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Environmental assessment of innovative paper recycling technology using product lifecycle perspectives.

1. Introduction

1.1. innovative paper recycling technology (development of the dry paper recycling technology that realizes a new office papermaking system), 1.1.1. defibration processing, 1.1.2. binding processing, 1.1.3. forming processing, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. scope of evaluation and functional units, 2.2. system boundary, 2.3. database and activity data, 2.3.1. office paper-making machine, 2.3.2. bonding agent, 2.3.3. power consumption at the paper-making stage, 3.1. co 2 emissions, 3.2. water consumption, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Ono, Y.; Hayashi, M.; Yokoyama, K.; Okamura, T.; Itsubo, N. Environmental Assessment of Innovative Paper Recycling Technology Using Product Lifecycle Perspectives. Resources 2020 , 9 , 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources9030023

Ono Y, Hayashi M, Yokoyama K, Okamura T, Itsubo N. Environmental Assessment of Innovative Paper Recycling Technology Using Product Lifecycle Perspectives. Resources . 2020; 9(3):23. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources9030023

Ono, Yuya, Masaaki Hayashi, Koichiro Yokoyama, Takehiko Okamura, and Norihiro Itsubo. 2020. "Environmental Assessment of Innovative Paper Recycling Technology Using Product Lifecycle Perspectives" Resources 9, no. 3: 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources9030023

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Home > Books > Environmental Management in Practice

The Effects of Paper Recycling and its Environmental Impact

Submitted: 24 November 2010 Published: 05 July 2011

DOI: 10.5772/23110

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Author Information

Iveta čabalová *.

• Technical University in Zvolen,Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Slovakia

František Kačík

Anton geffert *, danica kačíková *.

*Address all correspondence to:

1. Introduction

It is well known the paper production (likewise the other brands of industry) has enormous effects on the environment. The using and processing of raw materials has a variety of negative effects on the environment.

At the other hand there are technologies which can moderate the negative impacts on the environment and they also have a positive economical effect. One of these processes is the recycling, which is not only the next use of the wastes. The main benefit of the recycling is a double decrease of the environment loading, known as an environmental impact reducing. From the first view point, the natural resources conserves at side of the manufacturing process inputs, from the second view point, the harmful compounds amount leaking to the environment decreases at side of the manufacturing process outputs.

The paper production from the recycled fibers consumes less energy; conserves the natural resources viz. wood and decreases the environmental pollution. The conflict between economic optimization and environmental protection has received wide attention in recent research programs for waste management system planning. This has also resulted in a set of new waste management goals in reverse logistics system planning. Pati et al. (2008 ) have proposed a mixed integer goal programming (MIGP) model to capture the inter-relationships among the paper recycling network system. Use of this model can bring indirectly benefit to the environment as well as improve the quality of waste paper reaching the recycling unit.

In 2005, the total production of paper in Europe was 99.3 million tonnes which generated 11 million tonnes of waste, representing about 11% in relation to the total paper production. The production of recycled paper, during the same period, was 47.3 million tonnes generating 7.7 million tonnes of solid waste (about 70% of total generated waste in papermaking) which represents 16% of the total production from this raw material ( CEPI 2006 ).

The consumption of recovered paper has been in continuous growth during the past decades. According to the Confederation of European Paper Industries (CEPI), the use of recovered paper was almost even with the use of virgin fiber in 2005. This development has been boosted by technological progress and the good price competitiveness of recycled fiber, but also by environmental awareness – at both the producer and consumer ends – and regulation that has influenced the demand for recovered paper. The European paper industry suffered a very difficult year in 2009 during which the industry encountered more down-time and capacity closures as a result of the weakened global economy. Recovered paper utilisation in Europe decreased in 2009, but exports of recovered paper to countries outside CEPI continued to rise, especially to Asian markets (96.3%). However, recycling rate expressed as “volume of paper recycling/volume of paper consumption” resulted in a record high 72.2% recycling rate after having reached 66.7% the year before ( Fig. 1 ) ( Hujala et al. 2010 ;CEPI 2006; European Declaration on Paper Recycling 2010; Huhtala& Samakovlis 2002 ; CEPI Annual Statistic 2010).

European paper recycling 1995-2009 in million tonnes (European Declaration on Paper Recycling 2006 – 2010, Monitoring Report 2009 (2010) (www.erpa.info)

Recycling is not a new technology. It has become a commercial proposition since Matthias Koops established the Neckinger mill, in 1826, which produced white paper from printed waste paper. However, there were very few investigations into the effect of recycling on sheet properties until late 1960's. From then until the late 1970's, a considerable amount of work was carried out to identify the effects of recycling on pulp properties and the cause of these effects ( Nazhad 2005 ; Nazhad& Paszner 1994 ). In the late 1980's and early 1990's, recycling issues have emerged stronger than before due to the higher cost of landfills in developed countries and an evolution in human awareness. The findings of the early 70's on recycling effects have since been confirmed, although attempts to trace the cause of these effects are still not resolved ( Howard &Bichard 1992 ).

Recycling has been thought to reduce the fibre swelling capability, and thus the flexibility of fibres. The restricted swelling of recycled fibres has been ascribed to hornification, which has been introduced as a main cause of poor quality of recycled paper ( Scallan&Tydeman 1992 ). Since 1950's, fibre flexibility among the papermakers has been recognized as a main source of paper strength. Therefore, it is not surprising to see that, for over half a century, papermakers have supported and rationalized hornification as a main source of tensile loss due to drying, even though it has never been fully understood ( Sutjipto et al. 2008 ).

Recycled paper has been increasingly produced in various grades in the paper industry. However, there are still technical problems including reduction in mechanical strength for recycled paper. Especially, chemical pulp-origin paper, that is, fine paperrequires a certain level of strength. Howard & Bichard (1992 ) reported that beaten bleachedkraft pulp produced handsheets which were bulky and weak in tensile and burst strengthsby handsheet recycling. This behaviour could be explained by the reduction in re-swelling capability or the reduction in flexibility of rewetted pulp fibers due to fiber hornification and, possibly, by fines loss during recycling processes, which decrease both total bondingarea and the strength of paper ( Howard 1995 ; Nazhad&Paszner 1994 ; Nazhad et al. 1995 ; Khantayanuwong et al.2002 ; Kim et al. 2000 ).

Paper recycling is increasingly important for the sustainable development of the paper industry as an environmentally friendly sound. The research related to paper recycling is therefore increasingly crucial for the need of the industry. Even though there are a number of researches ascertained the effect of recycling treatment on properties of softwood pulp fibres ( Cao et al. 1999 ; Horn 1975 ; Howard&Bichard 1992 ; Jang et al. 1995 ), however, it is likely that hardwood pulp fibres have rarely been used in the research operated with recycling treatment. Changes in some morphological properties of hardwood pulp fibres, such as curl, kink, and length of fibre, due to recycling effects also have not been determined considerably. This is possibly because most of the researches were conducted in the countries where softwood pulp fibres are commercial extensively ( Khantayanuwong 2003 ). Therefore, it is the purpose of the present research to crucially determine the effect of recycling treatment on some important properties of softwood pulp fibres.

2. Alterations of pulp fibres properties at recycling

The goal of a recycled paper or board manufacturer is to make a product that meets customers΄ specification and requirements. At the present utilization rate, using recycled fibres in commodity grades such as newsprint and packaging paper and board has not caused noticeable deterioration in product quality and performance ( Čabalová et al. 2009 ). The expected increase in recovery rates of used paper products will require a considerable consumption increase of recycled fibres in higher quality grades such as office paper and magazine paper. To promote expanded use of recovered paper, understanding the fundamental nature of recycled fibres and the differences from virgin fibres is necessary.

Essentially, recycled fibres are contaminated, used fibres. Recycled pulp quality is, therefore, directly affected by the history of the fibres, i.e. by the origins, processes and treatments which these fibres have experienced.

McKinney (1995) classified the history into five periods:

fibre furnish and pulp history

paper making process history

printing and converting history

consumer and collection history

recycling process history.

To identity changes in fibre properties, many recycling studies have occurred at laboratory. Realistically repeating all the stages ofthe recycling chain is difficult especially when including printing and deinking. Some insight into changes in fibre structure, cell wall properties, and bonding ability is possible from investigations using various recycling procedures, testing methods, and furnishes.

Mechanical pulp is chemically and physically different from chemical pulp then recycling effect on those furnishes is also different. When chemical fibres undergo repeated drying and rewetting, they are hornified and can significantly lose their originally high bonding potential ( Somwand et al. 2002 ; Song & Law 2010 ; Kato & Cameron 1999 ; Bouchard & Douek 1994 ; Khantayanuwong et al. 2002 ; Zanuttini et al. 2007 ; da Silva et al. 2007 ). The degree of hornification can be measured by water retention value (WRW) ( Kim et al. 2000 ). In contrast to the chemical pulps, originally weakermechanical pulps do not deteriorate but somewhat even improve bonding potential during a corresponding treatment. Several studies( Maloney et al. 1998 ; Weise 1998 ; Ackerman et al. 2000 ) have shown good recyclability of mechanical fibres.

Adámková a Milichovský (2002 ) present the dependence of beating degree ( SR –Schopper-Riegler degree) and WRV from the relative length of hardwood and softwood pulps. From their results we can see the WRV increase in dependence on the pulp length alteration is more rapid at hardwood pulp, but finally this value is higher at softwood pulps. Kim et al. (2000 ) determined the WRV decrease at softwood pulps with the higher number of recycling (at zero recycling about cca 1.5 g/g at fifth recycling about cca 1.1 g/g).Utilisation of the secondary fibres to furnish at paper production decrease of the initial need of woody raw (less of cutting tress) but the paper quality is not significantly worse.

2.1. Paper recycling

The primary raw material for the paper production is pulps fibres obtaining by a complicated chemical process from natural materials, mainly from wood. This fibres production is very energy demanding and at the manufacturing process there are used many of the chemical matters which are very problematic from view point of the environment protection. The suitable alternative is obtaining of the pulp fibres from already made paper. This process is far less demanding on energy and chemicals utilisation. The paper recycling, simplified, means the repeated defibring, grinding and drying, when there are altered the mechanical properties of the secondary stock, the chemical properties of fibres, the polymerisation degree of pulp polysaccharidic components, mainly of cellulose, their supramolecular structure, the morphological structure of fibres, range and level of interfibres bonds e.g.. The cause of above mentioned alterations is the fibres ageing at the paper recycling and manufacturing, mainly the drying process.

At the repeat use of the secondary fibres, it need deliberate the paper properties alter due to the fiber deterioration during the recycling, when many alteration are irreversible. The alteration depth depends on the cycle’s number and way to the fibres use. The main problem is the decrease of the secondary pulp mechanical properties with the continuing recycling, mainly the paper strength ( Khantayanuwong et al. 2002 ; Jahan 2003 ; Hubbe & Zhang 2005 ; Garg & Singh 2006 ; Geffertová et al. 2008 ; Sutjipto et al. 2008 ). This decrease is an effect of many alterations, which can but need not arise in the secondary pulp during the recycling process. The recycling causes the hornification of the cell walls that result in the decline of some pulp properties. It is due to the irreversible alterations in the cells structure during the drying ( Oksanen et al. 1997 ; Kim et al. 2000 ; Diniz et al. 2004 ).

The worse properties of the recycled fibres in comparison with the primary fibres can be caused by hornification but also by the decrease of the hydrophilic properties of the fibres surface during the drying due to the redistribution or migration of resin and fat acids to the surface ( Nazhad& Paszner 1994 ; Nazhad 2005 ). Okayama (2002 ) observed the enormous increase of the contact angle with water which is related to the fiber inactivation at the recycling. This process is known as „irreversible hornification“.

Paper recycling saves the natural wood raw stock, decreases the operation and capital costs to paper unit, decrease water consumption and last but not least this paper processing gives rise to the environment preservation (e.g. 1 t of waste paper can replace cca 2.5 m 3 of wood).

A key issue in paper recycling is the impact of energy use in manufacturing.Processing waste paper for paper and board manufacture requires energy that isusually derived from fossil fuels, such as oil and coal. In contrast to the productionof virgin fibre-based chemical pulp, waste paper processing does not yield a thermalsurplus and thus thermal energy must be supplied to dry the paper web. If,however, the waste paper was recovered for energy purposes the need for fossil fuelwould be reduced and this reduction would have a favourable impact on the carbondioxide balance and the greenhouse effect. Moreover, pulp production based onvirgin fibres requires consumption of round wood and causes emissions of air-pollutingcompounds as does the collection of waste paper. For better paper utilization, an interactive model, the Optimal Fibre Flow Model, considersboth a quality (age) and an environmental measure of waste paper recycling was developed ( Byström&Lönnstedt 1997 ).

2.1.1. Influence of beating on pulp fibres

Beating of chemical pulp is an essential step in improving the bonding ability of fibres. The knowledge complete about beating improves the present opinion of the fibres alteration at the beating. The main and extraneous influences of the beating device on pulps were defined.The main influences are these, each of them can be improve by the suitable beating mode, but only one alteration cannot be attained. Known are varieties of simultaneous changes in fibres, such as internal fibrilation, external fibrilation, fiber shortening or cutting, and fines formation ( Page 1989 ; Kang & Paulapuro 2006a ; Kang & Paulapuro 2006c ).

Freeing and disintegration of a cell wall affiliated with strongswelling expressed as an internal fibrilation and delamination. The delamination is a coaxial cleavage in the middle layer of the secondary wall.It causes the increased water penetration to the cell wall and the fibre plasticizing.

External fibrillation and fibrils peeling from surface, which particularly or fully attacks primary wall and outside layers of secondary walls.Simultaneously from the outside layers there arecleavage fibrils, microfibrils, nanofibrils to the macromolecule of cellulose and hemicelluloses.

Fibres shortening in any place in any angle-wise across fibre in accordance with loading, most commonly in weak places.

Concurrently the main effects at the beating also the extraneous effects take place, e.g. fines making, compression along the fibres axis, fibres waving due to the compression. It has low bonding ability and it influences the paper porosity,stocks freeness ( Sinke&Westenbroek 2004 ).

The beating causes the fibres shortening, the external and internal fibrillation affiliated with delamination and the fibres plasticizing. The outside primary wall of the pulp fibre leaks water little, it has usually an intact primary layer and a tendency to prevent from the swelling of the secondary layer of the cell wall. At the beating beginning there are disintegrated the fibre outside layers (P and S1), the fibrilar structure of the fibre secondary layer is uncovering, the water approach is improving, the swelling is taking place and the fibrillation process is beginning. The fibrillation process is finished by the weaking and cleavaging of the bonds between the particular fibrils and microfibrils of cell walls during the mechanical effect and the penetration into the interfibrilar spaces, it means to the amorphous region, there is the main portion of hemicelluloses.

Češek& Milichovský (2005 ) showed that with the increase of pulp beating degree the standard rheosettling velocity of pulp decreases more at the fibres fibrillation than at the fibres shortening.

Refining causes a variety of simultaneous changes in the fiber structure, such as internal fibrillation, external fibrillation and fines formation. Among these effects, swelling is commonly recognized as an important factor affecting the strength of recycled paper ( Kang & Paulapuro 2006d ).

Scallan & Tigerstrom (1991 ) observed the elasticity modulus of the long fibres from kraft pulp during the recycling. Flexibility decrease was evident at the beating degree decrease ( SR), and also with the increase of draining velocity of low-yield pulp.

Alteration of the breaking length of the paper sheet drying at the temperature of 80, 100 a 120°C during eightfold recycling

The selected properties of the pulp fibres and the paper sheets during the process of eightfold recycling at three drying temperatures of 80, 100, 120°C.

From the result on Fig. 2 we can see the increase of the pulp fibres active surface takes place during the beating process, which results in the improve of the bonding and the paper strength after the first beating. It causes also the breaking length increase of the laboratory sheets. The secondary fibres wear by repeated beating, what causes the decrease of strength values ( Table 1 ).

The biggest alterations of tear index ( Fig. 3 ) were observed after fifth recycling at the bleached softwood pulp fibres. The first beating causes the fibrillation of the outside layer of the cell wall, it results in the formation of the mechanical (felting) and the chemical bonds between the fibres. The repeated beating and drying dues, except the continuing fibrillation of the layer, the successive fibrils peeling until the peeling of the primary and outside secondary layer of the cell wall. It discovers the next non-fibriled layer S2 (second, the biggest layer of the secondary wall) what can do the tear index decrease. The next beating causes also this layer fibrillation, which leads to the increase of the strength value ( Fig. 3 , Tab. 1 ).Paper strength properties such as tensile strength and Scott bond strength were strongly influenced by internal fibrillation; these could also be increased further by promoting mostly external fibrillation ( Kang & Paulapuro 2006b ).

The course of the breaking length decrease and the tearing strength increase of the paper sheet is in accordance with the results of Sutjipto et al. (2008 ) at the threefold recycling of the bleached (88% ISO) softwood pulps prepared at the laboratory conditions, beated on PFI mill to 25 SR.

Tear index alteration of the paper sheets drying at the temperature of 80, 100 a 120°C, during eightfold recycling

Song & Law (2010 ) observedkraft pulp oxidation and its influence on recycling characteristics of fibres, the found up the fibre oxidation influences negatively the tear index of paper sheets.Oxidation of virgin fibre prior to recycling minimized the loss of WRV and sheet density.

The beating causes the fibres shortening and fines formation which is washed away in the large extent and it endeds in the paper sludges. This waste can be further processed and effective declined.

Within theEuropean Union several already issued and other foreseendirectives have great influence on the waste managementstrategy of paper producing companies. Due to the large quantities ofwaste generated, the high moisture content of the wasteand the changing composition, some recovery methods,for example, conversion to fuel components, are simplytoo expensive and their environmental impact uncertain.The thermal processes, gasification and pyrolysis, seem tobe interesting emerging options, although it is still necessaryto improve the technologies for sludge application.Other applications, such as the hydrolysis to obtain ethanol,have several advantages (use of wet sludge and applicabletechnology to sludges) but these are not welldeveloped for pulp and paper sludges. Therefore, at thismoment, the minimization of waste generation still hasthe highest priority ( Monte et al. 2009 ).

2.1.2. Drying influence on the recycled fibres

Characteristic differences between recycled fibres and virgin fibres can by expected. Many of these can by attributed to drying. Drying is a process that is accompanied by partially irreversible closure of small pores in the fibre wall, as well as increased resistance to swelling during rewetting. Further differences between virgin and recycled fibres can be attributed to the effects of a wide range of contaminating substances ( Hubbe et al. 2007 ). Drying, which has an anisotropic character, has a big influence on the properties of paper produced from the secondary fibres.During the drying the shear stress are formatted in the interfibrilar bonding area. The stresses formatted in the fibres and between them effect the mechanical properties in the drying paper. The additional effect dues the tensioning of the wet pulp stock on the paper machine.

During the drying and recycling the fibres are destructed. It is important to understand the loss of the bonding strength of the drying chemical fibres. Dang (2007 ) characterized the destruction like a percentage reduction of ability of the water retention value (WRV) in pulp at dewatering.

Hornification = [(WRV 0 -WRV 1 )/WRV 0 ]. 100 [%],

WRV 0 –is value of virgin pup

WRV 1 –the value of recycled pulp after drying and reslushing.

According to the prevailing concept, hornification occurs in the cell wall matrix of chemical fibres. During drying, delaminated parts of the fiber wall, i.e., cellulose microfibrils become attached as Fig. 4 shows ( Ackerman et al. 2000 ).

Changes in fiber wall structure ( Weise &Paulapuro 1996 )

Shrinkage of a fiber cross section ( Ackerman et al. 2000 )

Hydrogen bonds between those lamellae also form. Reorientation and better alignment of microfibrils also occur. All this causes an intensely bonded structure. In a subsequent reslushing in water, the fiber cell wall microstructure remains more resistant to delaminating forces because some hydrogen bonds do not reopen. The entire fiber is stiffer and more brittle ( Howard 1991 ). According to some studies ( Bouchard &Douek 1994 ; Maloney et al. 1998 ), hornification does not increase the crystallinity of cellulose or the degree of order in the hemicelluloses ofthe fiber wall.

The drying model of Scallan ( Laivins&Scallan 1993 ) suggests that hornification prevents the dry structure in A from fully expanding to the wet structure in D. Instead, only partial expansion to B may be possible after initial drying creates hydrogen bonds between the microfibrils( Kato & Cameron 1999 )

Weise & Paulapuro (1996 ) did very revealing work about the events during fiber drying. They studied fiber cross section of kraft fibers in various solids by Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (CLSM) and simultaneously measured hornification with WRV tests. Irreversible hornification of fibers began on the degree of beating. It does not directly follow shrinkage since the greatest shrinkage of fibers occurs above 80 % solids content. In Figs. 4 and 5 , stage A represented wet kraft fiber before drying. In stage B, the drainage has started tocause morphological changes in the fiber wall matrix at about 30 % solids content. The fiber wall lamellae start to approach each other because of capillary forces. During this stage, the lumen can collapse. With additional drying, spaces between lamellae continue shrinking to phase C where most free voids in the lamellar structure of the cell wall have already closed. Toward the end of drying in stage D, the water removal occurs in the fine structure of the fiber wall. Kraft fiber shrink strongly and uniformly during this final phase of drying, i.e., at solid contents above 75-80 %. The shrinkage of stage D is irreversible.

At a repeated use of the dried fibres in paper making industry, the cell walls receive the water again. Then the opposite processes take place than in the Fig. 4 and 5 . It show Scallan´s model of the drying in Fig. 6 .

The drying dues also macroscopic stress applied on paper and distributed in fibres system according a local structure.

2.1.3. Properties of fibres from recycled paper

The basic properties of origin wet fibres change in the drying process of pulp and they are not fully regenerated in the process of slushing and beating.

The same parameters are suitable for the description of the paper properties of secondary fibres and fibres at ageing as well as for description of primary fibres properties. The experiences obtained at the utilisation of waste paper showed the secondary fibres have very different properties from the origin fibres. Next recycling of fibres causes the formation of extreme nonhomogeneous mixture of various old fibres. At the optimum utilisation of the secondary fibres it need take into account their altered properties at the repeated use. With the increase number of use cycles the fibres change irreversible, perish and alter their properties. Slushing and beating causes water absorption, fibres swelling and a partial regeneration of properties of origin fibres. However the repeated beating and drying at the multiple production cycles dues the gradual decrease of swelling ability, what influences a bonding ability of fibres. With the increase of cycles number the fibres are shortened. These alterations express in paper properties. The decrease of bonding ability and mechanical properties bring the improving of some utility properties. Between them there is higher velocity of dewatering and drying, air permeability and blotting properties improve of light scattering, opacity and paper dimensional stability.

The highest alterations of fibres properties are at the first and following three cycles. The size of strength properties depends on fibres type ( Geffertová et al. 2008 ).

Drying influences fibres length, width, shape factor, kinks which are the important factors to the strength of paper made from recycled fibres. The dimensional characteristics are measured by many methods, known is FQA (Fiber Quality Analyser), which is a prototype IFA (Imaging Fiber Analyser) and also Kajaani FS-200 fibre-length analyser. They measure fibres length, different kinks and their angles. Robertson et al. (1999 ) show correlation between methods FQA and Kajaani FS-200. A relatively new method of fibres width measurement is also SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) ( Bennis et al. 2010 ). Among devices for analyse of fibres different properties and characteristics, e.g. fibres length and width, fines, various deformations of fibres and percentage composition of pulp mixture is L&W Fiber Tester (Lorentzen & Wettre, Sweden). At every measurement the minimum of 20 000 fibres in a sample is evaluated. On Fig. 7 there is expressed the alteration of fibres average length of softwood pulps during the eightfold recycling at the different drying temperature of pulp fibres.

Influence of recycling number and drying temperature on length of softwood pulps

Influence of recycling number and drying temperature on width of softwood pulps

The biggest alteration were observed after first beating (zero recycling), when the fibres average length decrease at the sheet drying temperature of 80°C about 17%, at the temperature of 100°C about 15.6% and at the temperature of 120°C about 14.6%.

After the first beating the fibres average width was markedly increased at the all temperatures dues to the fibrillation influence. The fibres fibrillation causes the fibre surface increase. Following markedly alteration is observed after fifth recycling, when the fibres average width was decreased. We assume the separation of fibrils and microfibrils from the cell walls dues the separation of the cell walls outside layer, the inside nonfibriled wall S2 was discovered and the fibres average width decreased. After the fifth recycling the strength properties became worse, mainly tear index ( Fig. 3 ).

The softwood fibres are longer than hardwood fibres, they are not so straight. The high value of shape factor means fibres straightness. The biggest alterations of shape factor can be observed mainly at the high drying temperatures. The water molecules occurring on fibres surface quick evaporate at the high temperatures and fibre more shrinks. It can result in the formation of weaker bonds between fibres those surfaces are not enough near. At the beginning of wet paper sheet drying the hydrogen bond creates through water layer on the fibres surface, after the drying through monomolecular layer of water, finally the hydrogen bond results after the water removal and the surfaces approach. It results in destruction of paper and fibre at the drying.

Chemical pulp fines are an important component in papermaking furnish. They can significantly affect the mechanical and optical properties of paper and the drainage properties of pulp ( Retulainen et al. 1993 ). Characterizing the fines will therefore allow a better understanding of the role of fines and better control the papermaking process and the properties of paper. Chemical pulp fines retard dewatering of the pulp suspension due to the high water holding capacity of fines. In the conventional method for characterizing the role of fines in dewatering, a proportion of fines is added to the fiber furnish, and then only the drainage time. Fines suspension is composed of heterogeneous fines particles in water. The suspension exhibits different rheological characteristics depending on the degree of interaction between the fines particles and on their hydration ( Kang & Paulapuro 2006b ).

From Fig. 9 we can see the highest formation of fines were after seventh and eight recycling, when the fibres were markedly weakened by the multiple using at the processes of paper making. They are easier and faster beating (the number of revolution decreased by the higher number of the recycling).

Influence of recycling process and drying temperature on pulp fines changes

The macroscopic level (density, volume, porosity, paper thickness) consists from the physical properties very important for the use of paper and paperboard. They indirectly characterize the three dimensional structure of paper ( Niskanen 1998 ). A paper is a complex structure consisting mainly of a fibre network, filler pigment particles and air. Light is reflected at fibre and pigment surfaces in the surface layer and inside the paper structure. The light also penetrates into the cellulose fibres and pigments, and changes directions. Some light is absorbed, but the remainder passes into the air and is reflected and refracted again by new fibres and pigments. After a number of reflections and refractions, a certain proportion of the light reaches the paper surface again and is then reflected at all possible angles from the surface. We do not perceive all the reflections and refractions (the multiple reflections or refractions) which take place inside the paper structure, but we perceive that the paper has a matt white surface i.e. we perceive a diffuse surface reflection. Some of the incident light exists at the back of the paper as transmitted light, and the remainder has been absorbed by the cellulose and the pigments. Besides reflection, refraction and absorption, there is a fourth effect called diffraction. In other contexts, diffraction is usually the same thing as light scattering, but within the field of paper technology, diffraction is only one aspect of the light scattering phenomenon. Diffraction occurs when the light meets particles or pores which are as large as or smaller then the wavelength of the light, i.e. particles which are smaller than one micrometer (μm). These small elements oscillate with the light oscillation and thus function as sites for new light sources. When the particles or pores are smaller than half of the light wavelength the diffraction decreases. It can be said that the light passes around the particle without being affected ( Pauler 2002 ).

The opacity, brightness, colouring and brilliance are important optical properties of papers and paperboards. For example the high value of opacity is need at the printing papers, but opacity of translucent paper must be lower. The paper producer must understand the physical principles of the paper structure and to determine their characteristics composition. It is possible to characterize nondirect the paper structure. The opacity characterizes the paper ability to hide a text or a figure on the opposite side of the paper sheet. The paper brightness is a paper reflection at a blue light use. The blue light is used because the made fibers have yellowish colour and a human eye senses a blue tone like a white colour.The typical brightness of the printing papers is 70 – 95% and opacity is higher than 90% ( Niskanen 1998 ).

3. Paper ageing

The recycled paper is increasingly used not only for the products of short term consumption (newspaper, sanitary paper, packaging materials e.g.), but also on the production of the higher quality papers, which can serve as a culture heritage medium. The study of the recycled papers alterations in the ageing process is therefore important, but the information in literature are missing.

The recycling is also another form of the paper ageing. It causes the paper alterations, which results in the degradation of their physical and mechanical properties. The recycling causes a chemical, thermal, biological and mechanical destruction, or their combination ( Milichovský 1994 ; Geffertová et al. 2008 ).The effect of the paper ageing is the degradation of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin macromolecules, the decrease of low molecular fractions, the degree of polymerisation (DP) decrease, but also the decline of the mechanical and optical properties ( El Ashmawy et al. 1974 ; Valtasaari & Saarela 1975 ; Lauriol et al. 1987a ,b,c; Bansa 2002 ; Havermans 2003 ; Dupont & Mortha 2004 ; Kučerová & Halajová, 2009 ; Čabalová et al. 2011 ).Cellulose as the most abundant natural polymer on the Earth is very important as a renewable organic material. The degradation of cellulosebasedpaper is important especially in archives and museums where ageing in various conditions reduces the mechanical properties and deteriorates optical quality of stored papers, books and other artefacts. The low rate of paper degradation results in the necessity of using accelerating ageing tests. The ageing tests consistin increasing the observed changes of paper properties, usually by using different temperature, humidity, oxygen content and acidity, respectively. Ageing tests are used in studies of degradation rate and mechanism. During the first ageing stages—natural or accelerated—there are no significant variations in mechanical properties: degradation evidence is only provided by measuring chemical processes. Oxidation induced by environmental conditions, in fact, causes carbonyl and carboxyl groups formation, with great impact on paper permanence and durability, even if mechanical characteristics are not affected in the short term ( Piantanida et al. 2005 ). During the degradation two main reactions prevail – hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds and oxidation of glucopyranose rings. As a result of some oxidation processes keto- and aldehyde groups are formed. These groups are highly reactive; they are prone to crosslinking, which is the third chemical process of cellulose decay ( Bansa 2002 , Calvini & Gorassini 2006 ).

At the accelerated paper ageing the decrease of DP is very rapid in the first stages of the ageing, later decelerates. During the longer time of the ageing there was determined the cellulose crosslinking by the method of size exclusion chromatography (SEC) ( Kačík et al. 2009 ). The similar dependences were obtained at the photo-induced cellulose degradation ( Malesic et al. 2005 ).

An attention is pay to the kinetic of the cellulose degradation in several decades, this process was studied by Kuhn in 1930 and the first model of the kinetic of the cellulose chains cleavage was elaborated by Ekenstam in 1936.This model is based on the kinetic equation of first-order and it is used to this day in modifications for the watching of the cellulose degradation in different conditions. Hill et al. (1995 ) deduced a similar model with the

Alterations of DP (degree of polymerisation) of cellulose fibres due to recycling and ageing at the pulp fibres drying temperature of 80°C, 100°C a 120°C.

contribution of the zero order kinetic. Experimental results are often controversial and new kinetic model for explanation of cellulose degradation at various conditions was proposed ( Calvini et al. 2008 ). The first-order kinetic model developed by these authors suggests that the kinetics of cellulose degradation depends upon the mode of ageing. An autoretardant path is followed during either acid hydrolysis in aqueous suspensions or oven ageing, while the production of volatile acid compounds trapped during the degradation in sealed environments primes an autocatalytic mechanism. Both these mechanisms are depleted by the consumption of the glycosidic bonds in the amorphous regions of cellulose until the levelling-off DP (LODP) is reached.

At the accelerated ageing ofnewspaper ( Kačík et al. 2008 ), the cellulose degradation causes the decrease of the average degree of polymerisation(DP). The DP decrease is caused by two factors in accordance with equation

DP = LODP + DP01.e -k1.t + DP02.e -k2.t ,

where LODP is levelling-off degree of polymerisation. There is a first factor higher and quickdecreasing during eight days and a second factor is lower and slow decreasing and dominant aftereight days of the accelerating ageing in the equation. The number of cleavaged bonds can be welldescribed by equation

DP 0 /DP t – 1 = n 0 .(1-e -k.t ),

where n 0 is an initial number of bonds available for degradation. The equation of the regression function is in accordance with Calvini et al. (2007 ) proposal, the calculated value (4.4976) is in a good accordance with the experimentally obtained average values of DP 0 a DP 60 (4.5057). The DP decreased to cca 38% of the initial value and the polydispersity degree to 66% of the initial value. The decrease of the rate constant with the time of ageing was obtained also by next authors ( Emsley et al. 1997 ; Zervos & Moropoulou 2005 ; Ding & Wang 2007 ). Čabalová et al. (2011 ) observed the influence of the accelerated ageing on the recycled pulp fibres, they determined the lowest decrease of DP at the fibres dried at the temperature of 120°C ( Fig. 10 ).

The simultaneous influence of the recycling and ageing has the similar impact at the drying temperatures of 80°C (decrease about 27,5 %) and 100°C (decrease about 27.6%) in regard of virgin pulp, lower alterations were at the temperature of 120°C (decrease about 21.5%). The ageing of the recycled paper causes the decrease of the pulp fiber DP, but the paper remains good properties.

4. Conclusion

The recycling is a necessity of this civilisation. The paper manufacturing is from its beginning affiliated with the recycling, because the paper was primarily manufactured from the 100 % furnish of rag. It is increasingly assented the trend of the recycled fibers use from the European and world criterion. The present European papermaking industry is based on the recycling.

The presence of the secondary fibres from the waste paper, their quality and amount is various in the time intervals, the seasons and the regional conditions. It depends on the manufacturing conditions in the paper making industry of the country.

At present the recycling is understood in larger sense than the material recycling, which has a big importance from view point of the paper recycling. Repeatedly used fibres do not fully regenerate their properties, so they cannot be recycled ad anfinitum. It allows to use the alternative possibilities of the paper utilisation in the building industry, at the soil reclamation, it the agriculture, in the power industry.

The most important aim is, however, the recycled paper utilisation for the paper manufacturing.

Acknowledgments

This work was financed by the Slovak Grant Agency VEGA (project number 1/0490/09).

• 11. CEPI (Confederation of European Paper Industries). 2006 Special Recycling 2005 Statistics- European Paper Industry Hits New Record in Recycling. 27.02.2011, Available from: http://www.erpa.info/images/Special_Recycling_2005_statistics.pdf
• 12. CEPI (Confederation of European Paper Industrie). 2010 Annual Statistic 2009. 27.02.2011, Available from: http://www.erpa.info/download/CEPI_annual_statistics%202009.pdf
• 18. European Declaration on Paper Recycling 2006 2010 , Monitoring Report 2009 (2010), 27.02. 2011, Available from: http://www.erpa.info/images/monitoring_report_2009.pdf

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Ubc undergraduate research, the environmental impact of paper waste recycling: a comparative study maceachern, neil --> -->.

This paper aims to quantify the environmental impact of recycling paper in Canada versus other paper waste management options using the indicators of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Analysis was carried out comparing recycling to landfill, landfill with methane capture, energy-from-waste, cogeneration, and the use of conserved timber for energy. A review was done of existing paper life cycle analyses, as well as original calculations using data from refereed and Canadian government sources. It was found that recycling, based on energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, does reduce environmental impact, but that this benefit can be increased by recycling fibre multiple times, and through the integration of more than one management method.

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Data Analysis in Solid Waste Management and Recycling—A Review

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Waste management and recycling are essential parts of the modern world of consumers. To reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills, some industries and companies are trying to recycle as much as possible and have started to consider the whole manufacturing process and reducing the amount of waste created while improving their brand. At the same time, citizens’ recycling habits have not progressed either, and many people still are sorting waste improperly or not at all due to a lack of information or motivation. This paper aims to discover how data analysis can help citizens’ solid waste management and recycling via a systematic literature review. Data analysis techniques can be utilised to automate or ease the burden on the whole waste collection process and provide different incentives to motivate citizens. The review shows that data analysis can be used (1) to predict waste production to reduce the number of wasted resources, (2) to create better waste collection processes through smart bins and routing, (3) to provide better sorting functionalities at the recycling plants as well as help for citizens, and (4) to provide incentives that would motivate citizens through rewards or penalties.

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The study was conducted as a part of the AWARE (Against Waste: Activate Research and Education for Increased Environmental Awareness) project (KS1913) within the CBC Programme, co-funded by the European Union.

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123 Recycling Topics & Questions for Students

Are you looking for the best recycling title ideas for your research paper, debate, thesis, or argumentative essay? StudyCorgi has got you covered! On this page, you’ll find plenty of catchy recycling titles for your writing assignments. Read on to get inspired!

🏆 Best Recycling Essay Topics

🌶️ hot recycling essay topics, 🎓 most interesting recycling topics for students, 💡 simple topics about recycling, ❓ research questions about recycling, ♻️ creative titles for recycling projects, 🔎 recycling research topics.

• Disadvantages of Recycling Process
• Recycling Project Proposal: Paper Waste in Offices
• Recycling: Benefits And Disadvantages
• Water Recycling: Why Is It Important?
• Metal Recycling and Its Environmental Importance
• History of Batteries, What Is a Battery, Recycling of Batteries
• Pros and Cons of Recycling
• Battery Recycling and Its Impact on Our Future Battery recycling can reclaim the following elements: nickel, cobalt, and even lithium that can be used in further production by the sustainable automotive industry.
• Recycling: Finding the Solution This proposal is aimed at discussing the effective solution that has the potential to inhibit the garbage crisis and offload local garbage stations.
• Recycling: Syllogism and Argumentation Recycling is generally regarded as the important and inevitable part of environmental protection, as well as saving of natural resources.
• Rubbish Waste & Recycling Program “Rubbish Are Us” “Rubbish Are Us” could provide and maintain a well-functioning team as a contactor for the efficient collection and disposal of waste in the Derby borough.
• Recycling of Materials There is the need for crafting more sustainable structures of manufacture. Recycling is one of these methods with numerous benefits.
• Benefits and Disadvantages of Recycling The essay proposes that although recycling is imperfect, its benefits to the environment and society significantly outweigh its disadvantages.
• Canterbury Bankstown Recycling Recycling garbage is part of our everyday life and every country’s life. Companies always try to perform their work qualitatively but to improve such work.
• Hospital Waste Recycling as a Policy Change Hospitals produce a large amount of waste daily from plastics, cardboard, needles, mixed papers, glass, and hazardous waste.
• Recycling: Why Reusing Needs to Be User Friendly The article discusses the controversial topic of recycling, with some people finding the process to be inconvenient and highlights the need for well-structured recycling systems.
• Recycling Is Vital for the Future of Earth The paper aims to argue why recycling is essential for addressing environmental issues and helping save the Earth for future generations.
• Plastic Waste and Importance of Recycling Procedures The use of recycling procedures, combined with waste classification and prohibition of its dumping in landfills, can be an appropriate solution to the problem of plastic waste.
• Importance of Recycling for Environment and People The study provides the necessary information on how to transform the disposal, and recycling of plastic waste.
• Improper Recycling and Its Effects The effects of improper recycling that have been discussed in this paper pose a great danger to the well-being of society.
• Recycling in the United States: Ball Corporation’s Report Ball Corporation’s report aimed to identify the current waste recycling quality and programs in the United States to start implementing better waste collection and reuse practices.
• Disposal of Plastic: Burning and Recycling Burning plastics should be avoided to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; also, all non-biodegradable materials should be recycled, while biodegradable materials should be composted.
• Plastic Pollution in Arizona and Recycling Measures It is advisable to use existing approaches in combination and stay informed of the latest advances in technology to achieve the best effects and prevent the issue from compounding.
• Is Recycling Worth the Cost? Despite recent advances in the waste industry, the amount of garbage disposed of daily requires increasing recycling efforts.
• Four R’s of Recycling in Modern Understanding Recycling is a crucial practice aimed at the protection of the environment. Recycling is a positive practice, but it must be used carefully and accurately to ensure results.
• Integrated Water Strategies From Website Water Recycling The website http://waterrecycling.com/ is a front-end of their company showing various services that the company offers in the field of water recycling.
• Application of Recycling to Waste From Refinery Industry The reason for the failure of recycling mechanisms; results from the polluting effect of gases produced during this process.
• The Article “E-Waste: An Overview on Generation, Collection, Legislation and Recycling Practices” The aim of the paper is to analyze the article “E-waste: An overview on generation, collection, legislation and recycling practices” for readability and pseudoscience vs science.
• Recycling of Materials: Entrepreneurship Assignment Recycling of materials has been a very crucial part of our economic activities. It forms a part of the national income and also secures jobs for some individuals within the economy.
• Pop Culture: Developments, Recycling and Revitalizing Pop can be defined as the usual way of life of Americans. It refers to the popular culture that at least all Americans agree to.
• Philanthropy: Recycling Programs in Los Angeles The paper discusses the theory of the carrying capacity, aspects of recycling, consumption of the natural resources and the other point of view on this issue.
• Greywater Recycling: Limitations and Perspectives There are benefits for wastewater subsystems as the recycling of greywater reduces the amount of total wastewater that needs to be conveyed by wastewater subsystems.
• Recycling-Related Benefits for Dubai Recycling is the process of changing wastes into new usable products. This essay seeks to establish how recycling has enhanced the health, safety, and economic status of Dubai.
• Waste Management and Recycling in Poor Communities The main purpose of this research will be to carry out a research on the liquid and solid management in rural or poor communities.
• Tire Recycling, Compactor Machine and Clamp System This report will describe the aims, technical information, problems, design concept, recycling procedures, and health benefits of recycled tires.
• Recycling in Dubai and Its Impact on the Population and Environment The proposal provides an insight into how recycling can be conducted and respective benefits of the same on the environment.
• Environmental Studies: Water Recycling Different countries face varying challenges in as far as the provision of clean water to its population is concerned depending on its economic development level and geographic location.
• Environmental Studies: Plastics Recycling and Recovery The essay intends to focus on the life cycle assessment and its relationship with the recycling and recuperation of plastic. Plastics contribute greatly to the high numbers of waste.
• Electronic Waste Collection and Recycling
• Curbing Environmental Pollution Through Recycling
• Data Protection and Recycling Computer Hardware
• Recycling and Its Effects on Our Environment
• Lead Recovery From Battery Recycling Efforts
• Landfills: Recycling and Land Fill Site
• Chemical Substance and Local Chemical Recycling
• Feasibility and Merit Criteria for Our Recycling Program
• Diesel Crusher Applies for Recycling Construction Waste
• Recycling Cities’ Industrial Areas
• Carbon Revenue: Recycling Versus Technological Incentives
• Recycling Process and Its Relevance to Environmental Issues
• Construction and Demolition Waste Recycling
• Research Methods for the University Recycling Program
• Recycling With Endogenous Consumer Participation
• E-Waste and Non-e-Waste Recycling in Costa Rica
• Cleanliness: Recycling and Solid Waste Management
• Incentive-Based Oil Recycling in Kenya
• Battery Recycling and the Recovery of Lead
• Good Practices Regarding Solid Waste Management Recycling
• Circuit Board Recycling Machine Characteristics
• Copper Recycling and Scrap Availability
• Leveraging Consumers’ Recycling Incentives in a Circular Economy
• Crawler-Type Mobile Crushing Plant Into Recycling Construction Waste
• Effective Recycling Methods for Rare Earth Metals
• Recycling Improves Soil Fertility Management in Smallholdings in Tanzania
• Garbage and Recycling With Endogenous Local Policy
• Paper Recycling and the Stock of Trees
• New York Operates the Country‘s Largest Recycling Program
• Behavioral Attitudes Towards Waste Prevention and Recycling
• Recycling: Social Norms and Warm-Glow Revisited
• Environmentalism and the Importance of Recycling
• Recycling for Sustainability and Commerce
• Optimizing Product Recycling Chains by Control Theory
• Household Waste Recycling: National Survey Evidence From Italy
• Recycling Means Converting Waste Into Usable Things
• Mandatory Recycling and How It Can Help Our World
• End-Of-Life Management and Recycling of PV Modules
• Monopoly Power and the Recycling of Raw Materials
• What Are Some Psychological Aspects of Recycling?
• What Factors Are Influencing Households’ Participation in Recycling?
• What Motivations and Behaviors That Support Recycling Are There?
• What Are Some Recycling Issues for Composite Materials?
• What Are Recycling Outcomes in Three Types of Recycling Collection Units?
• What Is the Economic Evaluation of Recycling?
• What Are the Determinants of Recycling Behaviour in Malta?
• Why Is the Role of Automobiles for the Future of Aluminum Recycling?
• What Are the Costs of Municipal Waste and Recycling Programs?
• What Is Environmental Impact of Textile Reuse and Recycling?
• What Are the Supply Chain Implications of Recycling?
• What Is the Influence of Distance on the Motivation of Household Recycling?
• What Is the Resource Conservation Effect of Recycling in a Dynamic Leontief Model?
• What Are the Pros and Cons of Recycling?
• What Are the Recycling Behaviours and Attitudes of Undergraduate Students?
• What Is the Current Process for the Recycling of Spent Lithium Ion Batteries?
• Is Waste Reduction as Important as Recycling in Saving Natural Resources?
• What Is the Influence of Recycling on Monopoly Power?
• Why Recover Phosphorus for Recycling, and How?
• What Is Precipitation Recycling in the Amazon Basin?
• What Is Are the Pathways and Mechanisms of Endocytic Recycling?
• Why Is Recycling of Postconsumer Plastics So Challenging?
• Why Is the Energy Benefit of Stainless Steel Recycling?
• Why Is Recycling Potential of Medical Plastic Wastes?
• Why Is the Technology of Lead Recycling So Important and Its Perspectives?
• Upcycling wonders: giving new life to old things.
• Recycling Renaissance: discovering the beauty of repurposed materials.
• Making eco-friendly choices through recycling.
• Recycling one bin at a time: the power of small actions.
• Recycling art exhibition: artistic expression through waste.
• Eco-friendly alternatives to plastic bags.
• Recycling reward system: encouraging the community to reduce waste.
• Paper-making workshop: learning to make recycled paper.
• Recycled toy drive: giving old toys to underprivileged children.
• Zero food waste project: donating surplus food to those in need.
• The economic impact of recycling.
• Consumer behaviors and attitudes toward recycling.
• The effectiveness of recycling policies in waste reduction.
• Barriers to recycling in developing countries and ways to overcome them.
• Recycled plastics: quality, safety, and applications.
• The influence of awareness campaigns on recycling behaviors.
• E-waste recycling: challenges and opportunities.
• The carbon footprint of waste disposal methods.
• Technological innovations for sorting and processing recyclable materials.
• The impact of peer influence on recycling behaviors.

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These essay examples and topics on Recycling were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 24, 2024 .

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201 Recycling Research Topics & Questions

One tin would not damage the environment. But hundreds of thousands of cans can destroy the ecosystem in a decade. Waste sorting has become the everyday reality of our lives – we do not doubt where a plastic bottle or paper package should go.

Waste management and disposal is also powerful engine for the economic system. This article lists its benefits and challenges. But most importantly, here, you will find 200+ recycling research topics for students that would suit creative writing and essays.

📘 Top 15 Recycling Research Topics

• ✒️ Recycling Research
• 🌱 Recycling History
• 🌿 Legal Aspects of Recycling
• 🧹 Recycling Household Waste
• 🧱 Recycling Industrial Waste
• 💡 Criticism of Recycling
• ❓ Recycling Research Questions

🖇 References

• The costs of collection, transportation, and processing trash outweigh its benefits.
• Recycling industrial waste: Should individuals pay for it?
• Artificial reefs on sunken ships: Is it an ecological way to recycle broken vessels?
• Plastic cannot be recycled; it can only be downcycled.
• Solar panels are not as good as we think: Recycling issues.
• Why is a garden waste as harmful as used oil and tires to the environment?
• Creating transparency and public awareness of recyclate quality.
• Reverse vending machines have been the best recycling solution for decades.
• The easier the sorting, the better the recycled raw materials.
• Third-country business: Collecting and sorting garbage?
• The environmental impact of processing paper packages.
• Compulsory measures or laissez-faire: What is more efficient for the recycling industry?
• Trash fees are inevitable.
• Will complete recycling ever become possible?
• How could we increase the public participation rates in recycling?

✒️ Recycling Research: The Basics

Recycling means processing disposable items that would otherwise be thrown into the dump. As a result of this process, raw materials and new products are produced. Recycling is beneficial for the environment and has many pros :

• Reducing the waste volumes in landfills and incinerators;
• Preserving timber, water, oil, energy, and minerals;
• Cutting down greenhouse gas emissions;
• Providing a domestic source of materials that would otherwise be imported;
• Creating new industries and jobs.

Challenges of Recycling

Several challenges are hindering the popularization of recycling. Here are some excellent suggestions on what could be done to change them.

While writing your answers to recycling research questions, you will find these ideas useful. Below we have listed a broad selection of topics about recycling for high school and college students.

🌱 Topics about Recycling History

• Plato as the first advocate of recycling.
• Evidence of first recycling attempts in the pre-industrial era.
• Economic benefits of recycling in pre-industrial times.
• The rise of the shoddy industry in Britain in the 19th century.
• Toyota Motor Corporation’s Sustainability Agenda.
• The impact of industrialization on recycling.
• The role of chemistry in recycling during the 19th century.
• Recycling as a way to generate value in the early 19th century.
• Salvaging scrap as a way to victory.
• Municipal Solid Waste in the State of Kuwait.
• Salvaging materials during World War II.
• Recycling campaigns of different countries during World War II.
• Recycling as a patriotic act in U.S. history.
• Recycling aluminum in the 20th century.
• Solid Waste Management in the Arab World.
• History of first recyclable electronics.
• Extracting valuable materials from waste.
• Electronic waste in Asia during the late 20th century.
• The emergence of the recycling industry.
• The Ecological Footprint Calculation.
• First automated recycling facilities in Europe.
• The changes in consumption and production.
• New Chinese policies and the crisis in the recycling industry.
• Exporting waste for recycling.

🌿 Legal Aspects of Recycling: Research Topics

• Ways to create a waste supply and demand.
• The efficiency of recycling targets for cities.
• The effects of bans on refuse in cities.
• How to improve the success rate of recycling laws?
• Optimal ways to organize the costs of refuse collection.
• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Control Implementation.
• Governmental policies that promote recycling.
• Legal ways to decrease the use of non-recyclable materials.
• Supporting supply and demand of recycling services.
• Illegal dumping and ways to prevent it.
• The Built Environment: Greenhouse Gas Emissions.
• The role of product labeling for recycling purposes.
• Educating consumers on sustainable materials through labeling.
• The benefits of utilization rates versus content mandates.
• Promoting environmentally friendly options through laws.
• Policies on minimum recycled material inclusion.
• Financial aspects of material procurement mandates.
• Can governments affect consumers’ preferences through recycling policies?
• European Union laws on recycling electronic waste.
• The impact of the Environmental Protection Agency actions.
• Increasing the demand for products made from recycled materials.
• Regulating prices of recyclable products through policies.

🧹 Recycling Research Questions on Household Waste

• Ways to collect consumer waste.
• How does the recycling industry resolve the unsorted garbage problem?
• Expenses versus profits in collecting recyclates.
• Systems involved in curbside waste collection.
• Plastic vs. Paper Bags Comparison.
• Mixed versus a separate collection of recyclates.
• How sorting facilities deal with refuse from the curbside collection.
• The impact of public education on the efficiency of curbside collection.
• The role of source separation on waste collection costs.
• Renewable Energy Generation, Application, Impacts.
• Benefits of upholding a proper recycling stream.
• Lowering the operational costs of sorting centers.
• Decreasing contamination of sorted waste for better reusability.
• Is commingled collection more efficient for the recycling industry?
• Water, Wind, Solar, and Nuclear Power Technologies.
• Incentivizing consumers to sort their waste through buy-back centers.
• Should cities use drop-off or buy-back centers?
• The necessity to support sorting centers by governments.
• The profitability of educating citizens on waste disposal.
• Recyclebots as an example of promoting sustainable plastic usage.
• Automated waste sorting processes in material recovery facilities.
• The importance of separating plastics and cardboard from other materials.
• The removal of contaminants and their impact on waste processing costs.
• How sorting waste helps the recycling industry?
• Can early sorting transfer the savings to benefit consumers?
• The process of sorting recyclates from households.
• San Francisco’s goal of zero waste and its outcomes.
• How sorting technologies reduce prices for consumers.
• Why is it necessary to remove glass refuse from other materials?
• Can waste drop-off replace curbside collection?
• City-wide policies on recycling.
• Educating citizens on recycling benefits.
• Is sustainable waste collection impossible without increasing costs?
• Reimbursing recycling costs at buy-back centers.
• The value of mixed recyclables.
• Is cleaning recyclables necessary?
• The role of 3D printers in recycling.
• Refuse logistics in different methods of collection.
• Innovations in sorting consumer waste.
• Methods of improving landfill diversion rates.
• Food waste as a contaminant in consumer-generated refuse.
• The impact of color-coordinated waste bins.
• The need to create opportunities to sell garbage.

🧱 Topics about Recycling Industrial Waste

• Industry-generated waste reduction methods and factors that prevent them.
• Increasing cost-effectiveness of industrial recycling.
• Ways to promote metal recycling among industrial refuse.
• How to increase the recycling rates of rare metals?
• Global Warming, Its Causes, and Potential Solutions.
• Incentivizing industries to recollect used goods for recycling.
• Disposing and recycling of military equipment and vehicles.
• Reusing nuclear waste for military purposes.
• Nuclear Waste Storage in the U.S. and Other Countries.
• The link between renewable energy and recycling policies.
• The usage of recycled plastics in industries.
• Giving electronics manufacturers’ responsible recycling opportunities.
• Poisonous chemicals stemming from non-recycled electronics.
• Plastic Bags, Their Danger and Alternatives.
• Ways to improve the recycling process of electronics.
• Relationship between vehicle recycling and car prices.
• How can recycling benefit the construction industry?
• The decrease in the quality of recycled plastics.
• Applying chemical and physical recycling for plastic waste.
• How can the chemical recycling of polymers extend their life?
• Using pyrolysis to produce valuable chemicals from plastics.
• Dealing with poisonous materials during industrial recycling.
• Promoting “urban mining” in the recycling industry.
• Sustainability in the Food Service Industry.

💡 Criticism of Recycling: Research Topics

• Achievability of zero pollution at production recycling facilities.
• Are the economic costs of recycling justified?
• Conflict of logistic operations and waste recycling.
• Consequences of reusable materials: Morbidity and ill-health.
• Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability.
• Cost: Virgin materials are cheaper than recycled materials.
• Cultivated forests will not renew soil resources.
• Destruction of wood resources due to recycling.
• Do companies allocate funds to reduce waste?
• Does recycling lead to a culture of informed consumption?
• Does the effect of recycling cover its cost?
• Eco-friendliness of recycling: pollution is only increasing.
• Effects of metals with long half-lives.
• Ecological Models in Healthy People 2030.
• Energy costs of recycling and production of recyclables.
• Environmental effects of recycling electrical equipment.
• Inadequacy of plastic recycling due to an abundance of materials.
• Inadequate cost of recycling: Blurred boundaries of profitability.
• Is resource continuity worthwhile in the city?
• Is the personal profit of corporations from recycling greater than the public benefit?
• Lack of effective technologies for incineration and recycling.
• Low efficiency of the recycling industry.
• Market value crisis: The impact of recycling.
• Paper or plastic: Where more resources go.
• Plastic recycling policy: Disadvantages and consequences.
• Product unsuitability for recycling: Consequences.
• Hydroelectric Power Dams’ Environmental Impact.
• Unsafe and unhygienic recycling centers.
• How are recycling conditions socially detrimental?
• The impact of recycling on non-renewable resources.
• Do recycling programs follow biodegradation principles?
• The role and effects of lobbying in recycling.
• Shifting the responsibility for recycling to less national development.
• State evasion of responsibility for harm from recyclables.
• The recycling cycle: unattainable strategies of environmentalists.
• The government’s role in substandard recycling.
• The inefficiency of recycling for economic development.
• The mismatch between urban and natural ecosystems.
• The positive effects of recycling are too long-lasting.
• The problem with recycling: the zero-sum game.
• The quality of recyclable materials is not proportional to their value.
• The social dimension of recycling: poverty and unequal labor.
• Why is ubiquitous recycling not achievable: equal opportunity issues?

❓ More Recycling Research Questions

• Are existing recycling opportunities adequate for the consumer?
• Are energy and material costs of recycling justified?
• Are there any effective recycling strategies?
• Do corporations harm the environment more than the public?
• Does recycling shape the predisposition to various diseases?
• How are policies regarding the recycling of hazardous materials shaped?
• How did legislation stimulate environmental harm reduction?
• How did the principles of recycling evolve?
• How did World War II affect recycling?
• How does legislation regulate and control the coding of recyclables?
• How does recycling affect the added value of the commodity?
• How does recycling impact society?
• Is recycling an ethical choice?
• How does the controversy over recycling affect consumer perception?
• How have policies for recycled products influenced the culture of consumption?
• How should the government influence corporate attitudes toward recycling?
• Is recycling paper beneficial compared to using plastic?
• Is the recycling market fair to the consumer?
• Is there social support for recycling?
• How is the consumer responsible for recycling?
• What are the economic effects of recycling raw materials?
• What are the most relevant critical claims in recycling raw materials?
• What are the positive effects of piecemeal trash sorting?
• What are the short- and long-term effects of recycling?
• What changes in plastic recycling are effective?
• What have principles of recycling industrial waste become prevalent?
• What is the effect of recycling on public well-being?
• What is the value of the recycling cycle?
• What tools exist to improve the quality of recyclables?
• Why are programs aimed at the consumer and not the producer?
• Recycling Basics – the United States Environmental Protection Agency
• Despite challenges, recycling is still the right thing to do – for the environment and the economy – Washington State Department of Ecology
• Novel Advances in Waste Recycling Towards Circular Economy – Frontiers Research Topic
• Frequently Asked Questions: Benefits of Recycling. Land, Buildings & Real Estate – Stanford University
• The Ecology of Recycling – United Nations

• DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131604
• Corpus ID: 247928256

Promoting digital transformation in waste collection service and recycling in Moscow (Russia): Applying a circular economy paradigm to mitigate climate change impacts on the environment

• A. Maiurova , Tonni Agustiono. Kurniawan , +4 authors H. Goh
• Published in Journal of Cleaner Production 1 April 2022
• Environmental Science, Engineering

95 Citations

Decarbonization in waste recycling industry using digitalization to promote net-zero emissions and its implications on sustainability., modelling the nexus of municipal solid waste sector for climate resilience and adaptation to nature-based solutions: a case study of pakistan, the impact of investment efficiency in the digital economy on urban waste reduction: evidence from china, waste management in the smart city: current practices and future directions, evaluating the efficacy of social capital in facilitating sustainable municipal waste management: reflections from harare, zimbabwe, circular economy practices in the leather products industry toward waste valorization: an approach of sustainable environmental management, a bibliometric analysis of circular economies through sustainable smart cities, how does the digital economy affect the provincial "zero-waste city" construction evidence from china., a recent digitalization in recycling industry attaining ecological sustainability: a comprehensive outlook and future trend, review on waste-to-energy approaches toward a circular economy in developed and developing countries, 88 references, transformation of solid waste management in china: moving towards sustainability through digitalization-based circular economy, a societal transition of msw management in xiamen (china) toward a circular economy through integrated waste recycling and technological digitization., guidelines of digitalizing waste industry infrastructure, waste management in green and smart cities: a case study of russia, circular economy in russia: drivers and barriers for waste management development, a comparison of municipal solid waste management in berlin and singapore., the future of waste management in smart and sustainable cities: a review and concept paper., from solid waste management towards the circular economy and digital driven symbiosis, innovative solutions for recycling and waste disposal and labour market in russia, the digital circular economy : can the digital transformation pave the way for resource-efficient materials cycles, related papers.

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At University of Idaho, waste management and waste reduction are top priorities. As a sustainable institution, we strive to reduce our carbon footprint and impact on the natural environment by reducing how much waste we produce and disposing of our waste properly. Explore our waste programs below and learn more about how you can contribute to responsible waste management.

Sustainable Solutions White Paper Waste Recommendations

• Recommendation 3.5: Reconstitute a Moscow campus recycling program and hire dedicated recycling staff.
• Recommendation 3.6: Research and implement technology and systems to reduce and reuse food waste, such as donating non-spoiled food, starting a composting program and installing digestors.
• Recommendation 3.7: Establish procurement standards by which to reduce or eliminate single-use plastic on campus in dining services, vending and research labs; this would include providing reusable to-go containers at dining locations, replacing single-use straws and cutlery with compostable or reusable products and adding water bottle fill stations in each building.

Read the entire Sustainable Solutions White Paper .

The University of Idaho uses a single-stream campus-wide recycling system. For more information on campus recycling, visit Vandals Recycle , our new recycling dashboard!

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What is composting?

Composting is a great way for individuals to dispose of organic waste in an environmentally responsible manner. Composting is the process that converts organic materials, like food waste, into nutrient-rich soil or mulch through natural decomposition. The end product of the process is called compost and is typically a dark, crumbly, earthy material that can be used in agriculture, gardening and other outdoor projects.

Why should we compost?

Composting at home can reduce how much trash we send to the landfill and can help build healthy soil. As nature’s own recycling process, composting helps address climate change and can help build more resilient and beneficial waste streams for communities. When we compost, we reduce the trash sent to landfills that would eventually emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. We also save money by producing high-quality soil amendment that we can use in place of fertilizers and pesticides while also improving plant growth in gardens and yards.

There are different ways you can compost at home, whether it be through a back-yard composting pile, vermicomposting (worm composting) system or by dropping off your compostable materials at a community composting site. Composting takes minimal effort; with the proper balance of conditions and materials, nature takes care of the rest.

Where can we compost?

In Moscow, there are a couple of places where you can take your compostable materials:

• Accepted materials: kitchen waste (fruit and vegetable scraps, tea bags, coffee filters, eggshells, napkins), animal fur, shredded newspaper
• Unaccepted materials: compostable plastics, meat products, dairy products, separated cooking oil, yard waste, trash and recyclables
• Learn more about PCEI .
• Accepted materials: kitchen waste (fruit and vegetable scraps, tea bags, coffee filters, eggshells, napkins), animal fur, shredded newspaper, organic garden waste (ornamental flowers and vegetable plants NOT treated with pesticides)
• Unaccepted materials: compostable plastics, grass clippings, wood, tree and shrub trimmings, invasive plants, dirt, meat products, dairy products, separated cooking oil, trash and recyclables
• Learn more about the Hamilton Community Garden .
• Accepted materials: leaves, branches (up to 4 ft. Long or 6 in. Diameter), grass clippings, weeds, garden waste, brush/shrub trimmings, Christmas trees, bark
• Unaccepted materials: stumps, dirt, sod, rocks, food waste, pet feces, manure, lumber and construction debris
• Learn more about composting yard waste at the Moscow Recycling Center .

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University Surplus

University Surplus manages the auction and sale of university property that is no longer being used. Instead of throwing away older items, employees must take them to Surplus and have them resold, donated, recycled, or disposed of properly. Having a surplus system is a great way to reduce how much waste we produce as a university and provide quality second-hand items to our community. The Surplus store is open from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. Friday. For more information, visit the Surplus website .

Why Is This Important?

Waste can be one of the most difficult environmental challenges to tackle. The material goods that we wind up throwing away have environmental and human health consequences during the extraction of natural resources, the production of the goods, their transportation and ultimately, their disposal.

When we throw our trash in our bins, most of us don’t know what happens to it. Where does it go? What does it turn into? Not seeing what happens to our trash has led to an “out of sight, out of mind” approach to waste generation and disposal. Consequently, we may produce as much trash as we want without thinking about the resulting environmental impacts.

The reality is that trash has significant environmental impacts. Irresponsible waste disposal can create pollution in the air, water and soil. Chemical and hazardous wastes can expose us and other life to dangerous toxins, affecting the health of entire communities. Waste also creates greenhouse gases that accelerate atmospheric warming; municipal solid waste landfills are the 3rd largest source of human-related methane emissions in the U.S. Read more about the environmental impacts of waste from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency .

Ways You Can Help

Learn more about how waste affects the environment. In the Resources tab, you will find many websites and reports that discuss how much pollution waste creates and how to minimize it. Then, learn how to dispose of your waste properly. Knowing how to differentiate between recyclable, compostable and landfill materials is not easy, and it is often regionally-specific. In the Resources tab below, you will see websites that explain what can be recycled, composted and trashed in the city of Moscow. And finally, act. Do your part in disposing of your waste properly and encourage your fellow Vandals to do the same.

If you would like to learn more about waste, the following are great learning resources:

University of Idaho Waste Reports and Documents

• Recycling at University of Idaho Events
• Kibbie Dome Waste Characterization Study
• University of Idaho Campus Food Strategic Plan
• Anaerobic Digestion and Biogas Production Feasibility Study
• U of I Electronic Waste Disposal Fee Schedule & Guidelines
• University of Idaho Waste Characterization - 2009
• Action Plan for U of I Surplus
• Waste Minimization & Increased Recycling at University of Idaho

Environmental Impacts of Waste

• EPA Report on the Environment - Wastes
• EPA Information about Landfill Emissions
• UNEP Waste Not: The Heavy Toll of our Trash
• Earth 911: Recycling Database for Hard-to-Recycle Products
• EPA – The U.S. Recycling System
• City of Moscow Recycling
• Moscow Recycling Center
• EPA – Composting Information
• City of Moscow Composting Program
• Compost Drop Off Location on the Palouse

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Computer Science > Computation and Language

Title: mutual reasoning makes smaller llms stronger problem-solvers.

Abstract: This paper introduces rStar, a self-play mutual reasoning approach that significantly improves reasoning capabilities of small language models (SLMs) without fine-tuning or superior models. rStar decouples reasoning into a self-play mutual generation-discrimination process. First, a target SLM augments the Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) with a rich set of human-like reasoning actions to construct higher quality reasoning trajectories. Next, another SLM, with capabilities similar to the target SLM, acts as a discriminator to verify each trajectory generated by the target SLM. The mutually agreed reasoning trajectories are considered mutual consistent, thus are more likely to be correct. Extensive experiments across five SLMs demonstrate rStar can effectively solve diverse reasoning problems, including GSM8K, GSM-Hard, MATH, SVAMP, and StrategyQA. Remarkably, rStar boosts GSM8K accuracy from 12.51% to 63.91% for LLaMA2-7B, from 36.46% to 81.88% for Mistral-7B, from 74.53% to 91.13% for LLaMA3-8B-Instruct. Code will be available at this https URL .

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