apa animal research guidelines

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Animal Behavior: APA Style Guide

What is apa style.

APA (American Psychological Association) Style is widely used in the social sciences, business, and some of the life sciences. APA Style uses brief  in-text citations in the text that refer to an alphabetical list of references appearing the end of the work.

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A DOI is a unique, permanent locator for online materials.They are usually found at the top of an article or with the other citation information -- look for the letters "doi" followed by an alphanumeric sequence beginning with 10. Many older articles may not have a DOI.

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Animal Sciences and Veterinary Technology: APA Writing & Citations

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Collaborating to protect research with nonhuman animals

APA Services and partners cosign letter to congressional appropriators to protect animal research.

• Animal Research

APA Services and the APA Committee on Animal Research Ethics offered language to help shape a letter and summary to protect ethical animal research in congressional appropriations. Each year members of Congress who are allied with People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, and other organizations that oppose all federal research with nonhuman animals, advocate within the appropriations process to end or limit specific areas of research, even when it conforms to ethical and institutional guidelines. APA was proud to collaborate with the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology and other scientific associations in an effort to head off any congressional appropriations language that limits research on nonhuman animals. The cosigning organizations will continue to work together through the congressional appropriations cycle to ensure that language that limits or ends certain lines of research does not become law.

The House Appropriations Committee has written and approved all twelve appropriations bills for Fiscal Year 2023, but most have not been considered by the full House. The Senate is still developing its legislation. These bills are required to pass (or a temporary bill to fund the government) by September 30, 2022. Because appropriations bills must pass in order to fund the government, the bills are often targets of amendments or language that would limit federal funding for certain purposes. Anti-animal research organizations and their congressional supporters, as well as pro-science organizations and their supporters, try to engage with that process. Additional information will be available as the funding bills are passed and conferenced.

For more information contact Pat Kobor .

Related and recent

Ethics of basic animal research

• Ethics of animal research is a complex topic without a simple answer. “Animal welfare” is not a singular issue, but rather a continuous concern that requires consideration for every study. Not all animal research involves harm, pain, caging, food deprivation or other objectionable practices. Ironically, we often depend on scientific research with animals to determine how objectionable such a practice is! It is vitally important for students to become critical and analytical thinkers to rationally evaluate the costs and benefits of any particular study.
• Often the general public is unaware of the animal welfare protection systems in place, such as OLAW, USDA, IACUCs or other ethics boards.
• Animal research benefits animals as well as humans. Foundational work with animals leads to unexpected outcomes, such as the work with oxytocin in voles, which led to novel treatments for autism. It helps conservation efforts – for example, conditioned taste aversion to prevent wolves from killing livestock. It enhances the welfare of wild and captive animals, such as improvements in zoo animal habitats, or treatment of diseases shared with humans, like Ebola.
• Students underestimate the profound impact of mental health disorders on individuals as well as families and society. There is a profound impact in terms of both economics and human well-being.
• Criticism of behavioral studies in particular hints at anti-psychology sentiments. At least on the surface, it appears studies that are more biomedical in nature (e.g., drug development) are more palatable than those that are purely behavioral. However, behavioral treatments can be equally effective and carry lower risks.
• The APA’s Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE) has resources on this issue and is working hard to educate the public, not to mention the speaking of research website.

The responses were many and varied; thank you all for the great discussion.

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Ethical considerations in animal studies

Scientists undoubtedly owe their great advance and knowledge in biomedical research to millions of animals which they use every year in often-times extremely painful and distressing scientific procedures. One of the important issues in scientific research is to consider ethics in animal experimentation. Since this is a crucial issue in the modern era of medical research, in this paper, we have provided some guidelines (most of which have been adopted from Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Animals provided by American Association of Psychologists) which could be useful for researchers to design studies on a variety of animals.

Introduction

“Frankenstein science” is a phrase never far from the lips of those who object strongly to some aspects of science or indeed some supposed abuse by scientists ( 1 , 2 ). We should not, however, forget the powerful obligation there is to undertake, support, and participate in scientific research, particularly biomedical research, and the powerful moral imperative that underpins these obligations. Now, it is more imperative than ever to articulate these obligations and to do so is the subject and the object of this paper ( 1 ). One of the pivotal issues in scientific research is to consider ethics in animal experimentation. Animal research has had a pivotal contribution to a large number of scientific advances of the past century and continues to aid our understanding of various diseases ( 3 – 5 ). Additionally, the use of animals in experimental research parallels the development of medicine, which had its roots in ancient Greece (Aristotle, Hippocrate). Experiments on animals initially could be performed without great moral problems which were in accordance with the Cartesian philosophy in the 17th century. The discovery of anaesthetics and Darwin’s publication on the “Origin of Species”, defending the biological similarities between man and animal, contributed to the increase of animal experimentation ( 6 – 8 ) and this issue besides the increased interest and concern in animal welfare issues led to legislative regulations in many countries and the establishment of animal ethics committees ( 6 ). For instance, it has been reported that approximately 2.7 million regulated animal procedures were conducted in 2003 in the UK - half the number performed 30 years ago ( 4 ). Legislation of animal experimentation in modern societies is based on the supposition that this is ethically acceptable when certain more-or-less defined formal (e.g. logistical, technical) demands and ethical principles are met ( 9 ). The main parameters in this context correspond to the “3Rs” concept as defined by Russel and Burch in 1959, i.e., that all efforts to replace, reduce, and refine experiments must be undertaken ( 4 , 5 , 9 , 10 , 11 ). The licensing of animal experiments normally requires an ethical evaluation process, often-times undertaken by ethics committees ( 12 , 13 ). Since considering ethics in animal experiments is a crucial issue in the modern era of medical research, in this paper, we have provided some guidelines (most of which have been adopted from Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Animals provided by American Association of Psychologists) which could be useful for researchers to design studies on a variety of animals.

Justification of the research

Before using animals, it is mandatory for researchers to clearly clarify their scientific purpose. There should be a reasonable expectation that the research will result in increasing scientific knowledge in different aspects of biomedicine and also will increase understanding of the species under study or provide results that could improve the quality of health or welfare of humans or other animals. The scientific purpose of the research should be of sufficient potential significance to justify the use of animals. The species chosen for study should be the best suited to answer the question(s) posed. Moreover, it is noteworthy that good experimental design helps reducing the number of animals used in research since they allow scientists to collect data using the minimum number of animals required. However, a sufficient number must be used to enable precise statistical analysis and results, preventing the repetition of experiments and the consequent need to use more animals ( 4 ).

Personnels and researchers

Scientists should ensure that all individuals who use animals under their supervision receive explicit instruction in experimental methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species being studied. Refining the experimental procedures themselves and refining the management of pain are the most important issues that researcher should be aware of. They should carefully assess the method of administration, the effects of the substance on the animal, and the amount of handling and restraint required. The researchers should handle the animals carefully and administer appropriate anaesthetics and analgesics during the experiments. These works can help to reduce any pain experienced by the animals during procedures. This culture of care is achieved not only through strict regulations but also by ensuring that animal technicians and other workers understand and adopt such regulations 4, 9, 14, 15). Therefore, adequate training is an important aspect of the refinement of animal research, and should continually be reviewed and improved ( 4 ).

Care and housing animals

All procedures on animals are to be reviewed by a local animal care committee to ensure that the procedures are appropriate and humane. In the event that it is not possible to constitute an appropriate local animal care committee, scientists are encouraged to seek advice from a corresponding committee of a cooperative institution. Responsibilities for the conditions under which animals are kept, both within and outside of the context of active experimentation or teaching, rests with the researcher under the supervision of the animal care committee and with individuals appointed by the institution to oversee animal care. Therefore, researchers are encouraged to consider enriching the environments of their laboratory animals. In this regard, legislation in Britain, Scandinavia and in many European countries has been seemingly efficient and effective because of the relatively small number of research institutions and scientists in those countries ( 4 , 9 , 10 ). However, American scientists are facing three possibilities: mandatory regulation (legislation), self-regulation, or some combination of both. Self-regulation of animal experimentation appears to be the optimal choice. It would reflect the success of animal protection groups in raising the consciousness and concerns of scientists about the humane treatment of experimental animals: ( 1 ) reducing the numbers of animals used for experimentation, ( 2 ) unnecessary duplication of experiments, and ( 3 ) minimizing pain and distress. Although scientists are proceeding toward a program(s) of self-regulation, this approach will be based on the scientific method and will not satisfy completely the differences between scientific and animal protection groups ( 4 , 5 , 10 , 14 ).

Experimental procedures

Humane consideration for the well-being of the animal should be incorporated into the design and conduct of all procedures involving animals. Surgical procedures require close supervision and attention to humane considerations by the scientist. Aseptic techniques must be used on laboratory animals whenever possible. All surgical procedures and anesthetization should be conducted under the direct supervision of a person who is competent in the use of the procedures. If the surgical procedure is likely to cause greater discomfort than that attending anesthetization, and, unless there is specific justification for acting otherwise, animals should be maintained under anesthesia until the procedure is ended. Animals cannot be subjected to successive surgical procedures unless these are required by the nature of the research, the nature of the surgery, or for the well-being of the animal. Multiple surgeries on the same animal must receive special approval from the animal care committee.

Millions of animals are used every year in many extremely painful and distressing scientific procedures. Legislation of animal experimentation in modern societies is based on the supposition that this is ethically acceptable when certain more-orless defined formal (e.g. logistical, technical) demands and ethical principles are met. In this paper, we gathered some guidelines for using animals in medical research which could be useful for researchers to design their studies on a variety of animals.

Resolution Reaffirming Support for Research and Teaching with Nonhuman Animals

Adopted by the APA Council of Representatives in August 2017

Research with nonhuman animals has contributed significantly to advances in the field of psychology (Carroll & Overmier, 2001; Laborda, Miguez, Polack, & Miller, 2012; Maestripieri & Roney, 2006; Mehta & Gosling, 2008). It has laid the foundation for understanding diverse behavioral and biological processes underlying phenomena such as attention, perception, learning, memory, social behaviors, emotion, and decision making, accounting for diverse behavioral, cultural, and social contexts. Research with nonhuman animals has also furthered our understanding of similarities and differences across species, which has both intellectual and practical significance. Knowledge about other species has been crucial in guiding conservation efforts in various habitats across the world (Higham, 2016; O’Brien & Robeck, 2010; Swaisgood, Zhou, Zhang, Lindburg, & Zhang 2003; Zimbler-DeLorenzo & Stone, 2011).

Nonhuman animal research has proven invaluable for exploring the complexity of diverse behaviors across genetic, molecular, cellular/neuronal, circuit, network, cognitive, and behavioral levels. The assembly and application of findings from nonhuman animal research has contributed to numerous clinical applications that have significantly improved the health and well-being of both human and nonhuman animals (Carroll & Overmier, 2001; Raffel, Hoverman, Halstead, Michel, & Rohr, 2010; Raffel et al., 2013; Tizzi, Accorsi, & Azzali, 2010). Importantly, maintaining high standards of research animal wellbeing is not only of ethical importance to scientists, but is also critical to collecting data that allow for robust conclusions upon which scientific breakthroughs are grounded.

Whereas The American Psychological Association has long acknowledged the importance and contributions of nonhuman animal research to advancing scientific knowledge and promoting the wellbeing of human and nonhuman animals (APA, 1990; Dewsbury, 1992); and

Whereas Nonhuman animal research is comprehensively regulated through an integrated oversight system comprising federal, state, and local regulations (U. S. Department of Agriculture, 2013), as well as institutional peer review (National Institutes of Health, Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, 2015) and peer review by funding agencies, both of which attest to the necessity of the research, its scientific validity, and the humane and ethical treatment of the animals involved; and

Whereas Scientists bear several responsibilities for the conduct of research with nonhuman animals, which include ensuring humane care and treatment that is sensitive to species-specific needs; being informed about and adhering to relevant laws and regulations pertaining to such research; and communicating respect for these research subjects to employees, students, and colleagues (APA, 2012, 2013, 2016; National Research Council, 2011; Public Health Services, 2015); and

Whereas The majority of scientists support and encourage the use of nonhuman animals in scientific research (Pew Research Center, 2015); and

Whereas Observational learning through classroom demonstrations and hands-on learning through the conduct of experiments with nonhuman animals are integral to science education (Akins, Panicker, & Cunningham, 2005, National Research Council, 1989, National Science Teachers Association, 2008); and the early exposure of students to such experiences engenders creativity, original thought, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills (APA, 2003; Madrazo, 2002); and

Whereas Students exposed to nonhuman animal research are more likely to develop and retain a better appreciation for such research (Akins, Panicker, & Cunningham, 2005; Edwards, Jones, Bird, & Parry, 2014; Offner, 1993); and

Whereas The APA recognizes the general public may not fully appreciate the nature of nonhuman animal research and its benefits to society, due to overabundance of misinformation and simultaneous dearth of accurate information available in the public domain (Speaking of Research, n.d.); and

Whereas The APA recognizes the concerted efforts of entities opposed to research with nonhuman animals and dedicated to the abolition of such research (Speaking of Research, 2013); and

Whereas The American Psychological Association deplores harassment of scientists, students, and technical personnel engaged in nonhuman animal research, as well as destruction of nonhuman animal research facilities (APA, 2004; 2014);

Therefore be it resolved that the American Psychological Association reaffirms its earlier resolution (APA, 1990) and joins with other scholarly organizations (Alzheimer’s Association, 2015; American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1990; American Heart Association, 2010; Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 1994; Society of Toxicology, 1999) in continuing to support ethically sound and scientifically valid research with nonhuman animals; and

Therefore be it further resolved that scientists support the efforts to improve research animal wellbeing through the implementation of evidence-based policies and regulations that do not compromise the scientific integrity of the research (Thulin et al, 2014); and

Therefore be it further resolved that the American Psychological Association supports the integration of student research projects with nonhuman animals in institutions capable of providing proper oversight and supervised by teachers who are trained in the care and treatment of nonhuman animals in laboratory and/or field settings (Akins, Panicker, & Cunningham, 2005); and

Therefore be it further resolved that scientists support initiatives that further the education of students, colleagues, and the general public on the merits of nonhuman animal research and its benefits to public health, the environment, and society at large; and

Therefore be it further resolved that the APA and affiliated societies and research institutions publically defend research with nonhuman animals and the scientists who conduct such research from the sustained, multi-pronged attacks by entities opposed to such research; and

Therefore be it further resolved that the American Psychological Association encourages affiliated societies and research institutions to endorse this resolution.

Suggested Citation

American Psychological Association. 2017. Resolution Reaffirming Support for Research and Teaching with Nonhuman Animals . Retrieved from: http://www.apa.org/about/policy/use-animals

Alzheimer’s Association. (2015). Use of animals in research . Retrieved from http://www.alz.org/documents_custom/statements/Animals_in_Research.pdf

American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1990). Use of animals in research, testing, and education . Retrieved from http://archives.aaas.org/docs/resolutions.php?doc_id=381

American Heart Association. (2010). Public Policy Agenda 2010-2014. Retrieved from https://www.heart.org/idc/groups/heart-public/@wcm/@adv/documents/downloadable/ucm_301674.pdf

American Psychological Association. (1990). Resolution on the use of animals in research and testing . Retrieved from  http://www.apa.org/about/policy/use-animals

American Psychological Association. (2004). APA condemns vandalism at University of Iowa lab facility . Retrieved from  http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2004/11/vandalism-iowa

American Psychological Association. (2012). Guidelines for ethical conduct in the care and use of nonhuman animals in research . Retrieved from  http://www.apa.org/science/leadership/care/care-animal-guidelines.pdf

American Psychological Association. (2013). Guidelines for the use of nonhuman animals in behavioral projects in schools (K-12). Retrieved from  http://www.apa.org/science/leadership/care/animal-guide

American Psychological Association. (2016). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Retrieved from  http://www.apa.org/ethics/code

Breckler, S. J. (2014, May 13). [Letter to Janet Napolitano] Copy in possession of the APA Science Directorate.

Carroll, M. E., & Overmier, J. B. (2001). Animal research and human health: Advancing human welfare through behavioral science . Washington, DC: APA

Dewsbury, D. A. (1992). Essay on contemporary issues in ethology: On the problems studied in ethology, comparative psychology, and animal behavior. Ethology, 92 , 89–107.

Edwards, A., Jones, S. M., Bird, F., & Parry, L. (2014). Enhancing learning through the use of animals in undergraduate biology teaching: the student voice .  International Journal of Innovation in Science and Mathematics Education, 22 (2), 35-54.

Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. (1994). Principles for the use of animals in research and teaching . Retrieved from http://www.the-aps.org/mm/SciencePolicy/About/Policy-Statements/FASEB-Statement-of-Principles-for-Animal-Use.htm

Higham, J. P. (2016). Field endocrinology of nonhuman primates: Past, present, and future. Hormones and Behavior, 84 , 145-155.

Laborda, M. A., Miguez, G., Polack, C. W., & Miller, R. R. (2012). Animal models of psychopathology: Historical models and the Pavlovian contribution. Terapia Psicologica, 30 (1), 45-59.

Maestripieri, D., & Roney, J. R. (2006). Evolutionary developmental psychology: Contributions from comparative research with nonhuman primates. Developmental Review, 26 (2), 120-137.

Madrazo, G. (2002). The debate over dissection: Dissecting a classroom dilemma. The Science Educator, 11 (1), 41-45.

Mehta, P. H., & Gosling, S. D. (2008). Bridging human and animal research: A comparative approach to studies of personality and health. Brain Behavior and Immunity, 22 (5), 651-661. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2008.01.008

National Research Council (1989). Principles and guidelines for the use of animals in precollege education. Retrieved from http://www.nabt.org/websites/institution/File/Principles%20and%20Guidelines%20for%20the%20Use%20of%20Animals%20in%20Precollege%20Education.pdf

National Research Council. (2011). Guide for the care and use of laboratory animals (Eighth edition). Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12910.html

National Science Teachers Association. (2008). Responsible use of live animals and dissection in the science classroom. Retrieved from http://www.nsta.org/about/positions/animals.aspx

O’Brien, J. K., & Robeck, T. R. (2010). The value of ex situ cetacean populations in understanding reproductive physiology and developing assisted reproductive technology for ex situ and in situ species management and conservation efforts. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 23 (3), 227-248.

Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare. (2015). Public Health Service policy on humane care and use of laboratory animals . Retrieved on from http://grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/references/PHSPolicyLabAnimals.pdf

Offner, S. (1993). The importance of dissection in biology teaching. The American Biology Teacher, 55 (3), 147-149.

Pew Research Center, January 29th, 2015, “Public and Scientists’ Views on Science and Society”

Raffel, T. R., Hoverman, J. T., Halstead, N. T., Michel, P. J., Rohr, J. R.  (2010). Parasitism in a community context: Trait-mediated interactions with competition and predation.  Ecology, 91 , 1900-1907.

Raffel, T. R., Romansic, J. M., Halstead, N. T., McMahon, T. A., Venesky, M. D., & Rohr, J. R. (2013). Disease and thermal acclimation in a more variable and unpredictable climate. Nature Climate Change, 3, 146-151. DOI:10.1038/NCLIMATE1659

Society of Toxicology. (1999). Animals in research public policy statement. Retrieved from https://www.toxicology.org/pubs/statements/Animals_in_Research.pdf

Speaking of Research (n.d.) Animal rights pseudoscience. Retrieved from https://speakingofresearch.com/extremism-undone/bad-science/

Speaking of Research (2013). Fair partners in dialog: Staring assumptions matter and they should be spelled out. Retrieved from https://speakingofresearch.com/2013/06/12/fair-partners-in-dialogue-starting-assumptions-matter-and-they-should-be-spelled-out/

Swaisgood, R. R., Zhou, X., Zhang, G., Lindburg, D. G., & Zhang, H. (2003). Application of behavioral knowledge to conservation in the giant panda. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 16 (2-3), 65-84.

Thulin, J. D., Bradfield, J. F., Bergdall, V. K., Conour, L. A., Grady, A. W., Hickman, D. L., Nortno, J. N., & Wallace, J. M. (2014). The cost of self-imposed regulatory burden in animal research. The FASEB Journal , 28 , 3297-3300.

Tizzi, R., Accorsi, P. A., & Azzali, M. (2010). Non-invasive multidisciplinary approach to the study of reproduction and calf development in bottlenose dolphin ( Tursiops truncatus ): The Rimini Delfinario experience. International Journal of Comparative Psychology , 23 (4), 734-776.

United States Department of Agriculture. 2016. Animal welfare act and animal welfare regulations. Retrieved from https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_welfare/downloads/Animal%20Care%20Blue%20Book%20-%202013%20-%20FINAL.pdf

Zimbler‐DeLorenzo, H. S., & Stone, A. I. (2011). Integration of field and captive studies for understanding the behavioral ecology of the squirrel monkey ( Saimiri sp.). American Journal of Primatology , 73 (7), 607-622.

Scientific Affairs Policy

• Chapter XI. Scientific Affairs
• Support for Research and Teaching with Nonhuman Animals (PDF, 146KB)

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