely aroma and measure 15 cm in diameter ( Ofori et al., 2013 ).

The herb is an indigenous African plant that thrives throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa as well as being widely spread in Asia ( Echem and Kabari, 2013 ). It is widely grown in Yemen, Brazil, South Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania ( Bhattacharjee et al., 2013 ), even though it is native to tropical Africa ( Ijeh and Ejike, 2011 ; Nursuhaili et al., 2019 ). Naturally, the plant can be found in regions with 2,800 m of elevation and 750–2000 mm of annual rainfall, such as the edges of forests, the areas surrounding rivers and lakes, woodlands, and grasslands. It requires direct sunlight and prefers a humid environment. Although it may grow on any kind of soil, it favors humus-rich soils ( Ofori et al., 2013 ).

It is probably the most widely used medicinal herb in the genus Vernonia ( Ijeh and Ejike, 2011 ). Because of its bitter flavor, it is commonly referred to as “bitter leaf” and is used both medicinally and as a vegetable. The species’ secondary metabolites, which include saponins, tannins, alkaloids, and glycosides, are anti-dietary components. These constituents are the source of the bitter taste in this medicinal plant ( Yeap et al., 2010 ; Danladi et al., 2018 ). Outside of bitter leaf, this medicinal plant is known by a variety of common names in different languages in different regions (for instance, “ebicha” (oromifa) ( Bekele and Reddy, 2015 ), “grawa” (Amharic), and “vernonia tree” (English) ( Wubayehu et al., 2018 ).

Numerous therapeutic herbs are known for their antibacterial ( Degu et al., 2021a ; Gonfa et al., 2022 ; Legesse et al., 2022 ; Asfaw et al., 2023b ; Dagne et al., 2023 ), antifungal ( Degu et al., 2020b ), antiviral ( Meresa et al., 2017 ; Tesera et al., 2022 ), anti-parasitic ( Basha et al., 2018 ; Muluye et al., 2021 ), anti-hypertensive ( Fekadu et al., 2017 ), anti-asthmatic ( Sisay et al., 2020 ), insect repellent ( Degu et al., 2020a ), and so on effects. They are utilized as a food source in addition to their medical properties ( Olowoyeye et al., 2022 ). In history, bitter leaf has been utilized for generations in Africa for both food and medicinal purposes. The plant has a wide spectrum of uses in African traditional medicine and has been used in the management and treatment of a number of health conditions ( Ijeh and Ejike, 2011 ). There have been several previous studies on the traditional medicinal value ( Asfaw et al., 2023a ), nutritional content ( Okolie et al., 2021 ), isolation of different classes of phytochemicals and compounds, and evaluation of their pharmacological activities ( Habtamu and Melaku, 2018 ) of VA. The purpose of this review is to give current, evidence-based information about the medicinal role of the plant, its existing nutritional and phytochemical composition, and the pharmacological properties of the isolated substances. Thus, this review summarizes the current evidence which is as an updating work of the previous review ( Yeap et al., 2010 ; Ijeh and Ejike, 2011 ). As a result, the current study provides a deep and updated knowledge on this therapeutic herb that could stimulate more research into pharmacopeia and the discovery of novel pharmaceuticals. Figure 1 is a representative image of the species VA with its leaf and flower.

FIGURE 1 . Vernonia amygdalina plant (left), flowers (A) , top right) and leaves (B) , bottom right) ( TjhiaA et al., 2018 ).

2 Methodology

The data on the nutritional makeup, discovered phytochemicals and compounds and their pharmacology, and traditional therapeutic efficacy of VA have been extracted from research published articles. The relevant various ethnobotanical publications and laboratory-based studies regarding the plant were looked at in order to gather relevant data on the study area. Using key words like VA, nutritional composition, isolated phytochemicals, isolated compounds, pharmacological activities, traditional uses, leaf, root, stem, flower, bark, method of preparation, and application, an exhaustive online search was conducted using the databases of Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Wiley, Elsevier and the Sci-Hub website. These terms were used separately or in combination. In order to tabulate the accessed data, an appropriate format for data gathering was established. This review included only research articles, master’s theses, and doctoral theses published in English that offered complete information.

3 The dietary composition and importance of Vernonia amygdalina

Due to its bitterness, VA can be used as a bittering agent (spice) and as an antimicrobial agent in beer production. Leaves are used to prepare bitter leaf soup (‘Onugbo’, a popular Nigerian dish) ( Nursuhaili et al., 2019 ) as an appetizer and as a digestive tonic. The leaves and shoots are regarded as good fodder for goats ( Okeke et al., 2015 ). The bitter leaf meal, given with drinking water, also numerically enhanced the growth rate of the birds ( Nwogwugwu et al., 2015 ). In Ethiopia, it is used to make honey wine called ‘Tej’ ( Nursuhaili et al., 2019 ) and as hops in preparing ‘tella’ beer ( Shewo and Girma, 2017 ).

The leafy part of VA contributes greatly to the nutritional requirement for human health and to food security since it contains enough concentrations of proximate composition ( Usunomena and Ngozi, 2016 ). The high concentration value of protein, dry matter, crude fiber, ash, minerals (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and iron), and ash in the leaves of the plant presented it as excellent sources of food ( Oboh, 2006 ; Offor, 2014 ; Agbankpé et al., 2015 ; Okeke et al., 2015 ; Usunomena and Ngozi, 2016 ; Olusola and Olaifa, 2018 ; Olumide et al., 2019 ). Additionally, numerous studies also revealed different concentrations of protein (including essential amino acids), moisture, carbohydrates, ash, and fat within the leaves ( Nwaoguikpe, 2010 ; Ogunnowo and Alao-Sanni, 2010 ; Ugwoke et al., 2010 ; Momoh et al., 2012 ; Yakubu et al., 2012 ; Omoyeni et al., 2015 ; Udochukwu et al., 2015 ; Usunomena and Ngozi, 2016 ; Etta et al., 2017 ; Olumide et al., 2019 ).

A study on micronutrients, macronutrients, and minerals obtained a concentration difference in which magnesium, copper, and lead were found to be high in fresh leaves and calcium, ash, fiber, lipid content, and iron were high in dried leaves ( Garba and Oviosa, 2019 ). The leaf also has oil ( Biru et al., 2022 ), starch ( Okeke et al., 2015 ), and iodine ( Ojimelukwe and Amaechi, 2019 ). Moreover, the leaf contains vitamins like vitamin A, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin E, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, niacin ( Nwaoguikpe, 2010 ; Dafam et al., 2020 ), and carotenoid ( Ejoh et al., 2005 ). The nutritional composition of the leaves and their corresponding literature is summarized in Table 1 .

TABLE 1 . Nutritional composition of Vernonia amydalina leaves.

The quantitative proximate evaluation of the leaf extract showed that it incorporates carbohydrates (37%), proteins (28.2%), fats (5.5%), crude fiber (11.6%), moisture content (8.4%), and ash content (9.3%) ( Ali et al., 2020 ). The leaves had an 83.0% moisture content (dry matter: 17.02%), a 1.30% protein content, and a 0.50% ash content in another study on fresh green leaves. Based on the fresh weight of the leaves, the mineral content was 61.55 μg/g, 8.2 × 10 −3 μg/g, 4.71 μg/g, and 1.13 μg/g of phosphorus, selenium, iron, and zinc, respectively ( Oboh and Masodje, 2009 ). This result was consistent with the study by Okolie et al. (2021) , which found that the quantified results for sodium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, iron, and zinc were 180.36 mg/100g, 162.54 mg/100g, 27.8 mg/100g, 949.35 mg/100mg, 1.13 mg/100g, and 0.48 mg/100g, respectively. Once again according to Okolie et al. (2021) , the analysis of vitamins B1, B2, B3, and E yielded values of 0.16 mg/100g, 0.22 mg/100g, 0.15 mg/100mg, and 0.32 mg/100g, respectively.

Zinc (14.23 mg/kg), iron (322 mg/kg), phosphate (33.25 mg/kg), copper (19.50 mg/kg), chromium (3.75 mg/kg), cadmium (4.99 mg/kg), sodium (483.06 mg/kg), potassium (627.98 mg/kg), magnesium (6,813 mg/kg), calcium (12,641.76 mg/kg), and zinc (14.23 mg/kg) were found in the powdered leaves ( Usunobun and Okolie, 2015 ). Vitamins E and A, starch (only the stem), protein, ash, fat, zinc, iron, copper, ascorbic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, and nicotinamide are abundant in the stems and roots ( Okeke et al., 2015 ; Ojimelukwe and Amaechi, 2019 ). Additionally, the proximal composition of ash, moisture, crude fat, crude fiber, protein, and carbohydrate was found in another study that intends to explore the nutritional value of the stem, root, and seed ( Okeke et al., 2015 ; Adebayo et al., 2019 ). Moreover, vitamin C, vitamins B1 and B2, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, and manganese are present in the seeds ( Adebayo et al., 2019 ).

These results show that VA is a rich source of important nutrients, with varying quantities throughout various trials. There are numerous reasons for the variance in the outcome. For example, the nutritional composition of the VA varies according on the kind of soil, environmental conditions, and by geographic locations ( Okolie et al., 2021 ; Olowoyeye et al., 2022 ). There was difference in the content of nutritious components between dried and fresh leaves as well. Most of the proximate ingredients’ concentrations increased noticeably with drying. Drying significantly increased the ash, fiber, and lipid contents, which improved from 2.56%, 1.62%, and 0.62% in the fresh sample to 11.20%, 4.02%, and 2.64% in the dried sample, respectively. The results of this study’s mineral analysis showed that calcium and iron were high in the dried sample whereas magnesium, copper, and lead were high in the fresh sample ( Garba and Oviosa, 2019 ).

3.1 Effect of different processing methods on nutritional composition of bitter leaf

Some proximate, calcium, iron, potassium, and vitamin C are lost when processed traditionally, which includes boiling, squeeze washing, and salting, or squeeze washing and boiling ( Tsado et al., 2015 ). Nutrients are lost when leaves are de-bittered to make them more palatable; conversely, when leaves are boiled in water (without being squeezed) to increase beta-carotene concentration, water-soluble vitamins are lost ( Nkechi, 2023 ). A 2016 study by Agomuo et al. (2016) found that squeezing bitter leaves with palm oil improves nutrient retention, which may be a loss-preventing solution. The study by Yakubu et al. (2012) found that different processing methods, like soaking in water for an entire night, blanching, and abrasion with and without salt (Nacl), reduced the antioxidant capacity, protein content, and moisture content of the leaves. Blanching and abrasion without salt resulted in a decrease in fat content, but soaking and abrasion with salt enhanced it. Soaking resulted in reduced crude fiber content, whereas salt abrasion increased it. Abrasions increased the contents of the ash, whereas blanching and soaking significantly reduced them. Additionally, the vegetable’s mineral, tannin, and phytate contents were significantly reduced by the processing techniques of overnight soaking, blanching, and abrasion ( Yakubu et al., 2012 ).

In a different study, the amount of nutrients and antinutrients (phytate and tannin) in the leaf significantly decreased when it was abraded. It results in a large decrease in the proximate and mineral composition with the exception of magnesium and carbohydrates, which saw a considerable rise and no significant change, respectively ( Oboh, 2006 ). Therefore, the nutrient content of VA is reduced when they are abraded to remove the bitter flavor during soup and other meal preparation. Moreover, study on fresh leaf and on the leaf subjected to spontaneous fermentation for 5 days at room temperature revealed a significant amount of mineral content that appeared stable after fermentation. However, significant losses in vitamins and a noticeable rise in ash and fiber content were observed ( Ifesan et al., 2014 ).

Vital minerals and nutrients, which are present in the VA, are beneficial to the body. Nevertheless, the concentrations of Pb, Cr, Zn, Co, and Ni in VA leaves are higher than those recommended by the WHO ( Ssempijja et al., 2020 ); therefore, these materials may need to be reduced or removed before feeding. Various methods, such as blanching and abrasion, are used to lessen the anti-nutritional components of bitter leaves, such as tannin and phylate ( Yakubu et al., 2012 ). Few attempts have been made to preserve this vegetable, despite its excellent nutritional value. Therefore, to prevent any changes in flavor, color, or nutritional content, it is imperative that dried leaves be packaged appropriately ( Degu et al., 2021b ) and kept at the proper temperature when consumed out of their extremely fresh form. VA maintained at 4°C preserves more of its nutritional and therapeutic characteristics than when stored at −20°C, according to a study on the effect of preservation on two different types of bitter leaves ( Tonukari et al., 2015 ).

4 Ethnomedicinal uses

VA has a wide range of traditional medical applications worldwide. The plant is used in traditional and herbal medicine to treat a variety of conditions, including intestinal worms, headaches, bloating, malaria, urinary problems, herpes, athletes foot, blood clotting, dyspepsia, menstrual pain, gout, wounds, tonsillitis, evil eye, skin infections, and other conditions affecting humans and animals ( Abebe, 2011 ; Jima and Megersa, 2018 ; Girma et al., 2022 ; Mekonnen et al., 2022 ). According to reviewed ethnobotanical studies, the leaf is the part most frequently claimed for various diseases, followed by the root, shoot, stem, and seed. These medicinal plants are used either separately or in combination to cure a variety of diseases. Table 2 displays the plant parts, ethno-medicinal claims, and method of preparation, along with the application site.

TABLE 2 . Plant parts, ethno-medicinal claims, and method of preparation, along with the application site.

It has been demonstrated that the synergistic effects of combining this medicinal plant part with other plant parts, local preparations, and animal byproducts in the formulation of herbal medicines boost the effectiveness of the cures. The leaf, for example, is combined with butter and coffee seeds ( Beyi, 2018 ; Kindie, 2023 ), leaves of Ruta chalepensis ( Melkamu, 2021 ), leaves of Eucalyptus globules ( Molla, 2019 ), leaves of Teclea nobilis, Croton macrostachyus, Justicia schimperiana , and Achyranthes aspera are pounded together and administered through the left ear and left noisetril ( Kassa et al., 2016 ); and with local “katukala” and salt ( Beyi, 2018 ) as treatments for diarrhea, malaria, urinary issues, anthrax, and internal parasites, respectively. Furthermore, fresh root infused with “tella” is utilized as an impotence cure ( Chekole et al., 2015 ).

5 Phytochemical constituents

5.1 phytochemical classes.

Numerous phytochemicals from VA with a variety of pharmacological and biochemical effects were investigated such as alkaloids, glycosides, sesquiterpene lactones, steroids, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, tannins, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, resins, lignans, furocoumarines, naphthodianthrones, proteins, and peptides ( Erasto et al., 2006 ; Senthilkumar et al., 2018 ; Tian et al., 2023 ). For instance, phytochemical screening of ethanol and aqueous leaf extracts revealed the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, triterpenoids, steroids, and cardiac glycosides ( Asaolu et al., 2010 ; Usunomena and Ngozi, 2016 ). Furthermore, the presence of phytate, oxalate, cyanogenic glycosides, anthraquinone ( Ugwoke et al., 2010 ; Udochukwu et al., 2015 ), and phenol ( Asaolu et al., 2010 ; Ali et al., 2019 ) have been revealed ( Table 3 ).

TABLE 3 . Phytochemical classes isolated in Vernonia amygdalina plant-parts.

According to Ali et al. (2019) , the plant leaves’ aqueous extract contained 27 mg/g of saponins, 46 mg/g of alkaloids, 122 mg/g of flavonoids, 17 mg/g of terpenoids, 12 mg/g of tannins, 48 mg/g of steroids, and 36 mg/g of phenols. In another study, the ethanol extract contained tannins (99 mg/g), flavonoids (70 mg/g), saponins (64 mg/g), phenols (36 mg/g), and alkaloids (32 mg/g) ( Lyumugabe Loshima et al., 2017 ). In accordance with the Imohiosen et al. (2021) findings, bitter leaf has 139 mg/g of alkaloids, 180 mg/g of flavonoids, 60 mg/g of saponin, 2.3 mg/g of oxalate, and 167 mg/g of phytate. A further investigation reported 305 mg/g flavonoids, 104 mg/g phytate, 6 mg/g saponin, 1.7 mg/mL tannin, and 20 mg/mL alkaloids ( Olumide et al., 2019 ). As mentioned above, the outcomes of many investigations demonstrated notable chemical variations between plant preparations or extracts, both in terms of kind and quantity.

As already stated, alkaloids, tannins, phenolics, saponins, and other significant groups of chemicals were present in various amounts, as demonstrated by the screening and quantification tests. These phytochemicals have been found to have a wide variety of biological activities, showing the plant’s potential as a medicine. Alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoid, phenolics, tannin are known by their antimicrobial activity ( Usunomena and Ngozi, 2016 ), antioxidants ( Erdman et al., 2007 ), prevention and therapy of several diseases ( Rabi and Bishayee, 2009 ), free radical scavengers and strong anticancer activities ( Ugwu et al., 2013 ), potentials antiviral ( Cheng et al., 2002 ) and anticancer activities ( Narayanan et al., 1999 ), respectively. Consequently, the existence of these and other phytochemicals in VA could account for their use as medicine.

5.2 Compounds isolated from Vernonia amygdalina

Medicinal plants are the primary source of a broad variety of chemical structures that aid in the development of novel therapeutic medications. Numerous compounds have been identified from the leaves, flowers, stems, and other parts of VA through different NMR techniques and GC-MS analysis. The list of compounds isolated from Vernonia amygdalina along with their compound name, plant part and literature references are presented ( Table 4 ; Figure 2 ).

TABLE 4 . List of compounds isolated from Vernonia amygdalina .

FIGURE 2 . Chemical structures of isolated compounds from Vernonia amygdalina .

6 Biological activity of isolated compounds

People all over the world, including modern medicine professionals, have used bitter leaf as traditional medicine. Common illnesses are treated with a variety of plant parts, including the leaves, roots, seeds, shoots, and stems ( Ugbogu et al., 2021 ). Nowadays, phytochemicals from plants are used in herbal medicine; hence, it is essential to know about and explain the compounds present in medicinal plants in order to ensure their successful utilization and preservation. To date, not many investigations have been conducted to evaluate the pharmacological activity of the isolated chemicals from VA using a variety of in vitro and/or in vivo techniques. Few studies have reported the anti-inflammatory ( Nguyen et al., 2021 ), antioxidant ( Erasto et al., 2007 ), antibacterial, antifungal ( Erasto et al., 2006 ), anti-cancer ( Luo et al., 2011 ), anti-diabetic, and anti-helminthic ( IfedibaluChukwu et al., 2020 ) activities of isolated compounds from VA.

Vernolide and Vernodalol have antioxidant ( Erasto et al., 2007 ; Djeujo et al., 2023 ), antibacterial ( Erasto et al., 2006 ; Habtamu and Melaku, 2018 ), and antifungal ( Erasto et al., 2006 ) properties. Vernodalol’s in silico pharmacokinetics and toxicity profile, as reported by Djeujo et al. (2023) , indicate that the compound could be a good drug candidate due to its appropriate pharmacokinetic characteristics. Glucuronolactone, 6β,10β,14β-Trimethylheptadecan-15α-olyl-15-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl1,5β-olide, Vernodalinol, and Vernonioside V have anti-helmintic healing ( IfedibaluChukwu et al., 2020 ), anti-diabetic potency ( IfedibaluChukwu et al., 2020 ), inhibition of breast cancerous cells ( Luo et al., 2011 ), and inflammation-treating ability ( Nguyen et al., 2021 ), respectively.

Four other isolated compounds, Vernoamyoside A, B, C, and D, demonstrated an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the production of nitric oxide when tested in vitro in LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophages ( Quasie et al., 2016 ). However, luteolin-7-O-gluc-glucopyranoside, also known as cynaroside, did not show any effects. Luteolin ( Djeujo et al., 2023 ), isorhamnetin ( Habtamu and Melaku, 2018 ),6β,10β,14β-Trimethylheptadecan-15α-olyl-15-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl1,5β-olide, 1-Heneicosenol O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 11α-Hydroxyurs-5,12-dien-28-oic acid-3α,25-olide, 10-Geranilanyl-O-β-D-xyloside, and Glucuronolactone ( IfedibaluChukwu et al., 2020 ) also showed antioxidant efficacy. The toxicity and pharmacokinetics study on luteolin indicates that the compound is safe and has adequate pharmacokinetic good manners ( Djeujo et al., 2023 ). Isorhamnetin also had antibacterial activity with an inhibition zone of 9–14 mm against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria at a 1 mg/mL dose ( Habtamu and Melaku, 2018 ) ( Table 5 ).

TABLE 5 . The pharmacological activity of compounds isolated from Vernonia amygdalina .

7 General discussion

VA, commonly known as bitter leaf, is a medicinal plant that has been used traditionally for its therapeutic properties in many different cultures. This review paper provides emphasis on the plant’s possible health implications and therapeutic applications by offering a thorough investigation of its nutritional makeup, phytochemical components, and pharmacological activities. VA has been used traditionally for a variety of medical purposes, including but not restricted to its supposed antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-diabetic, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects. A wide range of conditions, from infectious to digestive issues, have been treated using the plant’s leaves, roots, seeds, and stems, demonstrating the plant’s adaptable therapeutic profile as a natural treatment. VA ’s nutritional composition is noteworthy as it is rich in vital nutrients, vitamins, and minerals, all of which support the plant’s benefits for health. The biological activities and pharmacological characteristics of the plant are mostly determined by its phytochemical makeup, which includes bioactive substances including flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds. By applying phytochemical compound isolation and analysis from VA, researchers have discovered a multitude of pharmacological characteristics linked to these chemicals. These highlight the plant’s potential as a source of bioactive molecules with therapeutic potential in a variety of health conditions. These include potential anti-inflammatory ( Nguyen et al., 2021 ), antioxidant ( Erasto et al., 2007 ), antibacterial, antifungal ( Erasto et al., 2006 ), anti-cancer ( Luo et al., 2011 ), anti-diabetic, and anti-helminthic effects.

8 Conclusion

The review provides compiled information about VA’s therapeutic role, nutritional and phytochemical makeup, and the pharmacological characteristics of its isolated compounds. Its chemical and nutritional content offers significant promise for the prevention and treatment of numerous illnesses, as well as for enhancing food security being an alternative nutrition. Different studies investigated various phytochemicals/compounds from VA that exhibit effective pharmacological activities. Moreover, several investigations have also shown that the leaves possess different concentrations of protein, moisture, carbohydrates, ash, fat, minerals, oils, and vitamins. However, the literature still show that not many researches’ have been conducted to date to evaluate the pharmacological activity of the extracted chemicals from VA using a variety of in vitro and/or in vivo techniques. Consequently, additional research is still needed to investigate the therapeutic potential of the phytochemicals and compounds within VA as well as to address many of the obstacles that still stand in the path of a meticulous scientific study about their medical uses. This is because an in-depth knowledge and characterization of the phytochemicals present in medicinal plants is essential for efficient usage. Thus, in order to maximize the benefits, bitter leaf’s safety profile and therapeutic potential must be thoroughly investigated and evaluated.

8.1 Limitations

Despite rigorous efforts to collect extensive data, the review’s analysis may have been limited in scope and depth due to the lack of some data points. The differences in the study designs, approaches, and reporting standards of the primary studies included in the review could have had an impact on the review’s results’ accuracy and consistency.

8.2 Future perspectives

Future studies should clarify the mechanisms of action of important phytochemicals, carry out clinical trials to support conventional claims, investigate possible synergistic effects of compounds, and create standardized formulations for therapeutic applications as Vernonia amygdalina research continues to develop. Through the use of multidisciplinary methods and cooperative projects, there is still hope for utilizing Vernonia amygdalina’s medicinal properties in contemporary health care.

Author contributions

SD: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. AM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. ZA: Data curation, Validation, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. MJ: Data curation, Validation, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. AA: Data curation, Validation, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. GT: Data curation, Validation, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Abbreviations

DPPH, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; MPLC, medium pressure liquid chromatography; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; HRMS, high-resolution mass spectrometry; UHPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS, Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography diode array detector electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry; VA, Vernonia amygdalina ; IC 50 , Half-maximal inhibitory concentration (inhibitory concentration at 50%); LC 50 , 50% Lethal concentration; UV, Ultraviolet; IR, Infrared; GC-MS, Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry.

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Keywords: ethnomedicinal value, isolated compounds, nutritional composition, pharmacology, phytochemistry, Vernonia amygdalina

Citation: Degu S, Meresa A, Animaw Z, Jegnie M, Asfaw A and Tegegn G (2024) Vernonia amygdalina : a comprehensive review of the nutritional makeup, traditional medicinal use, and pharmacology of isolated phytochemicals and compounds. Front. Nat. Produc. 3:1347855. doi: 10.3389/fntpr.2024.1347855

Received: 01 December 2023; Accepted: 14 February 2024; Published: 13 March 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Degu, Meresa, Animaw, Jegnie, Asfaw and Tegegn. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Sileshi Degu, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Glycemic indices and effect of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) flavored non-alcoholic wheat beer (NAWB) on key carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes in high fat diet fed (HFD)/STZ-induced diabetic Wistar rats

Affiliation.

1 Functional Foods and Nutraceutical Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.
PMID: 36370433
DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.14511

In a bid to make the use of functional food easier in the management and prevention of diseases, product development and fortification from/with functional foods have become the recent focus of research. This study, therefore, sought to exploit the recent trend in the brewing industry on the production of non-alcoholic beers by investigating the possibility of having a non-alcoholic beer flavored with bitter leaf, a known plant widely reported to have a strong hypoglycemic effect, as against the traditional use of hops, and the effect of the produced beer on the glycemic indices and various diabetic biochemical parameters that serve as biomarkers for type-2 diabetes (T2D). The glycemic indices, as well as the inhibitory potentials of bitter leaf-flavored Non-alcoholic wheat beer (NAWB) in ratios of 100%HP, 100%BL, 75:25BL, 50:50BL, and 25:75BL, on enzymes linked to a high-fat diet/streptozocin (HFD/STZ)-induced T2D albino Wistar rats were investigated. There were no significant difference (p > .05) between the starch (1.72-1.77 mg/100 mL), amylose (0.22-0.24 mg/100 mL), and amylopectin (1.49-1.53 mg/100 mL) contents of the various samples. The Glycemic Index (GI) of the samples ranged from 36 to 73 with 75:25Bl and 50:50BL have the lowest (36) values. The samples reduced blood glucose levels and inhibited pancreatic α-amylase, lipase, and intestinal α-glucosidase activity. The inhibitory potentials of these beer samples on α-amylase and α-glucosidase as well as their ability to reduce blood glucose levels in diabetic rats thus making the bitter leaf flavored NAWB a suitable healthy beverage for better glycemic control in diabetics. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study revealed the potential of producing non-alcoholic wheat beer flavored with bitter leaves as a possible substitute for hops. The potential inherent in bitter leaf in the management of type 2 diabetes can thus be made available through a far-reaching beverage medium such as non-alcoholic beer to help in the treatment/management of T2D. The results of this research could be an eye-opener to the possible utilization of bitter leaf and by extension other plants that have been reported in the management of T2D. The use of the bitter leaf as a substitute for hops in the production of non-alcoholic beer in the brewing industry could help in a health-oriented campaign for safe drinks that could be helpful in the control of blood glucose levels of diabetic patients.

Keywords: bitter leaf; diabetes; non-alcoholic beer; α-amylase; α-glucosidase.

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Int J Vet Sci Med
v.6(2); 2018 Dec

Role of bitter leaf ( Vernonia amygdalina ) extract in prevention of renal toxicity induced by crude petroleum contaminated diets in rats

The efficacy of Vernonia amygdalina against chemical toxicity has attracted attention. The aim of this study was to evaluate the protective potentials of Vernonia amygdalina methanol extract (BLME) against petroleum toxicity. Thirty six male albino rats ( Rattus norvegicus ) were redistributed randomly into six groups of six rats each and fed with growers feed for a period of 30 days according to the following description: Group A = Feed; Group B = Feed + 100 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME; Group C = Feed + 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME; Group D = Feed (100 g Feed + 4 mL crude petroleum); Group E = Feed (100 g Feed + 4 mL crude petroleum) + 100 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME; Group F = Feed (100 g Feed + 4 mL crude petroleum) + 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME. Animals were sacrificed at the end of the experimental period and the serum and kidney were harvested for biochemical and histological analysis following standard procedures. The data generated were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). The study revealed that crude petroleum stimulated alterations in kidney dysfunction makers: urea, creatinine and serum electrolytes which were significantly ( P  < 0.05) ameliorated by BLME administration relative to control. Oxidative stress markers, lipid peroxidation and enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant profiles (MDA levels, GSH, Vitamin C. FRAP, CAT, SOD, GPx, GSTs) as well as oxidase enzymes (AO, SO, MO and XO) induced changes by crude petroleum were positively modulated by BLME administration. The study concluded that crude petroleum contaminated diets are injurious to animal health and BLME is able to prevent the renal dysfunction induced by crude petroleum contaminated diets.

1. Introduction

Crude petroleum is an unrefined petroleum hydrocarbon mixture which has from simple to complex structures such as resins, asphaltenes and others. Chemically, it is composed of hydrogen, carbon, sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and metals [1] . Polar compounds contained in crude petroleum contain heteroatoms of oxygen, nitrogen or sulphur and are ascertained by so many names, including heterocyclics, resins and NSO 3 [2] . Heterocyclic compounds of crude petroleum may be composed of metals in salts of carboxylic acids form or distinctively as porphyrin chelates or organo-metal complexes [2] , [3] . When it is refined, its contents entail different fractions which are majorly used as fuels. The nearly unavoidable importance of these fractions is what makes them in constant and daily contact with human such as petrol, diesel and lubricating oils for powering automobiles, kerosene for cooking, and heavy gas oils for tarring roads [1] . Over the years, the increased trend in the domestic and industrial utilization of crude petroleum and its products has necessitated its concomitant exposure of humans and other animals to its high level risk [4] . In certain cases, these products such as kerosene, diesel, and gasoline find itself into the food chain and gradually build up its negative effects in the tissues especially as it relates to nephrotoxicity [5] , [6] , [7] , [8] .

In recent times, plants and plants-based materials are being tested as possible antidotes for crude petroleum toxicity in animals [9] , [10] . One important plant commonly grown in the tropical regions of the world with nutritional and health giving properties is bitter leaf ( Vernonia amygdalina ) [11] . The medicinal properties of Vernonia amygdalina are highly documented by Ijeh and Ejike [11] . It possesses anti-diabetic property, anthelmintic activities; antioxidant properties; hypolipidemic and anticancer activity [11] . Also, the cathartic effect; abortifacient; antifertility; antimicrobial; antiplatelet and anticoagulant; antimalarial; hepatoprotective; analgesic activity; anti-inflammatory; anti-pyretic activity; antimutagenicity and effect on CD4+ cell count (HIV/AIDS) were also reported [11] . Moreover, the safety of bitter leaf had been established through sole administration as well as administration in the presence of toxicants [12] , [13] , [14] .

It is well established that crude petroleum and its fractions exposure has been severally implicated in their ability to alter the functionality of the kidney via the mechanistic increase in the concentrations of serum electrolytes, urea and creatinine and alteration in oxidative stress status [1] , [15] , [16] . At the time of this investigation however, there was no documented evidence on the use of bitter leaf to prevent the renal damage induced by crude petroleum contaminated diets. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of bitter leaf ( Vernonia amygdalina ) methanolic extract in prevention of renal toxicity induced by crude petroleum contaminated diet.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. materials.

Matured bitter leaf ( Vernonia amygdalina Del ) was harvested from a farm at Abraka, Nigeria and was identified by Dr. Erhenhi A.H of Department of Botany, Delta state University, Abraka, Nigeria. The credentials of the leaf were corroborated at the Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Jericho Hill, Ibadan, Nigeria, where a specimen with the voucher number, F101863 was deposited at the herbarium. Thirty six male albino rats ( Rattus norvegicus ) were obtained from the animal house of the Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences; Delta State University, Nigeria. The rats were housed in a wooden cage and left to acclimatize for one week and were fed with grower’s mash throughout the acclimatization period. The grower’s mash used is a product of Rainbow Feed Limited and the composition as declared by the manufacturer is depicted in Table 1 . All other reagents used for biochemical assay were of analytical grades.

Nutritional composition of growers mash used.

Crude protein	18.00%
Fats/oil	6.00%
Crude fibre	5.00%
Calcium	1.00%
Available phosphorus	0.04%
Lysine	1.85%
Methione	0.35%
Salt (min)	0.30%
M. Energy (min)	3000 kcal/kg
Net Weight	25 kg

Source : Rainbow feed manufacturer’s label.

2.2. Experimental design and treatment

After the period of acclimatization the rats were weighed and an average weight of 150 g–182 g was obtained. This followed the distribution of the animals randomly into six groups of six rats each and fed with growers feed for a period of 30 days according to the following description.

Group A = Feed
Group B = Feed + 100 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME
Group C = Feed + 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME
Group D = Feed (100 g Feed + 4 mL crude petroleum)
Group E = Feed (100 g Feed + 4 mL crude petroleum) + 100 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME
Group F = Feed (100 g Feed + 4 mL crude petroleum) + 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME

2.3. Preparation of bitter leaves extract

The bitter leaves were washed and air dried at an open space within the laboratory confinement of the Department of Biochemistry, Delta State University, Abraka at room temperature for one week. At the end of the drying period, the bitter leaf was chopped off and macerated using a warren blender to a smooth dry powder and the extract of the bitter leaf obtained using methanol extraction technique as previously described by Okpoghono et al. [10] . One hundred (100 g) of the powdered leaf was dissolved in 400 mL of methanol through sonication for 10 min, then filtered with Whatman No.1 using vacuum pump. The extract was then concentrated using rotary evaporator at 40–50 °C under reduced pressure to obtain the bitter leaf methanol extract (BLME). The extract was stored at −8°C until required.

2.4. Administration of bitter leaves extract

The bitter leaf extract used for administration was freshly prepared at the point of administration by dissolving 20 g of the extract in 100 mL of distilled water to obtain 200 mg mL −1 out of which aliquots of the freshly dissolved extract was administered by gavage according to the rats body weight once daily. Rats in group A had no bitter leaf extract treatment. Rats in group B and C were fed with normal diet as those in group A, but were simultaneously treated with 100 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME and 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME; respectively. While rats in group D had crude petroleum contaminated diet without any treatment, whereas rats in groups E and F were fed with crude petroleum contaminated diet along with 100 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME and 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME mg of bitter leaf extract. All the treatments lasted for 30 days to allow for chronic exposure. These doses had been established to be clinically tolerable by experimental rats [12] .The rats in groups A and D were not administered the extracts while all animals were allowed free access to water. National research council guide for the care and use of laboratory animals was adhered to during the experiment [17] .

2.5. Sample collection

At the end of the treatment period of 30 days, the animals were sacrificed by cervical decapitation on the 31st day after an overnight fast. Blood samples were collected immediately by cardiac puncture into sterile plain tubes and labeled. The blood samples collected were spurn using centrifuge at 3200 g for 15 min and the serum collected for various biochemical assays. The kidneys also were harvested into labeled containers under cold conditions. Kidney wet tissue measuring 0.5 g was homogenized in 9.0 mL of normal saline using pre-chilled mortar and pestle and the supernatant obtained was stored in the refrigerator and used for biochemical analysis following standard procedures within 48 h.

2.6. Biochemical analysis

Determination of serum kidney function profiles were done using commercial Teco diagnostic kits for potassium ion, sodium ion, calcium ion, chloride ion, bicarbonate ion and creatinine (Cr) while Randox diagnostic kit was used for the determination of urea. The following standard methods were employed for the assay of biochemical indices. Lipid peroxidation (MDA) was determined according to the method of Gutteridge and Wilkins [18] , in a reaction based on the reaction of malondialdehyde (MDA) with thiobabituric acid (TBA) to form a MDA – TBA adduct that absorbs light strongly at 532 nm. Aldehyde oxidase activity was determined by the method of Johns [19] in a reaction based on the oxidation of benzaldehyde to benzoate using 2,6-dichloroindolephenol (DCIP) as the electron acceptor. The activity of the enzyme is given in units per gramme tissue and one unit is the amount of enzyme that produces one micromole of benzoate per minute. Sulphite oxidase activity was determined by the method of Macleod et al. [20] based on the oxidation of sulphite to sulphate by the enzyme using ferricyanide as electron acceptor. The activity of the enzyme was expressed in units per gramme tissue and one unit represents the amount of the enzyme that reduces one micromole of ferricyanide per minute. Monoamine oxidase activity was determined by the method of McEwen [21] based on the oxidative deamination of benzylamine to benzaldehyde. The activity of the enzyme is expressed in units per gramme tissue and one unit of the enzyme is defined as the amount of enzyme that is required for the production of one micromole of benzaldehyde per minute. The activity of xanthine oxidase was determined by the method of Stirpe and Della Corte [22] using xanthine as the substrate and oxygen as electron acceptor. The enzyme activity was expressed as units per gramme tissue where each unit is the amount of the enzyme that produces one micromole of uric acid. Ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay was based on the formation of an intense blue colour complex formed when ferric tripyridyltriazine complex is reduced to the ferrous form giving a chromophore that absorbs maximally at 540 nm [23] .The method of Ellman [24] was used for the assay of reduced glutathione while assay for vitamin C employed the method reported by Achuba [25] based on the use of 2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol (DCIP) and iodine as a titrant. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was determined based on its ability to inhibit the oxidation of epinephrine by superoxide anion. One unit of superoxide dismutase activity is calculated as the amount of enzyme required for 50% inhibition of the oxidation of epinephrine to adrenochrome at 480 nm per min [26] . Catalase activity was determined by the method of Rani et al. [27] based on the fact that catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide to give oxygen that oxidizes potassium dichromate and the activity was expressed in terms of moles of H 2 O 2 consumed/min. The oxidation of chromate gives a chromophore that absorbs maximally at 610 nm. Glutathione-s-transferase activity was assayed spectrophotometrically at 340 nm by measuring the rate of l-chloro-2, 4-dinitrobenzene conjugation with reduced glutathione as a function of time according to the established method of Habig [28] . The activity of glutathione peroxidase was determined based on the reduction of hydrogen peroxide to the corresponding stable alcohol and water using glutathione as the reducing reagent. The activity was expressed in terms of μ mol of glutathione utilized/minute/mg protein [29] .

2.7. Histological examination

A known portion of the kidney, of each rat was harvested and fixed in 10% formol saline for 48 h and processed for paraffin wax embedding with an automatic tissue processor by dehydrating through 70%, 90%, 95% and two changes of absolute ethanol for 90 min each. Clearing was achieved through two changes of xylene for 2 h each; and infiltrating with two changes of paraffin wax for 2 h. Sections were cut at 5 μm with a rotary microtome. The sections were stained by haematoxylin and eosin (H and E) using the method of Al-Attar et al. [30] , examined and photographed using a light microscope.

2.8. Statistical analysis

Analysis of data was carried out using the single Factor analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with the aid of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 17 (SPSS 17). Post hoc analysis (comparisons across Groups) was done using Bonferroni at P  < 0.05 level of significance.

As shown in ( Table 2 ), results showed that treatment of rats with100 mg kg −1 and 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME caused a significant ( P  < 0.05) reduction in serum creatinine and compared to normal control rats in group A and rats fed crude petroleum contaminated diets without treatment (group D). Rats fed with crude petroleum contaminated diets and treated with 100 mg kg −1 and 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME in groups E and F showed significant decrease in creatinine concentration compared to rats maintained on crude petroleum contaminated diet without any treatment (group D). However, administration of BLME did not significantly ( P  < 0.05) alter urea, sodium ion, potassium ion, calcium ion. chloride ion and bicarbonate ion levels in rats fed with crude petroleum contaminated diet without BLME treatment (group D).

Effect of bitter leaf extract on serum markers of kidney function of rats fed crude petroleum contaminated diet.

Groups	Creatinine (mg/dL)	Urea (mg/dL)	Na (mEq/L)	K (mEq/L)	Ca (mEq/L)	Cl (mEq/L)	HCO (nmolEq/L)
A	2.37 ± 0.14	18.79 ± 0.33	85.07 ± 0.72	5.07 ± 0.04	5.86 ± 0.29	11.57 ± 0.27	1.83 ± 0.41
B	1.40 ± 0.04	15.04 ± 0.42	78.50 ± 0.86	3.39 ± 0.22	7.49 ± 0.22	9.65 ± 0.37	1.72 ± 0.78
C	1.03 ± 0.11	13.51 ± 0.26	75.06 ± 2.20	2.84 ± 0.09	7.80 ± 0.68	7.67 ± 2.21	1.68 ± 0.16
D	4.27 ± 0.15	25.25 ± 0.85	110.97 ± 2.30	7.62 ± 0.86	8.15 ± 0.37	6.25 ± 0.18	3.24 ± 0.04
E	3.31 ± 0.29	28.23 ± 1.10	86.53 ± 31.96	7.02 ± 0.07	7.6.01 ± 0.37	6.37 ± 0.29	2.46 ± 0.07
F	3.41 ± 0.25	31.10 ± 1.50	91.48 ± 6.31	6.78 ± 0.17	7.61 ± 0.73	5.94 ± 0.26	2.32 ± 0.11

Values are expressed as Mean ± SEM. Values followed by different alphabet superscript in the same row indicates a significant difference.

The administration of BLME to rats fed with crude petroleum contaminated diet did not reduce lipid peroxidation in the kidney of rats ( Table 3 ). However, BLME administration enhanced the activities of the oxidase enzymes (AO, SO MO and XO) significantly ( P  < 0.05) across all groups compared to rats in control group (group A) and rats fed with crude petroleum treated diet only (group D).

Effect of bitter Leaf extract on lipid peroxidation and oxidative enzyme profile of rats fed crude petroleum contaminated diet.

Groups	MDA	AO Units g tissue	SO Units g tissue	MO Units g tissue	XO Units g tissue
A	40.94 ± 0.29	23.50 ± 1.04	257.00 ± 2.04	56.00 ± 0.82	53.75 ± 0.85
B	46.07 ± 0.24	28.75 ± 1.11	268.00 ± 1.83	62.50 ± 1.55	57.25 ± 1.11
C	47.18 ± 0.74	33.25 ± 1.11	275.00 ± 1.08	65.50 ± 0.65	61.00 ± 1.08
D	47.04 ± 0.76	36.50 ± 0.65	280.75 ± 0.85	70.50 ± 1.04	65.75 ± 0.85
E	45.84 ± 0.32	40.75 ± 1.11	285.75 ± 0.85	76.25 ± 0.85	74.00 ± 2.16
F	48.11 ± 0.21	45.50 ± 0.65	290.75 ± 0.85	81.00 ± 1.29	80.50 ± 1.19

Values are expressed as Mean ± SEM. Values followed by different alphabet superscript in the same column indicates a significant difference.

Treatment of rats with various doses of BLME did not alter the level of glutathione but significantly improved the levels of the other non-enzymatic antioxidants in the kidney of rats fed crude petroleum contaminated diet ( Table 4 ). The ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and vitamin C in rats fed contaminated diets and treated with 100 mg kg −1 and 200 mg kg −1 (groups E and F) were significantly ( P  < 0.05) higher compared to the untreated rats (group D). The increase in the levels of these antioxidants was more pronounced at 200 mg kg −1 body weight treatment.

Effect of bitter leaf extract on levels of non-enzymatic antioxidant profile in the kidney of rats fed crude petroleum contaminated diet.

	FRAP mmol/100 mL FeSO	GSH µmol mg	Vitamin C µmolmg
A	1.78 ± 0.04	0.23 ± 0.03	4.56 ± 0.33
B	1.74 ± 0.05	0.28 ± 0.03	5.58 ± 0.19
C	1.70 ± 0.05	0.30 ± 0.03	6.20 ± 0.11
D	2.01 ± 0.04	0.15 ± 0.00	2.05 ± 0.53
E	2.04 ± 0.03	0.16 ± 0.00	2.60 ± 0.22
F	2.99 ± 0.05	0.16 ± 0.01	3.83 ± 0.10

Results presented in Table 5 shows the consequence of BLME treatment on the activities of the enzymatic antioxidants: SOD, CAT, GSTs and GPx in rats fed with crude petroleum adulterated diet. The inclusion of crude petroleum in diet caused significant ( P  < 0.05) reductions in the activities of the enzymes in rats fed with adulterated diet without BLME treatment (group D) compared to the activity in control rats (group A) that were given untainted diets. However, treatment with 100 mg kg −1 and 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME (groups E and F) improved the activities of the enzymes compared to the activities in normal control (group A). Moreover, administration of 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME enhanced the enzyme activities more than 100 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME

Effects of bitter leaf on enzymatic antioxidant profile in the kidney of rat fed crude petroleum contaminated diet.

Groups	SOD unitsg tissue	CAT g tissue	GSTs µmol mg protein	GPx µmol mg protein
A	6.47 ± 0.22	161.05 ± 0.52	366.25 ± 15.14	0.35 ± 0.04
B	6.06 ± 0.16	170.11 ± 6.51	391.50 ± 10.56	0.34 ± 0.01
C	6.14 ± 0.23	168.82 ± 2.02	433.00 ± 11.45	0.34 ± 0.05
D	4.21 ± 0.11	138.23 ± 0.53	325.50 ± 13.74	0.23 ± 0.03
E	5.19 ± 0.55	144.16 ± 0.50	336.75 ± 7.19	0.53 ± 0.03
F	6.19 ± 0.17	160.74 ± 1.08	349.75 ± 6.55	0.59 ± 0.03

Values are expressed as Mean ± SEM, Values followed by different alphabet superscript in the same column indicates a significant difference.

The preventive attributes of BLME on the histopathological impact of crude petroleum contaminated diets in the kidney of rats are presented in Fig. 1 . There were very clear and visible glomeruli renal tubules and renal arteries in all groups. However, there were observed significantly visible distortions of kidney architecture signaled by early stage of tissue necrosis and inflammation in the kidney of rats in group C which were fed uncontaminated diets but treated with 200 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME. Also rats fed contaminated diets without treatment showed more visible stages of tissue necrosis and blood coagulations while rats in group E had slight visible signs of necrosis, the rats in group F were observed to have a normal kidney without necrosis indicating possible prevention of the necrosis observed in other groups.

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Effect of Bitter Leaf methanol extracts (BLME) on prevention of renal toxicity induced bycrude petroleum contaminated diets (Haematoxylin and eosin X 100).

4. Discussion

The deleterious effects of crude petroleum to the kidney had been well elucidated by earlier studies [8] , [13] . Likewise, the distortion of metabolic stability through the consumption of petroleum tainted diets has been reported by Okpoghono et al. [10] .This study reports similar dysfunction of the kidney owing to intake of crude petroleum tainted diets evidenced by rising serum creatinine and urea in rats not treated with any dose of the BLME but fed crude petroleum tainted diets ( Table 2 ). Rising serum creatinine and urea is an established indicator of poor glomerular filtration and has been established as a significant clinical marker for kidney dysfunction and loss of kidney integrity [8] , [31] . The present study, although observed no significant rise in serum sodium ion concentrations, there were significant increases in both serum potassium ion concentration and calcium ion concentration owing to consumption of petroleum tainted diets ( Table 2 ). These results are in agreement with the studies of Orisakwe et al. [15] and Uboh et al. [16] . The observed high levels of calcium and potassium ions have been reported to be linked with the disruption of certain ion pumps and transmembrane ATPases owing to increased lyses within the kidney and the liver [32] , [33] . The study also observed a reduction of chloride ion concentration in rats owing to crude petroleum contamination of the diets relative to the control was not in agreement with those reported in the study of Ita and Edagha [34] which reported increased serum chloride ions due to oral consumption of crude petroleum. Although the treatment of rats fed tainted diets indicated observed reduction in the serum calcium, potassium and chloride ion concentration relative to those not treated, it is indicative that the BLME extract had some level of efficacy in balancing the observed distortion in electrolyte derangement.

A significant observation of this study was the ability of the BLME at both doses to reduced serum electrolyte concentrations (Na +, K + , Ca + and HCO 3 − ) relative to the normal control which implies that the BLME may have the capability of improving glomerular filtration even in the absence of toxicants ( Table 2 ). This observation, however is not in agreement with studies done with other plant extracts such as Aframomum sceptrum and Aframomum malagueta which showed elevation of serum and renal electrolytes (Na +, K + and HCO 3 − ) relative to control [31] , [35] . The renal improvement potential possessed by the BLME in the absence of any toxicant and in the presence of the toxicological effects of crude petroleum tainted diets may have been conferred on the BLME due to its high antioxidant defence capacities as reported by Ijeh and Ejike [11] . They are said to have a rich potential for antioxidants such as flavonoids, alkaloids and polyphenols.

Tissue lipid peroxidation has been identified as one significant marker of oxidative stress status of any organism that has been associated with the deleterious effects of petroleum contamination in plants and animals [36] , [37] . The process of lipid peroxidation, often times preceded by disruption of the natural antioxidant defence, which in several cases are signalled by the depletion of both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants [38] . Increase in lipid peroxidation is closely linked with the induction of cytosolic enzymes such as the oxidases (sulphite, aldehyde, xanthine and monoamine) needed for the clearance of increasing sulfoxides, N-oxides, and aromatic nitro compounds and 1,2-benzisoxazole derivatives; that are associated with environmental toxicants [39] . In this study, the administration of BLME to rats fed with crude petroleum tainted diet gave rise to increased lipid peroxidation and the concomitant increase in the activities of oxidative enzymes: sulphite oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, monoamine oxidase and xanthine oxidase relative to control ( Table 3 ). More so, reduction in lipid peroxidation at a dose of 100 mg kg −1 body weight of BLME and concomitant increase in the activities of oxidative enzymes across the two doses ( Table 3 ) were observed. This may be due to the preventive effects of BLME against crude petroleum nephrotoxicity. Although the administration of BLME at the 200 mg kg −1 dosage to rats fed tainted diet indicated increased MDA level relative to rats not treated with BLME, this may be indicative of the negative effects of high dose of plant extracts which was submitted by Ogbeke et al. [31] that when plant extracts are administered in the right dose it will remain effective in conferring protection to tissues in situations of metabolic stress but when administered in the wrong dosage however, it ends up in the continued induction of metabolic stress. The positive effects of BLME observed at the 100 mg Kg −1 body weight on petroleum tainted diets are similar to those conferred on petroleum induced nephropathy in the study of Achuba and Ogwumu [7] . The BLME which is said to be a rich source of catechin and several polyphenols and essential mineral elements and remains significant in the enhancement of vascular nitric oxides (NO) activity which is significant for the mechanistic control of oxidative stress and several signal transduction pathways [40] .

As regards antioxidant defence, this study indicated a significant ( P  < 0.05) increase in FRAP in rats fed with crude petroleum tainted diets and treated with BLME ( Table 4 ). Also, significant ( P  < 0.05) depletion in GSH relative to normal control and rats not exposed to tainted diets but treated with BLME was also observed ( Table 3 ). Increased FRAP level is a significant indicator of an improved antioxidant capacity and the presence of elements that have the ability to neutralize the negative effects of increasing peroxyl and alkoxyl radicals which constitute significant reducing agents and oxygen quenchers [41] . GSH on the other hand is an important antioxidant in the scavenging of the reactive oxygen species and peroxides [42] , [43] . Reduced glutathione (GSH) was significantly depleted in the tissues of rats exposed to crude petroleum tainted diets relative to control but increased relative to the rats fed tainted diets without treatment. This observed trend is in agreement with those reported by Azeez et al. [1] , Alisi et al. [44] and Odewabi et al. [45] who used animal models as well as gasoline station attendants exposed to petroleum fumes in their studies. An insight to the justification of increased GSH levels in treated rats relative to untreated rats has been earlier reported in the study of Huang et al. [46] who stated that there is an increase in the levels of tissue glutathione during early stages of tissue regeneration. It is important to note that matured bitter leaf has been reported to have a level of glutamic acid, one of the amino acids essential for the synthesis of glutathione [47] , [48] . GSH has also been identified as a significant factor in the maintenance of the concentrations of exogenous antioxidants such as vitamins C and E in their reduced (active) forms. This may be a justification for the observed increase in the concentrations of vitamin C in the kidney of rats fed tainted diets and treated with BLME relative to those not treated after been exposed to tainted diets

The results of the enzymatic antioxidants indicated a significant reduction in the activities of SOD, CAT, GSTs and GPx in untreated rats relative to control, however, the eventual enhancement of these enzymes’ activities by BLME in the tissues of rats exposed to petroleum tainted diets and untainted diets relative to the untreated rats gives credence to the antioxidative properties possessed by the bitter leaf ( Table 5 ) and its capabilities to enhance the enzymatic antioxidant defence mechanistic activities as reported by Iwalokun et al. [49] . Also this study recorded the ability of BLME to confer protection on the kidney ultra-structure due to the negative effects of petroleum tainted diets. The consumption of petroleum tainted diets has been previously reported to induce tissue injury by Achuba and Ogwumu [7] ; and Okpoghono et al. [10] . In line with their studies which utilized palm oil and Monodora myristica , the administration of BLME was able to enhance the gradual healing and clearance of the observed tissue necrosis and inflammation in the kidney. This observation is also given credence by the wound healing properties of BLME earlier reported by Kambizi and Afolayin [50] . As presented by the histopathological examination ( Fig. 1 ), rats treated with both doses of BLME were observed to show visible regeneration and clearance of the observed tissue necrosis in rats not treated with BLME

5. Conclusions

This study indicated that the consumption of crude petroleum contaminated diets induced kidney damage and consequent malfunction. However, the administration of bitter leaf extract offered defence against the induced negative effects of crude petroleum and ameliorated and restored the lost renal function capabilities by conferring protection on tissue ultra-structure.

Competing interests

There is no competing interest to declare

Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University.

RSIS International

Evaluation of Nutritional and Phytochemical Compositions of Two bitter Leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) Accessions in Nigeria

January 9, 2022
Posted by: RSIS
Categories: Agriculture, IJRIAS

International Journal of Research and Innovation in Applied Science (IJRIAS) | Volume VI, Issue XII, December 2021 | ISSN 2454–6194

Okolie, Henry, Ndukwe, Okorie, Obidiebube, Eucharia, Obasi, Chiamaka, Enwerem, Juliet Department of Crop Science and Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Nigeria

Abstract: A comparative analysis was done at the Food Profiling Biotechnology Laboratory, National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) Umudike, Umuahia to investigate the proximate, minerals, vitamins and phytochemical compositions of Upland and Riverine accessions of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina). Riverine accession contained more Ash (9.45mg/100g) while Upland accession contained more crude fiber (4.17%),fat (2.44%),carbohydrate(40.54mg/100mg)and energy value (288k/cal).The presence of more ash in Riverine bitter leaf is a confirmation of the presence of more mineral elements. sodium (180.36mg/100g), magnesium(162.54mg/100g), phosphorus(27.8mg/100g), potassium(949.35mg/100mg), iron(1.13 mg/100g) and zinc (0.48 mg/100g). This makes it a very good source of minerals especially as it can be taken raw. The results showed that Riverine accession contained more Vitamin B1 (0.16 mg/100g) and Vitamin E (0.32 mg/100g). While the upland accession contained more of Vitamin B2 (0.22 mg/100g) and VitaminB3 (0.15 mg/100mg). Upland accession contained more Tannins (0.75%), Phytate (124.13 mg/100g), Steriods (0.002%) and Oxalate (1.48 mg/100g),Cyanogenic glycosides (44.77 mg/100g), Anthraquinone (0.06%) than Riverine Upland accession which contained more Saponin (0.21%). Total Phenols, Flavonoids and Alkaloids were not different. Correlation analysis between phytochemical and proximate components showed that the phytochemical components correlated positively at 0.01 level of significance among themselves and with the proximate components except for saponin, anthraquinone and steroids.

Keywords: Vernonia amygdalina; Phytochemicals; Proximate, accession, correlation.

I. INTRODUCTION

Vernonia amygdalina is a perennial shrub from Asteraceae family and also commonly called ‘Bitter Leaf’ because of the bitter taste of its leaves. Not only called bitter leaf, this plant also has a lot of other local names in different languages of the different regions of the Nigeria such as; ‘Ewuro’ in Yoruba, ‘Etidot’ in Ibibio, ‘Onugbu’ in Igbo, ‘Ityuna’ in Tiv, ‘Ilo’ in Igala, ‘Oriwo’ in Edo, ‘Chusar-doki’ in Hausa. It is the most cultivated and prominent species of the genus Vernonia that is made up of about 1,000 species of shrub [Toyang and Verpoorte, 2013; Egharevba et al., 2014]. The leaves are green in coloration with a characteristic odor and bitter taste [Akpaso et. al., 2011].

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planted. The leaves are petiolated in shape with a bitter taste of which its name "Bitter leaf" spring up. V. amygdalina are being called different local names which vary from country to country (Table 1). The bitter taste had been associated with the presence of saponins, alkaloids, tannins, and glycosides. These made them act as a ...
Significance of Bitter Leaf (Vernonia Amagdalina) In Tropical Diseases
This review examines, discusses and summarizes the current evidence of ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and biological activities as well as toxicity of this species with a view to identifying its therapeutic relations and possible contradictions, inconsistencies and gaps that may have arisen in the research literature. Vernonia amygdalina Delile (VA), family Asteraceae or Compositae is ...
Proximate analysis, mineral composition, and antioxidant properties of
ABSTRACT. Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina Del.) and Scent leaf (Occimum gratissimum L.) are vegetables with medicinal properties, commonly grown in West Africa, but only sparsely consumed because of the bitter taste of Bitter leaf and availability of substitutes for Scent leaf.These two vegetables are considered underutilized, but may have utility in over the counter remedies or as food ...
Frontiers
1 Introduction. Vernonia amygdalina (VA) is a perennial shrub or small tree in the genus Vernonia of the Asteraceae family (Ijeh and Ejike, 2011).When completely grown, it can reach a height of roughly 23 feet. It has flaky, rough bark colored gray or brown (Echem and Kabari, 2013).The leaves are medium to dark green, oblong-lanceolate, usually measuring 10-15 cm in length and 4-5 cm in width.
PDF A comprehensive review on phytochemistry and ...
A comprehensive review on phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of Vernonia amygdalina Divneet Kaur, Navpreet Kaur and Anuja Chopra Abstract Vernonia amygdalina Delile is a small tree with brittle branches, up to 10 m tall and commonly called as bitter leaf due to its bitter taste.
PDF Biochemical Studies of the Ameliorating Effects of Bitter Leaf and
Literature Review: Vernonia amygdalina: Bitter Leaf Vernonia is a genus of about 1000 species of forbs and shrubs in the family Asteraceae. Some of its species are known as ironweed while some are edible and of immense economic value. They are known for having intense purple flowers and the genus was named after the English botanist William Vernon.
Glycemic indices and effect of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina
The potential inherent in bitter leaf in the management of type 2 diabetes can thus be made available through a far-reaching beverage medium such as non-alcoholic beer to help in the treatment/management of T2D. The results of this research could be an eye-opener to the possible utilization of bitter leaf and by extension other plants that have ...
(PDF) Vernonia amygdalina Del: A Mini Review
Vernonia amygdalina Del (Asteraceae) is a perennial shr ub that is. widely distributed in tropical par ts of Africa. It is popularly k nown as bitter leaf and co nsumed as a vegetable. and for ...
PDF Significance of Bitter Leaf (Vernonia Amagdalina) In Tropical Diseases
The aqueous and alcoholic crude extracts of the leaves, bark, stem and roots are reported to be widely used as antimalarial, for the treatment of eczema and as a purgative [18-20]. The roots and the leaves of VA are used in traditional medicine to treat fever, stomach discomfort, hiccups and kidney problems [21]. It is known as quinine.
Full article: Role of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) extract in
At the end of the drying period, the bitter leaf was chopped off and macerated using a warren blender to a smooth dry powder and the extract of the bitter leaf obtained using methanol extraction technique as previously described by Okpoghono et al. [Citation 10]. One hundred (100 g) of the powdered leaf was dissolved in 400 mL of methanol ...
Role of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) extract in prevention of
At the end of the drying period, the bitter leaf was chopped off and macerated using a warren blender to a smooth dry powder and the extract of the bitter leaf obtained using methanol extraction technique as previously described by Okpoghono et al. . One hundred (100 g) of the powdered leaf was dissolved in 400 mL of methanol through sonication ...
PDF Phytochemical Screening and Antibacterial Activity of Bitter Leaf
itative phytochemical screening of V. amygdalina leaf extract is presented in Table 1. The result of qualitative phytochemical screening indicate. the presence of Alkaloid, terpenoid, flavonoids, steroid, phenol, saponin and tannin. Quantitatively, flavonoid was found to be the abundant constituent in V. amygdalina leaf making about 12.2.
PDF Performance of Broiler Chickens Fed Bitter Leaf and Moringa Leaf Meal
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 5 2.1 Addressing the Problem of High Feed Cost 5 2.2 Bitter Leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) 6 2.3 Moringa ... Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) is a valuable plant with antimicrobial activity that is widespread in East and West Africa (Burkill, 1985). In Nigeria, it is a staple vegetable leaf used to prepare soup
Evaluation of Nutritional and Phytochemical Compositions of Two bitter
Abstract: A comparative analysis was done at the Food Profiling Biotechnology Laboratory, National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) Umudike, Umuahia to investigate the proximate, minerals, vitamins and phytochemical compositions of Upland and Riverine accessions of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina).
(Pdf) Effect of Vernonia Amygdalina (Bitter Leaf) Extract on Growth
Bitter leaf as a feed additive in the drinking water of piglets caused a significant (P<0.05) reduction in the faecal microbial load for piglets given 1.2g and 2.4g of VA per 1000ml of drinking water.
Bitter leaf : Okereke, Chioma : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming
Item Size. 682297527. 407 pages ; 22 cm. Bitter Leaf is a richly textured and intricate novel set in Mannobe, a world that is African in nature but never geographically placed. At the heart of the novel is the village itself and its colourful cast of inhabitants: Babylon, a gifted musician who falls under the spell of the beautiful Jericho who ...

Significance of Bitter Leaf (Vernonia Amagdalina) In Tropical Diseases and Beyond: A Review

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Significance of Bitter Leaf (Vernonia Amagdalina) In Tropical Diseases and Beyond: A Review

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REVIEW article

1 Introduction

2 Methodology

3 The dietary composition and importance of Vernonia amygdalina

3.1 Effect of different processing methods on nutritional composition of bitter leaf

4 Ethnomedicinal uses

5 Phytochemical constituents

5.2 Compounds isolated from Vernonia amygdalina

6 Biological activity of isolated compounds

7 General discussion

8 Conclusion

8.1 Limitations

8.2 Future perspectives

Author contributions

Conflict of interest

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Glycemic indices and effect of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) flavored non-alcoholic wheat beer (NAWB) on key carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes in high fat diet fed (HFD)/STZ-induced diabetic Wistar rats

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Role of bitter leaf ( Vernonia amygdalina ) extract in prevention of renal toxicity induced by crude petroleum contaminated diets in rats

1. Introduction

2. Materials and methods

2.2. Experimental design and treatment

2.3. Preparation of bitter leaves extract

2.4. Administration of bitter leaves extract

2.5. Sample collection

2.6. Biochemical analysis

2.7. Histological examination

2.8. Statistical analysis

4. Discussion

5. Conclusions

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