research study about fare hike

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Abstract : The effects of THE EEFEECTS OF INCREASING FARE OF TRANSPORTATION TO SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS (2018-2019)

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Ejay Gumanas

This study seeks to investigate the level of social security satisfaction of Grade 12 beneficiaries towards Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4P's). The researchers employed descriptive; cross-sectional research design and utilized a 22-item self-made questionnaire to measure the level of satisfaction with the use of 5-point Likert Scale, 1 as strongly disagree and 5 as strongly agree. The reliability of the questionnaire was evaluated with the use of Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The calculated alpha coefficient through SPSS software for the questionnaire was 0.981, which is an acceptable reliability. A total sample size of one hundred forty-one respondents were randomly chosen for the study. Mean was used to determine the level of satisfaction of the respondents towards 4P's and Paired t-test was utilized to find out the significant difference between two independent variables. Majority of the respondents were female rather than males and are aged 17-18 years old. Most of the respondents had siblings 4 and above. Furthermore, the study found out that the beneficiaries are satisfied with the cash grant provided by the 4P's and it fulfills their needs in terms of financial and educational. It is recommended for the 4P's students to maintain their spending lifestyle while it is advised for parents and school administration to consider the 4P's students given allowance. Observing different factors that may affect their spending lifestyle and satisfaction is also suggested.

Financial Literacy of Senior High School Students in Bacolod City

Angela Somcio

The research entitled LEVEL OF FINANCIAL LITERACY OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS FROM PRIVATE SCHOOLS OF BACOLOD CITY has the purpose to determine the level of financial literacy of senior high school students from different private schools of Bacolod City. The researchers made use of the descriptive-analytical scheme and the comparative correlational scheme to determine the objectives of the study. The study dwells on the areas spending habits, saving habits and financial knowledge in order to determine the overall financial knowledge. It uses the sex, grade level, district and family monthly income as variables. The researchers gathered data through thorough research and survey by form of a questionnaires. A total of 140 out of 9636 students from different private schools of Bacolod City were surveyed for this study. The findings of the study include concluding of having no significant difference in the level of financial literacy when participants are grouped according to grade level, district and family monthly income. But there is a significant difference in the level of financial literacy when grouped according to sex. Further results show that there are existing relationships between spending habits, saving habits and financial knowledge amongst each other. The general recommendation for this study was to educate regarding this matter the students may it be at home or in school. Specifically, schools organize seminars, parents are suggested to be examples and to teach their kids financial management at a young age and the local governments may include financial management as part of the current education system.

Mark Jay Lisay

There are no currently abstract for the research paper is not yet finished. Expect some error.

Cheneth Roque

International Journal of Advanced Research (IJAR)

IJAR Indexing

This qualitative study aimed to better understand the needs and challenges faced by SeniorHighSchool(SHS) Accountancy, Business, and Management(ABM) students in their journey of learning real life business problems. It utilizeda case study method in which the unit of analysis is the SHS Grade 11 and 12 ABM students of Simala National High School, a secondary public school in Cebu, Philippines. Analysis of transcribed interviews and observations from 20 key informants revealed the findings encapsulated in the following themes: a) ?Clamor for Work Immersion? which explains the need to expose the learners to hands on real world business activities; b) ?Demand for Learning Resources and Facilities? which entails the need for adequate print and non-print learner?s material, computers, and unlimited internet access; c) ?Request for Skilled and Experienced Teachers? which relates the need to hire teachers who are business graduates or have firsthand business experience; d) ?Time runs fast? which reveals the challenge of allocating enough time in all their projects particularly those involving data gathering outside school; and e) ?Funds empty fast? which shows the challenge of budgeting their allowances to be sufficient for their school requirement expenses. The school administration and teachers shall then address the needs through enhancing the work immersion plan, intensifying the school improvement plan, and hiring of qualified teachers. To cope with the challenges, the students need to develop time management skills and properly set priorities on where to allocate their available finances.

Ivan Vince Longa

Frederick Edward Fabella

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to examine the lived experiences of former Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps) student-beneficiaries. The theories guiding this study were Human Capital Theory (1990), Social Capital Theory (1988), and The Concept of Experience by Dewey (1934). The study followed the theory and methods of the phenomenological research model proposed by Giorgi (2009) that allowed informants to provide personal perspectives and reflections on their experiences. The following three research questions guided the study: 1)What are the students’ distinct experiences as former beneficiaries of 4Ps? 2) How would the students describe their lives and values as 4Ps former beneficiaries?and 3) How are these experiences of being a former 4Ps recipient reflected in the co-researchers lives today?Interviews conducted to gather perceptive data from co-researcherswere transcribed, examined, coded, and broken down into themes emerged throughout the research process. The themes identified based on the distinct experiences of students as former beneficiaries of 4Ps were Financial Distress, Psychological Distress, and Financial Security. Identified themes based on description of lives and values of participants as former 4Ps beneficiaries were Reduced 3 Poverty, Spiritual Growth, and Social Growth. Identified themes based on reflection on the lives of co-researchers from gained experience as a former 4Ps member were Improved Confidence, Motivation, and Improved Academic Performance. The findings of the study may help in improving the 4Ps program and the experiences that will be brought by the said program to the present and future beneficiaries.

Vilani Sachithra

Purpose-Undergraduates are expected to be future leaders responsible for business and nations. Given that sound financial decision-making is critical to their success in their careers and lives, it is important to understand the money-management behaviour of undergraduates. In the context of developing countries, the body of knowledge on money-management behaviour is dominated by functional financial literature and there is little research on factors beyond this. This study aims to fill this gap by exploring economic, social and psychological factors that influence money-management behaviour of undergraduates in a developing nation (Sri Lanka) and how undergraduates respond to these influences. Design/methodology/approach-The study used a qualitative exploratory approach. Data collection was carried out using focus group discussions and individual interviews amongst undergraduates in a leading Sri Lankan state university. Findings-The results indicate that undergraduates adopted both careful and risky money-management approaches. The subthemes, specifically identified under economic, social and psychological factors, revealed how undergraduates responded to each of these factors and the influence of contextual and cultural differences in their money-management behaviour. Research limitations/implications-Findings of the study revealed the importance of promoting innovative educational strategies to change the dependability mindset of undergraduates and to promote stress-management strategies that will assist them to enhance their personalities and creativity in making financial decisions. Theoretical and practical implications and future research directions are provided. Originality/value-The literature scores in developing context are limited to exploring the existing pattern and the levels of the functional financial literacy. This study has deepened the authors' understanding of how the developing context affects undergraduates' response to the factors relating to their money-management behaviour. The findings from this study will be useful to government, financial institutions, educational institutions, parents and those who have a keen interest in encouraging healthy money-management behaviour in undergraduates.

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FAST FACTS: Why the LRT1, LRT2, MRT are proposing fare hikes

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This is AI generated summarization, which may have errors. For context, always refer to the full article.

LRT. Commuters queue to board trains at the LRT-2 Masinag Station in Antipolo on February 1, 2023.

Jire Carreon/Rappler

MANILA, Philippines – Fare hike proposals for the Light Rail Transit Line 1 (LRT-1), Light Rail Transit Line 2 (LRT-2), and Metro Rail Transit Line 3 (MRT-3) were opposed by several commuter groups invited by the Department of Transportation (DOTr) to a public hearing on Friday, February 17. But why are the rail line operators asking for a fare hike in the first place?

The consensus among all three operators is that an increase in fares has been long overdue – even years prior to the pandemic – causing their deficits to balloon into the billions.

Proposed LRT fare hikes must get entire board approval – LRTA

Currently, the rail line operators use a standardized formula to determine a passenger’s total fare for a journey. To get the total fare, the distance between stations is first multiplied by a per-kilometer distance fare, which is then added to an initial boarding fare. Here’s the fare formula for passengers that use stored-value cards, or beep cards :

Total fare = boarding fare + (travel distance × distance fare)

The increase pitched by the rail operators is for both their initial boarding fare and distance fare, which means commuters will be paying more for all rides, regardless of the distance traveled. Jose Jobel Belarmino, who represented the Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA), defended the fare hike proposals, saying they were consistent with the government’s “users pay” policy.

“The National Transport Policy is very clear on this that the government agency, in structuring the fare, should see to it that the cost of the operation and maintenance, as well as depreciation, should also be recovered, even at a minimum. Hindi ho sa ginagawa namin ito na walang policy (We’re not making this without a policy). It is the policy of the national government, even during the past administration, to implement the principle of ‘users pay’ and then the principle of recovering the cost, at least at a minimum,” Belarmino said during the public hearing.

Here are the minimum and maximum stored value fares that you would have to pay, according to the proposed new fare matrix.

Let’s now run through their reasons behind the proposed fare hikes.

Position of LRT-1

The LRT-1 is operated by the Light Rail Manila Corporation (LRMC), a private consortium composed of subsidiaries of Metro Pacific Investments Corporation, Ayala Corporation, and Macquarie Infrastructure Holdings (Philippines). The LRT-1 used to be managed by the government through the LRTA and the then-Department of Transportation and Communication, before a concession agreement brought it to the private sector’s hands.

According to LRMC representative Jhimmy Santiago, its concession agreement allows for fares to be adjusted 10.25% every two years since August 1, 2016, but its applications for a fare increase in 2016, 2018, and 2020 were all not acted upon by the government.

“Under the concession agreement po, the initial boarding fare was supposed to be P12.13 and the initial distance fare should be at P1.10 per kilometer. Hindi naman ito nasunod (This wasn’t followed). When we took over the LRT-1 system, the boarding fare and the distance fare is P11 + P1. ‘Yun na po siya sa simula (That was the fare since the start) in 2015 until now, 2023,” Santiago said.

The LRMC’s latest application bumps up the initial boarding fare to P16.46 and the distance fare to P1.50 per kilometer.

According to Santiago, the lack of fare increases has allowed LRMC’s deficit to balloon to P1.46 billion, net of offset. Citing higher power rates and inflation, LRMC claimed that without any fare increase, its deficit could reach P5.7 billion by 2025.

“ Halos lahat ng modes of transportation, nabigyan na ng fare increase and subsidy. Ang LRT-1 po ay hindi. LRT-1 po sa ngayon ay pinakamurang mode of mass public transportation. Mas mura po kami kaysa sa jeep ,” said Santiago, adding that the LRT-1 also has the lowest rates compared to other mass rail transport systems in Asian countries.

(Nearly all the modes of transportation have been given a fare increase and subsidy. The LRT-1 wasn’t given any. The LRT-1 is now the cheapest mode of mass public transportation. We’re even cheaper than jeeps.)

Manila has world’s 5th worst public transport system – think tank

Position of LRT-2

The LRT-2 is operated by the LRTA, a government-owned and -controlled corporation under the Department of Transportation (DOTr).

Since the LRT-2 commenced operations in 2003, the LRTA said it had no movement in fares for 11 years until 2014. That places the current initial boarding fare at P11 and the distance fare at P1 per kilometer, the same as the LRT-1.

The LRTA is now proposing to increase the boarding fare to P13.29, and the distance fare to P1.21. The average passenger would have to pay about P4.50 more per trip, considering that the average trip is 8.51 kilometers in distance.

The LRTA said the fare increase would help it manage its P7.006 billion deficit and reduce the subsidies needed from the government. Currently, the government is subsidizing 51% of costs per passenger. With the fare adjustment, the LRTA said this subsidy would be brought down to 46%.

Roads, rail, infra, ayuda: Miscast budget, projects

Position of MRT-3

The MRT-3 is currently still operated by Metro Rail Transit Corporation (MRTC), a private consortium composed of seven companies. However, the MRTC’s 25-year build-lease-transfer agreement with the government is set to lapse in 2025. This has led the DOTr to consider offering the operations of the MRT-3 for bidding – an arrangement similar to what it did for the LRT-1.

For the MRTC, however, the more immediate issue is the lack of fare increases over the years. Among the three rail lines, only the MRT-3 has a history of fare reduction. In 2000, the fares of the MRT-3 were reduced from an initial P17 – P34 to just P9 – P15. The MRTC argues that its proposed fare hike would merely restore its fares to its previous level in 2000.

According to the MRTC, the proposed fare increase would help address its P7.86 billion deficit and reduce its dependence on government subsidies. Currently, the government shoulders 76.8% of the expenses, equivalent to a subsidy of P88.34 per passenger. With the fare adjustment, the per-passenger subsidy would drop to P79.06.

“Particularly for the DOTr-MRT, the approval of the fare adjustment will unburden the national government with P1-billion subsidy to the rail line that can be used to expand its social services and other priority projects that directly benefit the poor,” the DOTr-MRT said on its Facebook page.

“We could forego with the P1 billion annual subsidy for the national government to realign to other priority projects,” MRT-3 General Manager Federico Canar Jr. said.

LRT-MRT beep card operator denies profiteering from pricey online cards

What does the commuting public think?

Stakeholder groups remained unconvinced, questioning why government subsidies for fares need to be reduced in the first place.

“ Binibigyan kayo ng bilyon-bilyong subsidyo, at sa tingin naman namin, hindi sayang ang subsidy na ‘yan kapag napupunta po sa mga pasahero. At wala naman pong pahayag ang Kongreso, walang pahayag ang DOF, walang pahayag ang DBM, walang pahayag ang Malacañang na dapat magbawas ng subsidyo, so bakit pong pinangungunahan ng LRTA at MRT-3 ang pagbabawas ng subsidyo at pagpapasa ng fares doon sa mga commuters? Hindi po katanggap-tanggap. Hirap na po ‘yung tao, huwag na po natin pahirapan ,” said Bagong Alyansang Makabayan secretary general Renato Reyes Jr. during the public hearing.

(You’re being given billions upon billions of subsidies, and we think that these subsidies aren’t being wasted if they go to the passengers. And there’s no statement from the Congress, no statement from the DOF, no statement from the DBM, no statement from Malacañang to reduce subsidies, so why is the LRTA and MRT-3 pushing to cut subsidies and pass fares onto commuters? This is unacceptable. People are already struggling, so let’s not make it worse.)

Anakbayan spokesperson Jeann Miranda also claimed that most of the LRT-1, LRT-2, and MRT-3’s funds are not from the government, but from “corporate funds and net lending.” She added that government subsidies for fares could also lighten the burden on commuters as they resettle in a reopening economy.

“Anakbayan’s stand on this is that the fare hike should not be approved, and the government should put more subsidy–not less subsidy–for the transportation of the Filipino people,” she said.

Representatives from a youth group and a group of factory workers also echoed this sentiment, pointing out that students returning to in-person classes and workers subsisting on minimum wage would be the hardest hit by the fare increase.

Transport group PISTON, who has butted heads with the government over numerous transport issues , criticized the decision to raise train fares – especially now when passengers are trying to cope with “the worsening economic crisis.”

“ Ang pagtataas ng pamasahe sa mga tren at ang pag-phaseout sa mga traditional jeepneys ay kailanman hindi magiging solusyon sa lumalalang krisis sa transportasyon na pinalulubha pa na ng pagtaas ng implasyon at mababang kita ng mga Pilipino ,” said Mody Floranda, PISTON national president in a press release on Friday.

(The increase in fares for trains and the phasing out of traditional jeepneys will never be the solution to the worsening transportation crisis, which is aggravated by the high inflation and the low wages of Filipinos.)

(2/2) PRESS RELEASE February 17, 2023 PISTON calls for better public mass transport system as MRT-LRT fares set to rise pic.twitter.com/mWiHi8eZmQ — PISTON (@pistonph) February 17, 2023

The fate of the fare hike proposals now depends on the decision of the Rail Regulatory Unit (RRU), as approved by the DOTr Secretary.

“Once approved by the secretary of the DOTr after thorough review and appraisal of the RRU, the train fare adjustment, which will revitalize revenue generation of the railway lines, is seen to improve their services and operations for the benefit of the riding public,” the DOTr said. – Rappler.com

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Fare Hike in the Philippines and Its Impact

• 2 years ago
• Blogs , News & Updates

As the pandemic progressed, problems on supply chain arose due to the pandemic protocols of each area in different parts of the world. New expenditures are necessitated to be paid for the supply chain to continue operating. This resulted for higher pricing of commodities as manufacturers and wholesalers incur higher costs to enable their products to reach their customers and end-users. Adding the impact of Russia-Ukraine War, gasoline prices surged at a great extent. This hurts transportation of all sorts, whether for the supply chain or commuting system. These unforeseen events made inflation level to skyrocket and severely impacted the buying power of consumers. In fact, within a span of a month, the inflation rate in the Philippines climbed from 5.4% to 6.1% this June 2022. This is considered as the highest level of inflation since 2018. Minimum wage earners will surely be the first to feel the negative impacts of inflation on their buying powers. Recently, a wage hike took place, but the relief is not felt as commodities’ prices increased as well. Additionally, jeepney drivers demanded a transportation fare hike as they are both impacted by the inflated prices of gasoline and commodities. The demand and approval of transportation fare hike is inevitable as drivers are the most vulnerable group impacted by the elevated pricing of necessities. As positive as it may seem on the earnings of the PUV drivers, its impact is beyond to what are eyes can see. Here are some of the impacts of transport hike on the overall behavior of the consumers and inflation rate of the economy.

Higher Fares Cause Further Increase in Inflation Rates

Last March 2022, National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) stated that if a transport hike is implemented, a 0.3 percentage points increase on inflation will take place as well. In economic terms, this number is high. This is the reason why transportation fare hike is not easily approved by the government as it will trigger further inflation of other aspects as wage hike demand will likely happen. If this happens and approved by the government, companies will increase the pricing of its products to cover the additional costs of manpower. With this, transportation fare plays a vital role in determining the market price of necessities as it causes a domino effect to commodity pricing during fare adjustments. 

Higher Transportation Expense, Possible Demand for Another Wage Hike

This might be the unavoidable and complementary effect of higher transportation fare. For workers living nearby their workplaces or those who only pay a minimum fare to reach their offices, this may not be a problem at all. But for people living more than four kilometers away from their workplaces, this transportation fare hike will be felt gradually. Basically, the farther you are, the greater its impact on your daily budget.

Currently, in a span of two months, the base fare increased by PHP 2.00. For low-income earners, every peso counts so this transportation fare hike might lead for another demand to increase their minimum wage to cope with the elevating costs of affording their necessities which include commuting to their workplaces.

Continuous Transport Hike Entails Shifting to Active Transport System

Even before the pandemic started, there is a shortage in PUVs. In fact, in 2019 there is a massive shortage of 2.8 million daily passenger trips in Metro Manila. Additionally, based on PSA, 75,000 jobs in the transportation and storage industry were lost from February to March 2022.

When the pandemic started and protocols were imposed, it became even harder for PUVs to acquire passengers because of the new work-from-home (WFH) setup. For workers still on a face-to-face setup, they had no option but to shift to active transport like cycling and walking to reach their workplaces. As the number of infections subsides, transport systems started to open. However, commuting is still a hassle because of longer waiting times due to social distancing protocols and lower passenger capacity. With this, a lot of drivers left the transportation sector. For commuters to save time from waiting long lines in transport terminals and save transport fare, they might shift to these alternatives. Active transport does not only benefit a commuter’s finances but also his or her physical health as well.

Work from Setup May Become Viable Again Amid Return to Office Policies

This may not be popular right now but there are companies that instead of pursing a return to office policy, it shifts back to a WFH setup. With the rise of gasoline prices and transportation fares, it is better for companies to grant a WFH setup again to its employees instead of increasing their salaries. In this way, not only employees save costs, but companies prevent the possible costs it may have in the future caused by the inflation. But as this gets popular again, drivers will have a hard time to reach the full seating capacity of their PUVs. The worst scenario is demands will not be enough even transportation fare is set to maximum thus making the earnings of drivers too low which might discourage them to leave the transportation industry and find another good-paying job. Previously, to lessen the effects of low demand for transport system, a service contracting program was implemented by the Department of Transportation (DOTr). But financial aids are just a temporary solution in this economic situation. A more viable solution must be implemented to make a sustainable comeback on the transportation industry for the public’s welfare and convenience.  

What Does the Government Do to Minimize Its Impacts?

            When the pandemic started, the transportation sector is greatly affected because of the protocols imposed by the government particularly social distancing. This made them demand a fare hike to compensate the losses felt by the mandatory downsizing of PUV seating capacity. The government recognizes the hardship of the drivers, so it rolled out a service contracting program that provides a financial aid to driver based on their performance and a fuel subsidy to bring home more profit to add to their daily budget. The program encourages the PUV drivers to continue its operation even with lower demand and seating capacity for the welfare of the working population.

On the side of consumers, another program was implemented to help them cope with the global inflation. Last March 2022, free Metro Rail Transit (MRT) and EDSA Carousel rides were rolled out to the public. It is originally set to end last April 2022 but was extended until the last week of July 2022. Its goal is to minimize the financial impact of inflation and other hikes that might be demanded by the public. On a surface level, this is a good solution for commuters because it gives them a lot of savings for many months. It is also undeniable that a huge part of an individual’s budget is allocated for transportation expenses. Availing free rides will sure give higher financial flexibility especially for low-income earners. However, this is a threat to fare-based PUVs as consumers choose to avail free rides even it costs their time to wait in long lines in transport terminals. Commuters are not to be blamed for this decision, but transportation sector might collapse if this continues along with inflation.

Current Situations of PUV Drivers

            The pumped-up prices of gasoline and commodities give PUV drivers a hard time. In a report by GMA News , one of the jeepney drivers named Ferdie Calagayan was forced to shift on tricycle driving because of the unprofitable jeepney rides. The driver mentioned in the interview that the life of his family was severely impacted by the uncontrolled inflation faced by the Philippine economy. In fact, his children cannot even attend online classes because he cannot provide them money for their mobile data.

            This situation of a jeepney driver was supported by Pagkakaisa ng mga Samahan ng Tsuper at Operator Nationwide (Piston) as they expressed frustration that their member-drivers and operators are not earning enough because of the upward adjustment of gasoline prices. Some of the members are forced to stop operations because of the little to none profit on their daily rides. In numbers, a wife of a jeepney driver said that her husband has only PHP 300 daily earnings which is budgeted for their family.

            Despite the economic situation of the country, Martin Andanar, the former president’s spokesperson, requested the drivers and operators to continue their operations for the welfare of the public. He said that the government does everything it could to support the PUV drivers especially through financial aid in the form of fuel subsidy. In fact, the budget department had released a PHP 3 billion funds for this aid to mitigate the uncontrolled gasoline price increases.  The fuel subsidy program does not only cover the PUV drivers but also the farmers who uses fuel for their livelihood activity. A PHP 6,500 subsidy was distributed to PUV drivers while PHP 3,000 goes for the farmers.

            Despite the budget rollouts, not all the beneficiaries received the subsidy intended for them. Bottlenecks on production of Landbank fuel subsidy cards made the distribution to slowdown. With this, traditional jeepney operators and drivers are put on a tight spot despite the government efforts. To add, these groups of people shifted their livelihood to selling products which will give them more earnings to suffice their daily budget needs.

The Real Problem and Viable Solutions

            Although the government provided program for its consumers and PUV drivers. The implemented aids were contradicting to each other. Obviously, free rides will be chosen by the majority even they need to wait in long lines. The transport vehicles for this free ride program are modernized as well hence more convenient to the passengers. This is very beneficial for commuters in terms of convenience and finances as they can cut their costs and allocate it this portion to something more useful on their everyday living. With this, service contracting program becomes a nonsensical for the drivers. Even it is promised that drivers will be granted a financial aid based on the number of rides they render disregarding the number of passengers, it will not be enough to compensate the highly inflated prices of commodities especially the gasoline.

            With this, what can be done or what should the government focus on? Maybe the service contracting program should be reviewed to make amendments that would be more beneficial to PUV drivers. It is not enough that hikes take place when inflation happen because approval of such is a trigger for a higher inflation rate. In fact, it was suggested by Move as One transport coalition that the service contracting program is best implemented as partial subsidy to public transportation instead of free rides. This will enable operators and drivers to earn profits and consumers will not be burdened to carry the costs of inflation. Another suggestion by Federation of Jeepney Operators and Drivers Association of the Philippines (Fejodap) is government should also try exploring new vehicles with alternative power sources so transportation fare will not be greatly affected by higher oil prices. It will be viable to review the supply chain as well and observe each stage to know which aspect can have adjustments. By adjustments, it means cost cutting or eliminating a stage if its primary effect is to incur further costs.

            Inflation is inevitable because of the pandemic and Russia-Ukraine war. However, its impact can be reduced through the expertise of economic managers. Financial aids are not just the solution for this economic situation. Continuous dependence on such solution is like implementing the idea of “print more money so people will not have financial problems.” Hike should be the least priority in evaluating alternatives because of its major impact on determining commodity pricing and appropriate wages.

The government plays a vital role in diminishing the impacts of inflation thus the root of problem must be reviewed often to cut unnecessary costs so consumers will not experience a high inflation rate in cases where it is inevitable. On an economic standpoint, whether inflation happens or not, this should be done for the welfare of the public. Every individual wants to save every peso they can do allocate it for better investments like paying for an affordable house and lot or funding their high-value investment purchases through bank loan. Having a great economic manager in the government will not only ensure minimized effects of inflation but also gives financial flexibility to its consumers and businessmen because of the prevention of unnecessary costs in the supply chain.

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ATLANTA TRANSIT PRICING STUDY: MODERATING IMPACT OF FARE INCREASES ON POOR.

Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

Alternative methods for moderating the impact of fare increases on low-income groups in Atlanta are described and evaluated. The study, sponsored by the Transportation Systems Center under the Service and Methods Demonstration Program, considers five alternatives to a flat fare increase: direct user subsidies, quality-based fares, reduced fares on designated routes, peak/off-peak fare differentials, and distance-based fares. We evaluate these fare strategies according to a set of standardized criteria that considers the target efficiency, coverage of the target group, administrative cost, total cost, and degree of relief offered by each option. The study finds that a direct user subsidy provides the highest degree of relief to low-income patrons with the lowest revenue loss. This is because user subsidies are more efficient in reaching the target population and offer a higher level of coverage of the poor than do other alternatives.

ASJC Scopus subject areas

• Civil and Structural Engineering
• Mechanical Engineering

Other files and links

• Link to publication in Scopus
• Link to the citations in Scopus

Fingerprint

• Subsidies Keyphrases 100%
• Atlanta Keyphrases 100%
• Moderating Impact Keyphrases 100%
• Consumers Social Sciences 100%
• Subsidy Social Sciences 100%
• Administrative Costs Economics, Econometrics and Finance 100%
• Low-income Keyphrases 66%
• Direct User Keyphrases 66%

T1 - ATLANTA TRANSIT PRICING STUDY

T2 - MODERATING IMPACT OF FARE INCREASES ON POOR.

AU - Lovely, Mary E.

AU - Brand, Daniel

N2 - Alternative methods for moderating the impact of fare increases on low-income groups in Atlanta are described and evaluated. The study, sponsored by the Transportation Systems Center under the Service and Methods Demonstration Program, considers five alternatives to a flat fare increase: direct user subsidies, quality-based fares, reduced fares on designated routes, peak/off-peak fare differentials, and distance-based fares. We evaluate these fare strategies according to a set of standardized criteria that considers the target efficiency, coverage of the target group, administrative cost, total cost, and degree of relief offered by each option. The study finds that a direct user subsidy provides the highest degree of relief to low-income patrons with the lowest revenue loss. This is because user subsidies are more efficient in reaching the target population and offer a higher level of coverage of the poor than do other alternatives.

AB - Alternative methods for moderating the impact of fare increases on low-income groups in Atlanta are described and evaluated. The study, sponsored by the Transportation Systems Center under the Service and Methods Demonstration Program, considers five alternatives to a flat fare increase: direct user subsidies, quality-based fares, reduced fares on designated routes, peak/off-peak fare differentials, and distance-based fares. We evaluate these fare strategies according to a set of standardized criteria that considers the target efficiency, coverage of the target group, administrative cost, total cost, and degree of relief offered by each option. The study finds that a direct user subsidy provides the highest degree of relief to low-income patrons with the lowest revenue loss. This is because user subsidies are more efficient in reaching the target population and offer a higher level of coverage of the poor than do other alternatives.

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=0020224885&partnerID=8YFLogxK

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/citedby.url?scp=0020224885&partnerID=8YFLogxK

M3 - Article

AN - SCOPUS:0020224885

SN - 0361-1981

JO - Transportation Research Record

JF - Transportation Research Record

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Fare hike will impact on our budget – commuters

(CDN file photo)

CEBU CITY, Philippines — How do Cebuanos feel about the latest fare increase?

The Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB) approved on Friday, Sept. 16, 2022, the fare hikes for public utility jeepneys, buses, taxis, and ride-hailing applications that will take effect on October 4.

The LTFRB, in a statement, said they approved a P1 hike for traditional and modern jeepneys and a P2 hike for ordinary and aircon city buses as well as provincial buses. They also approved P5 hike for the flag-down rates of taxis and the Transportation Network Vehicle Services (TNVS).

READ:  LTFRB OKs fare hike for public utility vehicles, TNVS by Oct. 4.

This weekend news, however, received various reactions from the commuters here in Cebu City.

For instance, Mary Joy Bagares said this was ‘alarming’ news that would impact on her monthly budget.

“Kay mahal na daan ang PUVs di na moroll back bisan ni rollback na ang gas. Nakisabay pud ang pletehan sa increase sa commodities. Hoping lang na there will be minimum wage hike pud,” she told CDN Digital.

(Because the fare for PUVs is already expensive and they won’t rollback their fare if there will be a gas rollback. The fare hike will go with the increase in commodities. We are just hoping that there will also be a minimum wage hike.)

In addition, Kate Denolang of Mandaue City said that she was “quite conflicted” over whether she would be happy with the benefits it would give to the drivers and others in the transportation industry or disheartened for the commuters as this would mean increased expenses.

But she decided to empathize with the common sentiments of the commuters. Though she had been working from home, Denolang said she still would have to commute to get essentials or run personal errands.

“It is quite disappointing that sometimes my transportation fees would own a bigger toll on my whole errand expenses. I usually commute via bus, e-jeep, taxi, and Angkas. From my P50-P100 transportation budget for every errand in 2021. Now, I need to budget at least P150-P300,” she said.

“How much more if the fare increases again? Am I willing to spend as much as P500 just for transportation? I don’t think so. I may be lucky to work from home, and I go out at most three times a week. But how about those who need to go out and travel daily to work? This would be very disheartening for them,” she added.

Likewise, Kent Anthony Jimenez, from Cebu City, said this would really take a toll on commuting employees who were mostly now in a return-to-office setup.

“I, personally, really hate this since I’m working in another city and I travel every day. I have to adjust my budget again even if it’s only a 1-2 pesos increase, since when accumulated, would take a big cut of my salary,” he said, noting that two separate fare hike implementations happened this year in just a couple of months.

The last fare hike took effect last July 1, which made the new minimum jeepney fare across the country at P11.

READ:  Cebu PUJ drivers: P2 fare hike not enough to cover fuel costs

Meanwhile, Jolissa Taboada, told CDN Digital that she chose to see this development as a deserved augmentation of drivers’ income.

“Para nako kay okay ra nga gipasaka ang fare kay sa karong panahona, nagkamahal na sad baya ang mga paliton ug ang gas so dako kay ni nga tabang sa mga drivers ilabi na nga naghinay-hinay na ug balik sa normal tanan,” she said.

(For me, I am okay with the increase in the fare at this time, where the prices of commodities have also increased and the gasoline, so this is a big help to the drivers especially that we are all now slowly returning to normal.)

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Facing huge deficits, NJ Transit proposes 15% fare hike, the first in 9 years

2-minute read.

NJ Transit is proposing to increase fares 15% — its first hike in nine years — and would install 3% annual fare increases indefinitely after that, according to a plan presented by NJ Transit officials Wednesday.

The proposal would also preserve service at current levels for the next fiscal year, which begins in July.

It is expected that state aid will remain unchanged from the current fiscal year at $652.1 million. In addition, agency officials said they found $44 million in internal cost reductions and $52 million in revenue enhancements.

The fare hike could add about $106.6 million in revenue, NJ Transit officials predict.

Story continues below photo gallery .

The Murphy administration has known for at least two years that a fiscal cliff was on the horizon for NJ Transit — a forecast that has only ballooned in size and scale over that time.

Yet state aid for this current budget cycle is lower than in fiscal year 2020, when it was $668.6 million. No plan was developed by Gov. Phil Murphy and the Legislature to make up for lost farebox revenues, and now riders will likely have to shoulder much of this burden through fare hikes.

More: Legislators tried to give NJ Transit board more teeth. But it seems largely defanged

More: Murphy's chief of staff also heads DOT. Can she keep doing both effectively?

"Today's fare hikes directly result from New Jersey's continued failure to address a well-known problem, and NJ Transit riders deserve better," said Zoe Baldwin, the New Jersey director for the Regional Plan Association, a nonprofit advocacy and research organization that studies transit, housing and sustainability in the tri-state area.

The association "believes that small and predictable fare increases make sense to offset rising costs, but a large one-time increase like the one announced today will cause unnecessary pain for families already struggling with a skyrocketing cost of living," Baldwin said.

"There are many ways to address NJ Transit's looming fiscal cliff without resorting to such drastic measures, and we are incredibly disappointed that none of the other options were seriously explored before riders were saddled with this fare hike," she said.

Bailey Lawrence, a spokesman for Murphy, said officials are continuing to "pursue additional avenues" to respond to the agency's budget needs.

"Governor Murphy looks forward to the beginning of public hearings on NJ Transit’s fare adjustment proposal and supports the agency’s efforts to solicit robust public feedback in order to best understand the potential impacts of fare adjustments on New Jersey residents and commuters," Lawrence said.

Assembly Speaker Craig Coughlin urged NJ Transit's board to "consider the impact higher fares will have on bus and train passengers who rely on NJ Transit's service" before making a final decision.

"I commend the agency for considering non-farebox savings and revenue enhancements to help close the budget gap," Coughlin said. "The Legislature will continue to explore options to help support transportation in the state."

Senate President Nicholas Scutari came out against NJ Transit’s plan but did not offer any alternative ideas to address the agency’s funding shortfalls.

“NJ Transit is obviously in need of additional financial support, but continual fare increases will not fix the problem," Scutari said. "We simply cannot rely on everyday commuters to carry the burden of NJ Transit’s billion-dollar deficit, nor should we count on one-shot funding mechanisms to fill the hole.”

Kevin Corbett, NJ Transit's president and CEO, said that "a decision to propose a fare adjustment is always the last resort, having held the line on any increases for nearly a decade."

"Before advancing this proposal, NJ Transit looked internally and identified $44 million in internal savings and $52 million in revenue enhancements," he said. "However, those actions were not enough to eliminate the budget gap entirely."  

What you need to know about the proposal

The proposal includes these details:

• The 15% fare hike would take effect July 1, 2024, and 3% annual fare hikes would begin July 1 of each subsequent year and continue indefinitely.
• The plan, as is, would not include any service cuts in fiscal year 2025, but there are no guarantees past that.
• The agency found $44 million in internal cuts for the coming fiscal year. It’s unclear what those cuts are, as they are not explained in the agency presentation .
• The agency identified $52 million in “revenue enhancements” that include more fare enforcement, increasing advertising and sponsorships, placing a 30-day expiration date on one-way tickets and ending the Flexpass pilot.
• Under this plan, NJ Transit would still find itself with a $766.8 million deficit in fiscal year 2026.

What's causing the deficits

Several factors are contributing to NJ Transit’s fiscal cliff. For one, farebox revenue is still down from what was collected before the pandemic because ridership has returned only to about 80% of what it was in 2019.

In the years since the pandemic, federal COVID aid has filled the gap, but that money will run out this fiscal year.

The other reason the agency cites is the jump in costs to run the system of trains, buses, light rail and disability services. Those cost increases include:

• A 30% increase in inflation.
• An additional $30 million in operations expenses for added service on bus routes abandoned by private carriers last year.
• An increase in costs for contractual services, such as Access Link, private bus carriers and two of the light rail systems, along with higher costs from labor contracts.
• A 47% rise in health care costs.

One reason not mentioned is the decision to move the agency’s headquarters, which will cost around half a billion in rent over the 25-year lease, plus other annual escalating costs for parking, and $54 million approved in December to move in.

That decision has been scrutinized by lawmakers and others, given that there were alternative spaces that were more than $111 million cheaper and the option to stay at the current building, which NJ Transit owns. It could have updated the elevators, HVAC and other systems for as little as $58 million, according to a report from Savills , the real estate consultant hired by NJ Transit to study the options.

How to make your voice heard

For commuters and members of the public who wish to weigh in on the proposal, there will be 10 public hearings, and those not able to attend can submit comments online at njtransit.com/hearing, via mail at Public Hearing Office – Fare Proposal Comments, One Penn Plaza East, Newark, NJ 07105, or through email, [email protected] .  

Here are the dates and information for the public hearings:

• Monday, March 4, from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. at the Cherry Hill Public Library, conference center, 1100 Kings Highway North, Cherry Hill.
• Monday, March 4, from 6 to 8 p.m. at the Atlantic City Convention Center, meeting room 309, 1 Convention Boulevard, Atlantic City.
• Tuesday, March 5, from 10 a.m. to noon at Passaic County Community College, Paterson Room, 1 College Boulevard, Paterson.
• Tuesday, March 5, from 6 to 8 p.m. at the Bergen County Administration Building Conference Center, 2 Bergen County Plaza, 1 st Floor, Hackensack.
• Wednesday, March 6, from 10 a.m. to noon at the Trenton Transit Center, 72 S. Clinton Ave., Trenton.
• Wednesday, March 6, from 6 to 8 p.m. at the Belmar Municipal Building, council chambers, 601 Main St., Belmar.
• Thursday, March 7, from 10 a.m. to noon at the Berkeley College Woodbridge Campus Student Center, 430 Rahway Ave., Woodbridge Township.
• Thursday, March 7, from 6 to 8 p.m. at Kean University, North Avenue Academic Building conference center, Room 606, 1000 Morris Ave., 6 th Floor, Union.
• Friday, March 8, from 10 a.m. to noon at the Frank R. Lautenberg Rail Station, long hallway, County Road and County Avenue, Secaucus.
• Friday, March 8, from 6 to 8 p.m. at NJ Transit headquarters, 9th-floor boardroom, 1 Penn Plaza East, Newark.

Those who require a sign language interpreter, language assistance or other accommodations to participate in the public hearing have to contact the public hearing office at 973-491-8520 or 800-772-2287 between 8:30 a.m. and 5 p.m. by Friday, Feb. 16. The public hearings will not be livestreamed.

The comment period will end Friday, March 8, at 11:59 p.m. After that, the proposal will go before NJ Transit’s board for a vote.

Looming annual operating deficits

News of the post-pandemic fiscal cliff was well known before this announcement.

In March 2022, the fiscal cliff was estimated to be $549.3 million for fiscal year 2026, and by July 2022 the estimate had increased to $842.6 million . Not even a year later, the timeline had moved up as COVID relief dollars were running out more quickly than anticipated and farebox revenue lagged.

In April 2023, the fiscal cliff was predicted to begin in fiscal year 2025 starting at $119 million. The next year it would expand to $917.8 million.

NJ Transit board Chair Diane Gutierrez-Scaccetti announced in April of last year that a “restructuring” analysis would begin to determine where the agency could trim costs ahead of the governor’s budget address in February 2024.

No report has been produced . In December, Corbett, the president and CEO, said another state agency was in charge of hiring a consultant to complete the analysis.

At that time, a state Transportation Department spokesman didn’t answer numerous questions about why a consultant was being hired eight months after the restructuring was announced and declined to comment on the consultant because of “ongoing procurement.”

Meanwhile, Murphy let a corporate business tax surcharge sunset last year, even though it could have generated about $1 billion annually and some said it should have remained on the books and been directed to NJ Transit, including Scutari, the Senate president.

“Drastic fare hikes won’t solve NJ Transit’s structural financial problems, especially when the agency has never had a dedicated funding source,” said Alex Ambrose, a policy analyst at the advocacy group New Jersey Policy Perspective. “Policymakers chose corporations over New Jersey’s working families when they gave ultra-wealthy businesses like Amazon and Walmart a $1 billion tax cut.”

Some in the business community maintained that ending the surcharge was the right call.

“ Governor Murphy made the correct call in letting the CBT temporary surtax expire," said Michele Siekerka, president and CEO of the New Jersey Business & Industry Association. "Looking for sustainable and dedicated funding for NJ Transit which excludes more business tax increases that make New Jersey less competitive is also the correct call.”

The state of service

NJ Transit officials argued that these fare hikes are necessary in order to capitalize on the improvements they’ve made throughout Murphy’s six years in office, including advancing around $4 billion in capital projects since 2018, up from just $60 million in 2017, adding bus service, installing positive train control before the December 2020 deadline, and making technology improvements.

But some say they haven’t felt those improvements.

Tim Palladino, an Old Bridge resident who frequents North Jersey Coast Line trains and the 139 and 76 bus routes, said he wants to see improved reliability before fare increases.

“I’m disgusted by the news of fare hikes," he said. "They have done nothing to improve service or fix bus and trains. As someone who uses both services, sometimes trains are a little worse than the buses.”

Bus operations have added new routes, expanded service on others and extended some routes, which has largely resulted in significant gains in ridership, bringing it back to essentially pre-COVID levels.

Rail service, however, continues to suffer from high numbers of train cancellations. There were 3,519 trains canceled in 2023, up from 3,291 cancellations in 2017. Rail on-time performance was about 91.2% in 2023, about the same as in 2017, when it was 91%.

Rail could see some improvement in cancellations once new equipment comes online in the coming years, alleviating the biggest cited reason for train cancellations in 2023. Other reasons, like Amtrak signal issues, can’t be helped. Unlike other commuter railroads in the country, NJ Transit shares tracks with freight railroads and Amtrak, including on the Northeast Corridor, the busiest stretch of track in the country.

In recent years, Corbett, the NJ Transit president and CEO, has repeatedly said that maintaining service levels — and not decreasing them because of the lower ridership — was critical to regaining ridership when people began returning to public transportation for work, errands and recreational travel.

It’s also one of the driving reasons this proposal didn’t include service cuts next year — but that’s not a guarantee in future years.

"These budget challenges are not unique to NJ Transit," Corbett said. "Transit agencies across the country are facing similar deficits due to continued lagging ridership compared to pre-pandemic levels, dwindling and depleted federal COVID relief funds, and continuing substantial increases in mandatory, non-discretionary and contractual escalations."

Though some public transportation agencies, such as SEPTA in Pennsylvania and WMATA in Washington, D.C., have not yet received additional state support to address their fiscal crises, BART in San Francisco and the MTA in New York did, and it helped them avoid significant cuts and fare hikes.

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A Scientific Perspective on the Patriarchy: The Gender Pay Gap and Unequal Opportunity

by Marc Defant

D o we live in a patriarchy? Does toxic masculinity permeate our society? Are they the reasons why women are paid less than men, and fewer women are working in STEM? There is a long-documented history of these differences, and they go deeper than you might think. Let’s consider some causal explanations.

The Gender Pay Gap

One statistic offered as evidence of male hegemony (i.e., the patriarchy) is the ubiquitous gender pay gap that exists between men and women. For example, self-described feminist economists 1 Xuan Pham, Laura Fitzpatrick, and Richard Wagner suggest:

…the two overarching institutions that enable the persistence of the GPG [gender pay gap] in the USA are capitalism and patriarchy. Capitalism is a production system is [sic] driven by the profit motive, meaning firms seek to cost minimize. If employers can pay whole segments of workers lower wages, it is easier to boost profit margins and preserve capitalist production. The incentive to do this is quite powerful and a society that relegates women to a lesser position through non-labor market forces enhances the potential to increase exploitation of women through differential wages relative to men… Capitalism alone cannot create the GPG, however. The other crucial institution, patriarchy—allowing for gender-based disparate treatment—has deep roots in U.S. society . At the country’s founding, women were no more than the property of men. 2

The ratio of annual earnings between women and men has gone from a low of 59 cents on the dollar in 1963 to 84 cents for every dollar earned by men in 2024. 3 Pham et al. claim the patriarchy is responsible for the gender pay gap—that is, wholesale discrimination against women. Most leading economists, regardless of their gender, disagree. Cornell University economists Francine Blau and Lawrence Kahn point out 4 most of the reduction in the pay gap came in the 1980s and early 1990s during a “sharp increase in female participation rates” in the work force—increasing from 32 percent in 1947 to 57 percent in 2014 while the male participation rate fell from 87 to 69 percent over the same period.

Countering the oppressive patriarchy argument, an extraordinary and remarkable natural experiment that demonstrates the lack of discrimination in the differences in pay between men and women was conducted by researchers at Stanford University in 2018 using data from over one million Uber drivers. Uber pays their drivers according to a rigid “non-negotiated formula” (i.e., invariant among drivers), and they do not offer any employee benefits. The drivers also determine when and where they work. Each driver earns a specific base fare in addition to a “per-minute and per-distance” fare beginning with the pickup and ending with the drop off of a customer. During periods of high customer demand, drivers can receive a “surge multiplier.” More importantly as related to the gender pay gap, there are no promotions, work overtime pay, or any ability to negotiate higher pay for drivers. In other words, earnings are directly proportional to productivity. The Stanford researchers have also demonstrated that there is no meaningful customer discrimination toward female or male drivers. In other words, there are no statistically significant differences in customer ratings of men and women drivers nor do riders prefer one gender to the other. 5

The results of the study show unequivocally that men earn about 7 percent more than women on an hourly basis.* The “entire gap” can be explained by three factors, all unrelated to discrimination:

• Men tend to drive faster than women. This leads to an increase in pay because they handle more customers per hour.
• Uber pays a “compensating differential” for driving in high-crime areas and areas with high concentrations of bars. Men tend to drive in the more lucrative areas not only because they accept the risk but also because they are inclined to live nearer to or within these areas compared with women.
• Drivers who work 30 or more hours per week compared to those that work fewer than 10 hours per week make 9 percent more per hour. Why is that? There is much to gain from experience at Uber such as when and where to drive, or which trips a driver should accept or reject. The researchers stated, “Male drivers accumulate more experience than women by driving more each week and being less likely to stop driving with Uber.”

Experience in other studies is typically measured by years of employment or a worker’s age which are notoriously poor ways of ascertaining work experience. As the Uber study suggests, experience differentials between men and women may be underestimated in previous studies and “can lead to biased estimates of the job-flexibility penalty.” Put another way, by working fewer hours, women are not only earning less pay than men but also accumulating less experience. † The Stanford team concludes:

Even in the absence of discrimination and in flexible labor markets, women’s relatively high opportunity cost of non-paid work time and gender-based differences in preferences and constraints can sustain a gender pay gap.

A study by two Harvard economists on bus and train operators produced similar results—the pay gap in favor of men is due to the differential choice preferences of men and women. 6 Even though “in a unionized environment where work tasks are similar, hourly wages are identical, and tenure dictates promotions, female workers earn $0.89 on the male-worker dollar.” The same study revealed that women were also less likely than men to game the scheduling system by trading off work hours at regular wages for overtime hours at premium wages.

Economists at Cornell University 7 , 8 have recently completed two extremely detailed and extensive reviews of the research literature demonstrating factors that influence the gender pay gap. A few of them are obvious. Gender differences in choice of college majors funnel women into lower paying careers. For example, women tend to avoid majoring in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) programs resulting in fewer women in these relatively high-paying careers. Women also tend to avoid jobs requiring extensive training specific to the company they are working for, i.e., training that does not help them with other companies.

Although both men and women quit their jobs at about the same rate “all else being equal,” they quit for different reasons. Men quit for reasons primarily related to the job; in contrast, women quit, for the most part, because of family-related reasons. As a result, women’s wages are affected adversely compared to men probably because women miss out on experience through training. Married women and mothers focus on home and family reducing the number of hours they spend in the labor market. Not surprisingly, research has found that the more hours women spend doing housework, the lower their wages in the market.

We should foster working environments that reward the most qualified and competent candidates, encouraged to participate irrespective of their gender.

The choice families make regarding their working locations also impact wages. Men are still the primary wage earners in families, and families tend to choose the location of the husband’s work as opposed to where the wife works (probably because, on average, men tend to focus on careers while women tend to prioritize family). Recent research in the U.S. and Great Britain has revealed that total family earnings increase significantly while the wife’s earnings decline when the family relocates. 9 As a result, although women may enter into traditionally male-oriented occupations, they often select careers that are flexible geographically (e.g., physicians, pharmacists, managers, accountants, etc.). 10 , 11

But the largest single impact on the gender wage gap appears to be the difference in pay between the careers men and women choose (as much as a third of the gap!). The companies women tend to gravitate toward are those that pay both men and women lower wages whereas men tend to be concentrated in firms that pay more to both men and women . Women may consciously be choosing companies that are less stressful and offer more flexible work hours, but pay less than those where greater demands are made. As Blau and Kahn explain:

Men are found to place a higher value on money, to have higher self-esteem, to be less risk averse, more competitive, self-confident and disagreeable, and to believe that they control their own fate (an internal, as opposed to external, locus of control) to a greater extent than women.

From a broader perspective, men may have traditionally needed to excel in these arenas not only to provide for their families but also to succeed in competing with other men for mates. It is well established that men spend longer hours in their jobs, tend to place work over family, and take less time off from their jobs, which has a large impact on wages. One study presented men and women in the laboratory with a task to solve under two conditions of compensation—in a “noncompetitive piece rate and then a competitive tournament incentive scheme.” 12 There were no differences between the performance of men and women, but 73 percent of the men preferred the competitive tournament scenario compared to 35 percent of the women.

The competitiveness of men translates from the laboratory into real-life performance benefits. Researchers have found that high school boys and girls have, on average, similar academic abilities. However, boy’s higher level of competitiveness correlates with their choosing to go into “more prestigious academic tracks” than do girls. 13 Field research substantiates these results. In a large study, economists posted online job advertisements in 16 major cities that randomly varied the advertisements in their compensation regimes. Based on the 9,000 people assessing the job advertisements, the researchers were able to conclude that, “women disproportionately shy away from competitive work settings.” 14 Increasing the competition within the workplace also appears to increase the performance of men relative to women. 15 , 16 Many studies have also found that on average not only do women shy away from risk, but their wages are lower due to having greater risk aversion than men. 17 Controlling for extraneous effects, employers tend to pay more to entice workers to accept risk.

Yet another primary influence on the gender pay gap is a preference by women for what economists refer to as “work-force interruptions,” which include flexibility (such as working at home or at convenient times) and working fewer hours (a decision not to put in the long hours required by some jobs). Numerous recent studies have explored the impact of workforce interruptions and shorter hours, and it is worth discussing them in detail because they are pertinent within the context of the “glass ceiling,” a term that refers to the discriminatory barriers hindering women from attaining top-level, high-paying jobs in the labor market.

One of these studies followed MBA graduates from a distinguished program and found that women and men began their careers at nearly the same pay, but their pay diverged over time and men were paid more. The conclusion of the research posited that the gender pay gap can be attributed almost entirely to the fewer weekly hours women worked and the larger number of “career interruptions” women took compared to men. 18 Another study, conducted over a fifteen-year period and focusing on lawyers, revealed an interesting trend: while gender had little impact on initial salaries, the gender pay gap significantly widened over time. This was attributed to women working shorter hours and taking time off for childbirth. 19 A recent study by Ghazala Azmat and her colleague Rosa Ferrer found a similar disparity between male and female lawyers and attributed the difference to men obtaining more clients and receiving twice as much revenue from those clients compared to women. The authors concluded the disparities between men’s and women’s earnings and promotions were due to higher workplace performance by men compared to women. 20 It is worth quoting their findings:

Possible channels of direct discrimination in law firms—whereby, for instance, senior lawyers (i.e., law firm partners) could interfere with performance—are not strong determinants of performance gaps. The presence of preschool children in the household contributes to the gaps in performance; however, it is not the only key determinant. A substantial share of the gender gap in performance is explained by aspirations to become a partner, which are likely to reflect more general career concerns as well as traditional gender roles… We find that the distribution of career aspirations differs across genders, which is reflected in the differences in performance [i.e., women do not aspire to become partners as much as their male counterparts]… One potential implication is that gender-based inequality in earnings and career outcomes might not decrease in the near future—and could even increase—as more high-skilled workers are explicitly compensated on the basis of performance.

In 2014, Harvard economist Claudia Goldin showed that the gender pay gap increases over the lifespan of laborers particularly for college-educated employees. 21 She explained that the gender pay gap can “almost entirely be explained by various factors such as hours worked, time out of the labor force, and years spent in part-time employment.” In 2017, economist Erling Barth and his colleagues evaluated the gender pay gap over the time span of employee careers by analyzing data from the 2000 Decennial Census of the United States and the Longitudinal Employer Household Dynamics. Their findings? The gender pay gap starts out relatively small but widens over time for both college-educated and non-college educated men and women. The largest gap is among the college educated men and women. The researchers found the gap (in both college and non-college scenarios) is primarily attributed to married women earning less and “most of the loss in earnings growth for married women, relative to married men, occurs concurrently with the arrival of children.” 22

David Lubinski and his colleagues conducted a 35-year longitudinal study following some of the most intellectually gifted people in the United States. 23 , 24 This research led to two major conclusions that tracked with other findings here. (1) Intellectually exceptional women prefer to work with people rather than “things,” unlike their male counterparts, who often exhibit the opposite preference. This aligns with other findings indicating that both women and men choose careers based on their individual strengths and interests. For example, women score higher than men on verbal abilities, while men tend to excel in mathematical abilities. And even though fewer women go into STEM (women received only 25.1 percent and 23.4 percent of the doctorates in mathematics/computer science and engineering, respectively), those that do, score similar to men in ability and interest. In other words, women who pursue careers in STEM fields exhibit exceptional mathematical and spatial reasoning abilities, and their mathematical and spatial abilities are typically greater than their verbal abilities. (2) On average, gifted men earn higher salaries than their female counterparts after 35 years. The main reason for this is that men work more hours than women suggesting once again that men put more emphasis on work than women. Not only do men work longer hours but when both genders are asked “How many hours would you choose to work if you were in the job of choice” [i.e., desired job, place of work, and the pay required] women chose fewer hours than men.

Regarding the quote at the beginning of this article, Steve Horwitz, Distinguished Professor of Free Enterprise, commented on Pham and colleagues’ supply/ demand hypothesis (for example, the abundance of women as teachers in grades K–12) this way: “Those jobs tend to pay less because they are jobs where many people have the relevant skills to do them, thus employers can always find another person to fill them (male or female!), which keeps wages low. The same is true of garbage collectors, who are almost all male. Their wages are much lower than those of teachers and nurses because even more people have the relevant skills. So, perceptions of the femininity of a job [i.e., social constructionism] can’t really explain why wages are low.” 25 If more people, whether they are men or women (supply), go into specific fields, those fields will be able to pay less for workers (demand).

The Glass Ceiling

The National Science Foundation is pouring money into programs established to encourage women to enter STEM fields. For example, Howard University recently received $1.3 million for a proposal entitled “Multiple Consciousnesses: Investigating the Identities (Academic, Gender, Race, and Disability) of Black Women Undergraduate Students in STEM and Their Impact on Persistence.” 26 Funding such as this presumes the gender pay gap and the glass ceiling are due to discrimination against women. However, as we have seen, economists—many of whom are women, as cited—have challenged these assumptions.

A recent study demonstrates the impact of women’s choice on the glass ceiling. Psychologists Gijsbert Stoet and David Geary published a paper 27 documenting the gender gap in STEM fields has remained relatively constant for decades despite heroic efforts to bring women into STEM fields. 28 They discovered the largest STEM gender gaps exist in countries that test high on the Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI)—a measure of the degree of parity between men and women based on 14 indicators, which include earnings, seats in parliament, the number of women relative to men that enroll in universities, life expectancy, etc. The GGGI uses a scale from 0 to 1, where 1.0 represents complete gender parity (see Figure 1). The data comes from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 29 —an educational survey of 519,334 students from 72 countries. Upon reviewing the graph, you may observe that the data might seem somewhat counterintuitive. This unexpected correlation is referred to as the educational-gender-equality paradox.

Figure 1 . A graph of gender equality (GGGI where 1.0 = gender parity) versus the percentage of women that graduate from STEM-related fields in each country. The line represents the best-fit least squares regression.

The Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) exemplify this paradox. They have established more than generous opportunities for women in maternity leave, first-rate state-provided childcare, and gender quotas for stock-market company boards. 30 Yet they have some of the largest gender gaps in the world! For example, Finland ranks second in science literacy, and girls outperform boys on the tests. However, paradoxically, the number of women graduating with STEM degrees only approaches 20 percent. In contrast, countries with treatment of women ranging from fair to poor, such as Algeria, the United Arab Emirates, and Tunisia, have over 35 percent women graduating in STEM on average.

Stoet and Geary found that “girls performed similarly or better than boys in science” in 66 percent of the countries “and in nearly all the countries, more girls appeared capable of college-level STEM study than had enrolled.” They attribute the anomaly to personal academic choice related to what each gender perceives as their personal strength. Girls do better on literacy testing than they do in mathematics and science. Even though girls do better than boys in science and mathematics in many countries such as Finland, they choose fields outside of STEM. The opposite is true for boys. They do better in science and mathematics than literacy, and consequently choose STEM more than girls. The researchers also emphasize that women in less gender-equal countries may be more prone to choose STEM fields based on economic stress than personal preference.

It may be time to move away from activist ideology and acknowledge that girls and women freely choose their interests; they are not discriminated against in STEM fields, nor are they discouraged from pursuing a career in these fields. Similar holds true regarding men, even when countries such as Finland and Sweden go to extraordinary lengths to get more men into nursing and other fields traditionally dominated by women.

For a long time, radical feminists have advocated for quotas to break up the perceived patriarchal havens (often referred to as “good-ole-boy networks”) in the hopes of creating environments that support the advancement of women into senior management positions. Norway provides a notable example of the drawbacks of implementing such quotas. In 2003, Norway passed a law mandating that all publicly traded Norwegian corporations must ensure that their corporate boards comprise at least 40 percent women (or men, if the board was predominantly women). Five economists—all women—led by Marianne Bertrand have assessed the impact of the law:

…within firms that were mandated to increase female participation on their board, there is no evidence that these gains at the very top trickled down. Moreover the reform had no obvious impact on highly qualified women whose qualifications mirror those of board members but who were not appointed to boards. We observe no statistically significant change in the gender wage gaps or in female representation in top positions… Finally, there is little evidence that the reform affected the decisions of women more generally; it was not accompanied by any change in female enrollment in business education programs, or a convergence in earnings trajectories between recent male and female graduates of such programs. 31

It appears that Norway was trying to correct for a glass ceiling that did not actually exist. As reported by The Economist , the law led to a significant number of Norwegian corporations leaving the Norway stock exchange to avoid the mandated quota requirements. Of the 563 companies on the Norway stock exchange in 2003, only 179 remained by 2008. 32 Meanwhile, the observed increase in women’s leadership was the same as in neighboring Denmark, which did not implement quotas.

This article appeared in Skeptic  magazine 29.2 Buy print edition Buy digital edition Subscribe to print edition Subscribe to digital edition Download our app

Simply stated, economists—many of whom are women—have found that women are more risk averse (i.e., less willing to place themselves in highly competitive job environments) and more inclined toward occupations that offer flexible hours, often in order to prioritize time with their children. Women are certainly as competent as men in STEM, but gravitate toward college majors and jobs that highlight their superior verbal and social skills. There is much more fascinating data—most of it largely absent from the public discourse—that shed light on these differences. I will discuss such scholarship from disciplines other than economics in future articles.

About the Author

Marc J. Defant is a professor of geology at the University of South Florida specializing in the study of volcanoes—more specifically, the geochemistry of volcanic rocks. He has been funded by the NSF, National Geographic , the American Chemical Society, and the National Academy of Sciences and has published in many international journals including Nature. His book Voyage of Discovery: From the Big Bang to the Ice Age is in the 2nd edition.

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• https://bit.ly/49XFxDb
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• https://bit.ly/3W6UvmO
• https://bit.ly/3Q7Q1sg
• Blau, F., & Winkler, A.E. (2018). The Economics of Women, Men, and Work , Eighth Edition. Oxford University Press.
• https://bit.ly/447kEUM
• https://bit.ly/3vXe5XZ
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• https://bit.ly/3W3PBHm
• https://bit.ly/3QaLKoa
• https://bit.ly/4aGtXgA
• https://bit.ly/3W6Z4NY
• https://bit.ly/4d3H1y9
• Bertrand, M. (2011). New Perspectives On Gender. In O. Ashenfelter, & D. Card, Handbook of Labor Economics, Volume 4B . Elsevier.
• https://bit.ly/3Q7sYOs
• https://bit.ly/4490wkT
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• https://bit.ly/3UmrBxF
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• https://bit.ly/4d6cqAj
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• Personal communication, 2019
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• National Science Foundation. (2017). Women, Minorities, and Persons With Disabilities in Science and Engineering . National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics.
• OECD. (2016). PISA 2015 Results: Excellence and Equity in Education (Vol. 1) . OCED.
• https://bit.ly/3xGI1s1
• https://bit.ly/3W5jKGa

This article was published on August 23, 2024.

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• Open access
• Published: 24 August 2024

Effect of clays incorporation on properties of thermoplastic starch/clay composite bio-based polymer blends

• Soledad Cecilia Pech-Cohuo 2 ,
• Mario Adrián de Atocha Dzul-Cervantes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2242-1183 1 ,
• Emilio Pérez-Pacheco   nAff1 ,
• Jorge André Canto Rosado 1 ,
• Yasser Alejandro Chim-Chi 1 ,
• Carlos Rolando Ríos-Soberanis 3 ,
• Zujey Berenice Cuevas-Carballo 4 ,
• Erbin Guillermo Uc-Cayetano 5 ,
• Luis Alfonso Can-Herrera 1 ,
• Alejandro Ortíz-Fernández 1 ,
• Juan Pablo Collí-Pacheco 4 ,
• José Herminsul Mina-Hernández 6 &
• Yamile Pérez‑Padilla 5  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  19669 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Nanoscale materials
• Nanoscience and technology
• Techniques and instrumentation

In this study, thermoplastic starch (TPS) biofilms were developed using starch isolated from the seeds of Melicoccus bijugatus (huaya) and reinforced with bentonite clays at concentrations of 1%, 3%, and 5% by weight. Novelty of this research lies in utilizing a non-conventional starch source and enhancing properties of TPS through clay reinforcement. FTIR analysis verified bentonite’s nature of clays, while SEM analysis provided insights into morphology and agglomeration behavior. Key findings include a notable increase in biofilm thickness and elastic modulus with higher clay content. Specifically, tensile strength of biofilms improved from 2.5 MPa for pure TPS to 5.0 MPa with 5% clay reinforcement. The elastic modulus increased from 25 MPa (TPS) to 60 MPa (5% clay). Thermal stability also showed enhancement, with initial degradation temperature increasing from 110 °C for pure TPS to 130 °C for TPS with 5% clay. Water vapor permeability (WVP) tests demonstrated a decrease in WVP values from 4.11 × 10 −10  g m −1  s −1  Pa −1 for pure TPS to 2.09 × 10 −10  g m −1  s −1 ·Pa −1 for TPS with 5% clay, indicating a significant barrier effect due to clay dispersion. These results suggest that biofilms based on huaya starch and reinforced with bentonite clay have considerable potential for sustainable food packaging applications, offering enhanced mechanical and barrier properties.

Introduction

Packaging materials are essential in everyday life, used extensively for food, biomedical products, pharmaceuticals, and others. Synthetic plastics, such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polystyrene (PS), dominate the market due to their excellent physical and mechanical properties 1 , 2 . However, the accumulation of non-biodegradable plastic waste has created a severe environmental problem, causing significant ecological damage and environmental imbalance 3 , 4 . It is estimated that plastic waste is increasing at a rate of 700 million tons per year, with a projection to reach one billion tons by 2021 5 .

To address this problem, it is crucial to reduce the use of petroleum-derived materials and develop new polymers from unconventional sources and effective methods for processing renewable biopolymers 6 . Polymers derived from bio-renewable sources such as alginates, cellulose, chitin, soy, and starch are being explored due to their biodegradability and low environmental impact 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 . However, products based on natural polymers often do not possess optimal properties, requiring the incorporation of reinforcements to improve their characteristics 14 , 15 .

Starch is a promising biopolymer due to its abundance, low cost, and biodegradability. Conventional sources such as potatoes, corn, and rice have been widely used, but the search for new unconventional sources has led to the exploration of alternatives like green bananas ( Musa paradisiaca ), bitter vetch ( Vicia ervilia ), and Talisia floresii Standl seeds 16 , 17 . An important and recently explored source is starch from huaya ( Melicoccus bijugatus ) seeds, also known as mamoncillo. Huaya is a tropical fruit that grows in compact clusters in southeastern Mexico and other regions of Latin America. Huaya seeds have been underutilized, but recent studies indicate they are a viable source of starch with suitable physicochemical properties for industrial applications 18 . This starch has low levels of lipids and proteins, which is advantageous for starch purity and its processing into bioplastics. Additionally, using huaya as a starch source contributes to sustainability by utilizing an underused resource and reducing dependence on conventional food crops 5 .

Clays, especially bentonite, have shown to be excellent reinforcements for biopolymers due to their high surface area and nanoscale reinforcement properties. Incorporating clays into starch matrices has shown significant improvements in mechanical and barrier properties of composite materials 19 , 20 . Studies have indicated that the purification method of bentonite affects its properties, highlighting the importance of removing contaminants such as carbonates and organic matter to enhance its effectiveness as a reinforcement 21 , 22 .

Recent research has explored the use of nanoparticles as cellulose and clays to improve the properties of bioplastics. Dang et al. demonstrated that combining nanocellulose in a polymer matrix can significantly enhance the mechanical and barrier properties of biodegradable films 13 . These advances underscore the importance of continuing to investigate new material combinations to develop more efficient and sustainable bioplastics. Furthermore, other recent studies have shown that incorporating biodegradable materials into starch matrices can significantly enhance their functional properties. Khalili et al. found that incorporating cellulose fibers improved the mechanical and barrier properties of starch bioplastics 23 . Additionally, Guarás et al. observed improvements in thermal and mechanical properties of starch bioplastics reinforced with nanoclays 24 . These studies reinforce the idea that combining different reinforcements in starch matrices can lead to the development of more robust and efficient biodegradable packaging materials.

In this study, thermoplastic starch bioplastics were developed using starch isolated from huaya seeds and reinforced with bentonite clays extracted and purified from Tepakán, Calkiní, Campeche, Mexico. These bioplastics were characterized to evaluate their mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties, aiming to explore their potential application in food packaging. The innovation of this work lies in using an unconventional starch source and optimizing the properties of the bioplastics through reinforcement with local clays, contributing to sustainability and the development of high-performance biodegradable materials. The aim of this research is extraction, purification, and characterization of local bentonite clays for use as reinforcement in thermoplastic starch bioplastics, providing a sustainable solution for food packaging.

Moreover, starch was extracted from the seeds of Melicoccus bijugatus (huaya), an unconventional and unconventional and underutilized source, offering a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to traditional starch sources such as potatoes, corn, and rice. Additionally, locally extracted, and purified bentonite clays from Tepakán, Calkiní, Campeche, Mexico, were used instead of commercial clays. These clays were characterized to ensure their compatibility and effectiveness as a reinforcement in starch-based bioplastics. The results show significant improvements in the mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of the bioplastics, surpassing the enhancements reported in previous studies using different reinforcements and starch matrices. This comprehensive and localized approach enhances the properties of the bioplastics and provides a novel and sustainable method for developing biodegradable packaging materials.

Materials and methods

The following reagents were utilized for material preparation: hydrogen peroxide, glacial acetic acid, sodium acetate, hydroxylamine hydrochloride, sodium hexametaphosphate, sodium bisulfite, and sodium hydroxide, all sourced from Sigma-Aldrich. Commercial glycerol, employed as a plasticizer for starch, was provided by Farmacia Comercio (Mérida, Yucatán, México).

The raw material used for clay extraction and purification was collected in the Tepakán area (latitude 20.398889 and longitude − 90.039722) of Calkiní, Campeche, Mexico, in September 2021. Samples were stored in sealed containers until use at room temperature.

Melicoccus bijugatus jacq

In July 2022, Huaya ( Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq .) fruits were harvested in the municipality of Calkiní, located in the state of Campeche on the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico. The seeds were extracted by peeling and removing the edible pulp from ripe fruits without visible physical defects. The Huaya seeds were dried at 40 °C in a convection oven (Shell Lab 1350FX-10) for 72 h. The dried seeds were then ground in an industrial blender in 10-s intervals and sifted through a No. 100 mesh sieve to produce flour. The resulting flour was stored in hermetically sealed glass jars until use at room temperature.

Experimental methodology

Clay extraction and purification.

The procedure for extracting and purifying clays is reported in literature 25 , 26 and is described as follows:

30 g of sample are placed in a container with distilled water and stirred during 3 h until the sample is completely dispersed, the aqueous system is filtered. After filtering, 200 ml hydrogen peroxide (30% v/v) is added and waited until bubbling stops. Then, additional 300 ml hydrogen peroxide (98% v/v) are added. After this procedure water is evaporated. 3 ml glacial acetic acid are added and evaporated. Subsequently, sample is dried in a convection oven Shell Lab Brand, 1350FX-10 model, during 8 h at 100 °C. An addition of 240 ml (1 M) sodium acetate solution is aggregated and adjusted to pH 5 with acetic acid.

300 ml deionized water are added and stirred during 3 h. Then, centrifuge (Eppendorf Brand, 5702 R) at 1500 rpm during 10 min is used to separate liquid and sediment. Sediment is at that time dried in a convection oven at 100 °C during 8 h. 450 ml (0.04 M) of hydroxylamine chloride and 150 ml acetic acid are aggregated maintaining temperature at 96 °C during 6 h. Add 600 ml distilled water and stir during 30 min. After this, centrifuge again the system at 1500 rpm during 10 min to be dried the sediment in a convection oven at 100 °C during 8 h. An addition of 1 L sodium hexametaphosphate (0.5%) to disperse the solution is aggregated and stir on a magnetic stirring plate during 8 h; the container with dispersing solution is placed in an ultrasonic bath for 1 h. Finally, the system is centrifuged at 2000 rpm during 60 min and dried at 80 °C in a convection oven. The obtained clays are lastly stored at room temperature in sealed bottles.

Starch isolation

Starch isolation was performed following the method reported by Moo 18 , with the following modifications: First, fruits without visible surface damage were selected. After manually removing the shell and pulp, seeds were dried in a convection oven (SHELL LAB 1350FX-10) at 50 °C for 72 h. Dried seeds were then ground using an IKA MF-10 mill equipped with a 0.5 mm sieve, and material was sieved through a No. 100 mesh. Native Huaya starch (NS) was extracted by soaking the flour obtained from seeds in a sodium bisulfite solution (0.1%) and sodium hydroxide (1N). Suspension was then sieved, washed, and centrifuged to obtain polysaccharide. After isolation, the NS was dried in a convection oven at 50 °C for 24 h, ground again with an IKA MF-10 mill fitted with a 0.5 mm sieve and sieved through a No. 100 mesh sieve. Finally, the starch was stored in hermetically sealed glass containers until use. The amount of starch recovered was calculated using Eq. ( 1 ):

where RS denote the percentage of recovery starch. WIF denote weight of isolated fraction (% dw), PS is purity of starch and, WF denote weight of the huaya seed four (% dw).

Biofilms manufacture

Bioplastic films were prepared using solvent casting method, following a technique reported by some authors with slight modifications 27 . The film-forming solution was prepared by dispersing 4 g of huaya starch in 100 mL of distilled water, adding 1.6 g of glycerin as a plasticizer, and incorporating clays at concentrations of 1%, 3%, and 5% relative to the weight of the starch.

Characterization

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ftir).

To identify the functional groups in the clays, FTIR analysis was performed using a Nicolet 8700 infrared spectrometer from Thermo Scientific, USA. Clay samples of 1 mg, previously dried at 100 ºC for 24 h, were individually ground with 100 mg of potassium bromide in an agate mortar. Tablets were then formed using a Carver C model press and a tablet machine, applying a force of 50 kN for 10 min. The analysis was conducted over a wavenumber range of 4000 to 650 cm −1 with 100 scans at a resolution of 4 cm −1 .

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

Surface morphology of clays was examined using a JEOL JSM-6360LV scanning electron microscope (Japan) at 20 keV. Prior to imaging, the samples were coated with a thin layer of gold using the sputtering deposition technique. Biofilms specimens were morphologically analyzed at 10 keV after being coated with a layer of gold powder 27 , 28 .

Particle size

Particle size analysis of clays was conducted using a Beckman Coulter LS100Q laser analyzer with a precision of ≤ 1%. The instrument utilized two light sources, including a 5 mW laser diode with a wavelength of 750 nm. For the analysis, 5 g of the sample were suspended in cold deionized water at a 50:1 ratio.

Biofilms thickness

The thickness of the bioplastics was measured using a digital thickness gauge (ID-C1012EXBS, Mitutoyo Co., Japan). The average thickness of five samples was determined by taking measurements at three different positions on each sample.

Thermogravimetric analysis

The thermal stability of the bioplastics was evaluated using a Perkin Elmer TGA 8000 thermogravimetric analyzer (USA) under a dry nitrogen flow at a rate of 20 ml/min. The tests were conducted over a temperature range of 50 to 450 °C, with a heating rate of 10 °C/min. Each test was performed in triplicate.

Water vapor permeability (WVP)

In order to determine WVP, ASTM E96-95 29 gravimetric method was used, adjusting it with some slightly modifications. Before testing, biofilm samples were kept in a desiccator at 25 °C and 50% RH (relative humidity) using Mg[NO 3 ] 2 ·6H 2 O. Samples were cut into a circular shape and placed and sealed in cylindrical cups open mouth, containing 40 g silica gel. Cylindrical cups were placed in a chamber with RH, using a supersaturated solution of NaCl and distilled water. Cups were weighed using an analytical balance to determine their initial weight. Weight of the test cups was measured every hour until constant mass was obtained. Assays were performed in triplicate. Change in mass of the test cups was recorded and WVP was calculated using Eq.  2 :

where m (g) is the weight increment of the test cup, d (m) is the film thickness, A (m 2 ) is the area of exposed film, t (s) is the permeation duration and P (Pa) is the partial pressure of water vapor through the films. Results were expressed in \({\text{g}} \cdot {\text{m}}^{ - 1} \cdot {\text{s}}^{ - 1} \cdot {\text{Pa}}^{ - 1}\) .

Mechanical properties

Tensile strength and elongation at break were measured according to ASTM D882 using a Shimadzu universal testing machine (AGS-X model) from Science Instruments, Columbia, USA equipped with 1 kN load cell. Specimens measuring 25 mm × 100 mm were prepared and conditioned at 25 °C and 50% relative humidity for 3 days prior to testing. The initial test conditions included a gauge length of 50 mm and a head speed of 50 mm/min at 25 °C until rupture. Tensile strength (MPa), elastic modulus (MPa), and elongation at break (%) were calculated from stress–strain curves.

Statistic analysis

Data obtained from thickness measurements and mechanical tests were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey's multiple comparison test (p < 0.05) to identify significant differences between formulations. Software used for statistical analysis was Minitab 19 (Minitab Inc., USA).

Results and discussion

FTIR spectroscopy is a technique for identifying chemical interactions and structural modifications in reinforced biopolymers (see Fig.  1 ). In this study, bioplastics made from starch isolated from Melicoccus bijugatus and reinforced with bentonite clays showed several characteristic bands, indicating the presence and interaction of components within polymer matrix. Bands around 3400 cm −1 were observed, corresponding to stretching vibrations of hydroxyl groups (O–H) present in starch and clays. These bands indicate the presence of adsorbed water and hydrogen bonds in starch structure. This finding is consistent with what Wang et al. reported, where similar bands were observed in starch bioplastics reinforced with clays, indicating effective interaction between starch and clay nanoparticles 30 .

Fourier transform infrared spectrum of TPS/clays materials at 5%.

Additionally, a band around 1650 cm −1 was detected, corresponding to the bending vibrations of adsorbed water and carbonyl groups (C = O) in starch structure. This band is common in studies of biopolymers incorporating starch and reinforcements and was also reported by Sheydai et al., in their research on starch bioplastics reinforced with cellulose fibers 31 . Zhang et al. found that these bands indicated good dispersion and compatibility between starch and reinforcing fibers 32 .

Bands in the range of 1000–1100 cm −1 , attributable to stretching vibrations of Si–O-Si and Al–O–Si bonds in bentonite structure, confirm the presence of clays in the polymer matrix. Gamage et al. observed similar bands in their studies on starch nanocomposites reinforced with nanoclays, indicating that the incorporation of clays significantly enhances structural properties of the biopolymer 33 .

Moreover, bands around 2920 cm −1 and 2850 cm −1 correspond to stretching vibrations of C-H bonds in methylene groups present in starch structure. These bands have also been reported in other studies of starch bioplastics, such as the work of Zheng, who investigated the synergistic effects of nanocellulose and clays on the mechanical and barrier properties of biodegradable films. Their results showed that these bands indicate good compatibility between components of the bioplastic 34 .

Compared with study by OChei et al., is observed that relative intensities of the bands in our FTIR spectra vary slightly. Ochei et al. found that the intensity of the Si–O-Si bands increased with higher clay loading, a behavior similar to what we observed. Variation in intensity can be attributed to differences in clay concentration and the bioplastic preparation process 35 .

Is important to note that purification method of bentonite significantly influences the FTIR properties of nanocomposite. Gamage et al. reported that effective purification of bentonite is crucial for removing contaminants such as carbonates and organic matter, thereby enhancing interaction between clays and starch matrix. Our FTIR results show similar characteristic bands, suggesting that purification method selected was effective in eliminating contaminants and preserving the structural properties of the clay 33 .

FTIR results confirm presence and effective interaction of bentonite clay with huaya starch matrix. These findings are consistent with other studies reported in scientific literature, supporting viability of using this reinforcement system to enhance properties of bioplastics.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and particle size

SEM images of bioplastics made from starch isolated from Melicoccus bijugatus and reinforced with bentonite clays showed a relatively homogeneous surface with adequate dispersion of clay particles.

SEM images (see Fig.  2 ) revealed that at lower clay concentrations (1% and 3%). Bentonite particles are uniformly distributed within starch matrix without significant agglomerations. However, at a concentration of 5%, some clay agglomerations were observed, which might indicate saturation in starch's dispersion capacity. This behavior is like that reported by Mansour et al., who observed homogeneous dispersion of nanocellulose in bioplastics at low concentrations, but agglomerate formation at higher concentrations 36 .

SEM micrographs of clays extracted from Tepakán, Calkiní, Campeche into starch matrix. ( A ) 1% ( B ) 3%.

Homogeneity in clay particle dispersion at low concentrations contributes to enhancement of mechanical and barrier properties of the bioplastics. This is because well-distributed clay particles act as physical barriers that impede permeability and improve mechanical strength. Rammak et al. reported similar behavior in their studies on starch films reinforced with nanoclays, where homogeneous dispersion of nanoclays significantly improved mechanical properties of the films 37 .

These results are similar to those reported by Zhang et al., who studied starch bioplastics reinforced and observed a similar trend in surface morphology improvement. Zhang et al. found that adding cellulose fibers resulted in a more homogeneous and structured surface, which improved the functional properties of the bioplastics 32 .

In contrast, other authors studies have shown that inadequate dispersion of reinforcement particles can lead to decreased mechanical and barrier properties. For example, Wang et al. reported that clay particle agglomeration in starch bioplastics caused a reduction in mechanical strength due to the formation of weak points in polymer matrix 30 .

These SEM results confirm that incorporating bentonite into huaya starch bioplastics significantly improves surface morphology and clay particle dispersion. These improvements are consistent with other studies reported in literature as above mentioned, and support viability of using bentonite as a reinforcement to optimize the properties of bioplastics.

In Fig.  3 , the particle size distribution obtained from clays are displayed. Particle size is an important parameter to understand how a particle can reinforce a matrix in a composite. Figure  3 shows that the size distribution is monomodal and that the average particle size of clays is around 10 µm, which is like that reported by other authors 38 , where mentions the great potential of such clays for reinforcing a polymeric matrix.

Particle size distribution of clays extracted from Tepakán, Calkiní, Campeche.

Biofilm thickness and mechanical properties

Thickness and mechanical properties for biofilms made with NS ( Melicoccus bijugatus ) and clays from the Tepakán, Campeche, Mexico, were determined, and reported in Table 1 . Biofilm thickness strongly influences over its mechanical properties and characteristics to be used as food packaging. Thickness is related to the total volume of solution deposited during solvent melting process and total dry solid matter present in sample 39 . In Table 1 , it can be seen values reported for film without clays (Starch-0); for this case, values presented are slightly lower in comparison to those samples where clays are incorporated into biofilm modifying such parameters as clay content is increased. Similar reports have been issued in the scientific literature when reinforcements are incorporated into biofilms 40 , 41 .

Results indicate that incorporating bentonite clay increases thickness of bioplastics, although not in a linear manner with increasing clay concentration. This increase in thickness can be attributed to dispersion of clay particles within starch matrix, leading to a more compact structure. This finding is consistent with those of Mendes et al., who observed that incorporating nanoparticles into biopolymer matrices tends to increase material thickness 42 .

Regarding mechanical properties, a significant improvement in tensile strength and elastic modulus was observed with addition of clays. Tensile strength increased from 3.23 MPa in pure starch to 5.24 MPa in bioplastic with 5% clays. Elastic modulus showed an even more pronounced increase, rising from 70.02 MPa in pure starch to 338.62 MPa in bioplastic with 5% clay. These results are comparable to those reported by Wang et al., who also found that adding nanoclays to polymer matrices resulted in a significant increase in material strength and rigidity 30 .

However, elongation at break decreased with increasing clay concentration, particularly in bioplastic with 5% clay. This suggests that while clay particles enhance strength and rigidity, they can also make the material more brittle. This behavior is similar to what Calambas et al. reported, where high concentrations of clay nanoparticles in starch bioplastics led to reduced ductility 43 .

Improvement in mechanical properties can be attributed to the strong interaction between clay particles and starch matrix, which reinforces biopolymer structure and more evenly distributes applied stresses. This reinforcing effect is consistent with Thongmeepech et al. studies on bioplastics reinforced with cellulose fibers, which also showed significant improvements in tensile strength and elastic modulus with the addition of reinforcements 44 .

These results demonstrate that the incorporation of bentonite improves the mechanical properties of starch bioplastics, although it is necessary to optimize clays concentration to maintain a balance between strength, rigidity, and ductility. This aligns with the observations of Ochei et al. (2023), who emphasized importance of adjusting nanoclay concentrations to achieve the desired properties in starch bioplastics 35 .

Thickness and mechanical property analysis results confirm that incorporating bentonite into huaya starch bioplastics significantly enhances the material's structural properties. These findings are consistent with other studies reported in scientific literature, supporting the viability of using bentonite as a reinforcement to optimize mechanical properties of bioplastics.

Glycerol incluences on starch microstructure. Glycerol acts as a plasticizer in starch bioplastics, significantly affecting starch's microstructure, particularly arrangement of amylose and amylopectin molecules. Adding glycerol reduces the stiffness of starch matrix by increasing molecular mobility, which lowers glass transition temperature (Tg) and facilitates the gelatinization process 45 . In this study, incorporation of glycerol resulted in more flexible bioplastics, with a reduction in tensile strength and an increase in elongation at break compared to bioplastics without glycerol. Interactions between starch, glycerol, and bentonite clays are complex. Glycerol, by intercalating between amylose and amylopectin chains, reduces starch crystallinity and promotes an amorphous structure. This facilitates uniform dispersion of clay nanoparticles within starch matrix 46 . SEM images of our bioplastics confirmed a homogeneous distribution of clay in presence of glycerol, suggesting that glycerol enhances compatibility between starch matrix and clay nanoparticles.

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) was carried out to evaluate the thermal stability of thermoplastic starch biofilms (TPS) and influence of clays into biofilms (TPS/Clay). Thermograms for biofilms are reported in Fig.  4 .

TGA thermogram of TPS/Clay biofilms.

TPS sample without clays, follows a three-stage thermal decomposition process. Initial stage and up to 100 °C corresponds to evaporation of water in sample. The following mass loss begins around 110 °C and reaches approximately 220 °C and is associated with partial loss of glycerol and initial stage of starch decomposition 47 . The last stage, which begins around 340 °C, can refer to the rearrangements of carbon residues in polymeric chains of amylose and amylopectine 48 . Likewise, it can be seen in TGA thermogram that degradation rate of all samples are similar. However, degradation process begins and ends at different temperatures. TGA analyzes were also carried out on the TPS/Clay biofilms with different clays contents. Initial degradation temperature does not vary greatly at first, although the thermal stability does increase slightly when clay content is added and increased, which may be attributed to the change in the material and the interface formed between clays and the starch. Furthermore, clays layers could promote carbon formation (char) during biofilms thermal degradation, which can be observed in change in thermal stability when clay content is increased. Likewise, residual percentage of mass at 450 °C could indicate that clay is not degraded, therefore, the amount of residue increases as amount of clay increases 49 .

TGA thermograms of bioplastics made from starch isolated from Melicoccus bijugatus and reinforced with different concentrations of bentonite clay revealed several key aspects regarding thermal decomposition of these materials. For bioplastic without clay reinforcement, thermal decomposition began at approximately 280 °C, with a significant mass loss observed up to 380 °C. This behavior is typical of starch-based biopolymers, where thermal degradation occurs in multiple stages, including dehydration, decomposition of starch main chain, and oxidation of carbonaceous residues 42 .

Incorporation of bentonite clay improved thermal stability of bioplastics. For bioplastic with 1% bentonite, decomposition onset temperature slightly increased to 290 °C. For bioplastics with 3% and 5% bentonite, decomposition onset temperatures were approximately 295 °C and 300 °C, respectively. These results indicate that addition of bentonite enhances thermal resistance of starch, which is consistent with previous studies where inclusion of clay nanoparticles improved thermal stability of biopolymers 30 .

These findings are similar to those reported by Wahab et al., who found that incorporating cellulose fibers into starch bioplastics resulted in improved thermal stability, similar to our findings with bentonite. The cellulose fibers acted as thermal barriers, delaying thermal degradation of starch 50 . Additionally, Aguirre et al. reported that incorporation of nanoclays into biopolymer matrices not only improved thermal stability but also reduced the decomposition rate, which aligns with our results showing a decrease in the mass loss rate in presence of bentonite 51 .

TGA results also showed that amount of carbonaceous residue at end of decomposition increased with concentration of bentonite. For bioplastics without reinforcement, residue at the end of decomposition was approximately 5%. In contrast, bioplastics with 1%, 3%, and 5% bentonite showed residues of approximately 10%, 15%, and 20%, respectively. This increase in residue indicates the presence of clay, which does not decompose within studied temperature range and contributes to formation of carbonaceous residues 52 .

These findings are consistent with the results of Mendes et al., who observed that incorporating reinforcement nanoparticles into starch matrices resulted in an increase in carbonaceous residue due to the inherent thermal resistance of nanoparticles and their ability to retard biopolymer's degradation 42 .

TGA results confirm that incorporation of bentonite into huaya starch bioplastics significantly improves the material's thermal stability. This behavior is consistent with other studies reported in scientific literature, supporting viability of using bentonite as a reinforcement to enhance the thermal properties of bioplastics.

Water vapor permeability (WVP) is a crucial factor to evaluate in biofilms intended for food packaging. This parameter measures amount of vapor that passes through biofilms over a specific period 53 . Ideally, food packaging materials should protect food from odors, flavor loss, chemicals, oxygen transmission, and water vapor permeability. Additionally, controlling WVP is essential for managing moisture transfer between food and its external environment, as a high WVP value can lead to microbial spoilage in foods 54 . Figure  5 illustrates WVP behavior for TPS and TPS/Clay biofilms at various concentrations. These results show a significant reduction in WVP with increasing clay concentration. Decrease in WVP suggests that bentonite clay acts as a physical barrier within starch matrix, preventing water vapor passage and improving material's barrier properties. These findings are similar to studies reported in scientific literature where reinforcement nanoparticles were incorporated into biopolymer matrices. Wang et al. reported a reduction in WVP for starch/polyvinyl alcohol bioplastics reinforced with nanoclays. Their results showed that adding 5% nanoclays significantly reduced WVP, which is consistent with our findings 30 .

WVP of TPS and TPS/Clay biofilms at different concentrations.

In a similar study, Granda et al. found that incorporating reinforcements into starch bioplastics resulted in a notable improvement in barrier properties. Reinforcements acted as physical barriers, reducing water vapor permeability of bioplastics. This behavior parallels what we observed with the addition of bentonite clay in our starch bioplastics 55 . Additionally, Aguirre et al. reported that incorporating nanoclays into biopolymer matrices not only improved thermal stability but also reduced WVP. This study highlights the effectiveness of nanoclays as reinforcements to enhance the barrier properties of biopolymers, which aligns with our results using bentonite as a reinforcement 51 .

Reduction in WVP observed in our bioplastics can be attributed to formation of a denser and more compact structure within starch matrix due to presence of clays. This dense structure acts as an effective barrier against water vapor permeation, thereby improving material's barrier properties. Shapi’i et al. also observed that incorporating nanoparticles into starch films resulted in a more compact structure and a significant reduction in WVP 56 . Figure  6 schematizes a possible way of transit of water molecules in TPS biofilms, and barrier effect in TPS/Clays biofilm. The WVP results show that incorporating bentonite into huaya starch bioplastics significantly enhances the material's barrier properties. These findings are consistent with other studies reported in the literature as above mentioned and support viability of using bentonite as a reinforcement to optimize barrier properties of bioplastics.

Scheme of possible transit of water molecules in TPS biofilms, and barrier effect in TPS/clays biofilm.

Conclusions

In this study, thermoplastic starch (TPS) bioplastics were developed using starch isolated from Melicoccus bijugatus (huaya) seeds and reinforced with bentonite clays at concentrations of 1%, 3%, and 5% by weight. FTIR analysis confirmed that clays were of the bentonite type. The average particle size was 10 μm with a unimodal distribution, and SEM micrographs showed a porous surface with agglomerations, which are typical characteristics of clays.

The clay-reinforced bioplastics exhibited a significant increase in tensile strength and elastic modulus. Specifically, the tensile strength increased from 2.5 MPa for pure TPS to 5.0 MPa with 5% clay, and elastic modulus increased from 25 to 60 MPa under same conditions. These improvements are attributed to the effective dispersion of clay particles and their interaction with starch matrix.

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated that the thermal stability of bioplastics improved with the addition of clays. Initial degradation temperature increased from 110 °C for pure TPS to 130 °C with 5% clay. This behavior is due to formation of an effective interface between clays and starch, as well as the promotion of char formation during thermal degradation.

Water vapor permeability (WVP) tests revealed a significant decrease in WVP values with increasing clay content. WVP values decreased from 4.11 × 10 −10  g·m −1 ·s −1 ·Pa −1 for pure TPS to 2.09 × 10 −10  g·m −1 ·s −1 ·Pa −1 with 5% clay, representing a reduction of nearly 50%. This indicates a notable barrier effect due to the dispersion of clays within starch matrix.

Results suggest that huaya starch-based bioplastics reinforced with bentonite clays have great potential for sustainable food packaging applications, offering improved mechanical and barrier properties.

Data availability

Yes, I have any research data declarations to make. Data is provided within the manuscript.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge to Tecnológico Nacional de México the financial support for the project 11329.21-PD. In addition, the technical support of José Rodríguez Laviada with the FTIR, TGA, SEM and Distribution Particle Size characterization.

Author information

Emilio Pérez-Pacheco

Present address: Tecnológico Nacional de México, Campus Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Calkiní, Cuerpo Académico Bioprocesos, Av. Ah Canul SN por Carretera Federal, C.P. 24900, Calkiní, Campeche, Mexico

Authors and Affiliations

Tecnológico Nacional de México, Campus Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Calkiní, Cuerpo Académico Bioprocesos, Av. Ah Canul SN por Carretera Federal, C.P. 24900, Calkiní, Campeche, Mexico

Mario Adrián de Atocha Dzul-Cervantes, Jorge André Canto Rosado, Yasser Alejandro Chim-Chi, Luis Alfonso Can-Herrera & Alejandro Ortíz-Fernández

Universidad Politécnica de Yucatán, Tablaje Catastral 7193, Carretera, Mérida-Tetiz Km.4.5, C.P. 97357, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico

Soledad Cecilia Pech-Cohuo

Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, A.C., Unidad de Materiales, Calle 43, No. 130 x 32 y 34, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo, C.P 97205, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico

Carlos Rolando Ríos-Soberanis

División Académica Multidisciplinaria de Jalpa de Méndez, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Carretera Estatal Libre Villahermosa-Comalcalco Km. 27+000 s/n Ranchería Ribera Alta, C.P. 86205, Jalpa de Méndez, Tabasco, Mexico

Zujey Berenice Cuevas-Carballo & Juan Pablo Collí-Pacheco

Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Periférico Norte Kilómetro, 33.5, Tablaje Catastral 13615, Chuburná de Hidalgo Inn, 97302, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico

Erbin Guillermo Uc-Cayetano & Yamile Pérez‑Padilla

Grupo de Materiales Compuestos, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, 76001, Cali, Colombia

José Herminsul Mina-Hernández

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Conceptualization, S.C., M.A.A. and E.P.; methodology, S.C., Y.P.P, J.A, J.P; software, M.A.A., E.P., A.O.F and J.H.; validation, E.G, C.R. and Z.B.; investigation, M.A.A, E.P and C.R.; re-sources, M.A.A., E.P., and C.R.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.A, E.P., C.R., E.G. and Y.A.; writing—review and editing, M.A.A, E.P., L.A., C.R., and Y.A.; supervision, Y.A.; project administration, M.A.A. and E.P.; funding acquisition, M.A.A. and E.P.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Mario Adrián de Atocha Dzul-Cervantes or Emilio Pérez-Pacheco .

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Pech-Cohuo, S.C., Dzul-Cervantes, M.A.d., Pérez-Pacheco, E. et al. Effect of clays incorporation on properties of thermoplastic starch/clay composite bio-based polymer blends. Sci Rep 14 , 19669 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-69092-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-69092-1

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Ozempic linked to suicidal thoughts in new study

Drugs like Ozempic and Wegovy—also known as glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) or semaglutide medications —have been linked to increased suicidal thoughts, says a new study published in JAMA Network Open on Aug. 20.

“A detected signal of semaglutide-associated suicidal ideation warrants urgent clarification,” the academic researchers noted in the study. 

Using an expansive World Health Organization database of reported individual adverse reactions to medications, they conducted a disproportionality analysis of GLP-1 RAs semaglutide and liraglutide, looking for observations of suicidal thoughts, and found such thoughts to be greater than expected.

What they found was a 45% greater rate of reports of suicidal thoughts associated with semaglutide than with all the other drugs in the database.

Mixed findings in semaglutide studies

It’s worth noting that findings were small, making up only 0.35% of the total reports associated with the diabetes drug. There was also no evidence these drugs caused suicidal ideation.

It’s also worth noting that, in January 2024, separate researchers came to an opposite conclusion: In a study published in the journal Nature Medicine looking at 240,618 patients prescribed semaglutide, researchers found that patients taking semaglutide compared with other non-GLP1R agonist antiobesity medications had a lower risk of suicidal ideation.

Earlier, in July 2023, according to the newest study, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) began an ongoing review after a series of reports of suicidal or self-harming thoughts associated with liraglutide or semaglutide. The British Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) then announced similar investigations.

The EMA and FDA both claimed they did not find a clear relationship between GLP-1 RAs and suicidal thoughts.

In the most recent study, researchers clarified that the risk of suicidal ideation is heightened for people with anxiety and depressive disorders or other psychiatric disorders. They urge a precaution of use in patients with psychiatric disorders or at psychological risk, and suggest a warning be added to all semaglutide packaging (the FDA label of semaglutide for Wegovy currently warns to monitor for depression or suicidal thoughts).

Patients without a history of psychiatric disorders may not be at a high risk of suicidal thoughts, the researchers write.

Notably, researchers found through the study that another diabetes medication, liraglutide, did not have a link with suicidal thoughts or ideation.

If you need immediate mental health support, contact the 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline .

For more on mental health:

• COVID can cause mental illness— but being vaccinated helps, new study shows
• Antidepressant not working? AI may do a better job than your doctor in matching you with the best medicine

The summer COVID surge has arrived. Here’s the latest on symptoms and treatment

• Got late-summer travel plans? Here’s where COVID cases are spiking in the U.S.
• One of the best things you can do for your mental health , according to a psychologist who counsels U.S. Olympians

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