bad effects of homework essay

Is homework a necessary evil?

After decades of debate, researchers are still sorting out the truth about homework’s pros and cons. One point they can agree on: Quality assignments matter.

By Kirsten Weir

March 2016, Vol 47, No. 3

Print version: page 36

• Schools and Classrooms

Homework battles have raged for decades. For as long as kids have been whining about doing their homework, parents and education reformers have complained that homework's benefits are dubious. Meanwhile many teachers argue that take-home lessons are key to helping students learn. Now, as schools are shifting to the new (and hotly debated) Common Core curriculum standards, educators, administrators and researchers are turning a fresh eye toward the question of homework's value.

But when it comes to deciphering the research literature on the subject, homework is anything but an open book.

The 10-minute rule

In many ways, homework seems like common sense. Spend more time practicing multiplication or studying Spanish vocabulary and you should get better at math or Spanish. But it may not be that simple.

Homework can indeed produce academic benefits, such as increased understanding and retention of the material, says Duke University social psychologist Harris Cooper, PhD, one of the nation's leading homework researchers. But not all students benefit. In a review of studies published from 1987 to 2003, Cooper and his colleagues found that homework was linked to better test scores in high school and, to a lesser degree, in middle school. Yet they found only faint evidence that homework provided academic benefit in elementary school ( Review of Educational Research , 2006).

Then again, test scores aren't everything. Homework proponents also cite the nonacademic advantages it might confer, such as the development of personal responsibility, good study habits and time-management skills. But as to hard evidence of those benefits, "the jury is still out," says Mollie Galloway, PhD, associate professor of educational leadership at Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon. "I think there's a focus on assigning homework because [teachers] think it has these positive outcomes for study skills and habits. But we don't know for sure that's the case."

Even when homework is helpful, there can be too much of a good thing. "There is a limit to how much kids can benefit from home study," Cooper says. He agrees with an oft-cited rule of thumb that students should do no more than 10 minutes a night per grade level — from about 10 minutes in first grade up to a maximum of about two hours in high school. Both the National Education Association and National Parent Teacher Association support that limit.

Beyond that point, kids don't absorb much useful information, Cooper says. In fact, too much homework can do more harm than good. Researchers have cited drawbacks, including boredom and burnout toward academic material, less time for family and extracurricular activities, lack of sleep and increased stress.

In a recent study of Spanish students, Rubén Fernández-Alonso, PhD, and colleagues found that students who were regularly assigned math and science homework scored higher on standardized tests. But when kids reported having more than 90 to 100 minutes of homework per day, scores declined ( Journal of Educational Psychology , 2015).

"At all grade levels, doing other things after school can have positive effects," Cooper says. "To the extent that homework denies access to other leisure and community activities, it's not serving the child's best interest."

Children of all ages need down time in order to thrive, says Denise Pope, PhD, a professor of education at Stanford University and a co-founder of Challenge Success, a program that partners with secondary schools to implement policies that improve students' academic engagement and well-being.

"Little kids and big kids need unstructured time for play each day," she says. Certainly, time for physical activity is important for kids' health and well-being. But even time spent on social media can help give busy kids' brains a break, she says.

All over the map

But are teachers sticking to the 10-minute rule? Studies attempting to quantify time spent on homework are all over the map, in part because of wide variations in methodology, Pope says.

A 2014 report by the Brookings Institution examined the question of homework, comparing data from a variety of sources. That report cited findings from a 2012 survey of first-year college students in which 38.4 percent reported spending six hours or more per week on homework during their last year of high school. That was down from 49.5 percent in 1986 ( The Brown Center Report on American Education , 2014).

The Brookings report also explored survey data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress, which asked 9-, 13- and 17-year-old students how much homework they'd done the previous night. They found that between 1984 and 2012, there was a slight increase in homework for 9-year-olds, but homework amounts for 13- and 17-year-olds stayed roughly the same, or even decreased slightly.

Yet other evidence suggests that some kids might be taking home much more work than they can handle. Robert Pressman, PhD, and colleagues recently investigated the 10-minute rule among more than 1,100 students, and found that elementary-school kids were receiving up to three times as much homework as recommended. As homework load increased, so did family stress, the researchers found ( American Journal of Family Therapy , 2015).

Many high school students also seem to be exceeding the recommended amounts of homework. Pope and Galloway recently surveyed more than 4,300 students from 10 high-achieving high schools. Students reported bringing home an average of just over three hours of homework nightly ( Journal of Experiential Education , 2013).

On the positive side, students who spent more time on homework in that study did report being more behaviorally engaged in school — for instance, giving more effort and paying more attention in class, Galloway says. But they were not more invested in the homework itself. They also reported greater academic stress and less time to balance family, friends and extracurricular activities. They experienced more physical health problems as well, such as headaches, stomach troubles and sleep deprivation. "Three hours per night is too much," Galloway says.

In the high-achieving schools Pope and Galloway studied, more than 90 percent of the students go on to college. There's often intense pressure to succeed academically, from both parents and peers. On top of that, kids in these communities are often overloaded with extracurricular activities, including sports and clubs. "They're very busy," Pope says. "Some kids have up to 40 hours a week — a full-time job's worth — of extracurricular activities." And homework is yet one more commitment on top of all the others.

"Homework has perennially acted as a source of stress for students, so that piece of it is not new," Galloway says. "But especially in upper-middle-class communities, where the focus is on getting ahead, I think the pressure on students has been ratcheted up."

Yet homework can be a problem at the other end of the socioeconomic spectrum as well. Kids from wealthier homes are more likely to have resources such as computers, Internet connections, dedicated areas to do schoolwork and parents who tend to be more educated and more available to help them with tricky assignments. Kids from disadvantaged homes are more likely to work at afterschool jobs, or to be home without supervision in the evenings while their parents work multiple jobs, says Lea Theodore, PhD, a professor of school psychology at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. They are less likely to have computers or a quiet place to do homework in peace.

"Homework can highlight those inequities," she says.

Quantity vs. quality

One point researchers agree on is that for all students, homework quality matters. But too many kids are feeling a lack of engagement with their take-home assignments, many experts say. In Pope and Galloway's research, only 20 percent to 30 percent of students said they felt their homework was useful or meaningful.

"Students are assigned a lot of busywork. They're naming it as a primary stressor, but they don't feel it's supporting their learning," Galloway says.

"Homework that's busywork is not good for anyone," Cooper agrees. Still, he says, different subjects call for different kinds of assignments. "Things like vocabulary and spelling are learned through practice. Other kinds of courses require more integration of material and drawing on different skills."

But critics say those skills can be developed with many fewer hours of homework each week. Why assign 50 math problems, Pope asks, when 10 would be just as constructive? One Advanced Placement biology teacher she worked with through Challenge Success experimented with cutting his homework assignments by a third, and then by half. "Test scores didn't go down," she says. "You can have a rigorous course and not have a crazy homework load."

Still, changing the culture of homework won't be easy. Teachers-to-be get little instruction in homework during their training, Pope says. And despite some vocal parents arguing that kids bring home too much homework, many others get nervous if they think their child doesn't have enough. "Teachers feel pressured to give homework because parents expect it to come home," says Galloway. "When it doesn't, there's this idea that the school might not be doing its job."

Galloway argues teachers and school administrators need to set clear goals when it comes to homework — and parents and students should be in on the discussion, too. "It should be a broader conversation within the community, asking what's the purpose of homework? Why are we giving it? Who is it serving? Who is it not serving?"

Until schools and communities agree to take a hard look at those questions, those backpacks full of take-home assignments will probably keep stirring up more feelings than facts.

Further reading

• Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987-2003. Review of Educational Research, 76 (1), 1–62. doi: 10.3102/00346543076001001
• Galloway, M., Connor, J., & Pope, D. (2013). Nonacademic effects of homework in privileged, high-performing high schools. The Journal of Experimental Education, 81 (4), 490–510. doi: 10.1080/00220973.2012.745469
• Pope, D., Brown, M., & Miles, S. (2015). Overloaded and underprepared: Strategies for stronger schools and healthy, successful kids . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

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More than two hours of homework may be counterproductive, research suggests.

A Stanford education researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.   "Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good," wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .   The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students' views on homework.   Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.   Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.   "The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students' advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being," Pope wrote.   Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.   Their study found that too much homework is associated with:   • Greater stress : 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.   • Reductions in health : In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.   • Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits : Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were "not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills," according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.   A balancing act   The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.   Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as "pointless" or "mindless" in order to keep their grades up.   "This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points," said Pope, who is also a co-founder of Challenge Success , a nonprofit organization affiliated with the GSE that conducts research and works with schools and parents to improve students' educational experiences..   Pope said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.   "Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development," wrote Pope.   High-performing paradox   In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. "Young people are spending more time alone," they wrote, "which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities."   Student perspectives   The researchers say that while their open-ended or "self-reporting" methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for "typical adolescent complaining" – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.   The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Clifton B. Parker is a writer at the Stanford News Service .

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Student Opinion

Should We Get Rid of Homework?

Some educators are pushing to get rid of homework. Would that be a good thing?

By Jeremy Engle and Michael Gonchar

Do you like doing homework? Do you think it has benefited you educationally?

Has homework ever helped you practice a difficult skill — in math, for example — until you mastered it? Has it helped you learn new concepts in history or science? Has it helped to teach you life skills, such as independence and responsibility? Or, have you had a more negative experience with homework? Does it stress you out, numb your brain from busywork or actually make you fall behind in your classes?

Should we get rid of homework?

In “ The Movement to End Homework Is Wrong, ” published in July, the Times Opinion writer Jay Caspian Kang argues that homework may be imperfect, but it still serves an important purpose in school. The essay begins:

Do students really need to do their homework? As a parent and a former teacher, I have been pondering this question for quite a long time. The teacher side of me can acknowledge that there were assignments I gave out to my students that probably had little to no academic value. But I also imagine that some of my students never would have done their basic reading if they hadn’t been trained to complete expected assignments, which would have made the task of teaching an English class nearly impossible. As a parent, I would rather my daughter not get stuck doing the sort of pointless homework I would occasionally assign, but I also think there’s a lot of value in saying, “Hey, a lot of work you’re going to end up doing in your life is pointless, so why not just get used to it?” I certainly am not the only person wondering about the value of homework. Recently, the sociologist Jessica McCrory Calarco and the mathematics education scholars Ilana Horn and Grace Chen published a paper, “ You Need to Be More Responsible: The Myth of Meritocracy and Teachers’ Accounts of Homework Inequalities .” They argued that while there’s some evidence that homework might help students learn, it also exacerbates inequalities and reinforces what they call the “meritocratic” narrative that says kids who do well in school do so because of “individual competence, effort and responsibility.” The authors believe this meritocratic narrative is a myth and that homework — math homework in particular — further entrenches the myth in the minds of teachers and their students. Calarco, Horn and Chen write, “Research has highlighted inequalities in students’ homework production and linked those inequalities to differences in students’ home lives and in the support students’ families can provide.”

Mr. Kang argues:

But there’s a defense of homework that doesn’t really have much to do with class mobility, equality or any sense of reinforcing the notion of meritocracy. It’s one that became quite clear to me when I was a teacher: Kids need to learn how to practice things. Homework, in many cases, is the only ritualized thing they have to do every day. Even if we could perfectly equalize opportunity in school and empower all students not to be encumbered by the weight of their socioeconomic status or ethnicity, I’m not sure what good it would do if the kids didn’t know how to do something relentlessly, over and over again, until they perfected it. Most teachers know that type of progress is very difficult to achieve inside the classroom, regardless of a student’s background, which is why, I imagine, Calarco, Horn and Chen found that most teachers weren’t thinking in a structural inequalities frame. Holistic ideas of education, in which learning is emphasized and students can explore concepts and ideas, are largely for the types of kids who don’t need to worry about class mobility. A defense of rote practice through homework might seem revanchist at this moment, but if we truly believe that schools should teach children lessons that fall outside the meritocracy, I can’t think of one that matters more than the simple satisfaction of mastering something that you were once bad at. That takes homework and the acknowledgment that sometimes a student can get a question wrong and, with proper instruction, eventually get it right.

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Is Homework Good for Kids? Here’s What the Research Says

A s kids return to school, debate is heating up once again over how they should spend their time after they leave the classroom for the day.

The no-homework policy of a second-grade teacher in Texas went viral last week , earning praise from parents across the country who lament the heavy workload often assigned to young students. Brandy Young told parents she would not formally assign any homework this year, asking students instead to eat dinner with their families, play outside and go to bed early.

But the question of how much work children should be doing outside of school remains controversial, and plenty of parents take issue with no-homework policies, worried their kids are losing a potential academic advantage. Here’s what you need to know:

For decades, the homework standard has been a “10-minute rule,” which recommends a daily maximum of 10 minutes of homework per grade level. Second graders, for example, should do about 20 minutes of homework each night. High school seniors should complete about two hours of homework each night. The National PTA and the National Education Association both support that guideline.

But some schools have begun to give their youngest students a break. A Massachusetts elementary school has announced a no-homework pilot program for the coming school year, lengthening the school day by two hours to provide more in-class instruction. “We really want kids to go home at 4 o’clock, tired. We want their brain to be tired,” Kelly Elementary School Principal Jackie Glasheen said in an interview with a local TV station . “We want them to enjoy their families. We want them to go to soccer practice or football practice, and we want them to go to bed. And that’s it.”

A New York City public elementary school implemented a similar policy last year, eliminating traditional homework assignments in favor of family time. The change was quickly met with outrage from some parents, though it earned support from other education leaders.

New solutions and approaches to homework differ by community, and these local debates are complicated by the fact that even education experts disagree about what’s best for kids.

The research

The most comprehensive research on homework to date comes from a 2006 meta-analysis by Duke University psychology professor Harris Cooper, who found evidence of a positive correlation between homework and student achievement, meaning students who did homework performed better in school. The correlation was stronger for older students—in seventh through 12th grade—than for those in younger grades, for whom there was a weak relationship between homework and performance.

Cooper’s analysis focused on how homework impacts academic achievement—test scores, for example. His report noted that homework is also thought to improve study habits, attitudes toward school, self-discipline, inquisitiveness and independent problem solving skills. On the other hand, some studies he examined showed that homework can cause physical and emotional fatigue, fuel negative attitudes about learning and limit leisure time for children. At the end of his analysis, Cooper recommended further study of such potential effects of homework.

Despite the weak correlation between homework and performance for young children, Cooper argues that a small amount of homework is useful for all students. Second-graders should not be doing two hours of homework each night, he said, but they also shouldn’t be doing no homework.

Not all education experts agree entirely with Cooper’s assessment.

Cathy Vatterott, an education professor at the University of Missouri-St. Louis, supports the “10-minute rule” as a maximum, but she thinks there is not sufficient proof that homework is helpful for students in elementary school.

“Correlation is not causation,” she said. “Does homework cause achievement, or do high achievers do more homework?”

Vatterott, the author of Rethinking Homework: Best Practices That Support Diverse Needs , thinks there should be more emphasis on improving the quality of homework tasks, and she supports efforts to eliminate homework for younger kids.

“I have no concerns about students not starting homework until fourth grade or fifth grade,” she said, noting that while the debate over homework will undoubtedly continue, she has noticed a trend toward limiting, if not eliminating, homework in elementary school.

The issue has been debated for decades. A TIME cover in 1999 read: “Too much homework! How it’s hurting our kids, and what parents should do about it.” The accompanying story noted that the launch of Sputnik in 1957 led to a push for better math and science education in the U.S. The ensuing pressure to be competitive on a global scale, plus the increasingly demanding college admissions process, fueled the practice of assigning homework.

“The complaints are cyclical, and we’re in the part of the cycle now where the concern is for too much,” Cooper said. “You can go back to the 1970s, when you’ll find there were concerns that there was too little, when we were concerned about our global competitiveness.”

Cooper acknowledged that some students really are bringing home too much homework, and their parents are right to be concerned.

“A good way to think about homework is the way you think about medications or dietary supplements,” he said. “If you take too little, they’ll have no effect. If you take too much, they can kill you. If you take the right amount, you’ll get better.”

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Write to Katie Reilly at [email protected]

Does Homework Really Help Students Learn?

A conversation with a Wheelock researcher, a BU student, and a fourth-grade teacher

“Quality homework is engaging and relevant to kids’ lives,” says Wheelock’s Janine Bempechat. “It gives them autonomy and engages them in the community and with their families. In some subjects, like math, worksheets can be very helpful. It has to do with the value of practicing over and over.” Photo by iStock/Glenn Cook Photography

Do your homework.

If only it were that simple.

Educators have debated the merits of homework since the late 19th century. In recent years, amid concerns of some parents and teachers that children are being stressed out by too much homework, things have only gotten more fraught.

“Homework is complicated,” says developmental psychologist Janine Bempechat, a Wheelock College of Education & Human Development clinical professor. The author of the essay “ The Case for (Quality) Homework—Why It Improves Learning and How Parents Can Help ” in the winter 2019 issue of Education Next , Bempechat has studied how the debate about homework is influencing teacher preparation, parent and student beliefs about learning, and school policies.

She worries especially about socioeconomically disadvantaged students from low-performing schools who, according to research by Bempechat and others, get little or no homework.

BU Today  sat down with Bempechat and Erin Bruce (Wheelock’17,’18), a new fourth-grade teacher at a suburban Boston school, and future teacher freshman Emma Ardizzone (Wheelock) to talk about what quality homework looks like, how it can help children learn, and how schools can equip teachers to design it, evaluate it, and facilitate parents’ role in it.

BU Today: Parents and educators who are against homework in elementary school say there is no research definitively linking it to academic performance for kids in the early grades. You’ve said that they’re missing the point.

Bempechat : I think teachers assign homework in elementary school as a way to help kids develop skills they’ll need when they’re older—to begin to instill a sense of responsibility and to learn planning and organizational skills. That’s what I think is the greatest value of homework—in cultivating beliefs about learning and skills associated with academic success. If we greatly reduce or eliminate homework in elementary school, we deprive kids and parents of opportunities to instill these important learning habits and skills.

We do know that beginning in late middle school, and continuing through high school, there is a strong and positive correlation between homework completion and academic success.

That’s what I think is the greatest value of homework—in cultivating beliefs about learning and skills associated with academic success.

You talk about the importance of quality homework. What is that?

Quality homework is engaging and relevant to kids’ lives. It gives them autonomy and engages them in the community and with their families. In some subjects, like math, worksheets can be very helpful. It has to do with the value of practicing over and over.

What are your concerns about homework and low-income children?

The argument that some people make—that homework “punishes the poor” because lower-income parents may not be as well-equipped as affluent parents to help their children with homework—is very troubling to me. There are no parents who don’t care about their children’s learning. Parents don’t actually have to help with homework completion in order for kids to do well. They can help in other ways—by helping children organize a study space, providing snacks, being there as a support, helping children work in groups with siblings or friends.

Isn’t the discussion about getting rid of homework happening mostly in affluent communities?

Yes, and the stories we hear of kids being stressed out from too much homework—four or five hours of homework a night—are real. That’s problematic for physical and mental health and overall well-being. But the research shows that higher-income students get a lot more homework than lower-income kids.

Teachers may not have as high expectations for lower-income children. Schools should bear responsibility for providing supports for kids to be able to get their homework done—after-school clubs, community support, peer group support. It does kids a disservice when our expectations are lower for them.

The conversation around homework is to some extent a social class and social justice issue. If we eliminate homework for all children because affluent children have too much, we’re really doing a disservice to low-income children. They need the challenge, and every student can rise to the challenge with enough supports in place.

What did you learn by studying how education schools are preparing future teachers to handle homework?

My colleague, Margarita Jimenez-Silva, at the University of California, Davis, School of Education, and I interviewed faculty members at education schools, as well as supervising teachers, to find out how students are being prepared. And it seemed that they weren’t. There didn’t seem to be any readings on the research, or conversations on what high-quality homework is and how to design it.

Erin, what kind of training did you get in handling homework?

Bruce : I had phenomenal professors at Wheelock, but homework just didn’t come up. I did lots of student teaching. I’ve been in classrooms where the teachers didn’t assign any homework, and I’ve been in rooms where they assigned hours of homework a night. But I never even considered homework as something that was my decision. I just thought it was something I’d pull out of a book and it’d be done.

I started giving homework on the first night of school this year. My first assignment was to go home and draw a picture of the room where you do your homework. I want to know if it’s at a table and if there are chairs around it and if mom’s cooking dinner while you’re doing homework.

The second night I asked them to talk to a grown-up about how are you going to be able to get your homework done during the week. The kids really enjoyed it. There’s a running joke that I’m teaching life skills.

Friday nights, I read all my kids’ responses to me on their homework from the week and it’s wonderful. They pour their hearts out. It’s like we’re having a conversation on my couch Friday night.

It matters to know that the teacher cares about you and that what you think matters to the teacher. Homework is a vehicle to connect home and school…for parents to know teachers are welcoming to them and their families.

Bempechat : I can’t imagine that most new teachers would have the intuition Erin had in designing homework the way she did.

Ardizzone : Conversations with kids about homework, feeling you’re being listened to—that’s such a big part of wanting to do homework….I grew up in Westchester County. It was a pretty demanding school district. My junior year English teacher—I loved her—she would give us feedback, have meetings with all of us. She’d say, “If you have any questions, if you have anything you want to talk about, you can talk to me, here are my office hours.” It felt like she actually cared.

Bempechat : It matters to know that the teacher cares about you and that what you think matters to the teacher. Homework is a vehicle to connect home and school…for parents to know teachers are welcoming to them and their families.

Ardizzone : But can’t it lead to parents being overbearing and too involved in their children’s lives as students?

Bempechat : There’s good help and there’s bad help. The bad help is what you’re describing—when parents hover inappropriately, when they micromanage, when they see their children confused and struggling and tell them what to do.

Good help is when parents recognize there’s a struggle going on and instead ask informative questions: “Where do you think you went wrong?” They give hints, or pointers, rather than saying, “You missed this,” or “You didn’t read that.”

Bruce : I hope something comes of this. I hope BU or Wheelock can think of some way to make this a more pressing issue. As a first-year teacher, it was not something I even thought about on the first day of school—until a kid raised his hand and said, “Do we have homework?” It would have been wonderful if I’d had a plan from day one.

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Sara Rimer A journalist for more than three decades, Sara Rimer worked at the Miami Herald , Washington Post and, for 26 years, the New York Times , where she was the New England bureau chief, and a national reporter covering education, aging, immigration, and other social justice issues. Her stories on the death penalty’s inequities were nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and cited in the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision outlawing the execution of people with intellectual disabilities. Her journalism honors include Columbia University’s Meyer Berger award for in-depth human interest reporting. She holds a BA degree in American Studies from the University of Michigan. Profile

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There are 81 comments on Does Homework Really Help Students Learn?

Insightful! The values about homework in elementary schools are well aligned with my intuition as a parent.

when i finish my work i do my homework and i sometimes forget what to do because i did not get enough sleep

same omg it does not help me it is stressful and if I have it in more than one class I hate it.

Same I think my parent wants to help me but, she doesn’t care if I get bad grades so I just try my best and my grades are great.

I think that last question about Good help from parents is not know to all parents, we do as our parents did or how we best think it can be done, so maybe coaching parents or giving them resources on how to help with homework would be very beneficial for the parent on how to help and for the teacher to have consistency and improve homework results, and of course for the child. I do see how homework helps reaffirm the knowledge obtained in the classroom, I also have the ability to see progress and it is a time I share with my kids

The answer to the headline question is a no-brainer – a more pressing problem is why there is a difference in how students from different cultures succeed. Perfect example is the student population at BU – why is there a majority population of Asian students and only about 3% black students at BU? In fact at some universities there are law suits by Asians to stop discrimination and quotas against admitting Asian students because the real truth is that as a group they are demonstrating better qualifications for admittance, while at the same time there are quotas and reduced requirements for black students to boost their portion of the student population because as a group they do more poorly in meeting admissions standards – and it is not about the Benjamins. The real problem is that in our PC society no one has the gazuntas to explore this issue as it may reveal that all people are not created equal after all. Or is it just environmental cultural differences??????

I get you have a concern about the issue but that is not even what the point of this article is about. If you have an issue please take this to the site we have and only post your opinion about the actual topic

This is not at all what the article is talking about.

This literally has nothing to do with the article brought up. You should really take your opinions somewhere else before you speak about something that doesn’t make sense.

we have the same name

so they have the same name what of it?

lol you tell her

totally agree

What does that have to do with homework, that is not what the article talks about AT ALL.

Yes, I think homework plays an important role in the development of student life. Through homework, students have to face challenges on a daily basis and they try to solve them quickly.I am an intense online tutor at 24x7homeworkhelp and I give homework to my students at that level in which they handle it easily.

More than two-thirds of students said they used alcohol and drugs, primarily marijuana, to cope with stress.

You know what’s funny? I got this assignment to write an argument for homework about homework and this article was really helpful and understandable, and I also agree with this article’s point of view.

I also got the same task as you! I was looking for some good resources and I found this! I really found this article useful and easy to understand, just like you! ^^

i think that homework is the best thing that a child can have on the school because it help them with their thinking and memory.

I am a child myself and i think homework is a terrific pass time because i can’t play video games during the week. It also helps me set goals.

Homework is not harmful ,but it will if there is too much

I feel like, from a minors point of view that we shouldn’t get homework. Not only is the homework stressful, but it takes us away from relaxing and being social. For example, me and my friends was supposed to hang at the mall last week but we had to postpone it since we all had some sort of work to do. Our minds shouldn’t be focused on finishing an assignment that in realty, doesn’t matter. I completely understand that we should have homework. I have to write a paper on the unimportance of homework so thanks.

homework isn’t that bad

Are you a student? if not then i don’t really think you know how much and how severe todays homework really is

i am a student and i do not enjoy homework because i practice my sport 4 out of the five days we have school for 4 hours and that’s not even counting the commute time or the fact i still have to shower and eat dinner when i get home. its draining!

i totally agree with you. these people are such boomers

why just why

they do make a really good point, i think that there should be a limit though. hours and hours of homework can be really stressful, and the extra work isn’t making a difference to our learning, but i do believe homework should be optional and extra credit. that would make it for students to not have the leaning stress of a assignment and if you have a low grade you you can catch up.

Studies show that homework improves student achievement in terms of improved grades, test results, and the likelihood to attend college. Research published in the High School Journal indicates that students who spent between 31 and 90 minutes each day on homework “scored about 40 points higher on the SAT-Mathematics subtest than their peers, who reported spending no time on homework each day, on average.” On both standardized tests and grades, students in classes that were assigned homework outperformed 69% of students who didn’t have homework. A majority of studies on homework’s impact – 64% in one meta-study and 72% in another – showed that take home assignments were effective at improving academic achievement. Research by the Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) concluded that increased homework led to better GPAs and higher probability of college attendance for high school boys. In fact, boys who attended college did more than three hours of additional homework per week in high school.

So how are your measuring student achievement? That’s the real question. The argument that doing homework is simply a tool for teaching responsibility isn’t enough for me. We can teach responsibility in a number of ways. Also the poor argument that parents don’t need to help with homework, and that students can do it on their own, is wishful thinking at best. It completely ignores neurodiverse students. Students in poverty aren’t magically going to find a space to do homework, a friend’s or siblings to help them do it, and snacks to eat. I feel like the author of this piece has never set foot in a classroom of students.

THIS. This article is pathetic coming from a university. So intellectually dishonest, refusing to address the havoc of capitalism and poverty plays on academic success in life. How can they in one sentence use poor kids in an argument and never once address that poor children have access to damn near 0 of the resources affluent kids have? Draw me a picture and let’s talk about feelings lmao what a joke is that gonna put food in their belly so they can have the calories to burn in order to use their brain to study? What about quiet their 7 other siblings that they share a single bedroom with for hours? Is it gonna force the single mom to magically be at home and at work at the same time to cook food while you study and be there to throw an encouraging word?

Also the “parents don’t need to be a parent and be able to guide their kid at all academically they just need to exist in the next room” is wild. Its one thing if a parent straight up is not equipped but to say kids can just figured it out is…. wow coming from an educator What’s next the teacher doesn’t need to teach cause the kid can just follow the packet and figure it out?

Well then get a tutor right? Oh wait you are poor only affluent kids can afford a tutor for their hours of homework a day were they on average have none of the worries a poor child does. Does this address that poor children are more likely to also suffer abuse and mental illness? Like mentioned what about kids that can’t learn or comprehend the forced standardized way? Just let em fail? These children regularly are not in “special education”(some of those are a joke in their own and full of neglect and abuse) programs cause most aren’t even acknowledged as having disabilities or disorders.

But yes all and all those pesky poor kids just aren’t being worked hard enough lol pretty sure poor children’s existence just in childhood is more work, stress, and responsibility alone than an affluent child’s entire life cycle. Love they never once talked about the quality of education in the classroom being so bad between the poor and affluent it can qualify as segregation, just basically blamed poor people for being lazy, good job capitalism for failing us once again!

why the hell?

you should feel bad for saying this, this article can be helpful for people who has to write a essay about it

This is more of a political rant than it is about homework

I know a teacher who has told his students their homework is to find something they are interested in, pursue it and then come share what they learn. The student responses are quite compelling. One girl taught herself German so she could talk to her grandfather. One boy did a research project on Nelson Mandela because the teacher had mentioned him in class. Another boy, a both on the autism spectrum, fixed his family’s computer. The list goes on. This is fourth grade. I think students are highly motivated to learn, when we step aside and encourage them.

The whole point of homework is to give the students a chance to use the material that they have been presented with in class. If they never have the opportunity to use that information, and discover that it is actually useful, it will be in one ear and out the other. As a science teacher, it is critical that the students are challenged to use the material they have been presented with, which gives them the opportunity to actually think about it rather than regurgitate “facts”. Well designed homework forces the student to think conceptually, as opposed to regurgitation, which is never a pretty sight

Wonderful discussion. and yes, homework helps in learning and building skills in students.

not true it just causes kids to stress

Homework can be both beneficial and unuseful, if you will. There are students who are gifted in all subjects in school and ones with disabilities. Why should the students who are gifted get the lucky break, whereas the people who have disabilities suffer? The people who were born with this “gift” go through school with ease whereas people with disabilities struggle with the work given to them. I speak from experience because I am one of those students: the ones with disabilities. Homework doesn’t benefit “us”, it only tears us down and put us in an abyss of confusion and stress and hopelessness because we can’t learn as fast as others. Or we can’t handle the amount of work given whereas the gifted students go through it with ease. It just brings us down and makes us feel lost; because no mater what, it feels like we are destined to fail. It feels like we weren’t “cut out” for success.

homework does help

here is the thing though, if a child is shoved in the face with a whole ton of homework that isn’t really even considered homework it is assignments, it’s not helpful. the teacher should make homework more of a fun learning experience rather than something that is dreaded

This article was wonderful, I am going to ask my teachers about extra, or at all giving homework.

I agree. Especially when you have homework before an exam. Which is distasteful as you’ll need that time to study. It doesn’t make any sense, nor does us doing homework really matters as It’s just facts thrown at us.

Homework is too severe and is just too much for students, schools need to decrease the amount of homework. When teachers assign homework they forget that the students have other classes that give them the same amount of homework each day. Students need to work on social skills and life skills.

I disagree.

Beyond achievement, proponents of homework argue that it can have many other beneficial effects. They claim it can help students develop good study habits so they are ready to grow as their cognitive capacities mature. It can help students recognize that learning can occur at home as well as at school. Homework can foster independent learning and responsible character traits. And it can give parents an opportunity to see what’s going on at school and let them express positive attitudes toward achievement.

Homework is helpful because homework helps us by teaching us how to learn a specific topic.

As a student myself, I can say that I have almost never gotten the full 9 hours of recommended sleep time, because of homework. (Now I’m writing an essay on it in the middle of the night D=)

I am a 10 year old kid doing a report about “Is homework good or bad” for homework before i was going to do homework is bad but the sources from this site changed my mind!

Homeowkr is god for stusenrs

I agree with hunter because homework can be so stressful especially with this whole covid thing no one has time for homework and every one just wants to get back to there normal lives it is especially stressful when you go on a 2 week vaca 3 weeks into the new school year and and then less then a week after you come back from the vaca you are out for over a month because of covid and you have no way to get the assignment done and turned in

As great as homework is said to be in the is article, I feel like the viewpoint of the students was left out. Every where I go on the internet researching about this topic it almost always has interviews from teachers, professors, and the like. However isn’t that a little biased? Of course teachers are going to be for homework, they’re not the ones that have to stay up past midnight completing the homework from not just one class, but all of them. I just feel like this site is one-sided and you should include what the students of today think of spending four hours every night completing 6-8 classes worth of work.

Are we talking about homework or practice? Those are two very different things and can result in different outcomes.

Homework is a graded assignment. I do not know of research showing the benefits of graded assignments going home.

Practice; however, can be extremely beneficial, especially if there is some sort of feedback (not a grade but feedback). That feedback can come from the teacher, another student or even an automated grading program.

As a former band director, I assigned daily practice. I never once thought it would be appropriate for me to require the students to turn in a recording of their practice for me to grade. Instead, I had in-class assignments/assessments that were graded and directly related to the practice assigned.

I would really like to read articles on “homework” that truly distinguish between the two.

oof i feel bad good luck!

thank you guys for the artical because I have to finish an assingment. yes i did cite it but just thanks

thx for the article guys.

Homework is good

I think homework is helpful AND harmful. Sometimes u can’t get sleep bc of homework but it helps u practice for school too so idk.

I agree with this Article. And does anyone know when this was published. I would like to know.

It was published FEb 19, 2019.

Studies have shown that homework improved student achievement in terms of improved grades, test results, and the likelihood to attend college.

i think homework can help kids but at the same time not help kids

This article is so out of touch with majority of homes it would be laughable if it wasn’t so incredibly sad.

There is no value to homework all it does is add stress to already stressed homes. Parents or adults magically having the time or energy to shepherd kids through homework is dome sort of 1950’s fantasy.

What lala land do these teachers live in?

Homework gives noting to the kid

Homework is Bad

homework is bad.

why do kids even have homework?

Comments are closed.

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7 Research-Based Reasons Why Students Should Not Have Homework: Academic Insights, Opposing Perspectives & Alternatives

Checking 13yo’s math homework & I have just one question. I can catch mistakes & help her correct. But what do kids do when their parent isn’t an Algebra teacher? Answer: They get frustrated. Quit. Get a bad grade. Think they aren’t good at math. How is homework fair??? — Jay Wamsted (@JayWamsted) March 24, 2022

Insights from Teachers and Education Industry Experts: Diverse Perspectives on Homework

Check out this video featuring Courtney White, a high school language arts teacher who gained widespread attention for her explanation of why she chooses not to assign homework.

“I teach 1st grade. I had parents ask for homework. I explained that I don’t give homework. Home time is family time. Time to play, cook, explore and spend time together. I do send books home, but there is no requirement or checklist for reading them. Read them, enjoy them, and return them when your child is ready for more. I explained that as a parent myself, I know they are busy—and what a waste of energy it is to sit and force their kids to do work at home—when they could use that time to form relationships and build a loving home. Something kids need more than a few math problems a week.” — Colleen S. , 1st grade teacher

“The lasting educational value of homework at that age is not proven. A kid says the times tables [at school] because he studied the times tables last night. But over a long period of time, a kid who is drilled on the times tables at school, rather than as homework, will also memorize their times tables. We are worried about young children and their social emotional learning. And that has to do with physical activity, it has to do with playing with peers, it has to do with family time. All of those are very important and can be removed by too much homework.” — David Bloomfield , education professor at Brooklyn College and the City University of New York graduate center

“Homework in primary school has an effect of around zero. In high school it’s larger. (…) Which is why we need to get it right. Not why we need to get rid of it. It’s one of those lower hanging fruit that we should be looking in our primary schools to say, ‘Is it really making a difference?’” — John Hattie , professor

”Many kids are working as many hours as their overscheduled parents and it is taking a toll – psychologically and in many other ways too. We see kids getting up hours before school starts just to get their homework done from the night before… While homework may give kids one more responsibility, it ignores the fact that kids do not need to grow up and become adults at ages 10 or 12. With schools cutting recess time or eliminating playgrounds, kids absorb every single stress there is, only on an even higher level. Their brains and bodies need time to be curious, have fun, be creative and just be a kid.” — Pat Wayman, teacher and CEO of HowtoLearn.com

7 Reasons Why Students Should Not Have Homework

1. elevated stress and health consequences.

By addressing the issue of homework-related stress and health consequences, we can take a significant step toward creating a more nurturing and effective educational environment. This environment would not only prioritize academic achievement but also the overall well-being and happiness of students, preparing them for a balanced and healthy life both inside and outside the classroom.

2. Inequitable Impact and Socioeconomic Disparities

Moreover, the approach to homework varies significantly across different types of schools. While some rigorous private and preparatory schools in both marginalized and affluent communities assign extreme levels of homework, many progressive schools focusing on holistic learning and self-actualization opt for no homework, yet achieve similar levels of college and career success. This contrast raises questions about the efficacy and necessity of heavy homework loads in achieving educational outcomes.

3. Negative Impact on Family Dynamics

The issue is not confined to specific demographics but is a widespread concern. Samantha Hulsman, a teacher featured in Education Week Teacher , shared her personal experience with the toll that homework can take on family time. She observed that a seemingly simple 30-minute assignment could escalate into a three-hour ordeal, causing stress and strife between parents and children. Hulsman’s insights challenge the traditional mindset about homework, highlighting a shift towards the need for skills such as collaboration and problem-solving over rote memorization of facts.

4. Consumption of Free Time

Authors Sara Bennett and Nancy Kalish , in their book “The Case Against Homework,” offer an insightful window into the lives of families grappling with the demands of excessive homework. They share stories from numerous interviews conducted in the mid-2000s, highlighting the universal struggle faced by families across different demographics. A poignant account from a parent in Menlo Park, California, describes nightly sessions extending until 11 p.m., filled with stress and frustration, leading to a soured attitude towards school in both the child and the parent. This narrative is not isolated, as about one-third of the families interviewed expressed feeling crushed by the overwhelming workload.

Furthermore, the intense homework routine’s effectiveness is doubtful, as it can overwhelm students and detract from the joy of learning. Effective learning builds on prior knowledge in an engaging way, but excessive homework in a home setting may be irrelevant and uninteresting. The key challenge is balancing homework to enhance learning without overburdening students, allowing time for holistic growth and activities beyond academics. It’s crucial to reassess homework policies to support well-rounded development.

5. Challenges for Students with Learning Disabilities

Homework, a standard educational tool, poses unique challenges for students with learning disabilities, often leading to a frustrating and disheartening experience. These challenges go beyond the typical struggles faced by most students and can significantly impede their educational progress and emotional well-being.

Child psychologist Kenneth Barish’s insights in Psychology Today shed light on the complex relationship between homework and students with learning disabilities:

6. Critique of Underlying Assumptions about Learning

These findings bring to light several critical points:

The emerging consensus from these studies suggests that the traditional approach to homework needs rethinking. Rather than focusing on the quantity of assignments, educators should consider the quality and relevance of homework, ensuring it truly contributes to learning and development. This reassessment is crucial for fostering an educational environment that nurtures curiosity and a love for learning, rather than extinguishing it.

7. Issues with Homework Enforcement, Reliability, and Temptation to Cheat

In the academic realm, the enforcement of homework is a subject of ongoing debate, primarily due to its implications on student integrity and the true value of assignments. The challenges associated with homework enforcement often lead to unintended yet significant issues, such as cheating, copying, and a general undermining of educational values.

In conclusion, the challenges of homework enforcement present a complex problem that requires careful consideration. The focus should shift towards creating meaningful, manageable, and quality-driven assignments that encourage genuine learning and integrity, rather than overwhelming students and prompting counterproductive behaviors.

Addressing Opposing Views on Homework Practices

While opinions on homework policies are diverse, understanding different viewpoints is crucial. In the following sections, we will examine common arguments supporting homework assignments, along with counterarguments that offer alternative perspectives on this educational practice.

1. Improvement of Academic Performance

2. reinforcement of learning.

Homework is traditionally viewed as a tool to reinforce classroom learning, enabling students to practice and retain material. However, research suggests its effectiveness is ambiguous. In instances where homework is well-aligned with students’ abilities and classroom teachings, it can indeed be beneficial. Particularly for younger students , excessive homework can cause burnout and a loss of interest in learning, counteracting its intended purpose.

3. Development of Time Management Skills

Homework is often considered a crucial tool in helping students develop important life skills such as time management and organization. The idea is that by regularly completing assignments, students learn to allocate their time efficiently and organize their tasks effectively, skills that are invaluable in both academic and personal life.

However, the impact of homework on developing these skills is not always positive. For younger students, especially, an overwhelming amount of homework can be more of a hindrance than a help. Instead of fostering time management and organizational skills, an excessive workload often leads to stress and anxiety . These negative effects can impede the learning process and make it difficult for students to manage their time and tasks effectively, contradicting the original purpose of homework.

4. Preparation for Future Academic Challenges

Homework is often touted as a preparatory tool for future academic challenges that students will encounter in higher education and their professional lives. The argument is that by tackling homework, students build a foundation of knowledge and skills necessary for success in more advanced studies and in the workforce, fostering a sense of readiness and confidence.

5. Parental Involvement in Education

Homework often acts as a vital link connecting parents to their child’s educational journey, offering insights into the school’s curriculum and their child’s learning process. This involvement is key in fostering a supportive home environment and encouraging a collaborative relationship between parents and the school. When parents understand and engage with what their children are learning, it can significantly enhance the educational experience for the child.

Exploring Alternatives to Homework and Finding a Middle Ground

Alternatives to traditional homework, ideas for minimizing homework.

For teachers who are not ready to fully eliminate homework, these strategies offer a compromise, ensuring that homework supports rather than hinders student learning. By focusing on quality, relevance, and student engagement, educators can transform homework from a chore into a meaningful component of education that genuinely contributes to students’ academic growth and personal development. In this way, we can move towards a more balanced and student-centric approach to learning, both in and out of the classroom.

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August 16, 2021

Is it time to get rid of homework? Mental health experts weigh in

by Sara M Moniuszko

It's no secret that kids hate homework. And as students grapple with an ongoing pandemic that has had a wide-range of mental health impacts, is it time schools start listening to their pleas over workloads?

Some teachers are turning to social media to take a stand against homework .

Tiktok user @misguided.teacher says he doesn't assign it because the "whole premise of homework is flawed."

For starters, he says he can't grade work on "even playing fields" when students' home environments can be vastly different.

"Even students who go home to a peaceful house, do they really want to spend their time on busy work? Because typically that's what a lot of homework is, it's busy work," he says in the video that has garnered 1.6 million likes. "You only get one year to be 7, you only got one year to be 10, you only get one year to be 16, 18."

Mental health experts agree heavy work loads have the potential do more harm than good for students, especially when taking into account the impacts of the pandemic. But they also say the answer may not be to eliminate homework altogether.

Emmy Kang, mental health counselor at Humantold, says studies have shown heavy workloads can be "detrimental" for students and cause a "big impact on their mental, physical and emotional health."

"More than half of students say that homework is their primary source of stress, and we know what stress can do on our bodies," she says, adding that staying up late to finish assignments also leads to disrupted sleep and exhaustion.

Cynthia Catchings, a licensed clinical social worker and therapist at Talkspace, says heavy workloads can also cause serious mental health problems in the long run, like anxiety and depression.

And for all the distress homework causes, it's not as useful as many may think, says Dr. Nicholas Kardaras, a psychologist and CEO of Omega Recovery treatment center.

"The research shows that there's really limited benefit of homework for elementary age students, that really the school work should be contained in the classroom," he says.

For older students, Kang says homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night.

"Most students, especially at these high-achieving schools, they're doing a minimum of three hours, and it's taking away time from their friends from their families, their extracurricular activities. And these are all very important things for a person's mental and emotional health."

Catchings, who also taught third to 12th graders for 12 years, says she's seen the positive effects of a no homework policy while working with students abroad.

"Not having homework was something that I always admired from the French students (and) the French schools, because that was helping the students to really have the time off and really disconnect from school ," she says.

The answer may not be to eliminate homework completely, but to be more mindful of the type of work students go home with, suggests Kang, who was a high-school teacher for 10 years.

"I don't think (we) should scrap homework, I think we should scrap meaningless, purposeless busy work-type homework. That's something that needs to be scrapped entirely," she says, encouraging teachers to be thoughtful and consider the amount of time it would take for students to complete assignments.

The pandemic made the conversation around homework more crucial

Mindfulness surrounding homework is especially important in the context of the last two years. Many students will be struggling with mental health issues that were brought on or worsened by the pandemic, making heavy workloads even harder to balance.

"COVID was just a disaster in terms of the lack of structure. Everything just deteriorated," Kardaras says, pointing to an increase in cognitive issues and decrease in attention spans among students. "School acts as an anchor for a lot of children, as a stabilizing force, and that disappeared."

But even if students transition back to the structure of in-person classes, Kardaras suspects students may still struggle after two school years of shifted schedules and disrupted sleeping habits.

"We've seen adults struggling to go back to in-person work environments from remote work environments. That effect is amplified with children because children have less resources to be able to cope with those transitions than adults do," he explains.

'Get organized' ahead of back-to-school

In order to make the transition back to in-person school easier, Kang encourages students to "get good sleep, exercise regularly (and) eat a healthy diet."

To help manage workloads, she suggests students "get organized."

"There's so much mental clutter up there when you're disorganized... sitting down and planning out their study schedules can really help manage their time," she says.

Breaking assignments up can also make things easier to tackle.

"I know that heavy workloads can be stressful, but if you sit down and you break down that studying into smaller chunks, they're much more manageable."

If workloads are still too much, Kang encourages students to advocate for themselves.

"They should tell their teachers when a homework assignment just took too much time or if it was too difficult for them to do on their own," she says. "It's good to speak up and ask those questions. Respectfully, of course, because these are your teachers. But still, I think sometimes teachers themselves need this feedback from their students."

©2021 USA Today Distributed by Tribune Content Agency, LLC.

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Education scholar Denise Pope has found that too much homework has negative effects on student well-being and behavioral engagement. (Image credit: L.A. Cicero)

A Stanford researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.

“Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good,” wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .

The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students’ views on homework.

Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.

Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.

“The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students’ advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being,” Pope wrote.

Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.

Their study found that too much homework is associated with:

* Greater stress: 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.

* Reductions in health: In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.

* Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits: Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were “not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills,” according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.

A balancing act

The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.

Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as “pointless” or “mindless” in order to keep their grades up.

“This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points,” Pope said.

She said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.

“Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development,” wrote Pope.

High-performing paradox

In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. “Young people are spending more time alone,” they wrote, “which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities.”

Student perspectives

The researchers say that while their open-ended or “self-reporting” methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for “typical adolescent complaining” – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.

The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Media Contacts

Denise Pope, Stanford Graduate School of Education: (650) 725-7412, [email protected] Clifton B. Parker, Stanford News Service: (650) 725-0224, [email protected]

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Should There Be Less Homework?

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Published: Mar 6, 2024

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The case for less homework, potential solutions to excessive homework.

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The Caravan

Students shouldn’t have homework on weekends.

Jonathan Kuptel '22 , Staff Writer | November 7, 2021

Jonathan Kuptel

MC senior Imari Price works on a assignment for 21st-Century Media class.

Teachers and students have different opinions about homework. Saying it is not fair is the usual argument, but being fair is not the issue. It is about students being prepared. Daily homework assignments can be difficult, and weekends homework assignments are worse. Students operate best when they are well-rested and ready to go. A weekend with no homework would help them to be fresh and ready on Monday morning. Weekend assignments tend to be longer and more difficult. 

The students have a difficult day with classes, practices, and going to school. By Friday, (test day) they are near exhaustion. Most tests are given on Fridays. Homework on Monday-Thursday is time-consuming. Some weekends will include assignments in more than 1 class. Those who go to Mount Carmel are near the end of their rope by 2:40 PM on Friday. I have had other discussions with the senior class and we all feel pretty tired at the end of the day at 2:40 PM. A free weekend helps to get prepared for the next grind to start. No homework weekends assures better sleep cycles and a body that has recovered and refreshed. Weekends include chores around the house and family commitments. This plus weekends assignments lead to a lack of sleep. This means Monday will have a positive attitude. No homework on weekends also means more family time. This is a bonus. 

Alfie Kohn in his book The Homework Myth: Why Are Kids Get Too Much Of A Bad Thing says, “There is no evidence to demonstrate that homework benefits students.” The homework on weekends starts in elementary school and continues throughout high school. 

Mr. Kohn states that homework on weekends starts in elementary school and continues throughout high school. This supports the argument that weekend homework starts in elementary school and now students at Mount Carmel High School have to deal with weekend assignments. The weekend assignments take too much time and are a waste of students’ time. 

Nancy Kalish , author of The Case Against Homework: How Homework Is Hurting Our Children And What We Can Do About It, says “simply busy work” makes learning “a chore rather than a positive, constructive experience.” 

Receiving weekend homework that is not discussed in class and counts only as “busy work” is counterproductive. Students finish the assignments because they are required to be done. When the homework is not reviewed on Monday, it leads to frustration. Busy homework that serves no purpose is never a good idea. 

Gerald LeTender of Penn State’s Education Policy Studies Department points out the “shotgun approach to homework when students receive the same photocopied assignment which is then checked as complete rather than discussed is not very effective.” Some teachers discuss the homework assignments and that validates the assignment. Some teachers however just check homework assignments for completion. LeTender goes on to say, “If there’s no feedback and no monitoring, the homework is probably not effective.” Researchers from the Curry School of Education at the University of Virginia had similar findings in their study “ When Is Homework Worth The Time?” Researchers reported no substantive difference in the grades of students who had homework completion. Adam Maltese, a researcher , noted , “Our results hint that maybe homework is not being used as well as it could be. Even one teacher who assigns busy shotgun homework is enough to be a bad idea. 

Students come to know when homework is the “shotgun approach.” They find this kind of assignment dull. Students have no respect for assignments like this. Quality assignments are appreciated by students. 

Etta Kralovec and John Buell in their book How Homework Disrupts Families, Overburdens Children, And Limits Learning assert that homework contributes to a corporate style, competitive U.S. culture that overvalued work to the detriment of personal and familial well being. They go on to call for an end to homework, but to extend the school day. 

Cooper, Robinson, and Patalc, in 2006 warned that homework could become counter productive. Homework is counterproductive when it is a (shotgun) assignment. To reiterate, not all homework is bad. Bad homework which is not reviewed in class just plain “busy work” is not positive and could be counterproductive. 

Sara Croll, Literacy Coach and Author, believes too much homework causes stress for students. Diana Stelin, teacher, artist, and mother says, “I’m absolutely in favor of this ban. Homework is homework, it doesn’t matter what class it comes from. What it does is create negative associations in students of all ages, takes away their innate desire to learn, and makes the subject a dreaded chore.” 

When students come to dread their homework, they do not do a great job on these assignments. Making students do a lot of homework isn’t beneficial because they get drowsy when they work at it for hours and hours at a time. It is hard for the brain to function properly when it is tired and boring. 

Pat Wayman, Teacher and CEO of HowtoLearn.com says, “Many kids are working as many hours as their overscheduled parents and it is taking a toll.” “Their brains and their bodies need time to be curious, have fun, be creative and just be a kid.” 

No homework on weekends is not just a wish, but it is supported by all of these educators and authors. They all champion limiting homework are totally opposed to homework assignments. Educators and students agree that no homework on weekends is a good idea. Meaningful homework, a longer school day, and discussion of homework are what these educators and authors encourage. 

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Home > Blog > Tips for Online Students > The Pros and Cons of Homework

School Life Balance , Tips for Online Students

The Pros and Cons of Homework

Updated: July 16, 2024

Published: January 23, 2020

Remember those nights when you’d find yourself staring at a mountain of homework, eyes drooping, wondering if you’d ever see the light at the end of the tunnel? The debate over homework’s role in education is as old as time. Is it a crucial tool for reinforcing learning or just an unnecessary burden?

For college students, this question takes on new dimensions. Juggling homework with the endless amount of classes, part-time jobs, and social lives can feel like walking on thin ice. The pressure to maintain grades, meet deadlines, and still find time for friends and relaxation can be overwhelming. So, is homework a friend or foe?

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The homework dilemma.

A large amount of college students report feeling overwhelmed by their academic workload, leading to high levels of stress and anxiety. According to Research.com , 45% of college students in the U.S. experience “more than average” stress, with 36.5% citing stress as a major impediment to their academic performance. This stress often stems directly from the homework load, leading to symptoms like headaches, exhaustion, and difficulty sleeping. The intense pressure to manage homework alongside other responsibilities makes us question the true impact of homework on students’ overall well-being.

And then there’s the digital twist. A whopping 89% of students confessed to using AI tools like ChatGPT for their assignments. While these tools can be a godsend for quick answers and assistance, they can also undermine the personal effort and critical thinking necessary to truly understand the material.

On the brighter side, homework can be a powerful ally. According to Inside Higher Ed , structured assignments can actually help reduce stress by providing a clear learning roadmap and keeping students engaged with the material. But where’s the balance between helpful and harmful? 

With these perspectives in mind, let’s dive into the pros and cons of homework for college students. By understanding both sides, we can find a middle ground that maximizes learning while keeping stress at bay.

The Pros of Homework

When thoughtfully assigned, homework can be a valuable tool in a student’s educational journey . Let’s explore how homework can be a beneficial companion to your studies:

Enhances Critical Thinking

Homework isn’t just busywork; it’s an opportunity to stretch your mental muscles. Those late-night problem sets and essays can actually encourage deeper understanding and application of concepts. Think of homework as a mental gym; each assignment is a new exercise, pushing you to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information in ways that strengthen your critical thinking skills .

Time Management Skills

Do you ever juggle multiple deadlines and wonder how to keep it all together? Regular homework assignments can be a crash course in time management . They teach you to prioritize tasks, manage your schedule, and balance academic responsibilities with personal commitments. The ability to juggle various tasks is a skill that will serve you well beyond your college years.

Reinforcement of Learning

There’s a reason why practice makes perfect. Homework reinforces what you’ve learned in class, helping to cement concepts and theories in your mind. Understanding a concept during a lecture is one thing, but applying it through homework can deepen your comprehension and retention. 

Preparation for Exams

Think of homework as a sound check and warm-up for exams. Regular assignments keep you engaged with the material, making it easier to review and prepare when exam time rolls around. By consistently working through problems and writing essays, you build a solid foundation that can make the difference between cramming and confident exam performance.

Encourages Independent Learning

Homework promotes a sense of responsibility and independence. It pushes you to tackle assignments on your own, encouraging problem-solving and self-discipline. This independence prepares you for the academic challenges ahead and the autonomy required in your professional and personal life.

The Cons of Homework

Despite its potential benefits, homework can also have significant downsides. Let’s examine the challenges and drawbacks of homework:

Impact on Mental Health

Homework can be a double-edged sword when it comes to mental health . While it’s meant to reinforce learning, the sheer volume of assignments can lead to stress and anxiety. The constant pressure to meet deadlines and the fear of falling behind can create a relentless cycle of stress. Many students become overwhelmed, leading to burnout and negatively impacting their overall well-being. 

Limited Time for Other Activities

College isn’t just about hitting the books. It’s also a time for personal growth, exploring new interests, and building social connections. Excessive homework can eat into the time you might otherwise spend on extracurricular activities, hobbies, or simply hanging out with friends. This lack of balance can lead to a less fulfilling college experience. Shouldn’t education be about more than just academics?

Quality Over Quantity

When it comes to homework, more isn’t always better. Piling on assignments can lead to diminished returns on learning. Instead of diving deep into a subject and gaining a thorough understanding, students might rush through tasks just to get them done. This focus on quantity over quality can undermine the educational value of homework. 

Inequity in Education

Homework can sometimes exacerbate educational inequalities. Not all students can access the same resources and support systems at home. While some might have a quiet space and access to the internet, others might struggle with distractions and lack of resources. This disparity can put certain students at a disadvantage, making homework more of a burden than a learning tool. 

Dependence on AI Tools

With the advent of AI tools like ChatGPT , homework has taken on a new dimension. While these tools can provide quick answers and assistance, they also pose the risk of students becoming overly reliant on technology. This dependence can take away from the actual learning process, as students might bypass the critical thinking and effort needed to truly understand the material. Is convenience worth the potential loss in learning?

Finding the Balance

Finding the right balance with homework means tackling assignments that challenge and support you. Instead of drowning in a sea of tasks, focus on quality over quantity. Choose projects that spark your critical thinking and connect to real-world situations. Flexibility is key here. Recognize that your circumstances are unique, and adjusting your approach can help reduce stress and create a more inclusive learning environment. Constructive feedback makes homework more than just a chore; it turns it into a tool for growth and improvement.

It’s also about living a well-rounded college life. Don’t let homework overshadow other important parts of your life, like extracurricular activities or personal downtime. Emphasize independent learning and use technology wisely to prepare for future challenges. By balancing thoughtful assignments with your personal needs, homework can shift from being a burden to becoming a helpful companion on your educational journey, enriching your academic and personal growth.

Homework has its pros and cons, especially for college students. It can enhance critical thinking, time management, and learning, but it also brings stress, impacts mental health, and can become overwhelming. Finding the right balance is key. 

Focus on quality assignments, maintain flexibility, and make sure your homework complements rather than dominates your life. With a thoughtful approach, homework can support your educational journey, fostering both academic success and personal growth.

How can I manage my time effectively to balance homework and other activities?

Create a schedule that allocates specific times for homework, classes, and personal activities. Use planners or digital calendars to keep track of deadlines and prioritize tasks. Don’t forget to include breaks to avoid burnout.

How can I reduce the stress associated with homework?

To manage stress, practice mindfulness techniques like meditation or deep breathing exercises. Break assignments into smaller, manageable tasks and tackle them one at a time. If needed, seek support from classmates, tutors, or mental health professionals.

Is using AI tools for homework cheating?

While AI tools like ChatGPT can be helpful for quick assistance, relying on them too much can hinder your learning process. Use them as a supplement rather than a replacement for your own effort and critical thinking.

How can teachers make homework more equitable?

Teachers can offer flexible deadlines, provide resources for students who lack them, and design assignments that account for different learning styles and home environments. Open communication between students and teachers can also help address individual challenges.

What are some strategies to make homework more meaningful?

Focus on quality over quantity by designing assignments that encourage deep thinking and application of knowledge. Integrate real-world problems to make homework more relevant and engaging. Provide constructive feedback to help students learn and grow from their assignments.

In this article

At UoPeople, our blog writers are thinkers, researchers, and experts dedicated to curating articles relevant to our mission: making higher education accessible to everyone. Read More

Why Homework Should Be Banned: Exposing the Downsides

If you've ever attended school, you're familiar with the burden of being sent home with loads of homework. For years, teachers have assigned extra math problems, spelling lists, and other tasks to complete outside of class. But as the demands of modern life continue to mount, more people are advocating for a ban on homework. In this article, our essay writing service will explore several reasons supporting the idea of banning homework.

10 Reasons Why Homework Should Be Banned

Shifting focus from homework to allowing more unstructured time can greatly benefit students as it promotes cognitive, social, and physical development. Here are top 10 reasons fueling the call for banning homework:

• Too Much Homework

School Takes Up All Time

Messes with sleep and health, no time for exercise.

• Makes Stress and Anxiety Worse
• Less Time to Hang Out with Friends

Not Enough Time for Oneself

• Less Time with Family
• Fights with Parents
• Limits Student Freedom

Each reason highlights the impact of homework on various aspects of students' lives, from academic pressures to strained relationships. Let's explore these challenges further while we handle your ' do my homework ' request.

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Too Much Homework 

Too much homework is a common complaint among students. It's not about avoiding responsibilities, but about finding balance. Overloading students with homework can lead to stress, burnout, and a loss of interest in learning.

For instance, a study by Stanford University found that 56% of students considered homework a primary source of stress, while The American Psychological Association reports that teens suffering from chronic stress can experience headaches, sleep deprivation, and weight loss.

The goal of homework should be to support learning, not overshadow it. By reassessing the purpose and amount of homework, it can become a more effective and less dreaded part of education.

To help manage homework, consider using our homework planner online . This tool helps keep track of tasks, exams, and deadlines with timely notifications, making it easier to stay organized and reduce stress. Take control of your schedule and make the most of your academic life!

The education system is crucial for shaping young minds, but should it consume every waking hour? This isn't about downplaying learning but about reclaiming balance. Schools should nurture well-rounded individuals, not demand a 24/7 commitment that leaves no room for personal growth.

Consider hobbies that spark creativity, friendships that build character, and downtime for self-reflection. When school takes up all the time, these critical elements of personal development suffer. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, students who participate in extracurricular activities have better attendance, higher academic success, and are more likely to pursue college after high school.

Are we preparing students for a life of constant work, or are we equipping them to lead diverse and fulfilling lives? It's time to rethink the hours spent on school-related activities and ensure students have the time to become well-rounded individuals, ready for the complexities of the real world.

A common scenario where a student burns the midnight oil to complete assignments, sacrificing precious hours of sleep, raises a critical question: what's the cost to their well-being? Sleep is a biological necessity, not a luxury, and homework that interferes with it is problematic.

Lack of sleep doesn't just lead to feeling tired in class; it affects thinking, memory, and mood. According to the CDC, about 7 out of 10 high school students (72.7%) don't get enough sleep on school nights. Teens need 8-10 hours of sleep, but many get far less due to homework. This harms their health and undermines the purpose of homework, which is supposed to aid learning.

Academic pressures often push physical activity aside. Government health guidelines advise children and young people aged 5 to 18 to aim for at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity each day, including muscle and bone-strengthening exercises three times a week, while also limiting sedentary time.

But how can kids manage this when they're tied up with homework every evening? This isn't about making everyone into fitness buffs but understanding that exercise is vital for a healthy body and mind. Too much homework leaves little time for physical activity, leading to a sedentary lifestyle and potential health issues down the road.

More Stress and Worry

Our dissertation service experts believe that homework, when excessive, can turn into a breeding ground for stress and worry. The pressure to excel academically can lead to anxiety and worry, overshadowing the joy of learning.

Education should be empowering, not anxiety-inducing. The constant worry about grades and assignments can detract from the learning experience. Striking a balance that fosters intellectual growth without harming mental health is essential. Education should enlighten, not burden, students with stress.

Homework Gets in the Way of Friends

Excessive homework often disrupts these precious connections. A review of 38 studies found that adult friendships, especially high-quality ones that offer social support and companionship, significantly impact well-being and can safeguard against mental health issues like depression and anxiety—and these benefits last a lifetime. When homework consumes too much time, students miss out on these vital interactions.

Friendships are essential for social development, emotional support, and overall well-being. These exchanges shape character, foster resilience, and provide perspectives beyond textbooks. So, we need to ask ourselves: should homework stand in the way of forming these meaningful relationships?

In the race to complete assignments and meet deadlines, personal time is often overlooked. Every student needs moments of solitude and self-reflection. These moments are when passions are discovered, creativity thrives, and a sense of self deepens. Yet, the constant avalanche of homework leaves little room for this crucial personal development.

Time for oneself is not a luxury but a necessity. It's the space to explore interests, dreams, and aspirations beyond academics. When homework becomes all-consuming, it deprives students of the opportunity to discover their unique strengths and inclinations. The discussion on banning homework calls for reevaluating the true purpose of education – is it just about grades, or is it also about nurturing self-aware, curious, and passionate individuals?

Less Family Time

Family, the foundation of support and love, often takes a backseat when homework becomes all-consuming. Quality family time is crucial for instilling values, establishing strong bonds, and nurturing emotional well-being. However, when school demands infiltrate every aspect of a student's life, leaving them worried about coursework, family time inevitably suffers.

Consider the conversations around the dinner table, the shared activities, and the simple joys of being together. Excessive homework disrupts these vital moments, potentially weakening the support system essential for a student's success and happiness.

Arguments with Parents

Homework often becomes the battlefield for nightly skirmishes between parents and students. While parents may perceive themselves as enforcers of responsibility, the constant struggle over completing assignments can strain the parent-child relationship.

Academic pressure, heightened by homework, creates tension at home. Arguments over study time and grades overshadow the supportive role parents should play. So, it's worth questioning if excessive homework is harming the parent-child bond.

Limits Students' Freedom

Excessive homework can feel like invisible chains, limiting the freedom that defines student life. Besides academics, students need the freedom to explore and discover their passions. At our college essay writing service , we firmly believe that when homework takes over, it hinders personal growth.

Think about unfinished projects, unread books, and neglected hobbies. The lack of freedom goes beyond the classroom; it affects the essence of studenthood. We should reflect on whether education should liberate students, allowing them to explore, or if it should confine them to a predetermined path.

Why Should Homework Not Be Banned: Exploring 5 Benefits

Now, having examined the challenges and concerns of homework, let's shift focus to the other side of the debate. While there are valid arguments against excessive homework, it's crucial to acknowledge the potential benefits that well-designed assignments can offer for a student's academic and personal growth. Let's delve into five reasons why homework should not be banned when handled with care.

Instills Discipline in Students

According to our essay writer , assigning homework in moderation helps students develop discipline. It teaches them to manage time, prioritize tasks, and meet deadlines. These skills are valuable beyond academics, laying the groundwork for responsibility and a strong work ethic. Homework becomes more than just a task; it's a character-building exercise preparing students for life's challenges.

Fosters Improved Understanding Among Peers

Homework assignments that encourage collaboration facilitate better understanding among peers. Group projects and discussions not only deepen subject knowledge but also enhance teamwork skills. Students learn from each other's perspectives, creating a cooperative learning environment that extends beyond assignments.

Equips Students for Real-World Challenges

Homework prepares students for real-world challenges by promoting critical thinking, problem-solving, and independent research. Assignments mirror the complexities of professional and personal life, bridging theoretical knowledge with practical application. Tasks like solving real-world problems or conducting interviews develop practical skills essential for adulthood.

Cultivates Skills and Expertise

Homework allows students to develop a diverse set of skills beyond knowledge acquisition. Whether writing essays or completing a math homework paper , each task hones analytical thinking, research skills, and effective communication. It provides opportunities for students to explore their interests, deepen expertise, and foster a passion for lifelong learning.

Fosters a Sense of Responsibility

Completing homework instills a sense of responsibility in students. Meeting deadlines and fulfilling obligations teach the importance of accountability. Consistent completion of assignments nurtures reliability and accountability, essential traits for success in both personal and professional life.

Banning Homework: Successful Cases

As the debate over homework rages on, some educational institutions and communities have taken a bold step—banning or significantly reducing homework. Let's explore a few stories of schools that have embraced this approach and the impact it has had on students, families, and the overall learning environment.

The Case of P.S. 116 in New York City: P.S. 116, a public elementary school in New York City, made headlines by banning traditional homework. Instead, they emphasized reading and encouraged students to explore activities beyond the classroom. Research supporting this decision suggested that excessive homework might not improve academic outcomes and could lead to stress.

The results were striking. Parents noticed a positive shift in their children's attitude toward learning, with elementary students showing more motivation. Teachers found they had more time for meaningful interactions with students. This experiment challenged norms and highlighted the potential benefits of rethinking homework's role in learning.

Finland's Education System: Finland, known for its innovative education approach, has reduced homework emphasis. Finnish educators prioritize quality instruction during school hours. Students are urged to participate in extracurriculars, spend time with family, and pursue interests outside academics.

Finland's consistently high rankings in global education assessments reflect this approach's success. Finnish students excel academically and report high satisfaction and well-being. This challenges the belief that extensive homework is crucial for academic success and emphasizes a balanced education approach.

The Harris Cooper Study: While not a case of a specific school, the work of Harris Cooper, a renowned homework researcher, provides valuable insights into the impact of homework. His work indicates elementary homework has minimal effect on academic achievement. In high school, homework's influence is moderate, and excessive homework can harm well-being.

These cases and studies collectively suggest that reconsidering homework's role can benefit students and improve education systems. As schools experiment with homework policies, these stories offer valuable insights into shaping education's future.

Final Outlook

Here we are, considering the reasons why homework should be banned, weighing worries and potential benefits. It's not just about how much work students should bring home, but the childhood and learning experiences we want for them. By giving students more free time, we enable them to explore, create, and develop in ways structured homework doesn't always allow. Moving forward, educators and policymakers should learn from global views and the advantages of free time.

 Drowning in Homework Havoc?

Fear not! Our team of homework heroes is here to turn your academic struggles into victories.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

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• World Health Organization. (2022, October 5). Physical activity . World Health Organization; World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity  
• Stanford research shows pitfalls of homework . (n.d.). News.stanford.edu. https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2014/03/too-much-homework-031014#:~:text=Their%20study%20found%20that%20too  
• Bethune, S. (2014). American Psychological Association Survey Shows Teen Stress Rivals That of Adults. Https://Www.apa.org . https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2014/02/teen-stress  
• O’Brien, E., & Rollefson, M. (1995, June). Extracurricular Participation and Student Engagement . Ed.gov; National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs95/web/95741.asp  
• Pezirkianidis, C., Galanaki, E., Raftopoulou, G., Moraitou, D., & Stalikas, A. (2023). Adult friendship and wellbeing: A systematic review with practical implications. Frontiers in Psychology , 14 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1059057  

Is Homework Bad for Kids in Elementary School?

As a teacher with a master’s in Education and over a decade of experience in the public education system, I’ve seen firsthand how the traditional model of assigning homework plays out in the lives of young students and their families.

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While the intent behind homework has often been to reinforce what was learned in class, the reality is that for elementary-aged children, homework can do more harm than good. This post will answer your question, “is homework bad for kids?” and discuss the negative impacts it can have on young children.

**Keep reading because I’ll share how you can OPT OUT of homework AND give you a simple copy and paste e-mail to let your child’s teacher know your plans respectfully .

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Historical Perspective on Homework

Homework wasn’t always an integral part of elementary education. In fact, it was originally seen as a way to promote discipline and work ethic in older students. 

Over time, this practice trickled down into elementary schools, where the rationale was that starting early would give younger children a head start. However, the expectations for homework have not evolved to reflect our growing understanding of child development .

Today, elementary school students as young as five or six are coming home with worksheets and assignments, and the assumption is that this will help them achieve better academic performance. 

But research studies show that for elementary school children, this assumption of homework being good for kids is simply not supported by evidence. The benefits of homework at this grade level are minimal, and the academic benefits are often negligible.

Say NO to Homework and Hello to Connection

So, you're looking to reduce homework stress while still helping your kids grow and learn?

I totally get it.The good news is, learning doesn't always have to look like schoolwork. In fact, some of the most valuable lessons come from play, creativity, and spending time together as a family. I’m an educator and a parent, and I know firsthand that the key is finding balance and making small, intentional changes that support your child’s growth while keeping things fun and easy for everyone.

Grab this Family Connections Activities Guide and my simple e-mail template to send a respectful note to your child's teacher letting them know you'll be opting out of homework this year.

Why do Teachers Assign Homework

Teachers often assign homework with the best intentions, aiming to reinforce concepts taught in class, build good study habits, and promote independent learning. 

Many educators believe that homework helps students practice skills, retain information, and prepare for future lessons.

It’s also seen as a way to teach responsibility and time management, as students must manage their workload outside the classroom. 

Additionally, homework can serve as a tool for teachers to gauge a student’s understanding of the material, helping them identify areas where further instruction might be needed.

However, homework assignments are often influenced by school policies or long-standing traditions, and teachers may feel obligated to assign them even when they recognize that the benefits might vary for different age groups, especially for younger students.

What the Research Says about Homework in Elementary School

According to research by education expert Harris Cooper, who conducted a comprehensive review of educational research , the benefits of homework for elementary students are virtually non-existent. 

Cooper’s findings suggest that while homework may have some positive impact for older students, particularly in high school, we do know there is no clear academic advantage for children in elementary school.

In fact, the average homework assignment at this age level does not significantly improve test scores or student achievement. What’s more concerning is the emotional and psychological toll excessive homework can take.

For young children who are still developing basic cognitive and social skills, being saddled with assignments after school can actually backfire. Instead of fostering a love of learning, it often creates frustration, resentment, and anxiety. 

I’ve watched bright, curious children become overwhelmed by the pressure of completing homework, losing the spark that makes them naturally want to learn.

Physical and Mental Health Consequences of Homework in Elementary School

Homework also cuts into time that could be spent on activities that are far more beneficial to a child’s overall well-being , such as physical activity or social time with family. 

When kids come home from school, they need time to unwind, play, and engage in after-school activities. Instead, they often end up sitting for long periods, working through assignments that may not even be meaningful to them. 

This sedentary time is especially problematic when you consider that many children already spend so much of their day sitting at desks.

In terms of mental health , homework can become a significant source of stress—not just for children, but for families as a whole. In many households, the nightly homework routine turns into a battleground, with parents and children feeling frustrated, exhausted, and disconnected. 

Physical symptoms of stress like stomach problems and sleep deprivation are not uncommon, and these can have lasting effects on a child’s well-being.

I’ve had parents tell me how much they dread homework time because it creates tension in their home, and as a teacher, that is heartbreaking to hear. 

Ultimately, young children need space to explore their world in ways that are developmentally appropriate. When homework eats into that time, it deprives them of opportunities to grow in areas that are just as important—if not more so—than academic achievement.

It’s time to rethink the purpose of homework for elementary students and consider what is truly best for their development.

Can Homework Cause Anxiety

Homework can often become a significant source of anxiety for children , especially when they feel overwhelmed by the pressure to complete assignments after an already long school day. 

Many young children struggle with balancing the demands of homework with their need for relaxation and play, leading to feelings of frustration and stress.

The fear of making mistakes, not meeting expectations, or not finishing on time can cause children to internalize a sense of failure or inadequacy, even at an early age.

This anxiety not only affects their academic performance but can also seep into their overall well-being, disrupting sleep, affecting their mood, and diminishing their natural enthusiasm for learning. 

Over time, the constant pressure of homework can turn what should be a joyful pursuit of knowledge into a source of dread, creating a negative association with school and learning.

Why Family Time Matters More Than Homework

One of the most critical lessons I’ve learned as both an educator and a parent is that family time often holds far more value for a child’s growth than any worksheet ever could. 

Elementary-aged children thrive on connection, play, and unstructured moments with the people they love most. Yet, for many families, the pressures of homework steal this precious time away, contributing to a lack of balance between school and family life.

When we prioritize homework over time together as a family, we miss out on some of the most powerful learning opportunities that childhood has to offer.

The Value of Family Time

Family time is where some of the most profound learning happens—learning that goes beyond academics and touches the heart of what it means to be human. It’s during these moments that children feel secure, loved, and understood. 

Whether it’s talking around the dinner table, playing a game together, or simply sharing a story before bed, these interactions build emotional resilience and strengthen family bonds.

Research supports this as well. Studies have shown that children who spend more time engaging with their familie s are more emotionally stable, perform better socially, and develop stronger cognitive abilities. 

Family time fosters the development of life skills that can’t be measured by a standardized test—skills like empathy, communication, problem-solving, and patience. These are the very qualities that help children grow into well-rounded, confident individuals.

When the evening is filled with homework, these opportunities for connection often disappear. Instead of discussing the day or laughing together, the focus shifts to checking off assignments. 

This often leads to a sense of disconnection and even resentment, particularly when children struggle with the work or feel pressure to meet academic expectations.

The Role of Play in Learning

Play is an essential part of learning , especially for young children. Through play, kids naturally explore their world, experiment with ideas, and develop critical thinking skills.

 In fact, many of the problem-solving skills that we hope to teach through homework can be acquired far more effectively through imaginative play, building projects, and outdoor exploration.

Play also promotes creativity and resilience—two traits that are fundamental to lifelong learning. When children are free to play, they learn to take risks, deal with failure, and try new approaches. 

These are lessons that are difficult to teach through structured assignments but come naturally through the unstructured, joyful moments of play.

In contrast, traditional homework often stifles creativity. Repetitive tasks like worksheets or rote memorization do little to encourage innovative thinking or curiosity. In fact, they can dampen a child’s enthusiasm for learning altogether. 

The real learning happens when kids are given the space to pursue their own interests, ask questions, and engage with the world around them.

Creating Meaningful Experiences

So, what should families do instead of focusing on homework? The answer is simple: create meaningful experiences together. These don’t have to be grand or elaborate. 

Sometimes the most impactful moments come from the simplest activities —cooking dinner together, going for a walk, or working on a puzzle as a family.

These shared experiences are the foundation of a child’s development. They teach life skills in a way that’s engaging and meaningful.

For example, cooking together can teach math through measuring ingredients, science through understanding how things cook, and even history and culture through trying new recipes. Going for a walk outside can spark conversations about nature, exercise, and mindfulness. 

These moments foster curiosity and help children develop a love of learning that extends beyond the classroom.

By prioritizing family time, we are giving our children something far more valuable than any homework assignment could offer. 

We are showing them that they are more than just students; they are individuals whose interests, emotions, and well-being matter. In these moments, we nurture their whole selves, not just their academic skills.

Alternatives to Homework for Elementary Children

If we want to move away from the traditional homework model, it’s important to have alternatives that nurture our children’s growth in ways that feel enriching and meaningful. 

The good news is that there are countless ways to encourage learning outside of homework , many of which tap into children’s natural curiosity and love for discovery.

These alternatives not only reinforce the skills children need but also give them the freedom to explore, create, and enjoy childhood.

Encouraging Independent Play and Exploration

One of the most powerful alternatives to homework is independent play . When children are given the space and time to play freely, they engage in a form of learning that is deeply personal and developmentally appropriate. 

Play allows them to test boundaries, experiment with ideas, and develop problem-solving skills—all without the constraints of structured assignments.

Independent play builds confidence and fosters a growth mindset , as children learn to navigate challenges on their own terms. 

Whether they’re building a fort out of couch cushions, creating a masterpiece with chalk on the driveway, or pretending to be explorers in their backyard, they’re learning how to think critically, solve problems, and stay resilient when things don’t go as planned.

Allowing children time for this kind of play gives them a chance to recharge from the structured demands of school and tap into their own creativity and imagination.

It also encourages them to become self-directed learners, which is an essential skill for their future academic and personal success.

Fostering a Love of Learning Outside the Classroom

Another alternative to homework is fostering a love of learning through everyday experiences.

We often think of learning as something that happens only in the classroom or through formal assignments, but in reality, children are constantly learning from the world around them.

Parents can support this by encouraging their children to explore their interests and ask questions. 

For example, if your child is fascinated by dinosaurs, take them to the library to find books on the subject or watch a documentary together.

If they’re curious about how things work, spend time tinkering with household objects or building simple machines together.

These activities teach valuable lessons and build knowledge in ways that are fun and engaging for children.

The goal is to create an environment where learning feels like a natural part of life rather than something that happens only when there’s a worksheet in front of them.

By pursuing their passions and engaging in hands-on learning experiences, children develop a deeper love for knowledge and a stronger sense of curiosity that will serve them well throughout their lives.

Prioritizing Social and Emotional Learning

Elementary-aged children are at a critical stage in their social and emotional development, and this is an area that deserves just as much attention as academic skills. 

Social and emotional learning (SEL) is about helping children develop self-awareness, manage their emotions, build empathy, and establish healthy relationships.

These are essential life skills that cannot be taught through traditional homework. Instead of worksheets, families can focus on activities that promote social and emotional learning.

This might include family discussions where children are encouraged to express their feelings and listen to others, cooperative games that emphasize teamwork and communication, or community service projects that build empathy and a sense of responsibility to others. 

These activities help children learn to navigate the social world with confidence and compassion.

They also teach children how to manage stress, resolve conflicts, and make thoughtful decisions—skills that are crucial for both their personal happiness and their future success.

What Parents Can Do to Advocate for Less Homework

As parents, we hold incredible power to influence the educational experiences of our children. If you believe that traditional homework doesn’t serve your child’s best interests , you’re not alone—and you don’t have to accept it as a given.

By advocating for a more balanced, thoughtful approach to learning, you can help shape a school environment that prioritizes well-being, curiosity, and real-world learning.

Here’s how you can start advocating for less homework and creating a home environment that supports learning without the pressure of assignments.

Can Parents Opt-Out of Homework

The idea that parents can opt out of homework is gaining traction as more families recognize that traditional assignments may not always serve their child’s best interests, especially in elementary school.

Some schools and teachers are open to this option, allowing parents to decide whether or not their child completes homework based on what works best for their family. Parents who opt out often do so to prioritize their child’s well-being, choosing to focus on unstructured play, family time, or personalized learning activities instead.

By opting out, parents take an active role in shaping their child’s education , advocating for a more balanced approach that nurtures both academic and personal growth.

However, it’s important for parents to communicate openly with teachers and schools about their decision, ensuring that everyone is aligned on supporting the child’s overall learning journey.

Communicating with Teachers and Schools

One of the most effective steps parents can take is to start a conversation with their child’s teacher. 

As a former teacher myself, I can tell you that most educators are open to feedback and genuinely want what’s best for their students. Often, teachers assign homework out of habit or due to school policies, not necessarily because they believe it’s the best method for every child.

Frame it as a partnership. 

Express your concerns in a respectful, constructive manner, and focus on your child’s well-being.

For example, you might say, “I’ve noticed that after a long day at school, my child seems exhausted and overwhelmed by homework. I’m wondering if there are ways we can work together to adjust the homework load or explore alternatives that are more beneficial for their development.”

Grab my Opt Out of Homework template here!

Be prepared to offer suggestions. 

Perhaps your child could engage in more hands-on learning at home , or the teacher could suggest activities that align with classroom content but don’t involve traditional homework.

You might also advocate for more reading time or projects that encourage creativity and independent thinking, rather than worksheets and busywork.

If your child’s school has a formal homework policy, it might be helpful to gather other like-minded parents and approach the administration collectively. 

Thankfully, many schools are rethinking their homework policies in light of recent years of research, and showing that there’s parent support for a change can help drive that discussion.

Creating a Home Environment That Supports Learning Without Homework

Even if homework is a part of your child’s school routine, you can create a home environment that balances those demands with opportunities for unstructured learning. One of the best ways to do this is by cultivating a home that encourages exploration, curiosity, and creativity .

Start by making learning a natural part of everyday life. Fill your home with books, art supplies , puzzles, building materials, and other resources that spark interest. 

Minimize toys that do the work for the child (toys should do no more than 10% of the work!), and create a space for play that is minimal and simple. Encourage your children to ask questions, explore their passions, and dive into projects that excite them.

The goal is to make learning feel less like a task and more like a natural extension of their curiosity.

Another key is to prioritize downtime. Make sure your children have time each day to unwind, play freely, and engage in activities that bring them joy. This could mean family game nights, outdoor play, or even just quiet time to read or daydream (remember, boredom is GOOD for kids!). 

When children have time to relax and recharge, they are better equipped to face the challenges of school and life with a positive attitude.

It’s also important to model a love of learning yourself. Let your children see you engaging in activities that involve discovery and growth—whether that’s reading a book, working on a hobby, or trying something new. 

When children see that learning doesn’t end when school is over, they are more likely to adopt that mindset themselves.

Finding a Balance That Works for Your Family

Ultimately, every family is different, and there’s no one-size-fits-all solution when it comes to homework (or anything for that matter!).

The key is finding a balance that works for your family’s unique needs and values. If you feel that your child’s homework load is affecting their well-being or family life, it’s okay to set boundaries.

You might choose to limit the hours of homework your child spends each evening, allowing them to stop after a certain point and focus on other activities.

Advocating for less homework doesn’t mean you’re against education—it means you’re for a more holistic approach to learning that respects your child’s developmental needs.

As parents, we have the right to prioritize what we believe is best for our children, even when it means challenging the status quo. 

By taking small steps, whether that’s having a conversation with a teacher or shifting the focus at home, you can help create a more balanced, enriching experience for your child—one that goes beyond the traditional homework model and nurtures their full potential.

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How does homework affect students.

Posted by Kenny Gill

Homework is essential in the learning process of all students. It benefits them in managing time, being organized, and thinking beyond the classroom work. When students develop good habits towards homework, they enjoy good grades. The amount of homework given to students has risen by 51 percent. In most cases, this pushes them to order for custom essays online. A lot of homework can be overwhelming, affecting students in negative ways.

How homework affects the psyche of students Homework plays a crucial role in ensuring students succeeds both inside and outside the classroom. The numerous hours they spend in class, on school work, and away from family and friends lead to them experiencing exhaustion. Too much homework leads to students becoming disheartened by the school, and it chips away at their motivation for succeeding.

As a result, homework becomes an uphill battle, which they feel they will never win despite putting an effort. When they continue to find homework difficult, they consider other ways of working on it, such as cheating.

Getting enough time to relax, engage with friends and family members helps the students to have fun, thus, raising their spirit and their psyche on school work.  However, when homework exceeds, it affects their emotional well-being making them sad and unproductive students who would rather cheat their way through school.

As a result, they have to struggle with a lack of enough sleep, loss of weight, stomach problems, headaches, and fatigue. Poor eating habits where students rely on fast foods also occasions as they struggle to complete all their assignments. When combined with lack of physical activity, the students suffer from obesity and other health-related conditions. Also, they experience depression and anxiety. The pressure to attend all classes, finish the much homework, as well as have time to make social connections cripples them.

How can parents help with homework? Being an active parent in the life of your child goes a long way towards promoting the health and well-being of children. Participating in their process of doing homework helps you identify if your child is facing challenges, and provide the much-needed support.

The first step is identifying the problem your child has by establishing whether their homework is too much. In elementary school, students should not spend over twenty minutes on homework while in high school they should spend an average of two hours. If it exceeds these guidelines, then you know that the homework is too much and you need to talk with the teachers.

The other step is ensuring your child focuses on their work by eliminating distractions. Texting with friends, watching videos, and playing video games can distract your child. Next, help them create a homework routine by having a designated area for studying and organizing their time for each activity.

Why it is better to do homework with friends Extracurricular activities such as sports and volunteer work that students engage in are vital. The events allow them to refresh their minds, catch up, and share with friends, and sharpen their communication skills. Homework is better done with friends as it helps them get these benefits. Through working together, interacting, and sharing with friends, their stress reduces.

Working on assignments with friends relaxes the students. It ensures they have the help they need when tackling the work, making even too much homework bearable. Also, it develops their communication skills. Deterioration of communication skills is a prominent reason as to why homework is bad. Too much of it keeps one away from classmates and friends, making it difficult for one to communicate with other people.

Working on homework with friends, however, ensures one learns how to express themselves and solve issues, making one an excellent communicator.

How does a lot of homework affect students’ performance? Burnout is a negative effect of homework. After spending the entire day learning, having to spend more hours doing too much homework lead to burnout. When it occurs, students begin dragging their feet when it comes to working on assignments and in some cases, fail to complete them. Therefore, they end up getting poor grades, which affects their overall performance.

Excessive homework also overshadows active learning, which is essential in the learning process. It encourages active participation of students in analyzing and applying what they learn in class in the real world. As a result, this limits the involvement of parents in the process of learning and children collaboration with friends. Instead, it causes boredom, difficulties for the students to work alongside others, and lack of skills in solving problems.

Should students have homework? Well, this is the question many parents and students ask when they consider these adverse effects of homework. Homework is vital in the learning process of any student. However, in most cases, it has crossed the line from being a tool for learning and becomes a source of suffering for students. With such effects, a balance is necessary to help students learn, remain healthy, and be all rounded individuals in society.

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One Response to How does homework affect students?

Great info and really valuable for teachers and tutors. This is a really very wonderful post. I really appreciate it; this post is very helpful for education.

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Exploring the synergistic effect of anionic and cationic fibrillated cellulose as sustainable additives in papermaking

• Original Research
• Open access
• Published: 02 September 2024

Cite this article

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• Giovana Signori-Iamin 1 ,
• Roberto J. Aguado 1 ,
• Quim Tarrés 1 ,
• Alexandre F. Santos 2 &
• Marc Delgado-Aguilar 1  

While cationic cellulose has yet to find a place in the paper industry, manufacturers show certain interest in a more recent material: cellulose nanofibers (CNFs), generally with negative surface charge. This work suggests both to be combined to increase the mechanical properties of recycled paper while preventing the use of synthetic polyelectrolytes as retention agents. On one hand, a bleached pulp was cationized by etherification, both as-is and following mechanical refining (15,000 PFI revolutions) and submitted to high-pressure homogenization, generating two different kinds of cationic CNFs. On the other, the same pulp was submitted to an enzymatic pretreatment and high-pressure homogenization, producing a negatively charged cellulose micro/nanofiber (CMNF). Two different cellulose-based systems consisting of each type of cationic CNF and the enzymatic CMNF were applied in the papermaking of both virgin and recycled paper. This study demonstrates the effective use of the cationic CNFs as retention agents during sheet formation, which together with the enzymatic CMNFs significantly enhanced the mechanical properties of both types of paper. The study found that refining before cationization favored the retention effect, primarily due to increased surface area and charge of the cationic CNFs, where remarkable increases in the breaking length of virgin (125.1%) and recycled paper (46.5%) were reached. The synergy between cationic CNFs and enzymatic CMNFs outperformed the use of commercial polyacrylamide, a non-biodegradable polyelectrolyte. This research highlights the potential of tailored CNFs in producing high-performance papers, while promoting sustainability and offering a plausible strategy to increase paper recycling rates.

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Innovative system based on natural polyelectrolyte complex and cellulose micro/nanofibers to improve drainability and properties of recycled paper

Remarkable increase of paper strength by combining enzymatic cellulose nanofibers in bulk and tempo-oxidized nanofibers as coating, the feasibility of incorporating cellulose micro/nanofibers in papermaking processes: the relevance of enzymatic hydrolysis, explore related subjects.

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Introduction

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), from 2010 to 2021 the annual production of paper and paperboard increased by 6% (FAO 2021 ). In Europe, the annual turnover from the production of pulp, graphic, hygienic, packaging and specialized paper grades and products accounted for over 180 billion euros (European-Commission 2022; CEPI 2023 ). Noticeably, the pulp and paper industry is an important and increasing sector for economy and society, where innovation and sustainability are decisive features for leading the segment.

One of the central operations on which the industry is focusing in the last decades is improving the paper recycling rates. Recycling paper reduces the need of extracting new raw material for pulp production and decreases the required energy consumption in the process. Current recycling rates in Europe are of 71.4%, according to the Confederation of European Paper Industries (CEPI), and the objective is to increase them up to 76%. Nevertheless, there are challenges that still need to be overcome for achieving this objective. Paper cannot be recycled for infinite times, since there is a noticeable decrease of its strengthening capacity over time due to the hornification of fibers, an irreversible deterioration caused by repeated drying and processing cycles (Wan et al. 2011 ; Hubbe 2014 ; Solhi et al. 2023 ). Currently, processes employed to recover paper properties, such as mechanical refining, are becoming inefficient or insufficient. Therefore, it is necessary to improve recycling rates, while maintaining or even enhancing mechanical characteristics of the final product, at the same time that sustainability requirements are met.

Key approaches to achieve this outcome involve the use of additives, such as strengthening agents and retention aids. Strengthening agents are able to interact with fibers and promote the bonding between fiber and fibrils, thus creating a stronger network and improving mechanical properties. These agents should interact with water, be compatible with the cellulose surface and be biodegradable so to meet environmental regulatory requirements (Ashori et al. 2013 ). Examples of strength additives are cationic starch, polyacrylamides and micro/nanocellulose fibers. This latter type of agent has been gaining considerate attention from both academia and industry, as it constitutes a sustainable material that has been well proven to enhance mechanical properties of papers (Lavoine et al. 2012 ; Rol et al. 2019a ; Li et al. 2021 ). The phenomenon behind this is due to their high specific surface area, which improves the bonding between fibers and fibrils at the same time that they are able to better arrange the stress peaks through the network during loading (Taipale et al. 2010 ). Hollertz et al. ( 2017 ) produced three different types of carboxymethylated cellulose nanofibers and applied them in the preparation of unbleached kraft pulp handsheets. These cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were able to increase the tensile strength of the papers probably due to the increased densification of the sheets and the chemical cross-linking between fibers and nanofibrils. Ang et al. ( 2020 ) produced CNFs by applying mechanical refining and high-pressure homogenization over de-inked recycled pulp and was able to increase the tensile index of bleached eucalyptus kraft pulp paper by 83% with a 20 wt.% CNF addition. Another route that is interesting to consider when producing micro/nanocellulose fibers is the enzymatic hydrolysis (Henriksson et al. 2007 ). Treating fibers with enzymes, such as endoglucanases, is attractive since it does not employ harsh and expensive chemicals and usually requires mild reaction conditions (Lourenço et al. 2019 ). For instance, CNFs from enzymatically treated pulps were produced by Jo et al. ( 2021 ) and applied in bleached hardwood kraft pulp handsheets. At a 2 wt.% application, tensile index was increased by 52.7% and the burst index by 210.2%.

Similar agents can also be used as retention aids, namely cationic polymers such as cationic polyacrylamides and cationic starch. Retention agents’ main purpose is to help in the retention of fines and other additives (such as mineral fillers and some strengthening agents like CNFs) in the pulp slurry. This approach optimizes the utilization of resources and avoids the loss of these components to white water, which can have a detrimental effect on paper properties since this water is usually recirculated in the process. These components are usually smaller than the mesh size of the screens used during the forming step in the paper machine and therefore are washed away together with the water contained in the initial slurry. Considering the importance of improving mechanical properties of paper, retaining fines onto the fiber network is essential, especially when considering recycled pulp where the percentage of fines is higher (Odabas et al. 2016 ). The retention is possible due to the flocculation capacity of the retention agents, usually of cationic nature, over these components, which are often negatively charged. More recently, the development and application of cationic cellulose nanofibers (CCNFs) has also been explored and they could be potentially used as retention agents (Aguado et al. 2017 ; Lu et al. 2020 ; Pedrosa et al. 2022a ). Common routes employed to produce cationic cellulose derivatives include cellulose oxidation with sodium periodate followed by cationization with Girard’s reagent T ((2-hydrazinyl-2-oxoethyl)-trimethylazanium chloride, GT) (Sirviö et al. 2011 ; Huang et al. 2020 ; Pedrosa et al. 2022b ; Borja et al. 2022 ). Another alternative is to react the cellulose with some epoxy reagents, e.g. N-oxiranylmethyl-N-methylmorpholinium, or 2,3-epoxypropyltrimethylammonium chloride (EPTAC) or even with its precursor (3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl)trimethylammonium chloride (CHPTAC) under alkaline media (Yan et al. 2009 ; Hasani et al. 2009 ; Moral et al. 2016 ; Pedrosa et al. 2022b ). Owing to several factors, cationic derivatives of cellulose have not been as successful in the pulp and paper industry as those of starch (Farrell and Hauser 2013 ; Sharma et al. 2021 ). One reason is the reluctance of manufacturers to use chemically modified fibers with the pulp stock, mainly because it implies altering the already existing equipment and the supramolecular structure of cellulose, which could ultimately lead to changes in paper performance. However, a major drawback is inherent to cellulose, which is less reactive than starch. Its repeating units, namely anhydroglucose units (AGU), are linked to each other and through intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds, giving way to cellulose Iα and cellulose Iβ crystalline networks (French 2014 ). Furthermore, when suspended in water, the hydrophobic effect hinders the penetration of the solvent through the fibrils (Alves et al. 2015 ). It is common to address the setbacks presented by the supramolecular structure of cellulose with the use of sodium hydroxide (Yokota et al. 2022 ).

Nevertheless, interesting studies investigating the application of cationic cellulose in papermaking have been performed and show their potential as retention agents. For instance, Aguado et al. ( 2017 ) investigated the flocculation capacity of three different soluble cationic derivatives of cellulose over precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC), ground calcium carbonate (GCC) and kaolin. The main conclusions were that high degrees of polymerization (DP) and high charges favored the flocculation of these mineral fillers. Another example is the work of Pedrosa et al. ( 2022a ), who produced different CCNFs, either with Girard’s reagent T or by cationization with CHPTAC, and applied them in the retention of PCC. Results demonstrated that the best CCNFS, with a degree of substitution (DS) of 0.13 for the CHPTAC treated derivative and a DS of 0.16 for the Girard’s reagent one, were able to increase the retention rate from 43 to 62% for an incorporation of 0.4 wt.%. Finally, Lu et al. ( 2020 ) studied the effect of adding CCNFs in the flocculation of fines and its influence on the wet web strength of papers produced with softwood bleached kraft pulp. The researchers concluded that CCNF can effectively improve the interactions between fibers and fines, thus enhancing wet web strength performance without hindering greatly the dewatering rate. For instance, with an addition of 5 wt.% CCNFs with the highest charge, the breaking length of the wet web increased by 46%.

Considering the aforementioned challenges and opportunities, namely the potential performance of anionic and cationic CNFs as strength and retention agents, respectively, and the need of exploring to a further extent the use of both of them in papermaking, this work defines a dual-CNF strategy to improve the mechanical properties of recycled paper. To the best of the author’s knowledge, the proposed approach has been scarcely explored in the literature so far, and underlines the strengthening effect of anionic CNFs, here represented by the use of enzymatically hydrolyzed fibers, combined with the retention potential of CCNFs, enabling a fully cellulose-based system. For this, first anionic and cationic CNFs were produced and characterized. The second stage was to study the effects of this dual-CNF system in virgin pulp paper, in order to assess the different electrostatic interactions that could be happening between fibers and CNFs. Finally, with the results obtained for virgin pulp, the study concludes with their application in recycled pulp and the effects on the paper properties are evaluated. The present study suggests that it is possible to tailor different CCNFs by applying mechanical refining prior to the cationization reaction. In addition, the combination of anionic CNFs, produced via enzymatic hydrolysis, and CCNFs increased the mechanical properties of both virgin and recycled paper, surpassing the effects of the combination between anionic CNF and commercial polyacrylamide, the reference non-biodegradable polyelectrolyte that is conventionally used as retention agent in papermaking. Thus, the study highlights the potential of cellulose-based additives for obtaining high-performance papers, while minimizing the use of chemicals and increasing the sustainability within the industry.

Experimental section

For producing CNFs and virgin pulp paper, bleached kraft eucalyptus pulp (BKEP) was used and kindly provided by Torraspapel SA (La Montañanesa, Spain). Recycled pulp used for papermaking was made by mixing 65% of liner paper and 35% of fluting, both provided by Saica Paper (Zaragoza, Spain). For the enzymatic pre-treatment, FiberCare® U solution was used and acquired from Novozymes (Bagsværd, Denmark). The aqueous solution of (3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl)trimethylammonium chloride (CHPTAC) at 60 wt.% used for cationization was acquired from Merck (Barcelona, Spain). A commercial cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) with an anionic demand of 2252 μeq/g and high molecular weight (~ 10 6  g/mol) was used for comparison. Other reagents used during the experimental tests were purchased from Merck (Barcelona, Spain).

Production of cellulose micro/nanofibers

First, BKEP was disintegrated at 3000 rpm for 20 min at a 1.5 wt.% consistency by means of a device complying to the ISO standard 5263-1 (ISO 2004 ). After dispersion, fibers were filtered with a nylon cloth of 200 mesh in order to reduce the excess of water and stored at 4 ℃ until further use.

For the enzymatic reaction, the pulp was suspended in distilled water reading a 3 wt.% consistency. Sodium acetate/acetic acid buffer (0.1 M) was then added to maintain the pH at 4.8 and the reaction media was then heated up to 50 ℃. Then, the enzyme was added at a dosage of 240 mg/kg and the reactor was kept under gentle agitation for 3 h. To stop the reaction, the medium was diluted with water at 90 ℃. The treated pulp was filtered with a nylon cloth of 200 mesh, washed thoroughly with water, and suspended in distilled water at 1 wt.%. In order to generate the micro/nanofibers, the diluted suspension was submitted to a high-pressure homogenizer (HPH) NS1001L PANDA 2 K-GEA (GEA Niro Soavy, Parma, Italy) with the following sequence: 3 passes at 300 bar, 3 passes at 600 bar, and 3 passes at 900 bar.

For the CCNFs, one of them was made by using unrefined BKEP after disintegration. For the second type, the disintegrated pulp was subjected to mechanical refining in an NPFI-02 PFI mill (Metrotec SL, Gipuzkoa, Spain), for 15,000 revolutions at a 10 wt.% consistency (Kerekes 2005 ). This PFI refined BKEP was analyzed in a MorFi Compact Analyzer (TechPAP, Grenoble, France) for morphology inspection.

Next, both types of pulp (unrefined and refined) were subjected to the same reaction conditions. First, the fiber was mercerized at approximately 9 wt.% consistency with a 20 wt.% NaOH solution for 90 min at room temperature. This first step is necessary for breaking the crystalline structure and promoting the swelling of the cellulose chain, thus providing more accessibility of the –OH groups to the epoxy moieties in the subsequent reaction (Moral et al. 2016 ). Then, the cationization reaction proceeded by adding CHPTAC at a 9:1 molar ratio (CHPTAC:AGU) and distilled water until a consistency of 2 wt.% was reached. The reaction was performed at 60 ℃ for 3 h. To stop it, excess HCl (3 wt.%) was added to the media, which was washed thoroughly and filtered with filter paper of 14–18 µm pore size. The cationic fibers were then subjected to different degrees of fibrillation in the same HPH used for producing the enzymatically hydrolyzed cellulose micro/nanofibers (CMNFs).

Characterization of fibers and CNFs/CMNFs

Optical microscopy.

Suspensions of cationic fibers (0.5 wt.%) were analyzed with an optical microscope (LEICA DMR-XA) equipped with a Nikon F90 camera, to check morphological aspects visually. The equipment had a 0.2 µm resolution and reflected light images were taken in 5 × magnification. Subsequently, images were treated using FiJi ImageJ Software.

Degree of substitution

The DS of the fibers was measured by conductometric titration of chloride ions, considering that there is one counterion per trimethylammonium group, according to the method previously described in literature (Hasani et al. 2008 ; Pei et al. 2013 ; Rol et al. 2019b ). First, 0.4 dry gram of fiber was suspended in 200 mL of distilled water. The conductimetric titration was performed by adding 0.2 mL of a 0.06 M AgNO 3 aqueous solution every 30 s into the suspension. The DS can be calculated according to Eq.  1 :

where \(C_{AgNO3}\) relates to the molar concentration, \(V_{AgNO3}\) to the volume of the AgNO 3 solution used in the equivalence, \(m_{cellulose}\) to the amount of cellulose (dry), and \(M_{AGU}\) to the molar mass of AGU (162 g/mol).

Pulp viscosity

The viscosity of cationic fiber suspensions at 0.1 wt.% consistency was determined using a Brookfield viscosity meter (Model PCE-RVI 2). The viscosity was measured in a 50 mL cylindrical container, at a constant temperature of 25 °C and with a cylindrical spindle (diameter = 1.8 cm, height = 6.5 cm). The rotation frequency of the spindle was set at 60 rpm.

Anionic and cationic demands

The cationic and anionic demands of fibers and CNFs/CMNFs were determined by potentiometric back titration (Serra-Parareda et al. 2021a ) with a Mütek PCD-06 particle charge analyzer (BTG Instruments, Wessling, Germany). For the cationic demand, the sample (0.02 g, on the basis of dry pulp weight) was soaked in excess polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride solution (polyDADMAC, 0.001 mol/L). Then, the sample was centrifuged at 2,300 g for 20 min and 10 mL of the supernatant was titrated with a negative polymer aqueous solution, namely sodium polyethylene sulfonate (PES-Na) at 0.001 mol/L, until the isoelectric point (0 mV) was reached. For the anionic demand, the inverse procedure was performed; samples were soaked in excess PES-Na and titrated with polyDADMAC instead.

Yield of nanofibrillation and transmittance at 600 nm

The yield of nanofibrillation was determined by centrifugation (Serra-Parareda et al. 2021a ). For this, a 0.2 wt.% CNF suspension was centrifuged at 4000 g for separation of the micro- and nanofibrillated parts, assuming that the micro-sized fibrils sediment while the nano fraction stays stable in the supernatant. The supernatant was discarded, while the sediment was retrieved and oven-dried at 105 °C for 24 h. The dry sample was weighed, and the yield was calculated according to Eq.  2 .

Transmittance at 600 nm, an additional parameter used to assess the degree of nanofibrillation of a fiber, was measured on a CNF suspension at 0.2 wt.% consistency using a Shimadzu UV-160 spectrophotometer (Isogai et al. 2011 ; Fujisawa et al. 2011 ).

Papermaking of virgin and recycled pulp and characterization of paper sheets

Neat BKEP paper consisted solely of virgin pulp. As mentioned previously, enzymatic CMNFs (ENZCMNFs) were the strengthening agent selected for the study. They were added to the pulp at a 3 wt.% concentration (with respect to dry fiber weight) and then the slurry was mixed at 3000 rpm for 60 min (Serra-Parareda et al. 2021a ). The slurry was then displaced in a 5 L jar, where tap water was added until the consistency was 1 wt.%. Following that, the retention agent (either CPAM or CCNFs) was added and mixed with the slurry for 20 min for optimal interaction before preparing the paper sheets (Serra-Parareda et al. 2021a ). Three different concentrations of retention agent were tested: 0.05, 0.10 and 0.25 wt.%. Slurries with BKEP and retention agent only, i.e. , without any type of negatively charged CMNFs, were also prepared. For the recycled paper, similar steps were taken, but using a mixture of 65% of liner and 35% of fluting instead of BKEP. Figure  1 shows an schematic overview of the described process.

Schematic diagram of paper production using enzymatic CMNF (referred as ENZCMNF) as strengthening agent, three different kinds of cationic retention agent—a commercial polyacrylamide (CPAM) and the two types of CCNFs here named as CCNF_0K and CCNF_15K—and two different pulps (BKEP and recycled)

BKEP and recycled fibers (65% liner, 35% fluting) without any addition of agents were analyzed in a MorFi Compact Analyzer (TechPAP, Grenoble, France) for morphology inspection.

Paper sheets of basis weight 75 g/m 2 were prepared in a Rapid-Köthen sheet former, model 786-FH (ISP, Gipuzkoa, Spain), according to the standard ISO 5269-2. The drainability of the slurries was assessed by measuring the Schopper-Riegler degree (°SR) with an equipment from PTI (model 95,587) that complies to ISO 5267/1.

Tensile strength at constant elongation rate was measured according to ISO 1924-2 and reported as breaking length (BL). Paper sheets were also characterized in terms of Elmendorf tear index (ISO 6383-2), Scott bond (ISO 16260), Mullen burst index (ISO 2758) and air permeability (Gurley porosity, ISO 5636-5) (ISO 2011 ). Five paper sheets of each composition were conditioned at 23 ± 1 °C and at relative humidity of 50% for 24 h before testing. The resulting average of these five samples was taken for determination of all paper properties.

Look through (LT) index was assessed by means of a sheet formation index inspector (TechPAP 2D formation tester, Grenoble, France). The index is based on the transmittance of diffused light and is a function of the average flocs contrast intensity, the total number of flocs, and how homogenous the flocs are distributed in the analyzed area.

The turbidity of whitewater effluents from papermaking was measured with an optical turbidity meter from Thermo Scientific, model Eutech TN-100/T-100 (Singapore) and results are presented in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).

Results and discussion

Production and characterization of cnfs/cmnfs.

ENZCMNFs presented a cationic demand of 158.6 ± 6.7 µeq/g, a yield of nanofibrillation of 5.4 ± 0.2% and a transmittance of 2.75% after homogenization. Considering these aspects, the suspension could be characterized as a mixture of micro and nanosized fibers, thus justifying the name already given to this material. These values are slightly lower than those found by Mazega et al. ( 2023 ), who applied a refining stage prior to the enzymatic reaction.

Figure  2 depicts the morphological changes that BKEP fibers underwent due to PFI treatment and cationization. Firstly, Fig.  2 a represents the neat pulp fiber without any source of treatment other than the initial disintegration. One can observe that the fibers are long, homogeneous and there are no apparent fines present in the media. Figure  2 b shows the morphological changes that the BKEP fibers without any mechanical refining suffered after cationization. It is possible to notice that the reaction hardly changed the morphology of the long and smooth fibers but increasing to some extent the number of smaller fractions. Figure  2 c, on the other hand, highlights the effect of the 15,000-revolution PFI refining over the neat BKEP, where the presence of smaller fractions is clearly higher in comparison to Fig.  2 a. Indeed, the morphological changes were quantified with a MorFi analyzer, and it was possible to observe that, from the BKEP to the refined BKEP, the mean arithmetic length decreased from 398.5 µm to 251 µm, the mean length-weighted fiber length from 696.5 to 488.25 µm and the fines content in length increased from 12.98 to 14.47%. Interestingly, after cationization, the PFI-treated fibers exhibited significantly different morphological features than the unrefined cationized fibers, as shown in Fig.  2 d. In this case, the cationic fibers presented straight regions that intercalate with round ones, resembling ganglia-alike areas. Possibly, these rounder areas correspond to more amorphous, swollen, and disintegrated regions in comparison to the straighter ones. Since PFI refining disintegrated the fiber to a further extent, allowing a swelling effect, the accessibility into the cellulose chains by the cationic regent increased. This led to an intensification of the cationization process that changed the fibers’ morphology considerably. This characteristic of the cationization process has been reported in literature by other authors (Huang et al. 2020 ; Pedrosa et al. 2022b ).

Optical microscopy images of a) BKEP pulp prior cationization treatment b) BKEP pulp after cationization treatment c) PFI refined BKEP pulp prior to cationization treatment d) PFI refined BKEP pulp after cationization treatment

The differences between the cationic fibers can be perceived not only in their morphology, but also in the values of their anionic demand, degree of substitution and viscosity, as depicted in Table  1 . It can be noted that PFI refining caused an increase in all of these properties. For the cationization performed on the unrefined pulp, the anionic demand achieved was 230 µeq/g; for the cationic pulp produced from refined fibers, it accounted for 492 µeq/g. The degree of substitution also increased, from 0.21 to 0.25, respectively. For anionic CNFs, polyDADMAC adsorption has been previously reported to adequately correlate with surface area (Serra-Parareda et al. 2021b ); thus, a parallelism could be established for CCNFs here. In this sense, while the slight increase in DS was due to the diminishment of mass transfer limitations during cationization, the high increase in anionic demand corresponds to a larger specific surface area. Finally, the viscosity of a 0.1 wt.% suspension increased from 71.11 to 82.69 mPa.s, for the unrefined and refined fibers respectively. Increase in viscosity can be related to the increase in surface charge and fine content.

After cationization, the fibers were fibrillated in the HPH. Different degrees of fibrillation were obtained and their effect on the anionic demand (Fig.  3 ), e nergy consumed (Table  2 ) in the HPH, yield of nanofibrillation (Table  2 ) and transmittance at 600 nm (Table  2 ) was investigated. It was found that, as the number of passes and pressure gradually increased in the homogenizer, the anionic demand of the CCNFs also increased until reaching a plateau, for both types of cationic fiber. This indicates that, similarly to what happens with anionic CNFs (Balea et al. 2021 ), as the fibrillation process increases the surface area of the cellulosic chains, there is an increased exposure of the quaternary ammonium groups grafted during cationization, implicating that the PES-Na polyelectrolyte used during the back titration has a greater number of cationic groups available to interact with. This suggests that the interaction between the cationic and OH − functional groups did not happened only in the surface of the cellulose chain, but rather involved a diffusion phenomenon. Nevertheless, this happens until a certain point where there are no significant changes in the number of functional groups exposed, maintaining similar anionic demands.

Anionic demand of CCNFs at increasing HPH intensity

It was also found that the different cationic fibers provided different anionic demands for the same conditions in the HPH, thus reinforcing that the increase in the demand for different substituted fibers is not due to the homogenization itself, but rather from the previous PFI pretreatment applied to the pulp. For the 15,000 revolutions in the PFI, a single pass at 300 bar already elevated the anionic demand up to 1500 µeq/g, while for the cationic fiber without PFI pre-treatment, this first pass increased the demand until 854 µeq/g. The highest anionic demand was achieved with the PFI treated fiber, for the most intense fibrillation (3 passes at 300 bar, 3 passes at 600 bar and 3 passes at 900 bar), providing a value of 2000 µeq/g. On the other hand, the highest demand achieved for the unrefined cationic fiber was 1161 µeq/g, already obtained with 3 passes at 300 bar and 1 pass at 600 bar.

The investigation regarding the yield of nanofibrillation, energy consumed and transmittance was done for three different levels that would be representative of the evolution in the fibrillation degree. It was chosen an initial point (1 pass at 300 bar), an intermediate point (3 passes at 300 bar and 1 pass at 600 bar) and a final point (3 passes at 300, 3 passes at 600 and 3 passes at 900 bar). From Table  2 , it is noticeable that the yield and the transmittance are also quite distinct between samples subjected to the same fibrillation intensity. For instance, the yield of nanofibrillation achieved for the refined pulp is higher for all fibrillation intensities. Even though in the most intense level, where the yield from both samples was considered the same, it is possible to see that the transmittance is different, thus indicating that there is a difference in the fiber size not distinguished during the sedimentation technique. Another point worth to mention is that the CCNF produced from the refined fiber reaches, with only one pass at 300 bar, the same yield of nanofibrillation that the CCNF produced from the unrefined cationic pulp does at the intermediate level. Finally, an aspect important to highlight is the amount of energy consumed for each of the fibrillation degrees evaluated in Table  2 . Of course, for the cationic fibers that were previously refined, the refining is an extra process that consumes energy. On the other hand, this translates as a lower energy demand in the HPH, when the aim is to obtain higher surface charge. For instance, taking the same previously given example, with 9.54 kWh/kg it was possible to obtain a CCNF with an anionic demand 28% higher than the CCNF from the unrefined cationic fiber obtained with approximately the same amount of energy. Nevertheless, if it is wished a CCNF with 2000 µeq/g, higher fibrillation intensities are needed, and so more energy is spent. In addition, an important remark to make is that it was only possible to obtain higher surface charge when the PFI treatment was applied. Thus, from an industrial point of view, it would be relevant to balance what kind of CCNF is needed and for which application, with the energy spent during the process.

Therefore, two clearly different CCNFs were chosen to study their application as retention agents in papermaking. One is the CCNF obtained from the initial cationic fiber with no PFI refining, at a degree of fibrillation of 3 passes at 300 bar and 1 pass at 600 bar. The reasons for this choice are that, from this degree of fibrillation on, there is no significant change in the anionic demand achieved and in addition there is a reasonable amount of nanosized fibers in the suspension. These CCNFs will, from now on, be referred as CCNF_0K. The second one is the CCNF produced from the PFI-treated cationic fiber at a degree of fibrillation of 3 passes at 300, 3 passes at 600 and 3 passes at 900 bar, named here as CCNF_15K. For this case, it was possible to reach an anionic demand of up to 2000 µeq/g and a high content of nanosized fibers.

Virgin pulp paper production and characterization

From the MorFi analysis, virgin fibers presented a mean arithmetic length of 398.5 µm, a mean length-weighted fiber length of 696.5 µm and contained 12.98% of fines in length. Since the length-weighted length takes into consideration the fiber length in the denominator part of the average calculation, this mean is not as sensitive as the arithmetic length is to the fine content (Robertson et al. 1999 ). Because of this, the mean fiber arithmetic length presents a lower value than the length-weighted one.

From Fig.  4 , it is noticeable that every paper produced with ENZCMNF and CCNFs promoted a remarkable improvement in the strength properties of BKEP paper. In general, higher cationic charges reflected in better BL. The highest result was for the 0.25% of CCNF_15K, which presented a BL of 3368 m, representing an increase of 125.1% in the strength of the paper comparing to the neat BKEP sample (1496 m). The ºSR for this point corresponded to 21, while the measured value for the neat pulp was of 17.

Effect on the breaking length of BKEP paper using different retention agents

The BLs achieved for the papers produced with 0.05, 0.1 and 0.25% of CCNF_0K presented an increasing trend with increasing concentration, and an optimum value of 2726 m was reached with the 0.25% concentration. This represents a rise of 82.2% in the strength property of the paper. In addition, the ºSR measured was of 21 for this paper composition. The CCNF_15K also presented a similar trend, where the BLs for the 0.05 and 0.1% were quite similar, however attaining a noticeable rise in the property for the 0.25% point. High increases in the tensile properties are obtained at the same time that the increase in the ºSR is not as high. These results are comparable with other found previously in literature. For instance, Delgado-Aguilar et al. ( 2015b ) tested different negatively charged CNFs in the papermaking of hardwood pulp, among them ENZCMNFs. For this type of nanofiber, at a 3 wt.% addition, the increase in the BL achieved was of 89% approximately and the ºSR increased from 17 to 27. Lourenço et al. ( 2019 ) generated cellulose microfibrils (CMFs) by treating fibers with an enzymatic hydrolysis and high-pressure homogenization. These CMFs were able to increase the strength capacity of bleached eucalyptus kraft paper up to 22%, when using precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC), cationic starch, alkenyl succinic anhydride and cationic polyacrylamide as additives.

Moreover, papers containing only retention aid, that is, with no addition of any strengthening agent, resulted in higher tensile property as well, comparing to neat BKEP. In the case of 0.25% of CCNF_0K, an increase of 20.65% was attained. For the CCNF_15K, all the compositions tested provided higher strength, however the best result was of 1941 m for the 0.25% concentration, which represents an increase of 29.7%. This could be a sign that the perceived increase in the strengthening capacity when adding only the retention agents could be mainly caused by the improved ability of retaining fines and promoting the bonding between fibers/fines in the paper network. This behavior is in accordance with the literature. Lu et al. ( 2020 ) investigated the effect of three types of CCNFs with different charge densities in the making of softwood bleached kraft pulp paper. The researchers concluded that higher charge densities favored the retention of fines in the network because of the stronger electrostatic interactions that take place between fines and fiber, improving wet web performance. The best result achieved was with the highest charge CNF, which promoted an increase of 46% in the BL of wet web at a CCNF concentration of 5 wt.%.

The effect of CPAM was also assessed and compared to the effect of the CCNFs in the BL, as depicted in Fig.  4 . First, analyzing the effect of this retention agent without any strengthening aid, one can observe that for the 0.05 and 0.10 wt.% points, CCNF_15K provided better BLs, although in the 0.25 wt.% the opposite is noticed. Now, observing the values related to the papers produced with ENZCMNFs, the best value achieved for the CPAM was also at 0.25%, like the other retention agents. The BL was of 3061 m, lower than the BL attained for the CCNF_15K. The corresponding ºSR was of 20.

Table 3 shows the values obtained for the Scott bond, burst and tear index for the different produced papers. For all these properties, the papers containing CCNF_15K and ENZCMNF outperformed the other paper formulations. The best improvements in respect to the neat BKEP paper were achieved for 0.25% concentration. The Scott bond grew 305.5%, the burst index 143.1% and the tear index 155.96%. Increases in these properties reflect that the negatively charged CMNFs and the CCNFs synergistic effect promoted the bonding between fibers and fines, not only improving the tensile properties of the paper sheets. These results are comparable with other works reported in literature, such as González et al. ( 2013 ), who reported an increase of 316.57% in the Scott bond and 150% in the burst index with the addition of 3 wt.% TEMPO-CNF, 0.8 wt.% of colloidal silica and 0.5 wt.% of cationic starch in biorefined BKEP paper.

At both 0.05 and 0.1% concentrations of retention agent, papers produced with ENZCMNF and CCNF_0K performed similarly to the papers made with CPAM for the Scott bond and burst index. However, the CCNF_0K provided better results than the CPAM at the 0.25% point. On the other hand, this is not the case for the tear index, where the CPAM provided better results than the CCNF_0K for 0.05 and 0.25% of retention agent.

Considering these results, it is noticeable that the cationic cellulose-based retention agents have competitive performance when compared to the commercial one, specially the CCNF_15K. Also, we highlight the point with 0.25% of CCNF_15K, where it outperformed the CPAM. In addition, the decrease in the drainage rate caused by the additives could be related to an enhancement in the fines retention and better fiber-fines connections. Nevertheless, the action of these agents does not hinder considerably the drainage capability up to unpractical values. All of this indicates the suitability of these fully cellulose-based systems for improving paper properties.

The formation of the papers using 3 wt.% of ENZCMNF and 0.05, 0.10 and 0.25 wt.% of the cationic retention agents was inspected by the LT index. From Fig.  5 , we can observe that there is a decreasing trend on the BL when the LT index increases. In this type of analysis, the highest the index, the worse the paper formation is. This is because there is a higher transmittance of light, which is caused by the disposition of bigger flocs in the paper network. Considering this, the decrease in the mechanical properties can be related to a worsening in formation indeed.

Breaking length of BKEP paper sheets (reinforced with 3% ENZCMNF and with different dosages of the retention agents tested) as a function of look through index. Data is provided as supplementary material (Table S1 )

Recycled pulp paper production and characterization

From the MorFi analysis, recycled fibers presented a mean fiber arithmetic length of 257.2 µm, a mean length-weighted fibre length of 652.75 µm and a 28.83% of fines in length. Comparing it with the virgin pulp, in this case the proportion of fines is higher, which correlates with a lower mean fiber arithmetic length. The mean length-weighted fiber length is also lower, but not drastically, in comparison to the virgin pulp, since it is not affected largely by the number of fines.

The study executed with the BKEP pulp served the purpose of assessing the potential performance of the CCNFs over the strength properties of paper, at commonly applied doses of retention agent. Bearing in mind that high increments on BL were achieved when using both ENZCMNFs and CCNFs for BKEP, the same dosages were studied for the recycled paper. The effect of using solely cationic polymers was not considered here since their effects were already assessed for the virgin pulp and did not present an increase as high as the one using the combined system. Considering this, Fig.  6 shows the evolution of the BL of recycled paper in respect to retention agent dosage. One can observe that the improvements reported in respect to the neat pulp are not as pronounced as they were for the BKEP case. This could be occurring since the BL of neat recycled paper is already approximately 86% higher than that of the neat BKEP. Even though the mean fiber length is smaller in comparison to the BKEP, there is a higher content of fines in the recycled pulp used, which is beneficial for the paper strength. In addition, possibly, the capacity of improvement of the anionic/cationic system applied here poses a limitation, especially if we consider that the same dosages of retention agent were applied in a slurry that is intrinsically more negative than the BKEP pulp, due to the higher presence of fines.

Effect on the breaking length of recycled paper using different retention agents

From Fig.  6 , all retention agents performed similarly at the 0.05 wt.% point, where BL increased between 17 and 20% approximately. However, when the concentration increased to 0.10%, there was a considerable difference between retention agent performance. The CCNF_15K promoted the highest increase, achieving a 46.5% improvement in respect to neat paper. The increase in the ºSR was somewhat more pronounced if compared to the BKEP papers. For this composition, the ºSR increased from 34.5 (neat recycled pulp) to 45.5, representing almost 32% of increase. Other authors when incorporating CNFs and cationic retention agents in other pulp slurries also experienced an increase in ºSR (Delgado-Aguilar et al. 2015a ). Perhaps, optimization of dosage could be done in order to avoid the decrease in the dewatering rate without compromising the mechanical properties due to increased flocculation.

Subsequently, CCNF_0K promoted a 34.4% and CPAM a 21.2% increase in the BL at the same 0.10 wt.% dosage. Similar increases in the ºSR were noted as well, of 45 and 47 respectively. Interestingly, when 0.25% of retention agent was added, it is possible to see a decrease in the mechanical performance for both CCNFs, while for the CPAM the BL continued to increase, and in this case, it was higher than the CCNF_0K. It is interesting to point out as well that in the case of CCNF_15K, every paper composition tested with it surpassed the performance of the CPAM. Another highlight is that the highest BL achieved (which used CCNF_15K) required less than half of the CPAM dosage required to obtain its best BL performance. Similar improvements in the tensile properties of recycled paper are reported in the literature using negatively charged CNFs and other retention systems, ranging from 28 to 108.32% (Balea et al. 2016 ; Merayo et al. 2017 ; Zeng et al. 2021 ).

The different trend observed for the CCNFs with the recycled pulp, in comparison to the one experienced by the virgin pulp, could be due to the different natures of the fibers, especially considering that the recycled pulp slurry is more anionic than the BKEP. This is due to the higher fine content, which increases the presence of OH- groups available for interaction. Considering this, the electrostatic interactions between the CCNFs, ENZCMNF and the fibers/fine is more intense and at 0.25% of concentration, papers experience a decrease in mechanical performance.

The effect of the retention agents (for the concentration of agent respective to the highest BL achieved in each case) in Scott bond, burst index, tear index and air permeability is presented in Table  4 . Noticeably, there was an increase in all of the properties, apart from the tear index, which did not have a substantial change. Indeed, all of these properties are highly related to relative bonded area, which is enhanced by the addition of the ENZCMNFs and retention agents, whereas the tear index is more dependent on fiber length, which is not affected by the additives (Page 1969 ; Škulcová et al. 2017 ). Here, it is possible to observe as well that CCNF_15K caused similar increases to the properties as CPAM did but requiring a lesser amount of it. For this specific CCNF, the increase on the Scott bond was of 72%, the burst index of 26% and the tear index of 12% in respect to the neat pulp. The retention caused by the addition of the strengthening and retention agents can be also seen by the increase in the air permeability value, indicating the filling of voids in the paper network by fines and fiber.

Figure  7 shows how the turbidity of white water changed with different concentrations of the retention agents. One can notice that CCNF_15K usually presented the lowest turbidities, meaning the highest retentions, especially at 0.25 wt.%. CPAM followed closely to the values presented by CCNF_15K for 0.05 and 0.10 wt.% and presented an intermediate value between the CCNFs for the 0.25 wt.% concentration. This behavior makes sense, considering that CCNF_15K and CPAM present higher charges in comparison to CCNF_0K, and thus can retain more fines in the paper network.

Turbidity measurements as a function of retention agent addition in recycled paper reinforced with 3 wt.% ENZCMNF

Examining Fig.  8 , where the BL of the papers is put as a function of the LT index, it is possible to observe that the trend followed is not the same as the one presented for the virgin pulp case. Although the LT index increases, the BL of the papers also increases until it reaches a limit. From the index value of 175 onward, the mechanical strength of the paper experiences a decrease. For what it seems, although there is an improvement in the retention of fines when all retention agents are increased, the formation of flocs in the paper network does not hinder the paper strength up to a certain point and the interactions between fiber/fine/agents compensate some of the mal formation. Bastida et al. ( 2023 ) have also reported similar behavior, where flocculation was favored due to the cationic system used in recycled paper, but still presenting increases up to 40% in the tensile index. As it is known, the mechanical strength of paper is dependent on a range of variables, such as formation, but also fiber bonding. For instance, it is noticeable that the lowest breaking length and the lowest LT index corresponded to the neat recycled pulp. On the other hand, all papers produced with negatively charged CMNFs and retention agent presented better look through index in comparison to the neat pulp, similar to what was observed for the virgin paper, even though there is more fine retention, and subsequently, floc formation, when the agents are added. However, these flocs are apparently more well distributed in the paper network as compared to the neat paper. Another possible explanation is that, since the cationic retention agents have a good compatibility and interaction with the negatively charged CMNFs at these dosages, the synergistic effect between these additives favor the network formation (Delgado-Aguilar et al. 2015a ; Merayo et al. 2017 ).

Breaking length of recycled paper sheets (reinforced with 3% ENZCMNF and with different dosages of the retention agents tested) as a function of look through index. Data is provided as supplementary material (Table S2)

On interaction mechanisms

The positive charge of both CPAM and CCNFs is due to quaternary ammonium groups, but they are radically different in some important respects. Even though their anionic demand was found to be similar, cationic groups were more spaced in the case of the commercial polyelectrolyte. For CCNFs, a DS of 0.25 could seem in the low range if considering soluble derivatives, but it theoretically corresponds to the monosubstitution of nearly all AGU on the surface of nanofibers (Chaker and Boufi 2015 ). In contrast, for a CPAM copolymer with an anionic demand of 2252 µeq/g, the ratio of non-quaternized acrylamide units (71 g/mol) to cationic monomers (159 g/mol) is 4.

At an atomistic level, the attraction potential between retention agents and ENZCMNFs is mainly driven by ion–dipole interactions between the quaternary ammonium ion (formal charge + 1) and the permanent dipole between oxygen and hydrogen in hydroxyl groups (dipole moment: µ = 1.85 D). More specifically, the negative partial charge of the oxygen atom explains the negative surface charge of hydroxy polymers even in moderately acidic media (Drechsler et al. 2019 ). An identical adsorption mechanism is postulated for BKEP, whose surface charge is slightly negative. In the case of the recycled pulp, encompassing liner and fluting, the non-negligible presence of carboxyl groups also opens the way to ionic bonds, less abundant but higher in attraction potential (E):

where q is the charge of either ion and r is the interatomic distance. Figure  9 schematizes the most common interactions, both in the case of cationic cellulose and in the case of CPAM. The larger space between quaternary ammonium groups in the latter favors a bridging flocculation mechanism, but the main reason why cannot be discussed at an atomistic scale. The mobility and length of high-DP CPAM chains allows for pulp–CNF bridges, while CCNFs are postulated to work mostly by charge neutralization and/or generation of cationic patches (Aguado et al. 2023 ). By reducing or suppressing the energy barrier for aggregation (mainly based on electrostatic repulsion), tight absorption is possible. This caused agglomeration, leading to a less homogeneous formation of isotropic sheets, but also an enhancement of the mechanical properties. Hence, it could be hypothesized that this kind of tight adsorption onto fibers aided in fiber-nanofiber additive interactions.

Ion–dipole interactions between cationic retention aids and enzymatic nanofibers, and postulated flocculation mechanisms

Conclusions

This work successfully showed the use of cationic cellulose nanofibers to retain fines and micro/nanocellulose with moderate negative charge during sheet formation. In turn, said negatively-charged micro/nanocellulose, which was produced by enzymatic and mechanical processes, succeeded at increasing the mechanical properties of both virgin paper (BKEP) and recycled paper (65% liner, 35% fluting). For the former case, breaking length was improved 125% and the burst index, the tear index and the internal cohesion were more than doubled when using highly charged CCNFs, involving a refining stage prior to cationization, along with enzymatic CMNFs (3 wt.%). As for the latter, the breaking length increased from 2.8 to 4.1 km by using 3 wt.% enzymatic CMNFs and 0.1 wt.% highly charged CCNFs, while burst index, the tear index and the internal cohesion also increased, although not as much as in the case of virgin pulp. Overall, the combination of both kinds of nanocellulose showed great potential, either to produce stronger virgin paper or to compensate for the losses of mechanical performance of packaging paper after several recycling cycles.

In nearly every performance indicator, better results were obtained when carrying out a refining stage (15,000 PFI revolutions) before the cationizing reaction. This was attributed mainly to the increase in the surface area of CCNFs and increase in charge. Remarkably, in terms of mechanical properties, the synergy between CCNFs and enzymatic CMNFs surpassed the combination of the latter with CPAM, a non-biodegradable polyelectrolyte being conventionally used as retention agent in papermaking. It is also worth noting that their dosage (by weight) was the same for comparison purposes, that their charge density was in the same range (anionic demand ~ 2000 µeq/g), and that their effects on drainability were similar. However, while CPAM was present in the medium as dispersed long chains of high molecular weight, CCNFs were solid particles with a highly charged surface. This affected the adsorption and flocculation mechanisms, and thus the response of fiber-nanofiber systems when subjected to different kinds of mechanical stress. This research highlights the ability to tailor CCNFs with different surface charges and characteristics through PFI treatment, as well as obtaining high-performance papers minimizing the use of chemicals, underscoring the potential of cellulose-based additives in promoting sustainability within the papermaking industry.

Data availability

Raw data of the present work can be made available upon request.

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Acknowledgments

Authors wish to acknowledge the financial support of the funding agencies listed in the “Funding” section for their support to develop the present work. Marc Delgado-Aguilar and Quim Tarrés are Serra Húnter Fellows.

Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature. This research received funding from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, projects CON-FUTURO-ES (PID2020-113850RB-C22) and NextPack (PID2021-124766OA-I00). Giovana Signori-Iamin received funding from Universitat de Girona and Banco Santander for her PhD scholarship IFUdG 2023. Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer.

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Signori-Iamin, G., Aguado, R.J., Tarrés, Q. et al. Exploring the synergistic effect of anionic and cationic fibrillated cellulose as sustainable additives in papermaking. Cellulose (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-024-06145-8

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