music in nature essay

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First Take: Music and Nature

From humpbacks to harvard.

by Brian D. Farrell | Dec 11, 2016

A young woman plays the violin for a solidarity delegation of visiting North Americans in Cuba, 1993. Photo by Jonathan Moller.

Nature and music are intimately connected. Almost as long as I have been a naturalist, these connections have been woven through my life. I have been playing drums since I was a boy. Though I played in a rock band in high school, I was trained in jazz and Latin music, genres I play to this day. As a teenager I wrestled with the decision to follow music or something else (not yet fully aware how biology could be a profession), and am happy that one can pursue these two interests at the same time and discover eventually how closely they are tied together. 

As a scientist, I am now more fully aware of the links. I notice the similarities between jazz—a famously improvisational form featuring trades of motifs between players, as if in conversation—and that of birds and other species that trade vocalizations to convey their motivations to each other. Music permeates nature, and nature permeates music.

I believe it is fair to say that for most people on earth, including myself, music is an integral part of everyday life. Our memories are often tied to certain songs or genres associated with the paths of our emotional lives, particularly in the teenage years. A song can carry us back in time and draw forgotten emotions from deep inside ourselves. Why does music have such a hold on us, able to change our mood and bring us together?  What is music’s evolutionary origin, and can we learn about music by considering other species that use sounds in similar ways? These are old questions, but they have received new insights from fields as different as paleontology, neurobiology and evolutionary theory. 

Music appeared early in human history, documented by the discovery of 40,000-year-old flutes made of bird bone or mammoth ivory, as well as remnants of ancient drums. Some scientists believe that the large nasal passages of the Neanderthals, who existed in Eurasia from nearly 500,000 to 35,000 years ago, indicate an ability to produce resonant chant. Experts in fields as different as neurobiology, archeology and evolutionary biology believe that music may have preceded language, and it is not hard to imagine that chanting and rhythmic thumping were instrumental in holding small tribal groups together.  In fact, social cohesion most likely was a force for the adaptive basis of music in early humans. 

Three Peruvian musicians. Photo by Nilton Vela (Ojos Propios).

The other force thought important for the development of music is sexual selection, meaning that music may have fostered the greater reproductive success of those who played and responded, just as the bright colors of a male bird’s plumage attract females who select their mating partner(s) based on their attractiveness.  Certainly, the field of neurobiology has greatly increased our understanding of the depth and breadth of the “wiring” of our brains for music response and music production. While language abilities may be lost through a blow to the side of the head or a small lesion on the brain itself, musical production and responses are almost impossible to knock out. In fact, individuals who have lost their language abilities sometimes can learn to sing their thoughts. 

Music reception and production both employ neurotransmitters that are key in brain function, as well as release hormones, such as serotonin and oxytocin, that are associated with the pleasure centers of the brain.  These “feel good” hormones seem to reinforce the feelings of happiness and belonging that music often produces.  Music shares features with humor and experiences of nature both by fulfilling expectations and by creating lively elements of surprise. Music, meditation, nature, artistic and religious experiences have similar effects on the brain, engendering the kinds of contemplative changes in brain waves that have concomitant positive effects on stress levels, and perhaps overall health.  This is an area of active research. 

Humans are remarkably adept at music. We can (famously) recognize a song from hearing very few notes, often two or three, and can pick out a song over the cacophony of a crowd.  It is remarkable that, however closely we guard our feelings from strangers, or even from those familiar to us, we nevertheless express strong emotions toward music, especially played live. Recent investigations of the extensive cave systems in Lascaux, France, have revealed that the most acoustically-resonant chambers are the ones decorated with Paleolithic murals, leading to the conclusion that they were performance halls.  I can say that this thought has transformed how I think about my own attendance of musical performances in resonant concert halls—we’ve been enjoying such experiences together for tens of thousands of years or more! 

Photo courtesy of Shakira.

Humans are not the only acoustical performers on earth, of course. Birdsong has figured in our poetry for as long as there has been a written record, and the group we call songbirds that actually learn their songs from adults have been singing since the beginning of the Cenozoic Era, 65 million years ago. Of course, earlier birds were screeching and calling for 100 million years before, but they were not the first species to use sound to communicate their impassioned pleas for mates and territory. This would be the insects and frogs, whose rattles, scrapings and trills have resonated through swamp, forest and field for a quarter of a billion years. But, is it music? Some of us certainly love to be enveloped in these wild sounds—I sometimes have rainforest recordings playing in the background as I work—but music is so defined that it excludes many other species and sounds, however beautiful they may sound to us.  According to many authorities, music contains repeated motifs that may be combined in various ways to produce a larger composition, and so includes atonal music such as some percussion, while also excluding pure tones that do not form such patterns, such as train whistles (though one could play a train whistle in a musical fashion!). 

Defined this way, the songs of birds, lasting from a few seconds to several minutes in length, are truly songs, and new studies show that certain mice also sing. However, mice and birds are not the only songsters on earth, and they are far from being the largest. These would be the whales. For many centuries, fishermen and other maritime peoples were undoubtedly aware of the amazing vocalizations of whales, especially those of the humpback whales widespread in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. However, it was not until a Harvard graduate named Roger Payne ’54 first recorded them from the back of his sailboat that these sounds were understood for what they were. Payne and his colleague Scott McVay analyzed their recording by marking the various motifs that appeared here and there across the thirty minutes or more of their duration. It became clear that these long vocal utterances were in fact composed songs that were repeated over and over again. Their landmark 1967 paper, followed by the 1970 commercial release of their recordings ( Songs of the Humpback Whale ), occasioned an enormous raising of awareness of these amazing creatures who sing below the waves, and highlighted their plight as whaling countries continued to drive whales towards extinction. 

Rock musicians play an anniversary concert in Mexico’s El Chopo market. Photo by Carin Zissis.

Jazz clarinetist Professor David Rothenberg ’84 takes whale music seriously, and has played music with whales (via underwater speakers) and birds, though it is very unclear as to whether they respond. While other animals may sing, no species apart from humans can follow a rhythm  (though the dancing of a now defunct cockatoo named Snowball suggests such abilities in parrots). Drumming, therefore, comes closest to a musical signature that is uniquely human, surprisingly enough.

Today, I teach a Harvard Freshman Seminar entitled “Why we animals sing” that bridges acoustic biology and the evolution of music. I play in a weekly jazz ensemble and occasionally around the university and in my spouse’s home country, the Dominican Republic, which I find especially amenable to combining music and nature in one setting.   For your Director of DRCLAS, this special issue of ReVista, dedicated to music, is therefore a very special pleasure, and I hope you find these authors’ contributions with a Latin perspective as rich as I do.   

Winter 2016 ,  Volume XV, Number 2

Brian Farrell is the Director of the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies (DRCLAS)  and a Professor of Biology who is Curator of Entomology in Harvard’s Museum of Comparative Zoology. He is also a jazz drummer and performs weekly at a Boston-area venue.

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How Landscape Music Evokes the Natural World

A musical idea can be a highly effective conduit for communicating, understanding, and encapsulating human experiences of the natural world.

My previous column argued for the importance of Landscape Music—music inspired by landscape, nature, and place—as a pathway to learning about and connecting with the natural world. In this final installment of my series on new music as a catalyst for learning, I expand on the topic of Landscape Music by considering some cultural and artistic implications of making music that engages with nature. What is the role of nature in culture? Why use the term “landscape” in reference to music? How can music symbolize the natural world? Finally, what are some of the specific approaches composers have taken to creating landscapes in their music?

What Does “Nature” Have to Do with Culture?

Most of the words and concepts we have for “nature” in English emerged from the opposition between human civilization and everything else. In the book  Wilderness and the American Mind, Roderick Frazier Nash traced how the term “wilderness” was transformed in America over the centuries from an essentially derogatory indicator for uncultivated, uncivilized areas, to its current positive associations with environmental conservation. Gary Snyder explored in  The Practice of the Wild  how even the popularly held conception of “nature” is itself paradoxical. Despite the common and seemingly unavoidable usage of the word to refer to the “non-human” world, we humans and all of our activities—from walking the dog to browsing Facebook—are a part of nature.

Furthermore, when thinking about interpretations of “wilderness” or “nature” within any art form, it is inherently impossible to avoid human-imposed lenses. The interpretation of nature through art is, by definition, the very representation of human perspectives. This, I believe, is not a bad thing. In  Landscape And Memory , Simon Schama argued eloquently for the importance of understanding that “the cultural habits of humanity have always made room for the sacredness of nature” and that culture is “not the repudiation, but the veneration, of nature.”

In this spirit, as both a composer and an advocate for music inspired by nature, I seek to acknowledge and engage with culture-based perceptions of nature as the ways in which we humans necessarily  make sense and meaning from the world around us , whether it’s through an Albert Bierstadt painting or a children’s cartoon.

Bierstadt’s paintings epitomize the Romantic idealization of nature in 19th-century America. SOURCE: wikipedia

I feel “landscape” is the term that best embodies this overall idea. This word was imported from Dutch into English in the 16th century and has been used historically to refer to the aesthetic appreciation of nature, especially in the context of visual art. “Landscape” may be applied to bucolic scenes (the word’s original application) or cityscapes, as well as to wilderness locales that have been less obviously modified by human hands. That having been said, as both a creator and a listener I’m interested primarily in art and music that act as a pathway to fostering a greater empathy with, and connection to, the natural world beyond humanity (a topic I explored previously).

In my view, music can never present a purely objective representation of nature, or even provide a medium through which to concretely evoke a world beyond human perception and involvement. I would argue that the creation of music inspired by nature is an inherently humanistic act  that affirms the intrinsic value and importance of the non-human natural world to the human experience.

How Does Music Evoke Landscape?

One might argue that, with the exception of music that explicitly mimics the sounds of nature (or incorporates field recordings), connections between landscape and musical elements are seemingly arbitrary: projected by the composer or the listener onto the music. True, whether a particular melody played on the flute signifies or “captures” the experience of sunlight filtering through the leaves of a tree, for example, has far more to do with the composer and/or the listener than it does with sunlight or trees themselves. This does not devalue the flute melody’s symbolic importance, however:  a musical idea can be a highly effective conduit for communicating, understanding, and encapsulating human experiences of the natural world. In this way, the musical and verbal languages—in the case of nature essays or poetry, for example—are alike.

So what are some of the specific ways music, arguably an abstract art form, has been used to evoke or relate to experiences of nature? Scholars working in the relatively young field of ecomusicology have been exploring this and related questions through an interdisciplinary lens, combining approaches from musicology with the related literary field of ecocriticism (e.g., in the writings of Denise Von Glahn, who was previously interviewed by NewMusicBox). I’m attempting to contribute to the conversation about music and nature by exploring related questions from composers’ own perspectives: through essays and interviews for Landscape Music about music by contemporary composers, with an emphasis on members of the Landscape Music Composers Network , as well as composers of the past.

Bryce Canyon in Utah was one of Olivier Messiaen’s inspirations for Des canyons aux étoiles… (From the canyons to the stars…) . Photo by Luca Galuzzi via Wiki Commons .

In my article “ Evoking Place Through Music: Three Modes of Expression ,” I considered three general approaches composers have taken to the problem of representing nature: 1) music as aesthetic response to place; 2) imitation of place-based sound; and 3) allusion to place-associated music and musical styles, citing examples of these modes of expression in the music of Charles Ives, Olivier Messiaen, and John Luther Adams. Within these very broad categories, a great variety of perspectives may be represented.

Furthermore, some nature-inspired works seek to evoke specific locations, plants, animals, etc., while others respond to fundamental concepts of nature. John Luther Adams has written about how he has come to avoid overly specific extra-musical associations in order to allow the listener to “complete” the music through their engagement with it, without being limited by the composer’s intentions. With Become Ocean (2013), he presents “ocean” as a universal experience, rather than composing a piece that references a particular ocean at a particular seashore—rooted though the work may be in the time he spent in a specific place. Adams writes: “…I’m not interested in sending messages or telling stories with music. And although I used to paint musical landscapes, that no longer interests me either. The truth is, I’m no longer interested in making music  about  anything…Though a piece may begin with a particular thought or image, as the music emerges it becomes a world of its own, independent of my extra-musical associations.”

Adams’s recent approach clearly results in powerful and effective work. But music inspired by nature that presents specific extra-musical narratives and associations can also be powerful. Such works do not necessarily limit listeners, but ideally will provide them with points of entry into new realms of experience that they would be unable to access without that imaginative “push.” For example, I’ve never had the opportunity to travel to Alaska, but many of Adams’s earlier works from his Alaska period allow me to enter into the “Alaska” of my mind. Knowing that this music was directly inspired by a place I’ve never been, and lack strong prior associations with, does not limit my ability to connect with the music or find my own meaning within it.

Many (though not all) of the composers in the Landscape Music Composers Network express extra-musical inspirations from specific places or species through their works. Christina Rusnak has described the divergent approaches she took to writing several pieces inspired by parks and wilderness areas, exploring the physical characteristics of landscapes as well as their “cultural geography.” By contrast, Stephen Lias seeks primarily to capture the “spirit of adventure” and the “emotional and physical experience” of being in the wilderness through his series of works inspired by national parks. Stephen Wood often composes from a naturalist’s perspective by responding to individual plant species and their ecological contexts. I’ve written about my own process for “translating” my experiences of Point Reyes National Seashore, and a woodblock print by Tom Killion that depicts it, into an orchestral tone poem. The other members of the Landscape Music Composers Network (Linda Chase, Rachel Panitch, Justin Ralls, and Alex Shapiro) have each taken inspiration from nature in their own, distinct ways.

Although there are as many approaches to representing experiences of nature through music as there are composers and pieces (and listeners, for that matter!), I continue to attempt to shed light on these processes. My goal and hope in doing so is to encourage greater appreciation of new music inspired by nature and to help composers and performers improve their ability to make increasingly insightful, effective, and impactful work that catalyzes audience learning and changes people’s perceptions of the natural world we’re all inextricably a part of.

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A new Harvard study suggests that people around the globe can identify lullabies, dancing songs, and healing songs — regardless of the songs’ cultural origin — after hearing just a 14-second clip.

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Songs in the key of humanity

Peter Reuell

Harvard Staff Writer

Some musical meaning may transcend cultural boundaries and be universally human, study says

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Poet and Harvard Professor Henry Wadsworth Longfellow famously said, “Music is the universal language of mankind.” A new Harvard study suggests he may have been right.

The study, a collaboration among psychology research associate Samuel Mehr, human evolutionary biology graduate student Manvir Singh, alumni Luke Glowacki and Hunter York, and Associate Professor of Psychology Max Krasnow, found that people around the globe could identify lullabies, dancing songs, and healing songs — regardless of the songs’ cultural origin — after hearing just a 14-second clip.

The finding suggests that not only is music deeply rooted in human nature, but that some types of songs transcend cultural boundaries. The study is described in a Jan. 25 paper in Current Biology.

“It seems like all humans make music in some way or another,” Mehr said. “But there’s not great empirical evidence for whether or not the different types of music they make share features across cultures. One way to test that is with this type of naïve listener experiment … and the results suggest that, in some cases, the answer is yes.”

The findings are based on a wide-reaching experiment in which 750 online participants in 60 countries listened to brief excerpts of songs collected from nearly 90 small societies around the globe, including hunter-gatherers, pastoralists, and subsistence farmers.

Participants then answered six questions, rating each clip on a six-point scale according to whether they believed the song was used for dancing, soothing a baby, healing illness, or expressing love. Two additional uses — mourning the dead and telling a story — were included as controls.

A data science postdoctoral fellow with the Harvard Data Science Initiative, Mehr said the data showed that — despite participants’ unfamiliarity with the cultures, the random sampling of each song, and the short duration of the samples — people were able to reliably infer the songs’ functions, and their ratings were consistent across the globe.

The findings ran counter to expert expectations.

Mehr, Glowacki and Krasnow had also surveyed academics — including ethnomusicologists, music theorists, performers, composers, psychologists, and cognitive scientists — about whether they believed people would be able to identify the song types.

“We gave them an idealized version of the experiment we ran,” Mehr said. “Imagine you have unlimited time and resources, and the ability to record every song that’s ever been sung from every culture, and could take those and play them for people all over the world.

“The question we asked was, if we play those recordings for people, are they going to be able to tell … this is a lullaby or this is for dancing?” he continued. “Predominantly among ethnomusicologists, the answer was no. And not only that, but they predicted that people’s responses will be inconsistent with one another. That’s not what we found.”

Singh also wanted to know whether listeners were recognizing certain non-musical characteristics of the songs — lullabies are typically sung by one woman, for example, while dancing songs more often involve a group.

“The question then was if people are able to do this, how on earth are they doing it?” Singh said. “How is it that a guy in Tallahassee can recognize a dancing song from a hunter-gatherer tribe from Southeast Asia whose culture he knows nothing about?”

To test that, the team conducted a second study. This time, they asked listeners about a number of contextual and musical features, ranging from the number and gender of the singers to the tempo and melodic complexity of the song.

“From all these, we get a very simple and rudimentary analysis of each song,” Mehr said. “It turns out when you ask people these very simple questions about songs, they agree with each other very highly. Even on really subjective musical features, like melodic complexity, they tend to make consistent ratings with one another.”

When data from the two studies were combined, the results showed that songs of the same function shared similar characteristics — lullabies, for example, tended to be slower and melodically simpler than dance tunes — suggesting that something about musical characteristics crosses cultural boundaries.

“It seems like all humans make music in some way or another. But there’s not great empirical evidence for whether or not the different types of music they make share features across cultures. One way to test that is with this type of naïve listener experiment … and the results suggest that, in some cases, the answer is yes.” Samuel Mehr

Mehr said the researchers were able to draw their wide-reaching conclusions because the songs used in the study were drawn from the discography of the Natural History of Song , a Harvard-based project that creates rigorously constructed databases of ethnographic text about music and audio recordings of music.

“We assembled all of the examples of music in a systematic way, so that inferences drawn from the whole discography are generalizable to humans as opposed to merely the cultures that were studied,” said Mehr, who directs the project with Singh and Glowacki, who is now a research fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Toulouse. “This has been a problem in music research in general. The studies that have been pitched as studies of universality in music have typically included only a handful of cultures, or didn’t systematically sample different genres of music in a principled fashion.”

Going forward, the team hopes to conduct more in-depth analysis of the music collected for the Natural History of Song, and do additional studies to improve the inferences about music’s ability to cross cultural boundaries.

“One weakness of this study is that the listeners we’re sampling from are people on the internet, so they all have access to things like YouTube, and they probably are all familiar, say, with Taylor Swift,” Mehr said. “Do the results tell us about the design of the human mind, or do they tell us about what modern listeners hear in the music of the world?”

To address that, the team is working to translate the studies into more than two dozen languages and run online experiments in many more countries. Singh and Glowacki are also working to bring the study into the field by playing song excerpts for members of small-scale societies in Indonesia, Ethiopia, and elsewhere.

“That is the most exciting part,” Mehr said. “Because these are people who have had little exposure to the internet or radio or Western culture. The only music they know is their own music. We’ll find out whether they share the same conceptions of form and function in music with our English-speaking internet users.”

In the end, Mehr said, the study and others like it will enable scientists to form a foundation for answering a number of long-running questions about music and its evolution.

“That’s one of the most important contributions we’d like to make to the field,” he said. “This kind of basic, cross-cultural fact-finding about human behavior is the first step in developing a new science of music.”

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HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY article

The human nature of music.

• 1 Westmead Psychotherapy Program, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
• 2 The MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour, and Development, Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
• 3 Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Music is at the centre of what it means to be human – it is the sounds of human bodies and minds moving in creative, story-making ways. We argue that music comes from the way in which knowing bodies (Merleau-Ponty) prospectively explore the environment using habitual ‘patterns of action,’ which we have identified as our innate ‘communicative musicality.’ To support our argument, we present short case studies of infant interactions using micro analyses of video and audio recordings to show the timings and shapes of intersubjective vocalizations and body movements of adult and child while they improvise shared narratives of meaning. Following a survey of the history of discoveries of infant abilities, we propose that the gestural narrative structures of voice and body seen as infants communicate with loving caregivers are the building blocks of what become particular cultural instances of the art of music, and of dance, theatre and other temporal arts. Children enter into a musical culture where their innate communicative musicality can be encouraged and strengthened through sensitive, respectful, playful, culturally informed teaching in companionship. The central importance of our abilities for music as part of what sustains our well-being is supported by evidence that communicative musicality strengthens emotions of social resilience to aid recovery from mental stress and illness. Drawing on the experience of the first author as a counsellor, we argue that the strength of one person’s communicative musicality can support the vitality of another’s through the application of skilful techniques that encourage an intimate, supportive, therapeutic, spirited companionship. Turning to brain science, we focus on hemispheric differences and the affective neuroscience of Jaak Panksepp. We emphasize that the psychobiological purpose of our innate musicality grows from the integrated rhythms of energy in the brain for prospective, sensation-seeking affective guidance of vitality of movement. We conclude with a Coda that recalls the philosophy of the Scottish Enlightenment, which built on the work of Heraclitus and Spinoza. This view places the shared experience of sensations of living – our communicative musicality – as inspiration for rules of logic formulated in symbols of language.

“There are certain aspects of the so-called ‘inner life’—physical or mental —which have formal properties similar to those of music—patterns of motion and rest, of tension and release, of agreement and disagreement, preparation, fulfilment, excitation, sudden change, etc. Langer (1942 , p. 228).

“The function of music is to enhance in some way the quality of individual experience and human relationships; its structures are reflections of patterns of human relations, and the value of a piece of music as music is inseparable from its value as an expression of human experience” Blacking (1995 , p.31).

“The act of musicking establishes in the place where it is happening a set of relationships, and it is in those relationships that the meaning of the act lies. They are to be found not only between those organized sounds which are conventionally thought of as being the stuff of musical meaning but also between the people who are taking part, in whatever capacity, in the performance” Small (1998 , p.9).

We present a view that places our ability to create and appreciate music at the center of what it means to be human. We argue that music is the sounds of human bodies, voices and minds – our personalities – moving in creative, story-making ways. These stories, which we want to share and listen to, are born from awareness of a complex body evolved for moving with an imaginative, future seeking mind in collaboration with other human bodies and minds. Musical stories do not need words for the creation of rich and inspiring narratives of meaning.

We adopt the word ‘musicking’ (as used above by Christopher Small) to draw attention to the embodied energy that creates music, and which moves us, emotionally and bodily. Further, we argue that music comes from the way in which knowing bodies ( Merleau-Ponty , 2012 [1945] , p. 431) prospectively explore the environment using habitual ‘patterns of action,’ which we have identified as our innate ‘communicative musicality,’ observed while infants are in intimate communication with loving caregivers ( Malloch and Trevarthen, 2009a ). In short case studies of infant interactions with micro analyses of video and audio recordings, we show communicative musicality in the timings and shapes of intersubjective vocalizations and body movements of adult and child that improvise with delight shared narratives of meaning.

Following a survey of the history of discoveries of infant abilities, we propose that the gestural narrative structures of voice and body seen as infants communicate with loving caregivers, ‘protonarrative envelopes’ of expression for ideas of activity ( Panksepp and Bernatzky, 2002 ; Panksepp and Trevarthen, 2009 ), are the building blocks of what become particular cultural instances of the art of music, and of dance, theater and other temporal arts ( Blacking, 1995 ).

As the child grows and becomes a toddler, she or he eagerly takes part in a children’s musical culture of the playground ( Bjørkvold, 1992 ). Soon more formal education with a teacher leads the way to the learning of traditional musical techniques. It is at this point that the child’s innate body vitality of communicative musicality can be encouraged and strengthened through sensitive, respectful, playful, culturally informed teaching ( Ingold, 2018 ). On the other hand, it may wither under the weight of enforced discipline for the sake of conforming to pre-existing cultural rules without attention to the initiative and pleasure of the learner’s own music-making.

The central importance of our abilities for music as part of what sustains our well-being is supported by evidence that communicative musicality strengthens emotions of social resilience to recover from mental stress and illness ( Pavlicevic, 1997 , 1999 , 2000 ). Drawing on the experience of the first author as a counselor, we argue that the strength of one person’s communicative musicality can support the vitality of another’s through the application of skilful techniques that encourage an intimate, supportive, therapeutic, spirited companionship.

Turning to brain science, focussing on hemispheric differences in performance and in response to music, and the affective neuroscience of Jaak Panksepp (1998) , we emphasize that the psychobiological purpose of our ‘muse within’ ( Bjørkvold, 1992 ) grows from the integrated rhythms of neural energy for prospective, sensation-seeking affective guidance of vitality of movement in the brain ( Goodrich, 2010 ; Stern, 2010 ).

We conclude with a Coda – an enquiry into the philosophy of the Scottish Enlightenment, which built on the work of philosophers Heraclitus and Spinoza. This view of living in community gives innate sympathy or ‘feeling with’ other humans a fundamental role within a duplex mind seeking harmony in relationships by attunement of motives ( Hutcheson, 1729 , 1755 ). It places the shared experience of sensations of living – our communicative musicality – ahead of logic formulated in symbols of language.

Music Moves US – Embodied Narratives of Movement

Small (1998) calls attention to music as intention in activity by using the verb musicking – participating as performer or listener with attention to the sounds created and the appreciation and participation by others. The compelling quality of music comes from the relationships of sounds, bodies and psyches. ‘Musicking’ points to our musical life in active ‘I-Thou’ relationships. Only in this intimacy of consciousness and its interests can we share ‘I-It’ identification and use of objects, giving things we use, including musical compositions, meaning ( Buber, 1923/1970 ).

‘I-Thou’ relationships are entered into through the body. The philosopher Merleau-Ponty (2012 [1945]) writes that “The subject only achieves his ipseity [individual personality, selfhood] by actually being a body, and by entering into the world through his body… The ontological world and body that we uncover at the core of the subject are not the world and the body as ideas ; rather, they are the world itself condensed into a comprehensive whole and the body itself as a knowing-body ” (p. 431; italics added). Musicking is knowing bodies coming alive in the sounds they make. Scores and other tools that record the product of musicking, performed or imagined, aid the retention of ideas, as semantics of language does, and they serve discussion and analysis – but they are not the same as the breathing, moving, embodied experience of human musicking ( Mithen, 2005 ).

Musicking is the expression of the sensations of what we call our communicative musicality , for the purpose of creating music that is enlivening and ‘beautiful’ ( Malloch, 1999 ; Malloch and Trevarthen, 2009a ; Trevarthen, 2015 ; Trevarthen and Malloch, 2017b ). We define communicative musicality as our innate skill for moving, remembering and planning projects in sympathy with others through time, creating an endless variety of dramatic temporal narratives in song or instrumental music. We describe this life-sharing in movement as having three components:

Pulse – a regular succession through time of discrete movements (which may, for example, be used to create sound for music, or to create movement with music – dance) using our felt sense of acting which enables the ‘future-creating’ predictive process by which a person may anticipate or create what happens next and when.

Quality – consisting of the contours of expressive vocal and body gesture, shaping our felt sense of time in movement. These contours can consist of psychoacoustic attributes of vocalizations – timbre, pitch, volume – or attributes of direction and intensity of the moving body perceived in any modality.

Narratives of individual experience and of companionship, built from sequences of co-created gestures which have particular attributes of pulse and quality that bring aesthetic pleasure ( Malloch and Trevarthen, 2009b ; Trevarthen and Malloch, 2017b ).

With music we create memorable poetic events in signs that express in sound our experience of living together in the creating vitality of ‘the present moment’ ( Stern, 2004 , 2010 ). The anthropologist and ethnologist Claude Lévi-Strauss draws attention of linguists to the structured ‘raw’ emotive power of music (beyond what words may be ‘cooked’ to say).

“In the first volume of the Mythologiques, Le Cru et le Cuit. Lévi-Strauss refers to music as a unique system of signs possessing ‘its own peculiar vehicle which does not admit of any general, extramusical use’. Yet he also allows that music has levels of structure analogous to the phonemes and sentences of language. The absence of words as the connecting level is an obvious and pertinent fact in the structuring of meaning within music as a sign system.” ( Champagne, 1990 , p. 76).

Goodrich (2010) , in her appreciation of the contribution of neuroscientists Llinás (2001) and Buzsáki (2006) to the science of the mind for skilled movement, cites Llinás’ evidence on the role of intuitive structural ‘rules,’ seen also in a musical performance.

“Llinás describes another method of keeping movement as efficient as possible: motor ‘Fixed Action Patterns’ (FAPs), distinct and complicated ‘habits’ of movement built from reflexes, habits that we develop to streamline both neural action and muscle movement. These are not entirely fixed, despite their name; they are constantly undergoing modification, adaptation, refinement, and they overlap each other… Llinás even argues that the extraordinarily precise motor control of Jascha Heifetz playing Tchaikovsky’s violin concerto is composed of highly elaborated and refined FAPs, a description most instrumentalists would find absolutely plausible” ( Goodrich, 2010 , p. 339).

As Llinás himself writes,

“Can playing a violin concerto be a FAP? Well, not all of it, but a large portion. Indeed, the unique and at once recognisable style of play Mr. Heifetz brings to the instrument is a FAP, enriched and modulated by the specifics of the concert, generated by the voluntary motor system” (Llinás, p. 136).

We add that skilled FAPs are not “composed of reflexes” as separate automatic responses. Rather they are purposeful projects that are animated to be developed imaginatively, and affectively, with exploration of their biomechanical “degrees of freedom,” as in Nikolai Bernstein’s detailed description of how a toddler learns to become a virtuoso in bipedal locomotion, which he calls The Genesis of the Biodynamical Structure of the Locomotor Act ( Bernstein, 1967 , p. 78). The testing of these locomotor acts is with an immediate and essential estimation by gut feelings ( Porges, 2011 ) of any risks or benefits, any fears or joy, they may entail within the body.

Music Reflects the Felt-Sense of our Future-Exploring Motor Intelligence

Consciousness is created as the ongoing sense of self-in-movement with which we experience and manipulate the world around us. Its origin is in our evolutionary animal past, evolved for new collaborative, creative projects, regulated between us by affective expressions of feelings of vitality from within our bodies ( Sherrington, 1955 ; Panksepp, 1998 ; Damasio, 2003 ; Mithen, 2005 ; Stern, 2010 ; Eisenberg and Sulik, 2012 ).

Using the philosopher and psychologist James (1892/1985) as a starting point for exploring the intimacy of feeling that supports and guides psychotherapy, Russell Meares (2005 , p.18), following the ‘conversational model’ of therapy developed with his collaborator psychiatrist/psychotherapist Hobson (1985) , identifies five dimensions of the self:

1. awareness which is necessary for the experience;

2. there is a shape to this inner life;

3. there is a sense of its ongoingness ;

4. our inner life has a connectedness or unity ;

5. our experience of our inner life goes on inside a virtual container which is our background emotional state and the background experience of our body .

These sensuous qualities of the experienced self are expressed in music, and in other temporal arts, as ‘the human seriousness of play’ ( Turner, 1982 ). Music, as Susan Langer says so clearly in the quote at the start of this paper, has qualities of this inner life described by Meares as shape, ongoingness and flow, connectedness and unity. The notion of music as expressive of the movements of our inner life has also been explored by music theorists, most notably Ernst Kurth (1991) . Likewise, in his book Self comes to Mind , Antonio Damasio likens all our emotion and feeling to a ‘musical score’ that accompanies other ongoing mental process ( Damasio, 2010 , p.254).

The ultimate motivation for creating music can even be traced to the cellular level. In Man On His Nature ( Sherrington, 1955 ), in a chapter entitled The Wisdom of the Body , the creator of modern neurophysiology Charles Sherrington called the coming together of communities of cells into the integrated body, nervous system and brain of a person “an act of imagination” (p. 103). Neuroscientist Rudolfo Llinás also grants subjectivity, a sense of self, to all forms of life. “Irritability [i.e., responding to external stimuli with organized, goal-directed behavior] and subjectivity, in a very primitive sense, are properties originally belonging to single cells” ( Llinás, 2001 , p.113). “Thinking”, writes Llinás (2001 , p.62), “ultimately represents movement, not just of body parts or objects in the external world, but of perceptions and complex ideas as well.”

Intrinsic to the sociability of this intelligence of movement is sensitivity for the exploration of the future, which is woven into our creation and experience of music. Karl Lashley (1951) reflecting on the evolution of animal movement, proposed that the ability to predict what might come next, and to plan the ‘serial ordering’ of separate actions, may be understood as the foundation for our logical reasoning as an individual, as it is for the grammar or syntax and prosody of our communication in language. It is essential for musicking. A restless future-seeking intelligence, with our urge to share it, inspires us to express our personalities as ‘story-telling creatures,’ who want to share, and evaluate, others’ stories ( Bruner, 1996 , 2003 ).

All animal life depends on motivated movement – the urge to explore with curiosity – to move towards food with anticipation, to move away from a predator with fear, to interact playfully with a trusted friend ( Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989 ; Panksepp and Biven, 2012 ; Bateson and Martin, 2013 ). A great achievement of modern science of the mind was the discovery by a young Russian psychologist Nikolai Bernstein of how all consciously made body movements depend upon an ‘image of the future’ ( Bernstein, 1966 , 1967 ).

Bernstein applied the new technology of movie photography to make refined ‘cyclographic’ diagrams of displacements of body parts, from which he analyzed the forces involved to fractions of a second. His findings reported in Coordination and Regulation of Movements became widely known in English translation in 1967, at the same time as video records of infant behaviors were described more accurately (see next Section The Genesis of Music in Infancy – A Short History of Discoveries), revealing their anticipatory motor control adapted for intelligent understanding of how objects may be manipulated, as well as for communication and cooperation ( Trevarthen, 1984b , 1990b ).

Our musical creativity and pleasure come from the way our body hopes to move, with rhythms and feelings of grace and biological ‘knowing’ (see Merleau-Ponty). The predicting, embodied self of a human being experiences time, force, space, movement, and intention/directionality in being. Together, these form the Gestalt of ‘vitality’ ( Stern, 2010 ), the ‘forms of feeling’ ( Hobson, 1985 ) by which we sense in ourselves and in others that movement, be that movement of the body or of a piece of music, is ‘well-done’ ( Trevarthen and Malloch, 2017b ).

The Genesis of Music in Infancy – A Short History of Discoveries

The ability to create meaning with others through wordless structured gestural narratives, that is, our communicative musicality, emerges from before birth and in infancy. From this innate musicality come the various cultural forms of music.

Any attempt to understand how human life has evolved its unique cultural habits needs to start with observing what infants know and can do. Organisms regulate the development of their lives by growing structures and processes from within their vitality, by autopoiesis that requires anticipation of adaptive functions. And they must develop and protect their abilities in response to environmental affordances and dangers, with consensuality ( Maturana and Varela, 1980 ; Maturana et al., 1995 ). Infants are ready for human cultural invention and collaboration as newly hatched birds are ready for flying – within ‘the biology of love’ ( Maturana and Varela, 1980 ; Maturana and Verden-Zoller, 2008 ). All organisms reach out in time and space to make use of the ‘affordances’ for thought and action ( Gibson, 1979 ).

Infants have no language to learn what other humans know, or what ancestors knew. But the vitality of their spontaneous communicative musicality, highly coordinated and adapted to be shared through narratives with sympathetic and playful companions, enables meaningful communication in the ‘present moment’ ( Stern, 2004 ; Figure 1 , Upper Right), which may build serviceable memories extended in space and time ( Donaldson, 1992 ).

FIGURE 1. Inborn musicality shared in movement. Upper Left: Infant less than one hour after birth watches her mother’s tongue protrusion and imitates. Upper Right: On the day of birth, a baby in a hospital in India shares a game with a woman who moves a red ball. The baby tracks it with coordinated movements of her eyes and head, both hands and one foot. Lower: A two-month premature girl, Nasira, with her father, who holds her against his body in ‘kangaroo’ care. They exchange short ‘coo’ sounds with precisely shared rhythm. Upper Left and Upper Right: Photos for own use of second author from colleagues Vasudevi Reddy and Kevan Bundell. Part reproduced from Trevarthen (2015) , Figure 1, p. 131. Lower: Photo from Trevarthen (2008) , Figure 2, p. 22. Original spectrograph in Malloch (1999) , Figure 3, p. 37.

In this section we review changes in understanding of infant abilities over the past century which can help explain the peculiar way music has in the past been seen by some leading psychologists and linguists as a relatively insignificant epiphenomenon, learned for play, not, as we argue in this paper, a source of all talents for communication, rooted in our innate human communicative musicality of knowing bodies ( Merleau-Ponty , 2012 [1945] ) moving with prospective intuition to engage the world in company, ‘intersubjectively,’ from the start ( Zeedyk, 2006 ).

Two leading scholars in medical science and the science of child development in the past century, Freud (1923) and Piaget (1958 , 1966 ), declared that infants must be born without conscious selves conceiving an external world, and unable to adapt their movements to the expressive behavior of other people. The playful and emotionally charged behaviors of mothers and other affectionate carers were considered inessential to the young infant, who needed only responses to reflex demands for food, comfort and sleep.

Then René Spitz (1945) and Bowlby (1958) revealed the devastating effects on a child’s emotional well-being of separation from maternal care in routine hospital care with nursing directed only to respond to those reflex demands. Spitz observed that babies develop smiling between 2 and 5 months to regulate social contacts ( Spitz and Wolf, 1946 ), and he went on to study the independent will of the baby to regulate engagements of care or communication, by nodding the head for ‘yes’ or shaking for ‘no’ ( Spitz, 1957 ).

In the 1960s a major shift in understanding of the creative mental abilities of infants was inspired by a project of the educational psychologist Bruner (1966 , 1968 ), and the pediatrician Brazelton (1961 , 1979 ), who perceived that infants are gifted with sensibilities for imaginative play and ready to start cultural learning from the first weeks after birth. Supported by insights of Charles Darwin and by new findings of anthropology and animal ethology they studied infant initiatives to perceive and use objects, and they were impressed by the intimate reciprocal imitation that develops between infants and affectionate parents and caregivers who offer playful collaboration with the child’s rhythms and qualities of movement. Film studies showed that young infants make complex shifts of posture and hand gestures that are regulated rhythmically, similar to the same movements of adults ( Bruner, 1968 ; Trevarthen, 1974 ).

While this new appreciation of infant abilities was developed at the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard, radically transforming the ‘cognitive revolution’ that was announced there by George Miller, Noam Chomsky and Jerome Bruner in 1960, nearby at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a project initiated by Bullowa (1979) sought evidence on the behaviors that regulate dialog before language. Bullowa used information from anthropology to draw attention to the measured dynamics of communication.

“For an infant to enter into the sharing of meaning he has to be in communication, which may be another way of saying sharing rhythm …. The problem is how two or more organisms can share innate biological rhythms in such a way as to achieve communication which can permit transmission of information they do not already share.” ( Bullowa, 1979 , p. 15, italics added).

Wanting to understand how the rhythmic flow of dialog can be shared with a child too young for speech, she pointed a way to the appreciation of the role of human communicative musicality as inspiration for the development of behaviors for carrying meaning in language – thinking and communicating in words that will be acquired to specify facts, and to describe and think about how these facts are related or may be used.

The importance of rhythm and the graceful narratives of movement displayed by infants as they communicate purposes and feelings was revealed sixty years ago by a psychobiological approach using photography and movie film, then video. Discoveries were made that challenged the theory that infants had no minds, no sense of self, and therefore no sense of others ( Zeedyk, 2006 ; Reddy, 2008 ). Most astonishing, and dismissed with derision by convinced rational mind-separate-from-body constructivists, was the finding that infants activate the many parts of their body with an exquisite sense of time, and that they can use the rhythms of expression skilfully to imitate in inter-synchrony with attentive responses from an adult (Figure 1 ).

In his work as a pediatrician, Brazelton (1961) , developing his now famous Neonatal Assessment Scale ( Brazelton, 1973 ; Brazelton and Nugent, 1995 ), accepted and encouraged the natural love mother and father felt for their new baby, and showed how appreciative the baby could be of their actions to each other and to the baby. This welcoming of the newborn as a person with intelligence and sociable impulses confirmed the parents’ belief that they could communicate feelings and interests by responding to their baby’s exquisitely timed looks, smiles, hand gestures and cooing with their own exquisitely timed gestures of voice and body. It transformed medical concern for the baby. As Brazelton declared in Margaret Bullowa’s book, “The old model of thinking of the newborn infant as helpless and ready to be shaped by his environment prevented us from seeing his power as a communicant in the early mother-father-infant interaction. To see the neonate as chaotic or insensitive provided us with the capacity to see ourselves as acting ‘on’ rather than ‘with’ him” ( Brazelton, 1979 , p.79).

New attention to newborns within hours of their delivery, with the aid of films, led to confirmation that the baby could imitate adult expressions with careful timing of movements of eyes, face, mouth and hands ( Maratos, 1973 , 1982 ; Meltzoff and Moore, 1977 ; Kugiumutzakis, 1993 ; Nagy and Molnár, 1994 , 2004 ; Nagy, 2011 ; Kugiumutzakis and Trevarthen, 2015 ; Figure 1 , Upper Left). The findings proved that the baby is born with an altero-ceptive awareness of another person’s body parts as having feelings in movement like their own proprio-ceptive ones. It also became clear that this consciousness appreciates the balance and drama of a collaborative narrative flow with shared rhythms – essential to our ability for musicking ( Trevarthen, 1974 , 1977 , 2005a ).

The pediatrician Sander, (1964 , 1975 ; republished in Sander, 2008 ) recognized that an infant and caregiver create a coherent system of actions regulated with feelings of vitality in shared time. This dynamic collaboration was also discovered by Daniel Stern when he examined recordings of a mother playing with her three-month-old twins ( Stern, 1971 ).

A stimulating contribution to this new approach came from the work of anthropologist and linguist Mary Catherine Bateson, daughter of anthropologists Gregory Bateson and Margaret Meade. In 1969 Bateson had her first child after beginning postgraduate studies at MIT with Margaret Bullowa, researching language development using statistical analysis of vocal expressions. Observing a film in Bullowa’s collection as well as the experience of rich exchanges with her own infant opened her awareness of the form and timing of communication that developed in the first 3 months, which she called ‘proto-conversation’ ( Bateson, 1971 ). She benefitted from attention to the field studies of Albert Scheflen on the stream of conversation ( Scheflen, 1972 ) and Ray Birdwhistell on body movements in natural conversation ( Birdwhistell, 1970 ).

Reviewing her work in Bullowa’s book, she said:

“… the mother and infant were collaborating in a pattern of more or less alternating, non-overlapping vocalization, the mother speaking brief sentences and the infant responding with coos and murmurs, together producing a brief joint performance similar to conversation, which I called ‘proto conversation’. The study of timing and sequencing showed that certainly the mother and probably the infant, in addition to conforming in general to a regular pattern, were acting to sustain it or to restore it when it faltered, waiting for the expected vocalization from the other and then after a pause resuming vocalization, as if to elicit a response that had not been forthcoming. These interactions were characterized by a sort of delighted, ritualized courtesy and more or less sustained attention and mutual gaze. Many of the vocalizations were of types not described in the acoustic literature on infancy, since they were very brief and faint, and yet were crucial parts of the jointly sustained performances.” ( Bateson, 1979 , p. 65).

Bateson’s work confirmed Bruner’s realization that Noam Chomsky’s hypothesis of a specific Language Acquisition Device (LAD) or innate ability of the child to construct syntax, the grammatical order of words, to formulate ideas ( Chomsky, 1965 ), paid no heed to the vital importance of a complementary ability of a parent to encourage enrichment of reference in communication with a young child, a Language Acquisition Support System (LASS). As Bruner, expressing his psychology of education, put it “the LADD needs a LASS” ( Bruner, 1983 ). Child and adult share rules of imagination for all kinds of movement, including spoken propositions.

A follower of Chomsky’s theory of the evolution of language as reasoning, Stephen Pinker, in his perhaps overly ambitiously titled How the Mind Works ( Pinker, 1997 ) claimed, “As far as biological cause and effect are concerned, music is useless.” He gave no attention to movement and time, the communication of infants, playful children, affectionate parents, the poetry of music, or Einstein’s theory of his mathematical invention as “sensations of bodily movement” ( Hadamard, 1945 ), thus misunderstanding the origins and purpose of rational discourse (see Sections Communicative Musicality and Resilience of the Human Spirit and Musical Affections of the Embodied Human Brain).

We now have evidence from many studies analyzing behaviors that demonstrate that infants show a rich spectrum of expressive movements of the upper parts of their bodies ( Trevarthen, 1984a ), not just the ‘categorical emotions’ identified by Paul Ekman ( Ekman and Friesen, 1975 ), but the ‘complex social emotions’ that Damasio (1999 , 2010 ) describes as regulators of well-being in intimate interpersonal relations, and expression of a moral personality in society – expressions of such feelings as embarrassment, shame, guilt, contempt, compassion, and admiration.

Most importantly, study of recordings reveal that modulations of timing, of rhythms, and of the flow of vitality forms shared with infants have the characteristics recognized as musical ( Trevarthen, 1990a ). These have been precisely defined by acoustic analysis of vocalizations of adult and infant in dialogs and games ( Malloch et al., 1997 ; Malloch, 1999 ; Trevarthen, 1999 ; Trehub, 2003 ).

Case Studies of Infant Musicality

We summarize here key findings related to the growth of musical abilities from studies of infant individuals that we have reported previously.

First there is evidence from a recording made by Saskia van Rees in an intensive care unit in Amsterdam ( van Rees and de Leeuw, 1993 ) that rhythms corresponding to those of human locomotion are present in vocalizations of a premature infant which are precisely coordinated with simple vocal exchanges with a caring father (Figure 1 , Lower).

The recording of a two-month premature girl with her father, who was holding her under his clothes against his body in ‘kangaroo’ care, shows that they exchange short ‘coo’ sounds, the father imitating her sounds, with precise timing based on a comfortable walking rhythm of andante – one step every 0.7 s. Father (F) and the baby Naseera (N) are equally precise in their timing, which also shows what a phonetician would recognize as a ‘final lengthening’ characteristic of a spoken phrase - when they are ready to stop the dialog the interval lengthens to 0.85 s. Following the shared phrase with its syllable-length durations, they exchange single sounds separated at 4 s intervals, the normal duration of a short spoken phrase. The recording supports our contention that even a prematurely born baby is skilled in sharing a musical pulse ( Trevarthen, 2009 ).

A recording with a blind 5-month-old girl illustrates intermodal attunement between the heard melody of a mother’s song and the proprioceptive feelings in the body of the baby of a gesturing left arm and hand (Figure 2 , Upper). The human ability to sense the shape of a melody within the body is intrinsic to our enjoyment of music as human communication ( Stern, 2010 ). Maria is totally blind and has never seen her hand. Maria and her mother were assisting in a project of Professor Gunilla Preisler in Stockholm to aid communication with blind and deaf infants.

FIGURE 2. Communicating in the rhythm of narratives with baby songs. Upper: A five-month-old girl, who is totally blind, ‘conducts’ her mother’s singing with her left hand. The graph of her hand movements with her mother’s voice marks, with black bars, three moments in the narrative, at 4, 16, and 28 s, where the infant anticipates the mother’s voice by 0.3 s. These are times, 12 s apart, when lines of the slow lullaby commence. The arrows identify moments when there is perfect synchrony between the mother’s voice and the baby’s index finger. The circled index finger movement is 300 msec ahead of a lift in the pitch of the mother’s voice. Lower: Two infants share the poetry of action songs with their mothers. A four-month-old enjoys her mother’s singing of a song and accompanies the narrative with movements of her baby’s hand. And a six-month-old imitates clapping movements in synchrony with the song. Both songs show an iambic rhythm of short and long syllables, and rhyming vowels, ‘bear’ with ‘there’ and ‘well’ with ‘bell,’ which the babies imitate with their voices. (Upper: Analyses of video from Professor Gunilla Preisler, University of Stockholm. Previously published in Trevarthen (1999) and Schögler and Trevarthen (2007) . Lower: From Trevarthen (2015) , modified from Figure 4, p.137.)

While her baby is lying down during bottle feeding, the mother sings two baby songs including “Mors Lille Olle,” well-known throughout Scandinavia. It was not realized until later when the video was viewed that Maria was ‘conducting’ the melodies with delicate expressive movements of her left hand, while the right hand was making unrelated movements, stroking her body. When Professor of Music at Edinburgh University, Nigel Osborne, saw the film he said, “Yes she is conducting using the conventional movements of a professional conductor, describing a phrase with a sweeping movement, pointing up for a higher pitch, and dropping her wrist at the close of a verse – and she is making the movements with some anticipation.” Microanalysis supported what he observed. At certain points in the course of the melody Maria’s finger moves 300 milliseconds before the mother’s voice. She knows the song well, and leads the ‘performance’ ( Trevarthen, 1999 ; Schögler and Trevarthen, 2007 ).

Although blind, Maria knows the feelings of anticipated movement of her hand, and uses them to sense and share the human vitality dynamics in her mother’s voice. This kinematic sensibility was identified by Olga Maratos in her pioneering research in imitation as foundational for the ability of a young infant to reproduce another person’s expression seen or heard ( Maratos, 1973 , 1982 ). Indeed, vocal perception, detecting the modulation of pitch and timing in an adult’s voice sounds, develops much faster than vocal production. The infant may be tracking sound with reference to the kinesics of the fastest and most complex gestural movements of her hands.

When taking part in a nursery song, infants demonstrate sensitivity for melodic phrase structure, attending to the rhyming vowels at the ends of lines, and by 5 months the infant can vocalize a matching vowel in synchrony with the mother ( Trevarthen, 2008 ). For our final example, the application of acoustic analysis with observations on gestural behaviors of infants in the middle of the first year, suggests that melodic patterns, common to different cultures, define four-line verses ( Imberty, 2000 ), with a pattern of Introduction, Development, Climax and Resolution, identified in proto-conversations with two-month-olds (Figure 2 , Lower, and Figure 3 ), and we note similarities with the sections recognized in classical Roman rhetoric or speech-making – exordium, narratio, confutatio , and confirmatio . In spite of very different conventions in musical performances in different communities, a parent, or a child, wanting to share the pleasure of songs and action games with a baby, naturally adopts the intuitive formula of a poetic verse to share a story of body movement.

FIGURE 3. Stories of changing pitch in the singing voice. These examples illustrate the narrative phases that infants respond to, which are found in infant directed speech or baby songs in different languages. (A) A proto-conversation of a mother with a 6-week-old. The baby shares the development, climax and resolution of the narrative, with vocalizations close to middle C. (B) A slow lullaby, of 26 s, has four-line stanzas, with rhyming vowels. (C) A more animated song of 18 s shows the same poetic organization with undulations of pitch and vowels rhyming between first and second lines and between final words of each verse. (A) Original in Malloch (1999) , Figure 5, p. 41. (B) From Trevarthen (2015) , a portion of Figure 4, p. 137, and Trevarthen (2016) , Figure 3, p. 10. Original in Malloch (1999) , Figure 10, p. 49. (C) Original in Trevarthen (1999) , Figure 2, p. 183.

Lastly, we present the work of Katerina Mazokopaki, a developmental psychologist who is a pianist and teacher of piano playing. She made a study of babies in Crete with her professor, Giannis Kugiumutzakis, an expert in analysis of imitative games with newborns ( Mazokopaki and Kugiumutzakis, 2009 ). The babies were left alone in a familiar place at home amusing themselves. Then a recording of a Greek baby song came on. Between 3 and 10 months old they all reacted in the same way. First they looked surprised; then they looked about as if someone had come into the room; and finally they smiled with delight and started performing with the music, inspired by the pulse and melody, joining the music with their different abilities to dance and sing (Figure 4 ).

FIGURE 4. Katerina Mazokopaki’s baby dancers: Upper Left: Georgos, 3.5 months lying on a comfortable bed, responds with a big smile and gestures of hands and feet to accompany the music. Upper Right: Katerina, 9 months, smiles, bounces and extends her arms to ‘fly’ into action. Lower Left: Panos, 9 months, smiles his greeting, then beats the floor rhythmically with his right hand. Lower Right: Anna, 10 months, standing in her cot, smiles and starts dancing vigorously, swinging her bottom. All four sing with the music (Photos supplied to the CT).

Communicative Musicality and Education into the Culture of Music

Mastery of a musical culture, and of language, starts with the intuitive vocal interactions between caregiver and infant ( Vygotsky, 1966 ). Our innate communicative musicality is the ‘raw material’ for cultural forms of music and the rules of grammar and syntax. A child makes stories in sound as an active participant whose pride to belong to the rich musical traditions of society propels them into learning and creating. This is the cultivation of communicative musicality to music, from innate self-expression to cultural practice and a musical identity ( MacDonald et al., 2002 ; MacDonald and Miell, 2004 ). It is brought to life, as language is, with the enthusiastic support of more experienced companions ( Bruner, 1983 ).

The desire for cultural participation is evident in informal learning in which children’s own musical culture grows from the vitality of The Muse Within ( Bjørkvold, 1992 ). It is nurtured from the music, live and recorded, that the child hears all around and contributes to spontaneously, along with the invention of talking and verse-making with playmates, often accompanied by rhythmic stamping, hopping and jumping ( Chukovsky, 1963 ). Our earliest shared signing of communicative musicality in infancy becomes dialogic ‘musical babbling’ from around 2 months old ( Trevarthen, 1990a ). Already at 2 months the infant is learning the cultural gestures and preferences that become the tools through which cultural meaning will be created and exchanged ( Moog, 1976 ; Tafuri and Hawkins, 2008 ). Lullabies are sung more often in cultures that value quiet infants, playsongs in cultures that value lively enthusiasm in infants ( Trehub and Trainor, 1998 ). A musical ‘proto-habitus’ is created ( Gratier and Trevarthen, 2008 ).

The infant is born ready to interact and discover her musical culture. Hearing responds to musical sounds from the third trimester of pregnancy ( Busnel et al., 1992 ), and infants can recognize music they heard before birth ( Hepper, 1991 ). They recognize musical contours and rhythmic patterns ( Trehub and Hannon, 2006 ), and ‘dance’ to music before they are one year old ( Zentner et al., 2010 ). Infant-inclusive singing is preferred, like infant-inclusive speaking 1 .

From about 3 months of age in many (probably all) cultures, mothers start to sing baby songs ( Trevarthen, 1986 ) to their infants. In a previous publication the second author summarized their characteristics:

(1) “The beat is clear and precisely modulated; usually in the andante range near moderato (90-100 beats per minute).

(2) Often the beat is marked by clapping, or by regular movements of the baby’s body.

(3) The mother sings with a clear melodic tone varying her pitch in a treble range and making rises and falls to make a simple development of the ‘emotional narrative’.

(4) Songs commonly have a clear stanza form — usually 4 lines, each of 3 or 4 beats, making a verse (which therefore lasts 8-15 seconds).

(5) Especially in the last line, well controlled musical tricks varying the beat ( rubato , sforzando, ritardando, accelerando ) are used to mark a climax and resolution.” ( Trevarthen, 1989 , p. 96).

More recognizable musical forms grow with the spontaneous singing of young children as they play alone or with others ( Barrett, 2011 ), practicing their musical craft. The Norwegian musicologist Jon-Roar Bjørkvold (1992) collected and studied the songs of 4–7-year-olds in three kindergartens in Oslo. He observed how they gave voice to emotion, conveyed information, and established relationships through learning and creating their own children’s musical culture. He identified two types of children’s singing – ‘egocentric’ for private pleasure, which, as the child matures, gives way to more social or ‘communicative’ music making.

As young children mature so they use their voice with a singing kind of expression in progressively more ‘symbolic’ ways. Fluid/Amorphous Songs “evolve in a completely natural way from the infant’s babbling as part of its first playful experiments with voice and sound. This type of spontaneous song, with its fanciful glissandi, micro-intervals, and free rhythms, is quite different from what we adults traditionally identify as song.” ( Bjørkvold, 1992 , p.65). Song Formulas , such as teasing songs, are symbolic forms for communicating and they flourish after the child begins to play with peers, typically at two or three. Elements of musically more complex Standard Songs are picked up from play with adults and hearing them sing, and are adapted to fit what the child is doing. This progressive ‘ritualisation’ of vocal creativity clarifies the adaptive motives for learning to sing, and how they express increasing narrative imagination for sharing ideas in culturally specific ways ( Gratier and Trevarthen, 2008 ; Eckerdal and Merker, 2009 ), paralleling the way language is mastered ( Chukovsky, 1963 ).

All through the development of children’s singing, repetition and variation, basic tools of any piece of music (for example, see Ockelford, 2017 ), are primary features as children explore the possibilities of musical form. Repetition and variation between the vocalizations of infant and caregiver feature from the very first shared vocalizations, regulating feelings in social interactions ( Malloch, 1999 ). Later, the growing child will continue to play with how music can convey affect and change their own and others’ mood, the four-part structure of Introduction, Development, Climax and Resolution, identified above in the structure of a proto-conversation, becoming the basis of large scale musical works, as well as verbal argument (for example, see the sections of classical rhetoric).

How the child’s spontaneous musicality, as it grows in group practice without formal training ( MacDonald and Miell, 2004 ), is received by the surrounding educational culture, is a vital ingredient in the child’s emerging ‘musical identity.’ Musical identity and self-efficacy or mastery of skill in music making inform each other, in reciprocal relationship. A child who sees themselves as a competent musician may attempt to learn a difficult piece of music, and their success at performing this piece will further bolster their sense of competence. And the way a child is welcomed into their musical culture is of vital importance as to whether this child thrives playfully with the musical tools at her disposal, developing her skill in the use of these tools, or shrinks away in disinterest because her own intrinsic musicality is not being heard or valued. If education does its job well, with the child as collaborative artist and thinker ( Trevarthen et al., 2018 ), our rich inner narrative of affective life, generated with our prospective awareness of body movement, is expressed in our social group to create a life-affirming, inclusive culture of shared artful rituals that celebrate the aesthetic grace and moral graciousness of joy in performance ( Frank and Trevarthen, 2012 ; Trevarthen and Bjørkvold, 2016 ). For example, the InCanto project ( Tafuri and Hawkins, 2008 ) is a wonderful example of infants’ and parents’ being encouraged to have their expression of music cultivated in such a way that the infant grows into a child who shows greater ability to sing in tune, a greater range of musical expression, and overall more enthusiasm for music participation.

Problems from introducing an emphasis on enforced cultural learning too early are demonstrated by Bjørkvold (1992) who studied the musical games of children in Oslo, Moscow, St Petersburg, and Los Angeles where educational, cultural, social and political practices are very different. In all three countries children showed spontaneous musicality, but in the nations of Russia and the US, where formal training in music was given greater value than it was in Norway, he found reduced spontaneous music making. He insists, “It is critically important for children to master spontaneous singing, for it is part of the common code of child culture that gives them a special key to expression and human growth” ( Bjørkvold, 1992 , p. 63). A comparable inhibitory effect of conventions of schooling has been recorded on the spontaneous expression of religious feelings and spirituality in the early years ( Hay and Nye, 1998 ). These innate sources of human imagining in collaborative, moral ways give value and meaning to the later cultivation of advanced cultural ideas and skills ( Valiente et al., 2012 ).

The importance of valuing both the child’s innate musical creativity and introducing a child into his musical culture so that he may thrive within it and contribute to it can be conceptualized as a balance between two educational necessities – providing a social environment where a child’s own skills and abilities are nurtured, and a place where training is provided into the ways of a particular culture ( Rogoff, 2003 ). Both build enthusiasm for cultural participation. This balance has been presented by Bowman (2012) and others as a consideration of two Latin roots for the English word ‘education.’ One, educare , means to train or to mold. Its motivation is the initiation of a person into cultural conventions, without which a person is left unable to live effectively within a particular culture, using its tools to communicate. The other, educere , means to lead out, or draw out. Without this more responsive nurturing, the person is left unable to engage with situations and solve problems not yet imagined. Their ability for creativity is compromised. These very different concepts of what education means are often experienced in schooling as being in tension, with educare often winning out, leaving the child with dry knowledge rather than living abilities supported by their own innate skills.

We propose that teachers and students of music at all levels learn how best to do their work by deliberately invoking the rhythms of the student’s innate creative vitality while demonstrating cultural conventions that make rich use of this talent ( Flohr and Trevarthen, 2008 ). Infants and toddlers make imaginative musical play in affectionate friendships with parents or peers ( Custodero, 2009 ); primary school children build relationships with the invention of stories in groups with free instrumental play and dance ( Fröhlich, 2009 ); and an advanced music student is assisted to master their instrument through their teacher encouraging their playing to be like a dance representing a narrative, rich in expressive feelings ( Rodrigues et al., 2009 ). In all instances the motives of the learner, and how they may change with development of the body and experiences gained, are of crucial importance ( Bannan and Woodward, 2009 ; Ingold, 2018 ). As with all education, the success of teaching depends on recognition of how children’s ‘zest for learning’ ( Whitehead, 1929 ; Dewey, 1938 ) changes with age and the development of body and mind.

We end this section with a quote from Bowman on the broader role of music in education. In times where the arts are often considered of marginal importance in education, it talks to the richness of our engagement with music in nurturing all learning experiences:

“The distinctive educational and developmental potential of music lies, I submit, in dynamic, bodily, and social natures, and distinctly ethical, responsive, and responsible kinds of know-how these afford. Practical knowledge is action embedded knowledge, quite distinct from theoretical knowledge and technical know-how. It is a kind of character-based sense of how best to proceed in situations where best courses of action cannot be determined by previous ones. This ability to discern the right course of action in novel, dynamic situations is precisely the kind of human asset required in today’s rapidly changing world. And musical engagements may, under the right circumstances, nurture this capacity in ways unmatched by any other human endeavour.” ( Bowman, 2012 , p. 31).

Communicative Musicality and Resilience of the Human Spirit

As Daniel Stern has written ( Stern, 2010 ), the human body has a rich range of gestural ‘forms of vitality’ – we move in musical ways. And within each actor there is both ‘self-sensing’ and ‘other-sensing’ of the degree of grace, or biological efficiency ( Bernstein, 1967 ) and hopefulness ( Trevarthen and Malloch, 2017a ) in the gestural narratives of our projects. These qualities of vitality, or well-being, transmitted to others, become the qualities of relationships and social activities – their moral values ( Kirschner and Tomasello, 2010 ; Narvaez, 2014 ; Trainor and Cirelli, 2015 ). They convey relational feelings for the degree of consensuality or sharing of expression in moving. Effort to manage the grace and morality of movements can be cultivated to assist well-being of those whose actions are confused or fearful - that is, the making or ‘poetry’ (from the Greek poiein , to make) of their movements may be enhanced to provide responsive and relational care or therapy ( Hobson, 1985 , ch3; Stern, 2000 , p. xiv; Osborne, 2009b ; Meares, 2016 ).

At times our healthy ability for graceful gesturing is met with circumstances that do not allow it to be expressed with its natural healthy vitality. For example, failure to gain a sympathetic appreciation of their musicality can cause an infant to express withdrawal and distress ( Murray and Trevarthen, 1985 ). Instead of joyful pride in sharing play they show sadness and shame ( Trevarthen, 2005b ). However, an infant’s communicative musicality can also be expressive of resilience and determination.

In the example presented in Figure 5A we see a consistent rigidity of expression and a lack of self-confident invention on the part of a mother suffering from BPD (borderline personality disorder). She repeats the same up-and-down vocal gesture again and again, with almost no vocal participation on the part of the infant. Where the infant does participate (shown by vocalizations with either a square or circle around them), the infant appears to be setting up the possibility for a dialog – vocalizing exactly on the ‘bar-line’ (bar 5, shown by a square) and then around the mother’s pitch (shown by a circle). Indeed, the infant’s vocalizations persuade the mother out of her repetitiveness – the mother momentarily takes notice of her infant and responds to her infant’s conversational offering by ceasing her unresponsive repetition and vocalizing once more at the infant’s pitch. But the dialog almost immediately breaks down, and the mother returns to her stereotypical, repetitive vocal gesturing.

FIGURE 5. Voice modulations that express emotions of relating in a psychological disorder, and in relational therapy. (A) A pitch plot of a mother suffering from BPD (borderline personality disorder) speaking to her infant. She repeats the same phrase with monotonous intonation, making a slight reaction to critically timed sounds made by the infant, but cannot establish shared affective engagement. (B,C) Changes in the prosody of a client’s speaking in communication with a therapist, before and after a therapeutic change, with improvement in self-confidence. (A) Original in Gratier and Apter-Danon (2009) , Figure 14.5, page 319. Reproduced with permission. (B,C) Originals in Malloch (2017) , Figures 4.1 and 4.2, p.72. Reproduced with permission.

As well as showing inflexible, ‘non-graceful’ behavior of a mother who is suffering from BPD, this example also shows the resilience and hope of the infant in the face of her mother’s rigid communicative style. This will of our communicative musicality, evident from the earliest of interactions with infants ( Papoušek, 1996 ), is utilized in therapies that employ in-the-moment intersubjective interactions as means for healing ( Stern et al., 1998 ; Stern, 2000 , p. xiv). This immediately responsive interaction may be through talking, through music-making, through dance, or touch. The common element is an individual who is highly skilled in attuning to nuances of interpersonal timing and gesture, and who aims to lead back to health another whose personal mindedness of time-in-the-body has become compromised through hardship, suffering, or biological disruption, perhaps leading to a sense of isolation and misunderstanding ( Trevarthen and Malloch, 2000 ). The therapist joins with the person who needs help, leading them back to health and wellbeing through their own therapeutic sense of the ‘minute particulars’ in that moment of meeting ( Hobson, 1985 , part 2).

Olga Maratos, a developmental psychologist who pioneered recognition of the ability of young infants to imitate expressions of an attentive and supportive adult ( Maratos, 1982 ) took part in the establishment in Athens of a residential school for children with autism, called Perivolaki , meaning ‘a little garden.’ It is a day-care center with facilities in beautiful surroundings that invite playful out-door activities, games with toys and creative shared occupations such as listening to and making music. They use the psychoanalytic concept of ‘transference’ of feelings or ‘unconscious desires’ to encourage sensitive intimate and consistent relations, each child having a trusting relationship with a particular member of the staff. Stability of activities is maintained, with close engagement with the parents, who are seen weekly during the first two years of the child’s stay at Perivolaki and every fortnight thereafter. The average length of stay is 4–5 years ( Maratos, 1998 ).

Olga explains that staff are trained to observe the children, think about them and discuss their behavior at staff meetings “with a view to understanding whether their autistic behaviour is defensive, refusing interaction and relations because they don’t make sense for them or because they are painful, or whether there is a pervasive lack of motivation for relating and communicating. We find both conditions present, at different times, in all our children” ( Maratos, 1998 , p. 206). This approach, adapting a psychoanalytic treatment which avoids diagnosis of the cause of the disorder, leads to a form of active and intimate ‘relational therapy,’ which does not rely on verbal formulation of anxieties and lack of trust.

Affect attunement has been defined as qualities of vocal and body gesture that carry meaning in parent–infant communication – it is, “the performance of behaviours that express the quality of feeling of a shared affect state, but without imitating the exact behavioural expression of the inner state” ( Stern, 1985 , p. 142). This largely unconscious ‘recasting’ of events is necessary to “shift the focus of attention to what is behind the behaviour, to the quality of feeling that is being shared” ( Stern, 1985 , p. 142). We say the relationship is now one of ‘companionship,’ a word from Latin meaning ‘to break bread with’ and defined here as the wish to be with an other for a mutually beneficial ‘inner’ purpose, apart from reasons of immediate survival, procreation or material gain. Companionship involves exchanging affect through sharing the quality or virtue of impulses of motivation, which is the original rich meaning of ‘sympatheia’ in Greek ( Trevarthen, 2001 ).

The therapeutic relationship, even in talking therapies focussed on what the language says about feelings, is underpinned by the manner or graciousness of our gestural exchanges – whether those qualities are carried in vocal prosody or bodily movements ( Stern, 2000 , p. xiv; Malloch, 2017 ). It is about the direct and desired sharing of feelings in human vitality. Stern (2010) writes eloquently on the importance of listening for the forms of vitality (the forms of feeling as Hobson, 1985 , called them) that are being expressed through prosody – “without the dynamic vitality features of the intention-unfolding process we would not experience a vital human being behind the words that are being said” ( Stern, 2010 , p.124). He also writes of the use of metaphors as carriers of images of our in-the-moment vitality (also see Hobson, 1985 , ch.4). For example, in the work of Stephen, the first author, as a therapist, here is the text of an exchange between him and a client discussing the client’s sense that his life has never measured up to his notion of what a successful life should look like:

Client: My father thought I was stupid. He’d call me ‘stupid boy.’ Therapist: The way you said that – perhaps a sort of exhaustion and emptiness – reminds me of the tide going out in a bay. Client: Empty… like something’s slowly leaving.

Here the focus on the vitality that the client associates with his father’s dismissing statement leads to a new experience to explore therapeutically – something is slowly leaving. Further discussion focussed on the experience of what ‘slowly leaving’ feels like. When the therapist works like this, “we move from an enquiry about intentions, means, and goal states to an enquiry about processes of creation, emerging, and becoming” ( Stern, 2010 , p.126). We move from distanced recollection or speculation to life in the present moment ( Stern, 2004 ).

The prosody of the client’s voice sometimes sums-up the therapeutic change itself. In the example below of Stephen’s work a client is talking of an emerging ‘new me’ in contrast to an ‘old me.’ 2 The ‘old me’ was marked with ‘a lack of self-respect.’ ‘I blame myself when things go wrong, I believe I’m not working hard enough.’ The voice is drone-like, body hardly moving. Figure 5B shows a four-second section of a pitch plot of ‘old me’ voice.

After describing ‘old me’ the client’s body relaxed, they looked up from the floor, hands lifted from their lap, the volume of their voice increased, its pitch lifted, and they began talking of ‘new me.’ ‘New me is more rational about life. This part says, “Well, I was uncommunicative this morning – that’s all right, that’s OK. That’s just the way I was. Doesn’t make me a bad person. Other times I communicate really well!” Figure 5C is a four-second pitch plot of ‘new me.’ The shift in the vitality of the musicality is clear. Stephen felt the distinct difference in the vitality of the two “me’s” of the client, and continued the session exploring how the new “me” might express itself in the world (see Malloch, 2017 , for further discussion of communicative musicality in therapy).

The role of our communicative musicality in supporting our wellbeing lies at the very heart of the practice of using music therapeutically. Music therapy covers a wide range of ways of using musical experiences – stories in sound – to heal and improve people’s lives. The Australian Music Therapy Association defines Music Therapy as: “a research-based practice and profession in which music is used to actively support people as they strive to improve their health, functioning and wellbeing.” It is the compassionate use of music to engage another emotionally, interpersonally, cognitively, and culturally. “Music is therapeutic because it attunes to the essential efforts that the mind makes to regulate the body, both in its inner neurochemical, hormonal and metabolic processes, and in its purposeful engagements with the objects of the world, and with other people” ( Trevarthen and Malloch, 2000 ). This is particularly so during improvisational music therapy, where the therapist supports the client towards change – greater integration of experience and freedom in communication ( Pavlicevic, 2000 , ch.6; also see Malloch et al., 2012 , on the effectiveness of improvisational music therapy with neonates).

However, the practice of music therapy is more than the therapeutic use of preverbal protomusic, however, important this is. Reflecting our discussion above on music and education, music therapy is also making use of the cultural forms of our musicality, and the power these cultural forms have within our psyche (for example, Donald, 1991 ; MacDonald et al., 2002 ; Stern, 2010 ).

A relationship between our communicative musicality and our culturally made music for the practice of music therapy is proposed by Pavlicevic and Ansdell (2009) . They emphasize the peculiarly musical relationship established within music therapy practice – that is, that the cultural elaboration of communicative musicality relates to our communal, social lives. Music therapy engages our shared communicative musicality, and welcomes us into the shared cultural, communal experience of musicking, using the tools of a particular cultural type of music – one of many musics in the world ( Stige, 2002 ).

Thus, part of the reason music therapy ‘works’ is its invitation for cultural collaboration – we exercise what has been called our ‘deep social mind’ ( Whiten, 2000 ) following particular cultural forms. This wish to learn the forms of culture, our ‘conformal motive’ ( Merker, 2009 ), comes to life within an environment where we sense our communicative gestures are being valued by another or others through the creation of shared narratives of vitality forms ( Stern, 2010 ). We feel ourselves to be both a companion in our shared narrative of communicative embodied gestures and a companion in a particular shared cultural collaboration. It is within this dual companionship that our deep yearning to belong is met and satisfied, and where healing can occur.

Musical Affections of the Embodied Human Brain

In our opinion brain science has been most insightful into the nature of the self and what makes us human, and how we share the joy and pains of life, when it investigates ‘Primary Process’ emotional guidance of brain growth for regulation of vitality in body movement and its ‘seeking’ awareness ( Hess, 1954 ; Solms and Panksepp, 2012 ). It offers us insight when it investigates how experiences develop by generating expectations of well-being in companionship and by enriching it with cultural meaning ( Trevarthen, 1990b ). It shows that differences in the rate of development of cognitive processes in left and right hemisphere at different ages are caused by different affections ( Thatcher et al., 1987 ; Chiron et al., 1997 ), from which arise correlations with musical behaviors and other creative forms of play, as well as Piagetian stages of rational mastery of the body and objects it uses, and development of language.

The neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp, who studied the emotions of mammals who do not cultivate music, but who use patterns of movement including signs with sound to regulate their social lives in ways that anticipate our richer experience of the sounds of our movement using the tools of culture, offers insight into why we are musical beings ( Panksepp and Bernatzky, 2002 ). And in a recent synopsis he agrees that mastery of language in early years depends on the sense of purpose we share in musical ways:

“Human languages are coaxed into the brain, initially by the melodic intonations of motherese by which emotional communication becomes the vehicle for propositional thought.” ( Panksepp et al., 2012 , p. 11).

Like the brain of any animal, the human brain grows to represent and regulate a body form in movement ( Trevarthen, 1980 , 2001 , 2004 ). And from even before birth, the self-formation of a personal self in the brain of the fetus is led by manifestations of movement.

“The first generalized movements occur in week 8 ( de Vries et al., 1984 ), but already in week 5 monoamine transmission pathways grow from the brainstem to animate the primordial cerebral hemispheres. Key components of the Emotional Motor System (hypothalamus, basal ganglia and amygdala) are in place when the neocortex is unformed.” ( Trevarthen, 2001 , p. 26).

After the baby is born and seeks intimate communication of all motives with a parent, the affective system remains as the director of learning and appreciation of what is gained by new awareness.

Psychiatrist and literary scholar Iain McGilchrist in The Master and His Emissary ( McGilchrist, 2009 ) has presented a brilliant review of behavioral and brain research, and a clear conception of complementary consciousness in the two cerebral hemispheres. “Music”, he writes, “being grounded in the body, communicative of emotion, implicit, is a natural expression of the nature of the right hemisphere” (p. 72).

McGilchrist’s research leads him to the political view that we are living in a society that grants too much power to the special refined perceptuo-motor and scientific skills of the left brain, while failing to appreciate how the right brain gives purpose and value to all that we do, thus pointing to the importance of closer cooperation between science and the fundamental values of the humanities. He draws on anthropological information about the universal principles of social understanding at very different levels of technical ability and manufacture, and on the importance in all social groups and cultures of musical performances, which he concludes, from a wide range of evidence, that music evolved before language and contributed to the formulation of its syntax and prosody (see Sachs, 1943 ).

Music, he says, was not,

“an irrelevant spin-off from something with more of a competitive cutting edge – namely, language…. rather the reverse. If language evolved later, it looks like it evolved from music…. Rousseau in the eighteenth century, von Humboldt in the nineteenth century and Jespersen in the twentieth, have thought it likely that language developed from music…. That we could use non-verbal means, such as music, to communicate is, in any case, hardly surprising. The shock comes partly from the way we in the West view music: we have lost the sense of the central position that music once occupied in communal life, and still does in most parts of the world today…. We might think of music as an individualistic, even solitary experience, but that is rare in the history of the world.” (p. 104).

And he quotes neurologist Oliver Sacks, who said:

“This primal role of music is to some extent lost today, when we have a special class of composers and performers, and the rest of us are often reduced to passive listening. One has to go to a concert, or a church or a musical festival, to recapture the collective excitement and bonding of music. In such a situation, there seems to be an actual binding of nervous systems, the unification of an audience by a veritable ‘neurogamy’ (to use a word favoured by early Mesmerists) ( Sacks, 2006 , p. 2528).

Twenty-six years before McGilchrist published his book, the anthropologist Victor Turner, famous for his book From Ritual to Theatre , drew on knowledge of the different functions of the hemispheres to identify play with a collaboration between them, in an article entitled “Play and drama: The horns of a dilemma”:

“Current ideas about differences between the left and right hemispheres of the brain provide a basis for speculating about the nature of play. Play encompasses both the rationality and order of the left hemispheric orientation, and the improvisation and creativity of the right. But play also transcends these oppositions, running rings about them as it encircles the brain’s consciousness” ( Turner, 1983 , p. 217).

Good, beautiful and enjoyable, music is created out of poetic play. Indeed, we play music ( Trevarthen and Malloch, 2017b ).

A sense of time in the mind is the fabric from which movements of all kinds are woven into ambitious projects that value elegance with efficiency. It is a manifestation of the ‘biochronology’ that is essential to the vitality of all forms of life ( Osborne, 2017 ). In Rhythms of the Brain , György Buzsáki (2006) presents a wealth of evidence that the brain functions as a coherent rhythmic system, always in synch., and with a rich array of rhythms that are organized to collaborate.

“At the physiological level, oscillators do a great service for the brain: they coordinate or ‘synchronize’ various operations within and across neuronal networks. Syn (meaning same) and chronos (meaning time) together make sure that everyone is up to the job and no one is left behind, the way the conductor creates temporal order among the large number of instruments in an orchestra” ( Buzsáki, 2006 , p. viii).

From Panksepp and Trevarthen (2009) , p. 114:

“Music is performed with the measure of expressive movements in time, and with tensions created by combining rhythms ( Osborne, 2009a ). The ‘architecture’ and ‘narration’ of moving in psychological time is also displayed with emotional qualities related to vital functions of the body ( Trevarthen, 2009 ). These psychobiological elements of vitality are charted in three bands or ranges of physical or scientific time: (1) for the felt and imagined ‘extended present’ (from 10 seconds to years); (2) for the conscious ‘psychological present’ ( Stern, 2004 ), with its serially ordered steps of motor control coupled to the physiological rhythms of breathing and variations in heart rate (0.3 to 7 seconds); and (3) for ‘reflex experiences’ and ‘just noticeable differences’ too fast to be regulated by movements that are prospectively controlled in awareness (5 to 200 milliseconds). (For detail and the sources of this description see Trevarthen, 1999 ).

The time of musical narrative, which Imberty (2000) calls the macrostructure or ‘story-without-words’ of music, is related to the times of expressive behavior that form ‘protonarrative envelopes’ of intuitive vocal and gestural play between infants and their mothers ( Stern, 1985 , 1995 ; Malloch, 1999 ). The period corresponding to a stanza or verse of 20 to 40 seconds may be manifested in the brain, as gamma waves or parasympathetic cycles, which control autonomic functions of the heart and breathing. It continues to be active through sleep to produce fluctuating rates of breathing and heartbeat, as well as electrical activity of the cerebral cortex that might be related to the rehearsal and consolidation of memories in dreaming ( Delamont et al., 1999 ). In wakefulness the narrative cycle is charged and modulated for intersubjective meaning with the ‘microtonal’ and ‘microtemporal’ variations of emotion that express urgency and facility in skilled control of moving within the voice of a singer or the playing fingers of an instrumental performer, and in the hearing of a listener ( Imberty, 1981 , 2000 ; Gabrielsson and Juslin, 1996 ; Juslin, 1997 , 2001 ; Kühl, 2007 ; Osborne, 2009a ). Music can assist the synchronization of physiological functions of respiration and heart activity and bring improvement in locomotor activity, and it can improve cognitive and memory processes by brain synchronization.”

Rhythmic co-ordination by the Intrinsic Motive Pulse (IMP) of the brain holds body movements together in composition of intentions and experiences ( Trevarthen, 1999 , 2016 ). It is the medium for all shared experiences and purposes, and for the convivial vitality of music making.

CODA: The Philosophy of Human Vitality

In her review of the role of movement and sense of time in the creation of intelligence, Barbara Goodrich, as a philosopher, traces a history of ideas supporting the view that consciousness is founded on emotions for agency, which we argue are the sine qua non for music. In opposition to the “implicit philosophical presuppositions inherited from the canon of Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, and Kant, e.g., that consciousness is self-reflective, passive, and timeless,” she proposes a natural science view.

“Western philosophy, however, also includes what might be described as a counter-tradition—and one that is more compatible with empirical biological science than the usual canon. Heraclitus, Spinoza, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, and especially the 20th century French philosopher and psychologist, Merleau-Ponty, all anticipated aspects of Llinás’s and Buszáki’s approaches… sketching out a notion of consciousness emerging from motility, and generating new hypotheses for neurophysiological research.” ( Goodrich, 2010 , p. 331).

We have argued that music comes from this very foundation of consciousness in motivated motility, and we underline the importance of a philosophy that acknowledges the motives and feelings of our life, as well as the intelligence we show in relating to persons, other life forms, and objects in our environment, by recalling the achievements of the philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment – Hutcheson, Hume, Smith and Reid. In line with Goodrich’s “counter tradition,” their work anticipates the new understanding of the human BrainMind pioneered by Panksepp and Damasio, which gives primary importance to feelings of vitality in movement, and to emotions that express positive and negative affections in sympathetic communication. This is the science of communicative musicality which underpins the music we create and enjoy.

The Scottish philosophers of the 18th Century, led by Francis Hutcheson, held that relationships and social life depend upon a universal human capacity for “innate sympathy,” which generates a conscience, a sense of beauty, a public ‘common sense’ that values happiness and is disturbed by misery, and a moral sense that perceives virtue or vice in ourselves or others ( Hutcheson, 1729 , 1755 ; Hume, 1739–1740 ).

Smith (1759) in his Theory of Moral Sentiments took ‘sympathy’ to designate any kind of ‘moving and feeling with,’ whether motivated positively or negatively, and including posturing and acting in the same expressive way as another’s body (cf. the work of Stern on ‘affect attunement’ quoted earlier), and he also imagined experiences of relating and being sensed, as, for example, interrogating one’s conscience.

“How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him, though he derives nothing from it except the pleasure of seeing it.”

“Sympathy… may…, without much impropriety, be made use of to denote our fellow-feeling with any passion whatever.” Part I – Of the Propriety of Action; Section I – Of the Sense of Propriety, Chapter I – Of Sympathy.

He examined his conscience to understand being a person in relations.

“When I endeavour to examine my own conduct, when I endeavour to pass sentence upon it, and either to approve or condemn it, it is evident that, in all such cases, I divide myself, as it were, into two persons; and that I, the examiner and judge, represent a different character from that other I, the person whose conduct is examined into and judged of. The first is the spectator, whose sentiments with regard to my own conduct I endeavour to enter into, by placing myself in his situation, and by considering how it could appear to me, when seen from that particular point of view’. The second is the agent, the person whom I properly call myself, and of whose conduct, under the character of a spectator, I was endeavouring to form some opinion.”

This picture of a duplex mind regulated by motives of sympathy anticipates the distinction made by William James in 1892 and by Martin Buber in 1923 between a fundamental “I-Thou” state of awareness and the objective “I-It” relations with the physical word we acquire in communication.

Otteson, joint professor of philosophy and economics, and chair of the Philosophy Department, at Yeshiva University, and adjunct Professor of Economics at New York University, has proposed that Adam Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) has a more profound message for commerce and industry than The Wealth of Nations .

“Smith’s picture thus has a clear anti-Freudian thrust: it denies the hydraulic picture of human emotions according to which emotions build up “pressure” that must be “released.” Instead, and more plausibly, it conceives of emotions as things that can be controlled and trained by exercising what Smith calls “self-command.” The activity of reciprocal adjustment is then repeated numberless times in every person’s lifetime, as it is between and among the people in one’s community, resulting in the creation of an unintended and largely unconscious system of standards. These standards then become the rules by which we determine in any given case what kind of behavior is, as Smith calls it, “proper” in a situation and what “improper”—meaning what others can reasonably be expected to enter into.” Otteson (2000 , November 01).

Smith was a great admirer of the messages of music and wrote about the communication of its poetic massages in his essay Of the Nature of that Imitation which takes place in what are called the Imitative Arts , published in 1777 ( Smith, 1777/1982 ).

Beginning with his A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), David Hume strove to create a natural science of human psychology in opposition to René Descartes’ rationalism. He concluded that desire rather than reason motivates our behavior. Anticipating Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology he also argued against the existence of innate ideas, concluding that we know only what we directly experience. He held that inductive reasoning and causality cannot be justified rationally, rather we follow custom and constant relations between ideas rather than logic. He concluded that we do not have a ‘conception of the self,’ only sensations of being alive. Following his teacher Hutcheson (1729) , he believed that ethics are based on feelings rather than abstract moral principles.

Finally, there is a bold clarity in the work of Thomas Reid, the third great follower of the teachings of Hutcheson, and a vigorous debating companion to David Hume. He wrote An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense ( Reid, 1764 ).

Reid founded the Scottish School of Common Sense. For him ‘common sense’ is based on a direct experience of external reality, experience that becomes internal in language, which is based on an innate capacity pre-dating human consciousness, and acting as an instrument for that consciousness. He distinguished the acoustic element from the meanings which seem to have nothing to do with the sounds as such, a state of language, which he calls ‘artificial,’ that cannot be the primeval one, which he terms ‘natural.’ He described the way a child learns language by imitating sounds, becoming aware of them long before he or she understands the meaning in the artificial state of contemporary adult speech. If, says Reid, children were to understand immediately the conceptual content of the words they hear, they would never learn to speak at all. Here Reid distinguishes between natural and artificial signs.

‘It is by natural signs chiefly that we give force and energy to language; and the less language has of them, it is the less expressive and persuasive…. Artificial signs signify, but they do not express; they speak to the intellect, as algebraic characters may do, but the passions and the affections and the will hear them not: these continue dormant and inactive, till we speak to them in the language of nature , to which they are all attention and obedience.’ ( Reid, 1764 , p. 52).

‘Language of nature’ we equate with our embodied moving consciousness – our communicative musicality. An excess of ‘artificial signs,’ perhaps aimed at increasing productivity, leads to loneliness and ruthless rationality. However, the cultivation of our communicative musicality, in ourselves and others, through playful music, dance, ritual and sympathetic companionship, makes our communal life of shared work of the body and mind creative in more hopeful ways. It restores our common humanity and our connection with all living things.

Ethics Statement

Informed consent was gained for all data presented in this paper.

Author Contributions

SM contributed to all sections of the paper, particularly sections Communicative Musicality and Education into the Culture of Music and Communicative Musicality and Resilience of the Human Spirit. CT contributed to all sections of the paper, particularly sections The Genesis of Music in Infancy – A Short History of Discoveries, Case Studies of Infant Musicality, and Musical Affections of the Embodied Human Brain.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

• ^ We regard the term ‘infant directed,’ usually used in this context, to be a misnomer that does not acknowledge the co-operative and shared nature of the interaction. We use ‘infant-inclusive’ to refer to the style of speech and singing that spontaneously occur between caregiver and infant.
• ^ Written consent was obtained from the client by the first author.

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Keywords : musicking, motor intelligence, gestural narrative, infant musicality, cultural learning

Citation: Malloch S and Trevarthen C (2018) The Human Nature of Music. Front. Psychol. 9:1680. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01680

Received: 18 February 2018; Accepted: 21 August 2018; Published: 04 October 2018.

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Copyright © 2018 Malloch and Trevarthen. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Stephen Malloch, [email protected] Colwyn Trevarthen, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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The evolution of music and human social capability

Jay schulkin.

1 Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA

Greta B. Raglan

2 Department of Research, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Washington, DC, USA

Music is a core human experience and generative processes reflect cognitive capabilities. Music is often functional because it is something that can promote human well-being by facilitating human contact, human meaning, and human imagination of possibilities, tying it to our social instincts. Cognitive systems also underlie musical performance and sensibilities. Music is one of those things that we do spontaneously, reflecting brain machinery linked to communicative functions, enlarged and diversified across a broad array of human activities. Music cuts across diverse cognitive capabilities and resources, including numeracy, language, and space perception. In the same way, music intersects with cultural boundaries, facilitating our “social self” by linking our shared experiences and intentions. This paper focuses on the intersection between the neuroscience of music, and human social functioning to illustrate the importance of music to human behaviors.

Music is a fundamental part of our evolution; we probably sang before we spoke in syntactically guided sentences. Song is represented across animal worlds; birds and whales produce sounds, though not always melodic to our ears, but still rich in semantically communicative functions. Song is not surprisingly tied to a vast array of semiotics that pervade nature: calling attention to oneself, expanding oneself, selling oneself, deceiving others, reaching out to others and calling on others. The creative capability so inherent in music is a unique human trait.

Music is strongly linked to motivation and to human social contact. Only a portion of people may play music, but all can, and do, at least sing or hum a tune. Music is like breathing—all pervasive. Music is a core human experience and a generative process that reflects cognitive capabilities. It is intertwined with many basic human needs and is the result of thousands of years of neurobiological development. Music, as it has evolved in humankind, allows for unique expressions of social ties and the strengthening of relational connectedness.

Underlying the behavior of what we might call a basic proclivity to sing and to express music are appetitive urges, consummatory expression, drive and satisfaction (Dewey, 1925/1989 ). Music, like food ingestion, is rooted in biology. Appetitive expression is the buildup of need, and consummatory experiences are its release and reward. Appetitive and consummatory musical experiences are embedded in culturally rich symbols of meaning.

Music is linked to learning, and humans have a strong pedagogical predilection. Learning not only takes place in the development of direct musical skills, but in the connections between music and emotional experiences. Darwin understood both music and consideration of emotion to be human core capabilities. Emotional systems are forms of adaptation allowing us to, for instance, note danger through the immediate detection of facial expressions.

This essay examines the biological and cognitive context for musical expression. In addition, it looks at how the predilection for music among humans has helped to foster the social connectedness so unique and vital to our species, and how our cephalic capabilities underlie music. This paper suggests that the importance of music to our socialization and well-being as a species is reflected in the cognitive and neural connections underpinning it.

The social functions of music

Music is often functional because it is something that can promote human well-being by facilitating human contact, human meaning, and human imagination of possibilities. We came quite easily, one might surmise, to the cephalic state of enjoying music for itself, its expanding melodic and harmonic features, its endless diverse expression of sound, moving through space, and within our power to self-generate it (Koelsch, 2010 ). On the voyage that conceptualized an important idea already circulating in Victorian culture—adaptation and natural selection—Darwin spent quite a bit of time studying the phenomenon of song. He was keen to understand song as a biological feature: “It is probable that the progenitors of man, either the males or females or both sexes before acquiring the power of expressing mutual love in articulate speech, endeavored to charm each other with musical notes and rhythm (Darwin, 1871/1874 ).” Darwin posited that song evolved with communicative capabilities, which extended for some species (e.g., song birds and humans) with great variation.

Musical sensibility is tied to our social instincts. Darwin noted as early as 1859 that social instincts, including song, are the prelude for much of what governs our social evolution (Darwin, 1859/1958 ).

Darwin and the ethologist Tinbergen understood that functions can change over time and be put to novel uses (Tinbergen, 1951 ). Musical expression requires a wide range of such functions: respiratory control, fine motor control, and other preadaptive features. This figures into song production, an evolution tied to speech and the diversification of our communicative competence.

Musical sensibility is surely just as fundamental to the human species as, for instance, language. From a simple adaptation there emerges lively expression in almost any culture. Music is indeed generative, structurally recursive, and knotted to grouping (Diderot, 1755/1964 ; Spencer, 1852 ).

Music is a binding factor in our social milieu; it is a feature with and about us, a universal still shrouded in endless mystery. How music came into being is, like most other features in our evolution, hard to pinpoint. Evolutionary evidence over a wide range of cultural groups reveals diversity of song and instrument, yet gaps and speculative considerations remain: some cultures sing a lot, some sing less, but most do sing and perhaps Neanderthals sang more than Sapiens (Mithen, 2006 ). Music is typically something shared, something social; we may sing in the shower or on a solitary walk (Whitehead, 1938/1967 ; Rousseau, 1966 ), but music is most of the time social, communicative, expressive, and oriented toward others.

Music cuts across diverse cognitive capabilities and resources, including numeracy, language, and spacial perception. In the same way, music intersects with cultural boundaries, facilitating our “social self” by linking our shared experiences and intentions. Perhaps one primordial influence is the social interaction of parental attachments, which are fundamental to gaining a foothold in the social milieu, learning, and surviving; music and song are conduits for forging links across barriers, for making contact with others, and for being indoctrinated with the social milieu.

Ian Cross (Cross and Morley, 2008 ; Cross, 2010 ), has pointed out the floating, fluid expression of music. There is little doubt that the fundamental link that music provides for us is about emotion and communicative expression, in which the prediction of events is tied to diverse appraisal systems expressed in music (Meyer, 1956 ; Sloboda, 1985/2000 ; Huron, 2006 ). Music is fundamental to our social roots (Cross, 2010 ). Coordinated rituals allow us to resonate with others in chorus (Brown, 2003 ), for which shared intentional movements and actions are bound to one another.

Culture-bound music is a shared resource that is tied to diverse actions, including sexual function (Darwin, 1872/1998 ). Music permeates the way in which we coordinate with one another in rhythmic patterns, reflecting self-generative cephalic expression (Temperley, 2001 ; Jackendoff and Lerdahl, 2006 ) tied to a rich sense of diverse musical semiotics and rhythms (Peirce, 1903 -1912/1977; Myers, 1905 ). Music is embedded in the rhythmic patterns (Myers, 1905 ; Sacks, 2008 ; Cross, 2010 ) of all societies. Our repertoire of expression has incurred a crucial advantage: the ability to reach others and to communicate affectively laden messages.

The social communicative bonding of the wolf chorus is one example from nature that comes to mind (Brown et al., 2004 ); a great chorus of rhythmic sounds in a social setting. A common theme noted by many inquirers is the social synchrony of musical sensibility (Sloboda, 1985/2000 ; Temperley, 2001 ; Huron, 2006 ; Cross, 2010 ). The motor sense is tied directly to the sounds, synchrony and movement. Sometimes the actual motor side of singing is underappreciated (Brown, 2006 ). Neurotransmitters, which are vital for movement, are tethered to syntax and perhaps to sound production. The communicative social affective bonding is just that: affective. This draws us together and, as a social species, remains essential to us; a chorus of expression in being with others, that fundamental feature of our life and of our evolutionary ascent. Music is indeed, as Timothy Blanning noted, a grand “triumph” of the human condition, spanning across cultures to reach the greatest of heights in the pantheon of human expression, communication, and well-being. It is in everything (Cross, 1999 ; Huron, 2001 ).

We are a species bound by evolution and diverse forms of change, both symbolic and social. Language and music are as much a part of our evolutionary development as the tool making and the cognitive skills that we traditionally focus on when we think about evolution. As social animals, we are oriented toward sundry expressions of our con-specifics that root us in the social world (Humphrey, 1976 ), a world of acceptance and rejection, approach and avoidance, which features objects rich with significance and meaning (Marler, 1961 , 2000 ). Music inherently procures the detection of intention and emotion, as well as whether to approach or avoid (Juslin and Sloboda, 2001 ; Juslin and Vastfjall, 2008 ).

Social behavior is a premium cognitive adaptation, reaching greater depths in humans than in any other species. The orientation of the human child, for example, to a physical domain of objects, can appear quite similar in the performance of some tasks to the chimpanzee or orangutan in the first few years of development (Herman et al., 2007 ). What becomes quite evident early on in ontogeny is the link to the vastness of the social world in which the human neonate is trying to gain a foothold for action (Tomasello and Carpenter, 2007 ). Music is social in nature; we inherently feel the social value of reaching others in music or by moving others in song across the broad social milieu.

Social and musical contact and cortical expansion

Music is replete with social contact. In fact, its origins are in contact with others. Mothers making contact, calls to others, and rhythmic patterns with others in the social group are all ways of keeping track of others, staying in touch with others, or playing with others. Indeed, exposure to music in young children is known to promote prosocial behavior in children. Studies suggest joint singing or drumming, for instance, when controlling for diverse intellectual and personality factors, promotes prosocial behaviors (See Figure ​ Figure1) 1 ) (Kirschner and Tomasello, 2009 , 2010 ).

Joint social action and music making; musical priming leads to an increase in the number of cooperative players (Kirschner and Tomasello, 2009 , 2010 ) .

Importantly, the greater the degree of social contact and social organization experienced by a human, the greater the trend toward cortical expansion (See Figure ​ Figure2) 2 ) (Dunbar, 1996 , 1998 , 2003 ; Barton, 2006 ; Dunbar and Shultz, 2007 ).

Neocortex size and social cooperation (Dunbar and Shultz, 2007 ) .

In other words, group size and social contact is linked to neocortical expansion in hominids, as is longevity. The pressure of coming into contact with others, creating alliances, and tracking them no doubt required more cortical mass (Byrne and Corp, 2004 ; Cheney and Seyfarth, 2007 ).

Interesting correlations have been suggested between neocortical size and social cognitive skills (Byrne, 1995 ; Reader and Laland, 2002 ), and this extends to musical calls. It is the also the expansion of cephalic functions that underlie the tool use that make musical instrumentalism possible. An expanded cortical/motor system with diverse cognitive capacities is no doubt pivotal to our evolutionary ascent and to the musical instruments that we developed to facilitate social interaction (Reader and Laland, 2002 ; Barton, 2004 ; Schulkin, 2007 ). A broad based set of findings in non-primates has also linked social complexity to larger brain size (Byrne and Corp, 2004 ). Technology, including musical objects, is an extension of ourselves that expands what we explore (Heelan and Schulkin, 1998 ; Lakoff and Johnson, 1999 ), facilitating plasticity of expression and long term social bonds.

Two important pathways in the central nervous system underlie how we ascertain where an object is located and what it may be (Ungerleider and Mishkin, 1982 ). This segmentation is tied to sound and song (Rauschecker and Scott, 2009 ). Moreover, neurons in the premotor region, located within the frontal lobe are contained to a large extent within Brodmann's area 6. This region is importantly involved in the direction of action (Kakei et al., 2001 ; Passingham, 2008 ) including musical expression and auditory input (Zatorre et al., 2002 ; Rauschecker and Scott, 2009 ). Moreover, diverse regions of the temporal lobe have long been linked to social perception, eye gaze, and tracking the vector of visual systems of others, and would also underlie musical expression (Rolls and Treves, 1998 ; Emery, 2000 ).

Williams syndrome, music and pro-social behaviors

Williams Syndrome is a genetic exaggerated pro-social orientation to the world, linked to the dysregulation of oxytocin that is tied to diverse forms of pro-social behaviors (Dai et al., 2012 ). As an example of the interrelatedness of musicality and sociality, individuals with Williams syndrome share a common genomic marker and other common features. Their full scale IQ is usually much lower than the general population, and they have great difficulty with numbers and math. Their spatial capability is quite poor, although their linguistic capability is often good (Landau and Hoffman, 2005 ). Interestingly, motion processing in individuals with Williams syndrome is not perfect but remains fairly good (Reiss et al., 2005 ), suggesting that the ventral stream linked to motion and agency is operative. But the hypersociality associated with Williams syndrome is its most marked feature.

Often described as having “cocktail party” personalities, individuals with Williams syndrome are exceedingly cheerful, associate easily with strangers, and hyper-focus on eye contact when socially engaged. Thus, while expressing deficits in some intellectual capabilities, individuals with Williams syndrome nevertheless have intact and highly evolved human expression, including a greater liking of music, and may have much greater than average expression of perfect pitch (See Table ​ Table1 1 ).

Various features of Autistic and Williams patients .

Source: (Levitin, 2005 ) .

Children with Williams syndrome show a general decrease in brain volume (Galaburda et al., 2001 ). Regions of the temporal lobe are, however, actually greater in Williams syndrome than in controls (Reiss et al., 2005 ), while the amygdala is decreased (Galaburda et al., 2001 ). The amygdala of such children seems to be more reactive than controls to diverse social events (Haas et al., 2009 ).

Preserved musical sensibility in individuals with Williams syndrome is remarkable. Several studies have shown a greater liking of music in these individuals than age-matched controls (Don et al., 1999 ; Levitin et al., 2004 ). Williams patients more readily engage in music than controls, while autistic patients show decreased perception of emotion in music (Levitin and Bellugi, 2006 ; Bhatara et al., 2010 ). The hyper-social feature overlaps with a tendency toward hyper-musical engagement (Huron, 2001 ; Levitin et al., 2004 ). This engagement includes increased frequency in looking for music, playing music, and expressing emotional responses to music. A sensibility for and a sensitivity to sound seem to be features of these individuals (Levitin and Bellugi, 2006 ).

The temporal activation to music in controls vs. Williams syndrome individuals demonstrates activation of the temporal gyrus and Heschl's gyrus, while also showing a more diverse and diffuse activation that includes the amygdala and cerebellum (Levitin et al., 2003 ). Moreover, oxytocin, a prosocial facilitating peptide, may be elevated in Williams syndrome, and like dopamine, may be elevated when listening to music.

Individuals with Williams syndrome have also been reported to have an expanded activation of the visual cortex. In a study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure brain activity, individuals with Williams syndrome displayed greater visual cortex activation in response to music (Thompson et al., 1997 ). In addition, they showed diminished responses to anxiety associated with music (Dykins et al., 2005 ).

Cognitive/emotional context

Music is an affectively opulent activity, whether it is being created or consumed. Moreover, music is rich in information processing as we work to appreciate the subtleties of beat, form, melody, and harmony. The affective and intellectual complexity of the musical experience speaks to the underlying neurological structures in place to ensure human appreciation for, and creation of, novel music.

We come prepared with a cognitive toolbox that allows us to readily recognize animate objects, to sense time and space, to use language, and to discern agency in others (See Figure ​ Figure3 3 ).

A depiction of a toolbox as a metaphor for diverse cephalic capacities (Schulkin, 2009 ) .

Gibson ( 1979 ) suggested that there is direct cephalic access to environmental sources of information and practices in the organization of action. Thus, some questions are: what are the conditions for adaptation and what are the factors in the environment that allow for readily available resources? This view of cognitive resources is linked to the ecological/social milieu, to what is available, what is dependable, what is utilizable, as well as the ability to use and unload information into environments that expand, enable, and bolster memory function as core cognitive events (Donald, 2001 ; Hatten, 2004 ; Clarke, 2008 ).

Context helps to facilitate performance, musical and otherwise. Our ways of hearing and responding to music are steeped in the direct ecological exposure to and expectations about sound and meaning, as well as music and context (Clarke and Cook, 2004 ). It is this sense of grounding that makes features stand out so easily in music and enables the mutualism between the perception, action, and external events that are quite palpable in music sensibilities (Clarke and Cook, 2004 ). The events are always relative to a framework of understanding—a social context rich in practice, style and history.

As well as providing a basis for understanding musical expression, context also affords an anchor with which to develop memories and future expectancies about music (Donald, 1991 ; Noe, 2004 ). The expansion of memory facilitates the wide array of what we do, including music. The emphasis is on action and perception knotted together and coupled with musical events.

The study of music emphasizes its independence from language while tying it, like all of our cognitive functions, to a diverse set of cognitive capabilities. Moreover, common forms of mental representations underlie action and perception in musical performance and musical sensibility (Deutsch, 1999 ; Pfordresher, 2006 ). Music is not only linked to cognitive actions, but also to emotional responsivity and memory formation.

Adaptation, evolution, and music

From simple percusives to facile musical instruments, the tools of music represent a small leap for humankind. Diverse forms of art, tools, and probably music emerged in early Homo sapiens , and are evident in remains that date back at least 40,000 years (See Figure ​ Figure4) 4 ) (Mellars, 1996 , 2004 ).

Bone and ivory flute fragments from the Hohle Fels and Vogelherd caves in southwestern Germany (Conard et al., 2009 ) .

One cognitive adaptation is the capacity for the basic discernment of inanimate objects from animate objects. We represent animate objects, often giving them divine-like status, which infuses them with specific and transcendental meaning.

Musical instruments ultimately derive from this expanded cognitive approach to objects. A key artifact is something that is sometimes called a “sound tool” or “lithophone.” The oldest date back to some 40,000 years ago from sites in Europe, Asia, and Africa (Blake and Cross, 2008 ). Sound tools are simple stones that resonate when struck, as shown in Figure ​ Figure5 5 .

Flint sound tool, known as a lithophone, from the Victorian Era (Blake and Cross, 2008 ) .

While song is the earliest form of music, the cognitive and motor capabilities necessary for the invention of musical instruments are embedded in evolutionary cognitive development over time (Cross and Morley, 2008 ; Cross, 2009 ). After all, making objects, musical, and otherwise is a cephalic extension of the world beyond ourselves (Donald, 2001 ).

Darwin was prepared to believe that musical expression, as a particular universal human expression, is a feature of natural selection, linked to communicative function and sexual selection (Darwin, 1871/1874 ). Perhaps it is tentatively tied in origins to basic functions, but surely one wants to be respectful of these simple origins without being reduced to them.

Evolutionary trends are not necessarily unidirectional, as Darwin had suggested and had penned in one of his rather unaesthetic drawings. Evolutionary trends may be more like jumps and starts, punctuated by sudden changes (Gould and Eldridge, 1977 ; Foley, 1996 ; Wood, 2000 ).

One view of evolution is the hypothesis that language and speech emerged between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago (Lieberman and McCarthy, 2007 ), and artistic representation can be traced back to 30,000–40,000 years ago (Mellars, 1996 ).

Music, while frequently considered an art, captures the sciences in its generative process, and draws on human expectations. The cognitive architecture, the generative processes, the diverse variation and embodiment of human meaning within almost all spheres of human expression, are rich fields of discovery for both the arts and the sciences (Dewey, 1896 ; Meyer, 1967 ; Premack, 1990 ; Schulkin, 2009 ). This development of art and music was an important evolutionary step in forming the communicative scaffolding for social interactions that have become so crucial or our species.

Art, like science, is embedded in discovery, testing, experimentation, and expansion through technique. There is no divide between the scientific and artistic. They intersect quite readily and naturally as they expand the human experience.

Action, music, and the brain

Given the key role that music plays in our social world, it is perhaps not surprising that music activates broad neurological systems, and that cognitive structures are in place for receiving, understanding, and producing music. Important biologically derived cognitive systems are not divorced from action or perception, but are endemic to them (Peirce, 1878 ; Barton, 2004 ; Schulkin, 2007 ).

Lakoff and Johnson ( 1999 ) depict relationships between perception and action, which underlie all of music, with thinking, perceiving, communicating, imagining, etc. Music is an action, but can also permeate our imagination, whether it is heard by someone, or simply imprints on neural systems. Music plays inside our heads, and as we shall see, common neural circuits underlie the action of playing and hearing music, as well as imagining music in reverberation (See Table ​ Table2) 2 ) (Myers, 1905 ).

Relationships that underlie all aspects of musical experience .

Music is fundamental to humans as a species. Most of the expectations we have may not be explicit, since the vast array of the cognitive systems are not conscious (Rozin, 1976 ); imagine playing an instrument while being explicitly conscious of all that we have to do. Impossible (Sloboda, 2000 , 2005 )! Cognitive systems are vastly unconscious and underlie action as well as music. The inferences, expectations, and prediction of auditory events are not particularly part of our awareness, and certainly the mechanisms are not (Helmholtz, 1873 ; Temperley, 2001 ).

A core anatomy that includes a larynx (Lieberman, 1984 ) tied to systems which orchestrate movement featuring statistically related acoustical harmonics and periodicity is responsible for song production. These are bound to preferences for ratios and intervals between sounds via the modulation of the larynx (Ross et al., 2007 ). The expansion of the larynx, along with the development of cognitive/motor capability and “recursive thinking,” underlies speech, song, music, and other social communicative cephalic expressions (Corballis, 2007 ). These features figure in key adaptive responses that underlie our social capability (See Figure ​ Figure6 6 ).

Key features in the vocal capability of a chimpanzee (center) vs. a human (left, right) (Lieberman and McCarthy, 2007 ) .

Access to pre-adaptive systems makes a difference in diversity of expression (Rozin, 1998 ; Fitch, 2006 ; Lieberman and McCarthy, 2007 ). As one investigator put it: “The larynx is a source of acoustic energy, not unlike the reed in a wind instrument (Lieberman, 1984 , p. 317).” Communicative capabilities are endlessly opportunistic in the exploitation of existing resources with diverse and expanding uses.

More generally, auditory perceptual systems code and structure events for music within contexts of semiotic systems, which then further expand our capabilities for song. The evolving motor cortex, united with cognition and perception, underpin the production and appreciation of song (Lieberman, 1984 , 2002 ). Music as we know it could not have existed without cognition or the motor skills to create musical sounds.

Diverse forms of cognitive systems reflect brain evolution (Rozin, 1976 , 1998 ) with musical sensibility distributed across a wide array of neural sites, something that Leonard Meyer, an early exponent of a cognitive/ biological perspective, appreciated.

Imagining and music

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) measures blood flow and is used as a marker of brain activation. In studies that used neuromagnetic methods to measure cortical activity, the primary motor cortex is active both when subjects observed simple movements and when the subjects performed them (Hari et al., 1998 ). Of course the motor cortex is activated in a wide array of human cognitive/motor activities. Importantly, motor imagery is replete with cognitive structure and is reflected in the activation of neural circuitry (Rizzolatti and Arbib, 1998 ), and so auditory imagery is reflected in different regions of the brain, including anticipatory musical imagery (Rauschecker and Scott, 2009 ).

In another study focusing specifically on sensory events in a fMRI scanner, subjects were presented with spoken words via headphones. Then, in a second experiment the same individuals were asked to identify the words with silent lip-reading (Calvert et al., 1997 ). Not surprisingly, many of the same cortical regions were activated. In other words, hearing sounds is like imagining them.

Not surprisingly, hearing music activates many of the regions linked to auditory perception. However, regions of the auditory cortex are also activated when subjects are asked to imagine music or other auditory stimuli (Figure ​ (Figure7) 7 ) (Zatorre et al., 2002 ; Zatorre and Halpern, 2005 ).

A neuroimaging scan revealing that even in silence the auditory cortex, pictured here in the posterior portion of the right superior temporal gyrus, is activated (Zatorre and Halpern, 2005 ) .

Thus, despite the difficulty of knowing what people are actually imagining, one can dissociate hearing something from seeing it through diverse regions of the brain. Perhaps one is now in a better position to understand the genius of Beethoven; deaf for years, he must have heard music imaginatively to compose the way he did. Think of the cognitive complexity, the richness of the later parts of Beethoven's life. In fact, we now know that musical hallucinations are often a feature of acquired deafness such as Beethoven's (Zatorre et al., 2002 ). In addition, the links between audition and premotor cortex functioning mean that there is mutual activation, even in the absence of one or the other sensation (Baumann et al., 2007 ; Jäncke et al., 2012 ).

Of course, it also makes it somewhat easier to understand that the same “music to one's ears” may not be heard by one's neighbor. Beethoven is one thing, the rest of us quite another. Yet, the recruitment of cortical regions is generic.

Dopamine, neural circuits, and music

Dopamine is a central organizer of drives and rewards and is tied to music sensibilities imagined, acted, and expected (Zatorre and Salimpoor, 2013 ). The regulation of dopamine is, for behavior, a fundamental event. It is an ancient molecule dating back millions of years in evolutionary history and plays a critical role in the motor control of the nervous systems of all vertebrates.

Dopamine levels are linked to diverse motivated behaviors (Kelley, 1999 ). These links have led a number of investigators to connect dopamine to reward. However, dopamine neurons are activated under a number of conditions, including duress or excitement. The pain of performance rituals through rehearsal and the expected excitement of the musical experience in context with others, for instance, activate dopamine.

Dopamine underlies the feeling of effort (practice, practice, practice, and yet more practice), and the rational prioritizing of our goals. Dopamine is active, we suggest, under both positive and negative conditions. For instance, either when one approaches something wanted or needed or when avoiding something aversive, dopamine is involved. In addition, dopamine is uniquely activated by the musical experience (Salimpoor et al., 2011 ).

Diverse cognitive resources are embedded in musical performance to reach out to the audience: the social milieu. Of course, musicians have to balance a sense of reward with the pain that they might be experiencing. They have to withstand short-term discomfort and set their sights on anticipatory, longer-term satisfaction (Sterling, 2004 ).

Music is action oriented, whether literally in the movement or the virtuosity of a Liszt, or in the controlled building up to a crescendo and release as in “The Lark Ascending” by the 20th century composer Vaughan Williams (Kennedy, 1964 ). Action permeates music and dopamine underlies the action of thought and the diverse cognitive systems that orchestrate the embodied expression of music.

An interesting set of studies on dopamine neurons in the brains of macaques has suggested that one function of this neurotransmitter is the prediction of rewarding events (such as hearing music) (Zatorre, 2001 ); dopamine neurons tend to fire more in anticipation of rewarding events.

Interestingly, using fMRI as a measure of brain activity shows that the activation of the nucleus accumbens is a predictive factor in the ratings of music (Blood et al., 1999 ; Menon and Levitin, 2005 ; Zatorre and Salimpoor, 2013 ). In fact, greater activation has been linked to a higher likelihood of purchasing of popular music in the United States (see Figure ​ Figure8; 8 ; Berns and Moore, 2012 ). Dopamine is not simply a neurotransmitter underlying the brain mechanisms linked to reward. It is much more complex and context-specific, such that even when dopamine is blocked, animals can still “like” things (e.g., sucrose). Indeed, dopamine is more tightly linked to the motivational component of pleasure-related events, and can be separated from the predictive reward components, while some of the endorphins are linked to the ingestion of a reward.

The number of albums sold with the correlating activation of the nucleus accumbens (Berns and Moore, 2012 ) .

Musical experience and changing the brain

Evidence suggests that the brains of musicians and non-musicians are different (Münte et al., 2002 ; Jäncke, 2009 ). Music shapes the cephalic encoding of information processing across different levels of the brain, from brainstem to cortex (Satoh et al., 2001 ; Patel, 2007 ; Wong et al., 2007 ; Cohen et al., 2011 ). Indeed, early musical training affects children's linguistic expression, and perhaps they are more sensitive in neonatal development (Marin, 2009 ) and on multisensory functioning (Stegemoller et al., 2008 ). Moreover, musical training enhances auditory capability more generally by impacting cortical and subcortical regions (Tramo et al., 2002 ; Kraus and Chandrasekaran, 2010 ).

In one study, for instance, gray matter differed between the two groups in the motor, visual and auditory cortex (Gaser and Schlaug, 2003 ). This may be due to enhanced neural connectivity. One set of studies suggests that in the corpus callosum, the main commissures between the two cortical hemispheres are greater in musicians vs. non-musicians (Schlaug et al., 1995 ).

In addition, intra-temporal lobe connectivity is increased in musicians with absolute pitch (Loui et al., 2010 ; Jäncke et al., 2012 ). This means that hearing tones more acutely is associated with greater inter-temporal neural connectivity. Based on this information, it would appear that several regions of the brain are altered and/or expanded by the hours of musical practice typically exercised by musicians. In fact, the actual extent of regular musical rehearsal practice is positively correlated to the degree of neural connectivity. The auditory cortex and the auditory systems more generally are intimately tied to music and hearing, including speech and song (Zatorre et al., 2002 ).

Music is richly organized into lexical networks of musical meaning (Peretz et al., 2009 ). One suggestion is that the left hemisphere, especially the superior region and surface of the temporal lobe (Heschl's gyrus), is tied to speech, and the right side is tied more to tone (Peretz et al., 2009 ). In two studies, for instance, the gray matter in the right cortical area was significantly greater in musicians (Keenan et al., 2001 ; Schneider et al., 2002 ; Zatorre and Halpern, 2005 ) than in non-musicians in several areas, including the precentral gyrus and the superior parietal cortex (See Figure ​ Figure9 9 ).

Variations in Heschl's gyrus in the left and right hemispheres across three different groups (Schneider et al., 2002 ) .

The premotor regions and the anticipatory cephalic organization of human action are linked throughout to musical expression. Neural action between premotor regions, auditory systems, and motor output are pervasive in musical expression and the organization of action (Zatorre, 2001 ; Patel, 2007 ; Koelsch, 2011 ). The dorsal premotor region in particular is knotted to metrical musical sensibilities (Zatorre, 2001 ). Regions of the premotor cortex may be particularly activated in experienced musicians during the execution of musical actions (See Figure ​ Figure10) 10 ) (Bangert et al., 2006 ; Baumann et al., 2007 ).

(Left) Interaction of the auditory and motor systems during musical performance, and (right) associated premotor region changes in trained vs. non-trained musicians (Zatorre et al., 2007 ) .

The neural correlates of musical exposure and practice indicate that music affects a broad array of human functioning, and that our cortex is built to receive music, process it, and change based on this exposure. These changes occur across neurological domains such that music affects pathways of audition, speech, language, memory, motor expression, and more. These neuronal changes demonstrate the importance of music to human functioning and how broadly it impacts our structural anatomy, as well as our behavior and social functioning in the world.

Conclusions

Music makes clear that there is no mind-body separation. The rhythmicity of the brain, along with the development of cognitive capabilities, illustrates clear how inherent music is to our evolutionary and social success. This social link demonstrates that biological and cultural evolution are intertwined in music.

Based on this, we can predict that imagining music and listening to music would activate many of the same brain regions, which indeed it does. Additionally, music facilitates social contact and would therefore be linked to an expanding cortex, which indeed, cortical expansion it. We could further predict that music would contribute to social cooperative behaviors, and that genetic syndromes like Williams syndrome, with exaggerated social approach behaviors, would also reveal a greater propensity for music, a fundamental prosocial feature. Biologically, oxytocin, a prosocial facilitating peptide, may be elevated in Williams syndrome. Like dopamine, oxytocin may be elevated in listening to music.

Music emerged as part of communicative capability, a universal feature long noted and discussed (Juslin and Sloboda, 2001 ; Cross, 2009 ). Indeed Rousseau goes so far as to suggest “that the first language of the human race was song and many good musical people have hence imagined that man may well have learned that song from the birds (Rousseau, 1966 , p.136).”

Like language, the roots of music may be in the inherent shared features of our social brain, allowing us to communicate with others. Since its development, music has filled many other important roles for humans.

Music is a fundamental part of our evolution; we probably sang before we spoke in syntactically guided sentences (Mithen, 1999 , 2009 ; c.f. Pinker, 1994 ). Song is represented across animal worlds; birds and whales produce sounds, though not always melodic to our ears, but still rich in semantically communicative functions. Song is not surprisingly tied to a vast array of semiotics that pervade nature: calling attention to oneself, expanding oneself, selling oneself, deceiving others, reaching out to others, and calling on others. The creative capability so inherent in music is a unique human trait.

Ian Cross, a professor at the faculty of music at Cambridge University, has noted that facilitating the transmission of information across shared social intentional space is the pervasive social milieu; evolutionary factors are critical in understanding musical sensibility (Cross, 2009 ), specifying diverse social contexts in relationships. We use music because it expands our communicative social contact with one another. We also enjoy music even without obvious instrumental features. Music, like other features about us, became a worthy end for its own sake.

Music is about communication; our evolutionary ascent is the scaling of communicative competence, tracing constants of musical sensibilities to common points of origins of humanity and expansion of musical expression from this common source in prehistorical times (Grauer, 2006 ). But musical expression is about much more than that. Musical sensibility pervades our social space and our origins in synchrony with our interactions with others that are built on core biological propensities (Brown et al., 2004 ; Merker, 2005 ).

A series of steps set the condition for this core capability in our species. A change in the vocal apparatus, leading to a larynx of a certain size, shape, and flexibility, is but one example. A vocal capability tied to social awareness along with other cephalic capabilities, converged together in behavioral coherence.

The evolutionary record suggests that musical instruments were perhaps well expressed over 50,000 years ago in simple flutes and pipes (Cross, 1999 ; Morley, 2003 ) and were depicted in our art (e.g., on bison horn). What began as an extension of communication in a social context became something greater, which was enjoyed in itself. Our evolution is tightly bound to music and to the body as an instrument (e.g., clapping). Music, amongst other things, helps to facilitate social cooperative and coordinated behaviors (Brown, 2006 ).

Music permeates the brain as a core feature, from pitch and rhythm to tempo and affect (Patel, 2007 ). The melodies dance across our brain, memory guides them through our lives, and the tension and release, or resolution, form an outstanding aspect of the experience of many forms of music and neural processing of events (Steinbeis and Koelsch, 2007 ).

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

This manuscript is adapted from my recent book: Reflections on the Musical Mind (2013) Princeton University Press.

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Ubc theses and dissertations, music in nature, nature in music : sounding the environment in contemporary composition kinnear, tyler --> -->.

This thesis examines nature as both a concept and source material in contemporary music. Composers reinforce, revise, and challenge existing conceptualizations of nature through their engagement with natural settings, live or recorded environmental sounds, and/or non-sounding environmental information. How composers understand nature informs the ways in which they employ aspects of the physical world in their music. This study explores the interplay between nature-as-concept and nature-as-source-material in art-based walks, outdoor music, electroacoustic composition, and concert-hall pieces. Through analysis of works representative of these wide-ranging genres, this thesis offers a critical assessment of how nature is imagined in a contemporary musical context. The concept of a continuum is used as both a structural and theoretical tool in this study. A gradual transition from real-world encounters with nature to an abstracted experience of it is made over the course of the thesis. The works discussed in Chapter Two exist as lightly edited recordings made by artists during an outdoor walk/improvisation. The outdoor theatre piece considered in Chapter Three takes place at a lake and draws on that environment in several ways during a performance. The two electroacoustic compositions investigated in Chapter Four combine unmodified and modified nature sounds. The natural world is still present in the concert-hall works discussed in Chapter Five, but recorded nature sounds are combined with live instrumental music based on environmental properties and processes. In addition, this thesis traces four themes across works. These are technology, human presence, myth, and the transformation of the environment. The works under consideration demonstrate a range of approaches to composing with and conceptualizing nature. Some of the works comment on environmental issues, such as noise pollution and climate change. Others aim to drive understanding beyond the limits of human perception; that is, to open up new psychological spaces. In different ways, the works under focus illuminate the relationship between humans and the natural world. By stimulating discourse around how we think about nature, these pieces encourage critical thought regarding our place as humans in the physical environment.

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Music By Nature

Rob Young on how music echoes nature in the epoch of the Anthropocene.

Sound Matters: Essay

From whale song and birdsong to the rhythms we observe throughout our cosmos, musicians have long tried to render the natural world into a musical form. rob young listens in on this history, and wonders how it resonates with our current anthropocenic epoch – a time when the world is changing profoundly from humankind's noisy activities..

Illustrations by Louisa Gagliardi

Our tenure on this planet is a historical blip. Before the current Anthropocene, there have been many ages of Earth, each lasting millions of years, and there will be human-free eras in the future. In the light of this knowledge, how can art represent concepts that hold true for all the geological ages of Earth, not just our own? The idea of an art form governed by natural laws, not only human emotions, begins to make sense.

Music is precisely such an art form. Strip it back to its elements, beyond the popular tune, the great symphonic development, the tribal beat hammered on a log, and it’s an acoustical system with properties governed by the physics of the universe. When any music – from Bach to Stockhausen – aspires to the ‘cosmic’, it takes its structure and organising principles from nature’s arithmetic. It can move or even awe us in profound ways, but it is not the same type of experience as a work of romantic self-expression.

Any consideration of the relationship between musical process and nature must include the idea of cyclical rhythm. After all, the Earth itself was the first clock. As soon as civilisation’s most ancient astronomers – or stargazers – realised that the heavens moved in regular patterns, and connected the movements of the sun and moon with the regulated shift of years, seasons, months, days, hours, minutes, the human calendar was locked in to the gigantic mechanism of the universe. ‘Circadian rhythm’ is the name for measures based on the cycles of planetary motions, the rhythmic patterns soundtracking nature’s inescapable beat. The harmonic theory that emerged from that ancient world spoke of the music of the spheres, but later Western music of the classical and romantic period downplayed the other important aspect: the rhythms of the cosmos. Flow, development, structure dictated by feeling, intuition or programmatic portrait took precedence over non-human dynamics. In the classical orchestra, percussion is either non-existent, or used as accent, texture or intensification, it’s rarely an end in itself and even less often occurs in the foreground of the sound field. (How many concertos for percussion exist?) It took jazz, rock, funk and all the variants of electronic music – as well as the phonographic rediscovery of many forms of global and traditional musics, from African drumming to Balinese gamelan – to reinstate the idea of music whose driving force was rhythm, repetition and the sensation of space that falls between beats.

In the hands of different composers, percussive noises are by definition isolated sounds, which are appropriate for evoking the stars, points of light and galactic clouds visible in the night sky. A key work here is Iannis Xenakis’s Pléïades (1979), in which the composer discovered the concept of repeated beats as rhythmic atoms, and subjected them to increasing degrees of variation. “Still greater variations of an even greater complexity”, wrote Xenakis, “lead to total arhythm, to a massy awareness of the event, to notions of clouds, nebulas, galaxies of the fragmented dust of beats organised by the rhythm.” In the comet-tail of this work comes French composer Gerard Grisey’s Le Noir de L’Etoile (1989–90). Enormous in scope, and composed using radio signals from rotating pulsars, it attempts to evoke the unimaginable distances of space and the gravitational suction of black holes using nothing but beaten objects. Its method is to make the concert space a kind of universe, or galaxy in itself, placing the players in orbit around the audience. Drums ring out and solid bodies scrape against the blackness of silence, and we are forced to contemplate the existence of infinite rhythmic time cycles too large or complex for human perception to apprehend.

“ “Birdsong was an eternal music handed down from unimaginable antiquity, a manifestation of the original divine creation...” ”

Musicians have for centuries tried to render the natural world, or the natural sciences, into a musical form. Vivaldi wrote a Goldfinch Concerto, Beethoven had a Pastoral Symphony, and the cuckoo, lark and nightingale are never far away from the classical canon. Olivier Messiaen, one of modernism’s most individual voices and towering presences, worked with traditional notational means yet connected earth’s deepest canyons with the most distant stars, the earthbound and the divine. Birdsong was an eternal music handed down from unimaginable antiquity, a manifestation of the original divine creation. The intensely Catholic Messiaen believed the marvels of nature to be his creator’s gifts to humanity – audible and visible proofs of a higher power – and celebrated them in a musical language that remains unmatched. His birdsong-inspired passages – which appear in his orchestral pieces as well as the extraordinary piano opus, Catalogue d’Oiseaux (1958), does not sound precisely like a bird, as it is filtered through the familiar timbres of western musical instruments and also aims to convey the entire location and habitat.

“Although I think constantly about the relationship of music to nature, for me music does not exist to describe natural scenery,” wrote Toru Takemitsu, the Japanese modern composer whose delicate music frequently references natural surroundings, gardens and seasons. As well as Takemitsu, contemporaries such as David Dunn, Douglas Quin, John Luther Adams and Einojuhani Rautavaara have all applied different strategies to translating natural landscapes or the patterns of the animal and plant kingdoms into a music language.

The twentieth century with its pioneering recording technologies have made that project much more immediate. The microphone and the recorder extended the human ear into the domain of nature as never before. In 1970, one of the surprise best selling LPs was an underwater recording, Songs of the Humpback Whale, a subaquatic recording made by the American biologist Roger Payne. He believed whales had evolved a musical syntax as intricate as the most advanced human music. This album, which went on to sell more than 100,000 copies, was a surprise hit and although none of these majestic mammals scooped any Grammy best vocalist awards, it heralded the dawn of a new age in listening habits. In the same year appeared another album featuring natural soundscape, In A Wild Sanctuary by ecologist and composer Bernie Krause with Paul Beaver, a specialist on the Moog synthesizer. This featured field recordings made by Krause in a Redwood forest north of San Francisco, a burbling stream, ravens’ wing-beats, and the ocean breeze wafting through treetops, subsequently incorporated into a heady mix of jazz, synthesized rock and orchestral texture. Both of these records, though sounding very different, conveyed the sense of natural beauty surviving in spite of tumultuous changes wrought on the planet by humanity.

The idea of hearing the sounds of nature as a form of music is very much alive nearly fifty years later. Chris Watson, a former founder of Sheffield industrial group Cabaret Voltaire, is now best known as the regular sound recordist for David Attenborough’s award winning nature documentaries for the BBC. Yet the stunningly engineered and richly immersive soundscapes he captures with his binaural microphones are also available as separate entities, often on CD or in the context of art installations. His expertise in remote mic placement now means that certain animals or birds – which usually flee at the slightest human approach – can be heard up close for the first time. The Norwegian artist Jana Winderen – who trained in marine biology – also exhibits her work as art. She specialises in sucking up underwater sounds, of fish, shrimps and melting polar ice caps, all of which both reveal the hitherto unheard ‘songs’ of strange creatures, but also the destruction of the planet’s ecosystems, and therefore carries a strong environmental message with more urgency than Roger Payne’s crooning whales.

The Canadian sound environmentalist R. Murray Schafer has classified natural sound in three categories: geophony, biophony and anthropophony. Geophony is non-biological signals that occur naturally, like wind, water or earth movements. Biophony is the collective signature produced by all organisms in a given habitat. Anthropophony consists of human-made sounds, either willed or as an accidental by-product of our presence here. As Bernie Krause explains in his study of biophonies, The Great Animal Orchestra: Finding the Origins of Music in the World’s Wild Places (Little Brown/Hachette, 2012), biophony contains clear echoes of harmony, rhythm and timbre. Listening to the collective noise emitted by a rainforest or coral reef can exhibit similarly precise ‘arrangements’ and structures of a kind that a musicologist might detect in a composition. In a sense, all music aspiring to the condition of nature needs to take this into account in future. Instead of imitating nature, it has to evolve and behave according to natural processes, and at the same time it carries a responsibility with it, to preserve and nurture Earth’s natural music to help it survive the Anthropocene.

Rob Young is a writer and editor. His newest book, a biography of German band Can titled All Gates Open , is published 5 May 2018 by Faber & Faber .

Sound matters podcast, design matters: jacob jensen.

Make Beautiful Music

Natural Musicians

Find harmony and connection making music in nature

Benefits of music & nature connection

“if you look deep enough you will see music; the heart of nature being everywhere music” – thomas carlyle, how is making music be good for me.

• Studying and playing music helps people to listen and to develop their personal and social skills
• Music is a direct expression from soul to soul
• You can learn new facilitation, leadership and performance skills
• Music and laughter brings people’s minds and hearts together
• Increases coordination, planning, teamwork.
• Music/outdoors as a springboard to enquiry into other subjects, creative learning, pupil-centred aspects.
• People learning about themselves, each other and the environment they are in
• Playing music helps us to be present, in the moment
• Connecting with nature improve memory performance and attention span by 20%
• NO rules creative licence means unlimited potential
• Develops a sense of harmony and rhythm with nature, and thus a caring attitude….
• Learning music together creates mirror neurones and helps us to learn faster
• Learning music fosters creativity
• Studying music sharpens concentration and teaches perseverance
• Playing music with others can make you an expert in reading non-verbal communication
• Learning music and performing help to develop composure in front of people and confidence in speaking
• In over ten years of working as a creative outdoor learning provider I have found that people feel more moved to be adventurous, express themselves and be playful outside.

Why spend time outdoors, consciously interacting with Nature? (again, a non exhaustive list!)

• Time in nature can help us to be smarter, heather and to care for the world that we live in… read on!
• Time in Nature develops empathy for the plants, animals, fungi, soil, water, sun (etc!) we rely on, either directly or indirectly, to be alive
• Our senses and perceptions wake up and expand
• It increases our memory performance and attention spans by 20% (more info here )
• I have noticed people are more expressive outdoors and people are more likely to take exercise
• Nature helps us to get well – hospital patients with a view of nature from their rooms get well quicker and take less drugs ( more info )
• It reduces stress, anger, aggression anxiety and depression
• It’s usually free!

 Scientifically the whole universe is vibration. Making spontaneous music that is inspired by the place is very connecting. It helps us become present. And that is a gift!

“after silence, that which comes nearest to expressing the inexpressible is music” aldous huxley, what is music.

“Music is a unique form of communication that can change the way pupils feel, think and act. Music forms part of an individual’s identity and positive interaction with music can develop pupils’ competence as learners and increase their self-esteem. Music brings together intellect and feeling and enables personal expression, reflection and emotional development. As an integral part of culture, past and present, music helps pupils understand themselves, relate to others and develop their cultural understanding, forging important links between home, school and the wider world.”  Department of Education website

http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/topics/topic_music.html

Why connect with Nature through music?

All the world is sound, or vibration. From the smallest particle to the largest galaxy the interaction of the universe is sound, vibration. Rocks can rumble down a hill. A sea vent hiss. The crows have many voices and a bee more than one hum.

Humans have probably seen themselves as part of the harmony of the natural world for 100,000’s of years if any of the survival tribal wisdom is anything to go by. Aboriginal australian tribes will go as far as to say that humans sing the world into existence as they walk along the ancient song lines that criss cross the land connecting places and spaces.

Making music in nature helps us be in harmony with ourselves, each other and the natural world.

Music and Its Impact on Our Lives Essay (Critical Writing)

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

No one can even imagine our life without music. For centuries it was an integral part of our everyday life, our traditions and culture. Listening to the charming sounds of nature, man could not help trying to reproduce it in order to enjoy music at any time. That was the reason for the first primitive musical instruments to appear. Since that time music and mankind were never torn apart. With the development of the society the instruments and the whole music changed. The mankind and music were always at the same stage of development. Starting with the mysterious melodies of the ancient cults and ending with the energetic military marches. Music follows humanity step by step, working its magic on it, showing its power. The ability of music to influence human consciousness was known from the earliest stages of development of the society.

Relaxing and calming at the beginning, it can become energetic and aggressive just in a moment, causing great changes in your mood. “Without even thinking about it, we use music to create desired moods- to make us happy, to enjoy movement and dance, to energize, to bring back powerful memories, to help us relax and focus. Music is a powerful tool for our personal expression within our daily lives– it helps “set the scene” for many important experiences” (Brewer, n.d., para. 2). Music can even serve as a basis for peoples segregation, dividing them into the different social groups according to their preferences or abilities to understand a certain type of music. Nothing could create the appropriate atmosphere better than music. The church music can serve as an ideal example of it. Religions all over the world use the music in the rituals in order to maximize the influence on people and help them to achieve eupathy and humility. Nowadays, with an unrestricted access to the sources, music has conquered the world, sounding from everywhere, suggesting the great variety of genres for any demands. Everyone could find something up to his or her taste.

Talking about my life it is impossible not to mention music. It is a huge part of my everyday routine. My day starts and ends with it. Early in the morning it is quite vital for me to listen to a portion of a good energetic music in order to get up and have a charge for a long day. But it is not enough of course. Like a real melomaniac, I always take my player with me. I have noticed the great growth of my productivity if I do something with music in background. The type of chosen music depends on the type of the job I have to do. If there is some kind of a physical activity I need some fast and energetic music. However, when some sort of mental activity is demanded, I need some calm, not very loud music playing somewhere in the background. This is by no means a panacea for everyone who wants to raise their productivity , but I cannot imagine me working without music

Having come home late at evening, it is just necessary for me to listen to another portion of music in order to relax and forget about all the stresses of the outside world. I even go to bed with the headphones in my ears, listening to my special “good night” song.

Taking into account the fact that I am a great admirer of rock music, it is not difficult to guess that all my friends are great admirers of it to. I am more than sure that common tastes in music are the good basis for friendly relations. This is not only the question of having something to discuss or to listen to together. If a person has the same preferences in music that means that he has something in common with your inner world and with your soul. Of course, there is that type of music that you will never listen with your friends. It is that kind of music which affects the deepest parts of your soul and you can only listen to it while keeping to yourself. At that moments no one is allowed to trouble you.

Music also has a great impact on the way we communicate within our company. The excessive tension or some miscommunication in relations can be easily dispersed by means of music. The sounds of the familiar song cool heads and return friendly atmosphere.

There is one more aspect of music which is worth mentioning. It is its lyrics. Being not less ancient part of our culture than music, the word has even more influence on peoples hearts and minds. The combination of such powerful remedies gives a marvelous results. This combination of sounds and words affects all your senses, penetrating deep inside your soul. Looking through the lyrics of my favorite songs, I can say that the text is of the same importance as music in the song. While listening to it for the first time you pay special attention to lyrics, especially if it resonates with your mood. The song runs in your head and you repeat it over and over, enjoining the harmony of the words and your soul.

The most common topic for all songs is, of course, relations of any kind. It is the basis of human life and music, as an integral part of it, cannot stand off. Love and hatred, faith and betrayal, and all others shades of human feelings are praised in thousands of songs. The mans attempts to find his reason to live should also be mentioned. The great number of songs is devoted to that problem, making people think or helping them to find an answer. One of my favorite songs “ The Show Must Go On ” by Queen (Queen 1990) is also one of the best compositions touching the problem of self-determination. While listening to it you cannot but feel the great suffering of a man who realizes the duality of his inner world and necessity of playing the annoying part. The Freddie Mercurys heart cry makes the great effect on the listener, making you think about your own place in the world, the way you live and spend your lifetime and reconsider your values and priorities.

The love theme is also one of the especially beloved by lyrics authors. Everyone on this planet has its own favorite love song and I am not an exception. The great song “ Not Strong Enough ” by Apocalyptica (Warren 2010) tells us about the pangs of the love-crossed man who cannot be with his darling. The most dramatic moments of the lyrics are wonderfully emphasized by music, the most powerful beats comes with the most bitter worlds, projecting the singers and the authors mood on you, making you feel the same. That great interplay of words and music makes you shiver. Especially strong effect is achieved if the song correlates with your mood or life experience. In that case the song becomes a some kind of an anchor, which evokes certain memories and feelings connected with a certain life period. No matter where you are and what your feel, from the first beats of the song you will remember the first time you have listened to it and your emotions at that moment.

The love theme is a part of a bigger theme of gender relations, which is also quite popular in music. According to the generally accepted tradition there is some stereotypical pattern of behavior for both genders which is praised in the songs. Historically, man always strives for womens love, trying to overcome all the obstacles on his way. He fights the injustice, erases the boundaries of social or race segregation just to reunite with his beloved one. Music is a reflection of the mans thoughts that is why all this issues are blended in it, The artists want to share their feelings and experience with us, to warn and protect from the mistakes they made, to show that all the prejudices are only in our heads and we have to overcome it.

Summing it up, we should say that music is not just part of our lives, it is something bigger, and that determines our mood and emotions. It helps us to forget everything and enjoy one of the greatest gifts of nature – the sound.

Reference List

Brewer, B. (n.d.). Music and Learning: Integrating Music in the Classroom . Web.

Queen, (1990). The show must go on [Reordered by Queen]. Innuendo [7″, 12″, CD]. London, England: Metropolis Studios.

Warren, D. (2010). Not strong enough [Reordered by Apocalyptica]. 7th Symphony [CD]. Germany: Sony Music.

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The web log of Ontario Parks

Listening to nature’s music

Today’s post comes from Kyra Santin, a Natural Heritage Education and Marketing Student from our Northwest Zone. 

George Santayana — poet, philosopher and naturalist — said, “The Earth has music for those who listen.”

The earth holds a lot of beauty within it. If we open our eyes and ears, and listen to the world that surrounds us, we can truly appreciate the music the earth is making.

Nature has something to tell you

Whether it is the calming sound of waves along the shoreline, the forest leaves rustling in the wind or perhaps rain dripping down on a roof, the sounds of nature can help relax your mind, body and soul.

In surrounding yourself with the natural environment — by going for walk in the forest, paddle-boarding on a lake, or sitting and reading a book in the heart of the woods — you are allowing your body to breathe and slow down. You’re letting your mind relax, while your ears focus on the sounds around you.

“Just feel the magic in the air and the power in the breeze, feel the energy of the plants, the bushes and trees, let yourself be surrounded by nature at its best, calm yourself, focus and let magic do the rest.”

– Sally Walker

Try it sometime, take a break outside and listen to nature – trust me; it has a lot to say.

We need the sounds of nature

Regardless of your age, the sounds of nature are for everyone.

In our lifestyles today, we are constantly surrounded by noise made from construction, traffic, or even our very own mobile devices. A lot of our time is spent trying to drown out loud noises and sounds, whether we are at home, work, or school.

Listening to nature has a way of transporting us from these noisy places to a place that feels more nourishing and calm.

In these forest sounds from Lake Superior Provincial Park , you can hear the sweet calls of the Winter Wren, the Blackburnian Warbler or the Swainson Thrush. Try to notice the effect these forest sounds have on you as you’re listening.

Healthier in mind and body

For many years, researchers have been studying why nature has such a calming effect on people. There are many ways that listening to nature benefits us, but the most common are:

• improved relaxation and attention
• better sleep
• increased feelings of positivity

Our time in nature can help us to be healthier in both our mind and body.

Calm your mind and feel less stressed

Although we might not always have the chance to spend a lot of time outdoors, listening to a few minutes of a calming rain melody can reduce stress levels and help us improve our memory and attention level.

“I go to nature to be soothed and healed, and to have my senses put in order.”

– John Burroughs

Listening to nature sounds at the end of the day can help give our brains a break and make us feel more content and refreshed, and less stressed.

Putting it to the test

This past year, I was in the Bachelor of Education Program at Lakehead University, where I was able to complete a placement within a school setting. During my placement, I had the opportunity to play nature sounds for the kids while they worked on independent projects.

What I noticed was that the students responded really well to nature sounds and were able to work quietly on their tasks, while absorbing the music around them. They loved the quiet call of the birds, and the gentle flow of waterfalls.

“Study nature, love nature, stay close to nature. It will never fail you.”

– Frank Lloyd Wright

When we are not able to get outside, why not bring some of the sounds of nature inside the classroom or workplace?

Resting easy

Research has shown that nature sounds can actually help us sleep better by reducing stress.

During most of our lives, we are regularly on the move. With everyday life, we may be constantly worrying and stressing about work, family and friends, or even what the next day might hold. This in turn can affect how we sleep at night.

The sounds of nature can help create a calming environment and lower stress levels.

Listen to these  sounds from Sleeping Giant Provincial Park . Can you feel your stress levels going down with the call of the Swamp Sparrow or Spring Peeper?

Nature can help regenerate and heal our souls in the best way possible, so why not listen to the music of nature while you are trying to sleep. Soothing sounds at night, like forest sounds, the gentle flow of water or light raindrops on a tent, can help us detach from our everyday stress and rest easy.

From ocean waves, to thunderstorms, to crackling fires and forest rain

What I find helps me sleep at night is listening to an app I have on my phone that plays soft and calming nature sounds. Listening to these musical compositions for a few minutes before bed can help you drift into a gentle sleep.

Sometimes, these recordings include an instructor’s voice, describing a setting for you such as, “you are walking on a beach, feeling the sand beneath your toes, as the wind blows through your hair.”

These apps can range from 10-30 minutes of music and have a wide variety of melodies from ocean waves to thunderstorms to crackling fires to forest rain.

In order to improve our how we relax and maintain our attention span, we must take care of our bodies and get a good night’s sleep.

Being (and staying) positive!

The third benefit that listening to nature provides is an enhanced ability to be positive.

Whether you are feeling upset, angry, or stressed, listening to calming music that has bird calls or the rushing flow of a stream can help you boost your mood and lose any negativity you may be holding on to.

Need a positivity boost right now? Try this clip from Kakabeka Falls Provincial Park  (including bird calls from the Red-eyed Vireo and White-throated Sparrow).

When we listen these melodies, our brain responds in a way that releases dopamine, which is a chemical (neurotransmitter) released by neurons, which improves our mood.

I find that when I am feeling stressed or upset, I will look for a comfortable place to sit, relax my mind and listen to the natural harmony of the earth.

“Nature’s peace will flow into you as sunshine flows into trees. The winds will blow their own freshness into you, and the storms their energy, while cares will drop off like autumn leaves.”

– John Muir

For me, it only takes a few minutes of listening to the sound of calming waves lapping on the beach before I’m thinking about how I can improve my mood and increase my positivity.

Make nature a habit

With Ontario Parks’ 30×30 Challenge already in motion for August, take some time to go outside and listen to the melodies nature is playing for you.

Immerse your senses in the great outdoors and watch as your stress levels reduce. Let the fresh air help you release your anxiety.

Whether you decide to take a hike, bike to work, or kayak along the shoreline of a lake, Ontario Parks challenges you to spend 30 minutes in nature every day for 30 days.

Nature sounds resources

Interested in listening to nature at home and not sure where to start? Try these websites for nature sounds you can stream:

Or here are some nature music apps you can download to your phone:

• Relax Melodies: Sleep Sounds
• Rain Rain Sleep Sounds

Reconnect with the great outdoors and help improve your overall well-being with what nature has to offer.

Thank you to Northwest Ecologist Evan McCaul for providing the sound clips from our parks featured in this post.

• Essay On Music

Music Essay

500+ words music essay.

Music plays a crucial role in everyone’s lives. Music is present in nature in different forms. The songs of nature can be found in the sound of air, the gurgling sound of rivers, the thundering sound of sea waves, and the lighting sound of clouds. The sweet tones of nightingale, skylark & cuckoo are similar songs of nature. Music is in everything around us and can be found everywhere in the world. Music is the universal language of humanity and is used as a source of entertainment. It transforms our moods and rejuvenates us with good feelings. This “Music Essay” will improve students’ writing skills and help them score high marks on the exam.

Students should practise essays on other topics similar to Music Essays by going through the CBSE Essay page. It will help them in improving their essay-writing skills. In starting, students can choose the easy topic initially, then slowly move to the topics which they find difficult.

Music is the art of combining tones. The rhythmic sequence of pleasing sounds forms expressive compositions. People like different kinds of music for many reasons, even depending on their mood. But it brings people together, whether through the same taste in music or the willingness to try something new or even perform music with others. Being a part of concerts, orchestra bands, or any kind of group, brings people closer to one another. Music is the fountain of sentiments, energy & love. The philosophy of human life, the eternal prayers of the soul, and the singing in praise of the human spirit are merged in music. From saints down to people of the modern age, all great sages took the help of music to captivate the general public or to release the pent-up feeling in their own minds.

Benefits of Music

We all love music without any resistance. It is the answer to every question & solution to every problem. If we have a bad day, then we listen to music to make us feel better. At the end of the day, music makes everything better, and no day is complete without it. It helps people through hard times in their lives. Music helps us to express ourselves and inside feelings that we don’t usually let people know. Music affects our emotions. When we listen to happy songs, we feel happier. The upbeat songs and fast-paced rhythms fill us with energy, and we become active.

In all human beings, there is an artist’s mind & natural attraction for art. Music lends sound to the string of life and generates sentiment dormant in the mind of the listener. That’s why music has been regarded as the best carrier medium of emotion or sentiment. It is impossible for anyone to keep themselves away from this overwhelming power of music. Rabindranath once said that music is life; there is the manifestation of life in it. Music is a way to escape the boredom of the busy schedules of life. It gives relief from pain and reduces stress levels. It helps us to calm down so we can enjoy the small moments of life. Moreover, it enriches the mind and gives us self-confidence.

Music as a Powerful Medicine

Music has a powerful therapeutic effect on the human psyche. In the modern world, music is used as a therapy for the treatment of various diseases. Because of this power, music is said to have a healing capacity without the intake of any medicines. Doctors have also confirmed that music therapy is helpful in treating people with diseases like dementia, depression, dyslexia and trauma. Many children with learning disabilities and poor coordination have been able to learn and respond to set pieces of music. Many people who have a genetic disability have found a new light in the form of music. Music is a powerful aid to meditation and creating positive energies and vibrations around us. In many meditation workshops, music is used to make people more aware of their moods & feelings. People are made to lie down and empty their minds & then listen to music. In this way, they experience different emotions and states of consciousness. Thus, music works as a powerful medicine to heal our pain.

Music inhales our minds and soul. Pain, tension, stress and worries everything is washed away with the gentle stream of music. Music is a global language, and it has no barriers. Music teaches us peace and harmony.

Students must have found this “Music Essay” helpful for improving their writing skills. They can get more study material on different subjects related to CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive exams at BYJU’S.

Frequently Asked Questions on Music Essay

How was music born.

Earlier, music was first created by clapping hands or by making foot-tapping noises.

What is sound healing?

It is a practice which uses vocal or instrumental vibrations to relax our stressed mind/body.

Which is the top music genre in the world?

Pop music is known to be the most popular music genre, with the maximum number of consumers around the world.

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Essay on Music | Music Essay for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Essay on Music: Music is a part of all of our lives, from when we’re growing up to when we’re old. We grow up to the sound of our mothers singing us lullabies so that we’d go to sleep. Music is one of the most calming and soothing things if you let it be. It comes from melodies and tunes strung together by people who sing and play musical instruments. The power of music shows in the simplest of things, such as when you absentmindedly tap your foot to a beat or hum a tune unknowingly.

Music is not only created by people, but it is also all around us in nature. In the mornings, when the crickets and the birds chirp, it is music. The loud sound of the waves in the ocean swishing, the whistle in the wind, and the sound of trees and leaves rustling are all their own forms of music.

You can read more  Essay Writing  about articles, events, people, sports, technology many more.

Long and Short Essay on Music in English for Students and Kids

For different age groups, there are different types of essay on music. There is a long essay on music which consists of 400-500 words, and a short essay on music of 150-200 words.

Long Essay on Music in English for 500 Words

Given below is a long essay on music consisting of about 500 words. This essay is suitable for students of classes 7, 8, 9 and 10, and also for those who are writing competitive exams.

Music is something that we all enjoy in the course of our lives. It is the sound that is brought together through a harmony of instruments and singing voices. It is something that is part of us ever since we enter this world. Our mothers, fathers and grandparents sing us lullabies so that we can sleep peacefully. In the mornings, we listen to the birds chirping and the leaves of plants and trees rustling, and even this is like music to our ears. Music is everywhere, and all you have to do is open up your ears to hear it.

Those who know how to create music using instruments and their own bodies are called musicians. There are different kinds of instruments – percussion, string, brass, woodwind and piano/keyboard. Percussion instruments include drums, bongos, the triangle, tambourine, tabla, dholak, etc. and they are the ones responsible for giving the main beat to a song. String instruments include the harp, guitar, cello, violin, etc. and they give rhythm to the music.

Brass instruments refer to those that you have to play with your mouth, such as the trombone, trumpet, the French horn, etc. In these instruments, you blow air into the instruments to create vibrations. Woodwind instruments follow a similar concept using air/wind, except that these instruments are made of wood and the sound profile is higher pitched than brass, for example, the flute. The piano/keyboard consists of a set of keys that have a range of pitches.

When musicians put one or more of these sounds together in harmony, it creates what we know as music. However, that’s not all to it; music can be even one of those instruments, such as the strumming of a guitar, a melodious tune on the piano, a catchy beat on the bongos, etc. When you add another voice to an instrument, it is called singing and is a vital part of the music. When people who play different instruments come together to play them together, it is called a band.

There are many different genres of music, too, such as rock, pop, classical, blues, jazz, R&B, hip-hop, etc. All of these genres of music are characterized by how the instruments work together. For example, rock music is often louder and has more pronounced percussion and string instruments, while jazz is a genre where the saxophone is very prevalent. In today’s world, we see a lot of combinations of genres such as pop-rock, classical rock, etc. One of the newest genres of music is electronic dance music (EDM) which consists of loud percussive beats and is very popular to young people.

They say that music is a universal language, meaning that you don’t necessarily need to understand the words in a song to enjoy the music. In this way, music connects people all over the world with its universal language. I love listening to music especially because of this reason. Music has the power to unite people, make us feel at peace, make us feel understood; it is something to dance to, bond over, and even listen to when alone. Music is not just sound, it is its own language and it communicates so much; it is a beautiful thing.

Short Essay on Music in English 200 Words

Given below is a short essay on music consisting of about 200 words. This essay is suitable for students of class 6 and below.

When we talk about music, we are talking about all the instruments like drums, piano, guitar, etc. and how they get together to make a sound that is pleasing to our ears. We all have some songs we love to sing and dance to, right? Wouldn’t life be a little boring without music? It is something we all need to enjoy our days slightly more than we already do because music adds more colour to our lives.

When you hear the sound of nature – the pitter-patter of raindrops, the whistle of the wind, don’t you feel calm? And don’t you feel like dancing or shaking your head when someone puts on your favourite song? Well, this is the effect that music has on all of us. Listening to our favourite songs can automatically put us all in a good mood. Our moms singing us a song before we go to sleep is a peaceful memory, and that is music, too.

Music Essay Conclusion

Music is a universal language and it is one of the best things that bring all of us humans together. It has the power to make us all feel happy and this is why people all around the world love to listen to and even play music.

10 Lines on Music Essay in English

• Music is a universal language and is understandable by everyone.
• Music is all around us in nature, such as in the wind and the rain, and not only in instruments.
• Music has the power to make us feel happy and at peace.
• There are different kinds of instruments, which are string, percussion, brass, woodwind, and piano and when one or more of these instruments come together, it creates what we call music.
• A single instrument by itself, including singing and .beatboxing, are music on their own as well.
• There are many genres of music, such as pop, rock, metal, hip-hop, jazz, blues, R&B, etc.
• Many a time, some bands may mix two genres of music to make a mixed genre such as pop rock, punk rock, classical rock, etc.
• When different people playing different instruments come together to play them together, it is called a band.
• Listening to your favourite song can completely uplift your mood if you are feeling down.
• Everybody has their own kind of music that they love, which is why it is special to us all in our own unique ways.

FAQ’s on Essay on Music

Question 1. Why do we call music a universal language?

Answer: Music is called a universal language because it doesn’t matter where in the world you are or what language you speak, you will understand the music because it’s the sound and not the words that matter.

Question 2. What is a genre?

Answer: Genre in music refers to the categories into which we classify the music of different kinds. There are tonnes of genres in music such as jazz, blues, rock, classical, etc.

Question 3. What are the kind of musical instruments?

Answer: The five kinds of musical instruments are percussion, brass, string, woodwind and piano. They all have their own important purposes in music and add distinctive sounds to songs.

Question 4. What are the effects of music?

Answer: Music can have some really powerful effects on a person, where someone feeling down may feel a lot better after listening to heir favourite songs. It has a calming and peaceful effect on people.

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Essay Papers Writing Online

The power of melodic tunes to enhance focus and creativity during the essay writing process.

When it comes to the realm of crafty penmanship, the significance of tune harmonizing with writing is often underestimated. However, by unlocking the potential of a melodious backdrop, authors can tap into a wholly different level of creativity. The amalgamation of mind-wandering melodies and thought-provoking words provides an unparalleled medium for unleashing one’s inner writer.

By marrying the artistry of music with the finesse of essay composition, a symphony of inspiration is born. As the rhythm flows from ear to mind, it ignites a fire within, setting ablaze the dormant embers of imagination. The harmonious duet of music and writing has the uncanny ability to transport us to seemingly distant realms, where ideas unfurl like unfathomable constellations, waiting to be explored.

Music has the incredible capability to influence our mood, thoughts, and emotions. With every beat, a gateway to new possibilities is unveiled. A propelling anthem can uplift the spirits and propel the writer forward on a wave of determination. Conversely, a gentle melody can provide solace and serenity, setting the stage for introspection and bringing forth the depths of one’s introspective musings.

The Science Behind the Connection: How Music Affects the Brain

Understanding how music affects the brain is a fascinating area of study that delves into the intricate workings of our minds. The connection between music and the brain has been explored by scientists for decades, revealing the profound impact that music can have on our emotions, cognitive abilities, and overall well-being.

When we listen to music, our brains are activated in various ways. Neurologists have discovered that different regions of the brain are engaged, depending on the type of music being listened to. For instance, upbeat and fast-paced music stimulates the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and motivation. This explains why listening to energetic music can make us feel more invigorated and motivated to take action.

Moreover, studies have shown that music has the power to evoke strong emotions and memories. Certain melodies or lyrics can trigger a flood of emotions, reminding us of past experiences or even transporting us to a different time and place. This emotional connection to music is facilitated by the limbic system, a part of the brain that controls emotions and memory. By activating this system, music has the ability to evoke powerful feelings and create lasting memories.

Additionally, music has a profound impact on our cognitive abilities. Research has demonstrated that listening to certain types of music can enhance our focus, concentration, and creativity. Classical music, in particular, has been found to stimulate brain activity and improve cognitive performance. This phenomenon, known as the “Mozart effect,” suggests that music can enhance our cognitive abilities, making us more alert and receptive to information.

Furthermore, the therapeutic benefits of music cannot be overlooked. Studies have shown that music therapy can be beneficial for individuals suffering from various mental health conditions, such as anxiety, depression, and stress. Listening to calming and soothing music has been found to reduce stress hormones, lower blood pressure, and promote relaxation. The rhythmic and melodic elements of music have a profound effect on our physiological state, helping to regulate our emotions and promote overall well-being.

In conclusion, the science behind the connection between music and the brain is a captivating field of research that highlights the profound impact of music on our emotions, cognitive abilities, and overall well-being. By understanding how music affects the brain, we can harness its power to boost productivity and enhance our essay writing experience.

Finding the Right Genre for Focus and Creativity

Exploring different genres of music can be a powerful way to enhance focus and creativity while writing. By selecting the right genre, you can create an atmosphere that nurtures concentration and stimulates your cognitive processes. The right choice of genre can inspire imagination, boost productivity, and help you tap into your creative potential.

Genre for Focus:

When it comes to finding a genre that promotes focus, instrumental music often takes the lead. With its absence of lyrics, instrumental genres such as classical, ambient, or electronic music can provide a background that minimizes distractions. The soothing melodies and repetitive patterns can help you maintain concentration for extended periods, allowing you to immerse yourself in the writing process.

Alternatively, you might find that low-tempo genres, like downtempo or chill-hop, can also facilitate a focus-oriented mindset. The relaxed beats and atmospheric textures often associated with these genres can create a tranquil ambiance, fostering a sense of calmness and enabling you to concentrate on the task at hand.

Genre for Creativity:

If your goal is to enhance your creative thinking and encourage inspiration, exploring diverse genres can be beneficial. Upbeat and energetic music, like pop, rock, or hip-hop, can elicit strong emotions and make you feel more motivated and enthusiastic. This genre choice can help break through writer’s block and generate fresh ideas.

On the other hand, genres that focus on introspection and introspection, like folk, indie, or singer-songwriter, can evoke a sense of introspection and deep thought. The raw emotions and personal narratives found in these genres can lead to a reflective and introspective state of mind, allowing you to explore and express your thoughts and emotions in a more profound and meaningful way.

Experimenting with Different Genres:

Everyone’s preferences and writing processes are unique, so it’s essential to experiment with different genres to find what works best for you. Depending on the task at hand, you may find that a combination of genres or even genre-specific playlists can be more effective in enhancing your focus and creativity.

Remember, the aim is to find the right balance that helps you stay engaged, motivated, and inspired. By exploring a variety of genres, you can create a personalized soundtrack that harnesses the power of music to enhance your essay writing and boost productivity.

Using Music as a Motivational Tool: Creating a Playlist that Energizes

When it comes to finding the perfect playlist to boost motivation and productivity, music can be a powerful tool. The right selection of songs can energize and inspire, helping you to stay focused and motivated while writing your essay. However, creating a playlist that truly energizes and motivates is not as simple as adding a few upbeat tracks. It requires careful consideration of the tempo, lyrics, and overall mood of the music.

To start off, consider the tempo of the songs you choose for your playlist. Upbeat and fast-paced songs with a high tempo can help increase your energy levels and keep you engaged. Look for tracks with a strong rhythm and lively beat that will get your heart rate up and your feet tapping. These types of songs can help you maintain a steady pace while writing, preventing any potential lulls in your productivity.

Lyrics also play an important role in creating a motivational playlist. Look for songs with inspiring and positive lyrics that resonate with you personally. The right lyrics can help instill a sense of confidence and determination as you tackle your essay. Whether it’s motivational anthems or personal empowerment songs, find tracks that make you feel uplifted and ready to conquer any challenges that come your way.

In addition to the tempo and lyrics, consider the overall mood of the music. While fast-paced and upbeat songs can be beneficial for maintaining energy levels, it’s also important to include moments of relaxation and calm. Including a variety of musical genres and styles in your playlist can help create a balanced atmosphere that keeps you engaged without overwhelming your senses. From uplifting pop songs to soothing instrumental tracks, a mix of different moods can help you stay focused and motivated throughout your writing process.

Remember that creating a motivational playlist is a personal endeavor. Experiment with different songs and genres to find what works best for you. Pay attention to how certain songs make you feel and make adjustments as needed. The power of music lies in its ability to evoke emotions and enhance your mood, so choose songs that align with your personal preferences and goals.

In conclusion, music can serve as a powerful motivator when it comes to essay writing. By creating a playlist that energizes and inspires, you can boost your productivity and stay focused throughout the writing process. Consider the tempo, lyrics, and overall mood of the music to create a playlist that resonates with you personally. Harness the power of music and let it fuel your essay writing journey!

The Impact of Lyrics on Writing: Choosing Songs with Inspiring Words

When it comes to the influence of music on our writing, we often think about melodies, rhythms, and harmonies. However, the impact of lyrics should not be underestimated. The words in a song can have a profound effect on our creative output and productivity. By carefully selecting songs with inspiring and meaningful lyrics, we can enhance our writing experience and tap into new ideas and perspectives.

Words have the power to evoke emotions, stimulate our imagination, and convey complex thoughts and ideas. When we listen to songs with lyrics that resonate with us, it can trigger a range of emotions that can fuel our writing process. Whether it’s a heartfelt ballad that touches our soul or an empowering anthem that fills us with motivation, the right lyrics can provide the emotional backdrop we need to dive deep into our writing and express ourselves fully.

In addition to emotional impact, lyrics can also influence the way we think and inspire us to explore different topics and themes in our writing. Songs with thought-provoking lyrics can challenge our perspectives and push us beyond our comfort zones. They can introduce us to new ideas and expand our horizons, allowing us to approach our writing from fresh and unique angles. By actively seeking out songs with inspiring words, we can invite a broader range of thoughts and concepts into our writing and enrich our overall message.

It’s important to note that the impact of lyrics on writing is a highly personal experience. What resonates with one writer may not have the same effect on another. It’s essential to be in tune with our own preferences and emotions when choosing the songs we write to. Some writers may find solace in introspective and introspective lyrics, while others may thrive on uplifting and motivational messages. By curating a personalized playlist of songs with lyrics that align with our writing intentions, we can create an atmosphere of inspiration and creativity that supports our unique style and voice.

In conclusion, lyrics play a significant role in the impact of music on our writing. By selecting songs with inspiring words, we can tap into the emotional, intellectual, and creative aspects of our writing process. The right lyrics have the power to fuel our imagination, challenge our thinking, and elevate our writing to new heights.

Creating a Distraction-Free Environment: Tips for Using Music Effectively

When it comes to essay writing, having a distraction-free environment is essential for focusing and improving productivity. Music can be a powerful tool in creating such an environment, helping to boost concentration and inspire creativity. By carefully selecting the right music and following a few key tips, you can maximize the benefits of using music while minimizing potential distractions.

• Choose instrumental music: Instead of lyrics that may compete for your attention, opt for instrumental music. This type of music provides a soothing ambiance and eliminates the potential distraction of following along with lyrics.
• Experiment with different genres: Various genres of music can evoke different emotions and moods. By exploring different genres, you can find the right music that complements your writing style and helps you get into the flow.
• Create a playlist: Curating a playlist specifically for writing purposes can help set the tone and provide a consistent background noise. Start by selecting a few essential tracks that promote focus, and gradually expand your playlist based on what works best for you.
• Use ambient sounds: In addition to music, ambient sounds can also be effective in creating a distraction-free environment. Rainfall, nature sounds, or white noise can help block out external noises and increase your concentration.
• Adjust the volume: Finding the right volume is crucial for using music effectively. Too loud, and it can become distracting; too low, and it may not be effective in creating a productive environment. Experiment with different volumes to find the perfect balance.
• Minimize interruptions: Ensure that your music setup doesn’t interrupt your writing process. Choose a music streaming platform or app that allows for seamless playback without ads or interruptions. This way, you can maintain focus without being interrupted by unrelated content.
• Match the music to the task: Different writing tasks may require varying levels of focus and energy. Consider selecting music that aligns with the specific task at hand. For brainstorming or creative writing, choose upbeat or uplifting music, while for editing or proofreading, opt for more relaxed and calming tunes.

By following these tips, you can create a distraction-free environment that harnesses the power of music to enhance your essay writing experience. Experiment, adapt, and find the perfect music that helps you stay focused, motivated, and creative throughout the writing process.

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• Published: 22 June 2021

Mental health and music engagement: review, framework, and guidelines for future studies

• Daniel E. Gustavson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1470-4928 1 , 2 ,
• Peyton L. Coleman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5388-6886 3 ,
• John R. Iversen 4 ,
• Hermine H. Maes 5 , 6 , 7 ,
• Reyna L. Gordon 2 , 3 , 8 , 9 &
• Miriam D. Lense 2 , 8 , 9  

Translational Psychiatry volume  11 , Article number:  370 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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• Medical genetics
• Psychiatric disorders

Is engaging with music good for your mental health? This question has long been the topic of empirical clinical and nonclinical investigations, with studies indicating positive associations between music engagement and quality of life, reduced depression or anxiety symptoms, and less frequent substance use. However, many earlier investigations were limited by small populations and methodological limitations, and it has also been suggested that aspects of music engagement may even be associated with worse mental health outcomes. The purpose of this scoping review is first to summarize the existing state of music engagement and mental health studies, identifying their strengths and weaknesses. We focus on broad domains of mental health diagnoses including internalizing psychopathology (e.g., depression and anxiety symptoms and diagnoses), externalizing psychopathology (e.g., substance use), and thought disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). Second, we propose a theoretical model to inform future work that describes the importance of simultaneously considering music-mental health associations at the levels of (1) correlated genetic and/or environmental influences vs. (bi)directional associations, (2) interactions with genetic risk factors, (3) treatment efficacy, and (4) mediation through brain structure and function. Finally, we describe how recent advances in large-scale data collection, including genetic, neuroimaging, and electronic health record studies, allow for a more rigorous examination of these associations that can also elucidate their neurobiological substrates.

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Introduction.

Music engagement, including passive listening and active music-making (singing, instrument playing), impacts socio-emotional development across the lifespan (e.g., socialization, personal/cultural identity, mood regulation, etc.), and is tightly linked with many cognitive and personality traits [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. A growing literature also demonstrates beneficial associations between music engagement and quality of life, well-being, prosocial behavior, social connectedness, and emotional competence [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Despite these advances linking engagement with music to many wellness characteristics, we have a limited understanding of how music engagement directly and indirectly contributes to mental health, including at the trait-level (e.g., depression and anxiety symptoms, substance use behaviors), clinical diagnoses (e.g., associations with major depressive disorder (MDD) or substance use disorder (SUD) diagnoses), or as a treatment. Our goals in this scoping review are to (1) describe the state of music engagement research regarding its associations with mental health outcomes, (2) introduce a theoretical framework for future studies that highlight the contribution of genetic and environmental influences (and their interplay) that may give rise to these associations, and (3) illustrate some approaches that will help us more clearly elucidate the genetic/environmental and neural underpinnings of these associations.

Scope of the article

People interact with music in a wide variety of ways, with the concept of “musicality” broadly including music engagement, music perception and production abilities, and music training [ 9 ]. Table 1 illustrates the breadth of music phenotypes and example assessment measures. Research into music and mental health typically focuses on measures of music engagement, including passive (e.g., listening to music for pleasure or as a part of an intervention) and active music engagement (e.g., playing an instrument or singing; group music-making), both of which can be assessed using a variety of objective and subjective measures. We focus primarily on music engagement in the current paper but acknowledge it will also be important to examine how mental health traits relate to other aspects of musicality as well (e.g., perception and production abilities).

Our scoping review and theoretical framework incorporate existing theoretical and mechanistic explanations for how music engagement relates to mental health. From a psychological perspective, studies have proposed that music engagement can be used as a tool for encouraging self-expression, developing emotion regulation and coping skills, and building community [ 10 , 11 ]. From a physiological perspective, music engagement modulates arousal levels including impacts on heart rate, electrodermal activity, and cortisol [ 12 , 13 ]. These effects may be driven in part by physical aspects of music (e.g., tempo) or rhythmic movements involved in making or listening to music, which impact central nervous system functioning (e.g., leading to changes in autonomic activity) [ 14 ], as well as by personality and contextual factors (e.g., shared social experiences) [ 15 ]. Musical experiences also impact neurochemical processes involved in reward processing [ 10 , 13 , 14 , 16 , 17 , 18 ], which are also implicated in mental health disorders (e.g., substance use; depression). Thus, an overarching framework for studying music-mental health associations should integrate the psychological, physiological, and neurochemical aspects of these potential associations. We propose expanding this scope further through consideration of genetic and environmental risk factors, which may give rise to (and/or interact with) other factors to impact health and well-being.

Regarding mental health, it is important to recognize the hierarchical structure of psychopathology [ 19 , 20 ]. Common psychological disorders share many features and cluster into internalizing (e.g., MDD, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)), externalizing (e.g., SUDs, conduct disorder), and thought disorders (e.g., bipolar disorder, schizophrenia), with common variance shared even across these domains [ 20 ]. These higher-order constructs tend to explain much of the comorbidity among individual disorders, and have helped researchers characterize associations between psychopathology, cognition, and personality [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. We use this hierarchical structure to organize our review. We first summarize the emerging literature on associations between music engagement and generalized well-being that provides promising evidence for associations between music engagement and mental health. Next, we summarize associations between music engagement and internalizing traits, externalizing traits/behaviors, and thought disorders, respectively. Within these sections, we critically consider the strengths and shortcomings of existing studies and how the latter may limit the conclusions drawn from this work.

Our review considers both correlational and experimental studies (typically, intervention studies; see Fig. 1 for examples of study designs). We include not only studies that examine symptoms or diagnoses based on diagnostic interviews, but also those that assess quantitative variation (e.g., trait anxiety) in clinical and nonclinical populations. This is partly because individuals with clinical diagnoses may represent the extreme end of a spectrum of similar, sub-clinical, problems in the population, a view supported by evidence that genetic influences on diagnosed psychiatric disorders or DSM symptom counts are similar to those for trait-level symptoms in the general population [ 24 , 25 ]. Music engagement may be related to this full continuum of mental health, including correlations with trait-level symptoms in nonclinical populations and alleviation of symptoms from clinical disorders. For example, work linking music engagement to subjective well-being speaks to potential avenues for mental health interventions in the population at large.

Within experimental studies, music interventions can include passive musical activities (e.g., song listening, music and meditation, lyric discussion, creating playlists) or active musical activities (e.g., creative methods, such as songwriting or improvisation and/or re-creative methods, such as song parody).

The goal of this scoping review was to integrate across related, but often disconnected, literatures in order to propose a comprehensive theoretical framework for advancing our understanding of music-mental health associations. For this reason, we did not conduct a fully systematic search or quality appraisal of documents. Rather, we first searched PubMed and Google Scholar for review articles and meta-analyses using broad search terms (e.g., “review” and “music” and [“anxiety” or “depression” or “substance use”]). Then, when drafting each section, we searched for additional papers that have been published more recently and/or were examples of higher-quality research in each domain. When giving examples, we emphasize the most recent and most well-powered empirical studies. We also conducted some targeted literature searches where reviews were not available (e.g., “music” and [“impulsivity” or “ADHD”]) using the same databases. Our subsequent framework is intended to contextualize diagnostic, symptom, and mechanistic findings more broadly within the scope of the genetic and environmental risk factors on psychopathology that give rise to these associations and (potentially) impact the efficacy of treatment efforts. As such, the framework incorporates evidence from review articles and meta-analyses from various literatures (e.g., music interventions for anxiety [ 26 ], depression [ 27 ]) in combination with experimental evidence of biological underpinnings of music engagement and the perspective provided by newly available methods for population-health approaches (i.e., complex trait genetics, gene–environment interactions).

Music engagement and well-being

A growing body of studies report associations between music engagement and general indices of mental health, including increased well-being or emotional competence, lending support for the possibility that music engagement may also be associated with better specific mental health outcomes. In over 8000 Swedish twins, hours of music practice and self-reported music achievement were associated with better emotional competence [ 5 ]. Similarly, a meta-ethnography of 46 qualitative studies revealed that participation in music activities supported well-being through management of emotions, facilitation of self-development, providing respite from problems, and facilitating social connections [ 28 ]. In a sample of 1000 Australian adults, individuals who engaged with music, such as singing or dancing with others or attending concerts reported greater well-being vs. those who engaged in these experiences alone or did not engage. Other types of music engagement, such as playing an instrument or composing music were not associated with well-being in this sample [ 4 ]. Earlier in life, social music experiences (including song familiarity and synchronous movement to music) are associated with a variety of prosocial behaviors in infants and children [ 6 ], as well as positive affect [ 7 ]. Thus, this work provides some initial evidence that music engagement is associated with better general mental health outcomes in children and adults with some heterogeneity in findings depending on the specific type of music engagement.

Music engagement and internalizing problems

MDD, GAD, and PTSD are the most frequently clustered aspects of internalizing psychopathology [ 19 , 24 , 29 , 30 ]. Experimental studies provide evidence for the feasibility of music intervention efforts and their therapeutic benefits but are not yet rigorous enough to draw strong conclusions. The most severe limitations are small samples, the lack of appropriate control groups, few interventions with multiple sessions, and publications omitting necessary information regarding the intervention (e.g., intervention fidelity, inclusion/exclusion criteria, education status of intervention leader) [ 31 , 32 , 33 ]. Correlational studies, by contrast, suggest musicians are at greater risk for internalizing problems, but that they use music engagement as a tool to help manage these problems [ 34 , 35 ].

Experimental studies

Randomized controlled trials have revealed that music interventions (including both music therapies administered by board-certified music therapists and other music interventions) are associated with reduced depression, anxiety, and PTSD symptoms [ 26 , 27 , 33 , 36 ]. A review of 28 studies reported that 26 revealed significantly reduced depression levels in music intervention groups compared to control groups, including the 9 studies which included active non-music intervention control groups (e.g., reading sessions, “conductive-behavior” psychotherapy, antidepressant drugs) [ 27 ]. A similar meta-analysis of 19 studies demonstrated that music listening is effective at decreasing self-reported anxiety in healthy individuals [ 26 ]. A review of music-based treatment studies related to PTSD revealed similar conclusions [ 36 ], though there were only four relevant studies. More recent studies confirm these findings [ 37 , 38 , 39 ], such as one randomized controlled trial that demonstrated reduced depression symptoms in older adults following musical improvisation exercises compared to an active control group (gentle gymnastic activities) [ 39 ].

This work is promising given that some studies have observed effects even when compared to traditional behavior therapies [ 40 , 41 ]. However, there are relatively few studies directly comparing music interventions to traditional therapies. Some music interventions incorporate components of other therapeutic methods in their programs including dialectic or cognitive behavior therapies [ 42 ], but few directly compare how the inclusion of music augments traditional behavioral therapy. Still other non-music therapies incorporate music into their practice (e.g., background music in mindfulness therapies) [ 43 , 44 ], but the specific contribution of music in these approaches is unclear. Thus, there is a great need for further systematic research relating music to traditional therapies to understand which components of music interventions act on the same mechanisms as traditional therapies (e.g., developing coping mechanisms and building community) and which bolster or synchronize with other approaches (e.g., by adding structure, reinforcement, predictability, and social context to traditional approaches).

Aside from comparison with other therapeutic approaches, an earlier review of 98 papers from psychiatric in-patient studies concluded that promising effects of music therapy were limited by small sample sizes and methodological shortcomings including lack of reporting of adverse events, exclusion criteria, possible confounders, and characteristics of patients lost to follow-up [ 33 ]. Other problems included inadequate reporting of information on the source population (e.g., selection of patients and proportion agreeing to take part in the study), the lack of masking of interviewers during post-test, and concealment of randomization. Nevertheless, there was some evidence that therapies with active music participation, structured sessions, and multiple sessions (i.e., four or more) improved mood, with all studies incorporating these characteristics reporting significant positive effects. However, most studies have focused on passive interventions, such as music listening [ 26 , 27 ]. Active interventions (e.g., singing, improvising) have not been directly compared with passive interventions [ 27 ], so more work is needed to clarify whether therapeutic effects are indeed stronger with more engaging and active interventions.

Correlational studies

Correlational studies have focused on the use of music in emotional self-regulation. Specifically, individuals high in neuroticism appear to use music to help regulate their emotions [ 34 , 35 ], with beneficial effects of music engagement on emotion regulation and well-being driven by cognitive reappraisal [ 45 ]. Music listening may also moderate the association between neuroticism and depression in adolescents [ 46 ], consistent with a protective effect.

A series of recent studies have used validated self-reported instruments that directly assess how individuals use music activities as an emotion regulation strategy [ 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ]. In adults, the use of music listening for anger regulation and anxiety regulation was positively associated with subjective well-being, psychological well-being, and social well-being [ 50 ]. In studies of adolescents and undergraduates, the use of music listening for entertainment was associated with fewer depression and anxiety symptoms [ 51 ]. “Healthy” music engagement in adolescents (i.e., using music for relaxation and connection with others) was also positively associated with happiness and school satisfaction [ 49 ]. However, the use of music listening for emotional discharge was also associated with greater depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms [ 51 ], and “unhealthy” music engagement (e.g., ‘hiding’ in music to block others out) was associated with lower well-being, happiness, school satisfaction, and greater depression and rumination [ 49 ]. Other work has highlighted the role of valence in these associations, with individuals who listen to happier music when they are in a bad mood reporting stronger ability for music to influence their mood than those who listen to sad music while in a negative mood [ 52 , 53 ].

This work highlights the importance of considering individuals’ motivations for engaging with music in examining associations with well-being and mental health, and are consistent with the idea that individuals already experiencing depression, anxiety, and stress use music as a therapeutic tool to manage their emotions, with some strategies being more effective than others. Of course, these correlational effects may not necessarily reflect causal associations, but could be due to bidirectional influences, as suggested by claims that musicians may be at higher risk for internalizing problems [ 54 , 55 , 56 ]. It is also necessary to consider demographic and socioeconomic factors in these associations [ 57 ], for example, because arts engagement may be more strongly associated with self-esteem in those with higher education [ 58 ].

It is also necessary to clarify if musicians (professional and/or nonprofessional) represent an already high-risk group for internalizing problems. In one large study conducted in Norway ( N  = 6372), professional musicians were higher in neuroticism than the general population [ 56 ]. Another study of musician cases ( N  = 9803) vs. controls ( N  = 49,015) identified in a US-based research database through text-mining of medical records found that musicians are at greater risk of MDD (Odds ratio [OR] = 1.21), anxiety disorders (OR = 1.25), and PTSD (OR = 1.13) [ 55 ]. However, other studies demonstrate null associations between musician status and depression symptoms [ 5 ] or mixed associations [ 59 ]. In N  = 10,776 Swedish twins, for example, professional and amateur musicians had more self-reported burnout symptoms [ 54 ]. However, neither playing music in the past, amateur musicianship, nor professional musicianship was significantly associated with depression or anxiety disorder diagnoses.

Even if musicians are at higher risk, such findings can still be consistent with music-making being beneficial and therapeutic (e.g., depression medication use is elevated in individuals with depressive symptoms because it is a treatment). Clinical samples may be useful in disentangling these associations (i.e., examining if those who engage with music more frequently have reduced symptoms), and wider deployment of measures that capture emotion regulation strategies and motivations for engaging with music will help shed light on whether high-risk individuals engage with music in qualitatively different ways than others [ 51 , 57 ]. Later, we describe how also considering the role of genetic and environmental risk factors in these associations (e.g., if individuals at high genetic and/or environmental risk self-select into music environments because they are therapeutic) can help to clarify these questions.

Music engagement and externalizing problems

The externalizing domain comprises SUDs, and also includes impulsivity, conduct disorder, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), especially in adolescents [ 20 , 24 , 60 , 61 ]. Similar to the conclusions for internalizing traits, experimental studies show promising evidence that music engagement interventions may reduce substance use, ADHD, and other externalizing symptoms, but conclusions are limited by methodological limitations. Correlational evidence is sparce, but there is less reason to suspect musicians are at higher risk for externalizing problems.

Intervention studies have demonstrated music engagement is helpful in patients with SUDs, including reducing withdrawal symptoms and stress, allowing individuals to experience emotions without craving substance use, and making substance abuse treatment sessions more enjoyable and motivating [ 62 , 63 , 64 ] (for a systematic review, see [ 65 ]). Similar to the experimental studies of internalizing traits, however, these studies would also benefit from larger samples, better controls, and higher-quality reporting standards.

Music intervention studies for ADHD are of similar quality. Such interventions have been shown to reduce inattention [ 66 ], decrease negative mood [ 67 ], and increase reading comprehension for those with ADHD [ 68 ]. However, there is a great amount of variability among children with ADHD, as some may find music distracting while others may focus better in the presence of music [ 69 ].

Little research has been conducted to evaluate music engagement interventions for impulsivity or conduct disorder problems, and findings are mixed. For example, a music therapy study of 251 children showed that beneficial effects on communication skills (after participating in a free improvisation intervention) was significant, though only for the subset of children above age 13 [ 70 ]. Another study suggested the promising effects of music therapy on social skills and problem behaviors in 89 students selected based on social/emotional problem behaviors, but did not have a control group [ 71 ]. Other smaller studies ( N  < 20 each) show inconsistent results on disruptive behaviors and aggression [ 72 , 73 ].

Correlational studies on externalizing traits are few and far between. A number of studies examined how listening habits for different genres of music relate to more or less substance use [ 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 ]. However, these studies do not strongly illuminate associations between music engagement and substance use because musical genres are driven by cultural and socioeconomic factors that vary over the lifespan. In the previously cited large study of American electronic medical records [ 55 ] where musicianship was associated with more internalizing diagnoses, associations were nonsignificant for “tobacco use disorder” (OR = 0.93), “alcoholism” (OR = 1.01), “alcohol-related disorders” (OR = 1.00), or “substance addiction and disorders” (OR = 1.00). In fact, in sex-stratified analyses, female musicians were at significantly decreased risk for tobacco use disorder (OR = 0.85) [ 55 ]. Thus, there is less evidence musicians are at greater risk for externalizing problems than in other areas.

Regarding other aspects of externalizing, some studies demonstrate children with ADHD have poor rhythm skills, opening a possibility that working on rhythm skills may impact ADHD [ 78 , 79 ]. For example, music might serve as a helpful scaffold (e.g., for attention) due to its regular, predictable rhythmic beat. It will be important to examine whether these associations with music rhythm are also observed for measures of music engagement, especially in larger population studies. Finally, musicians were reported to have lower impulsiveness than prior population samples, but were not compared directly to non-musicians [ 80 , 81 ].

Music engagement and thought disorders

Thought disorders typically encompass schizophrenia and bipolar disorder [ 20 ]. Trait-level measures include schizotypal symptoms and depression symptoms. Much like internalizing, music interventions appear to provide some benefits to individuals with clinical diagnoses, but musicians may be at higher risk for thought disorders. Limitations of both experimental and correlational studies are similar to those for internalizing and externalizing.

Music intervention studies have been conducted with individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. A recent meta-analysis of 18 music therapy studies for schizophrenia (and similar disorders) [ 82 ] demonstrated that music therapy plus standard care (compared to standard care alone) demonstrated improved general mental health, fewer negative symptoms of schizophrenia, and improved social functioning. No effects were observed for general functioning or positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Critiques echoed those described above. Most notably, although almost all studies had low risk of biases due to attrition, unclear risk of bias was evident in the vast majority of studies (>75%) for selection bias, performance bias, detection bias, and reporting bias. These concerns highlight the need for these studies to report more information about their study selection, blinding procedure, and outcomes.

More recent papers suggest similar benefits of music therapies in patients with psychosis [ 83 ] and thought disorders [ 84 ], with similar limitations (e.g., one study did not include a control group). Finally, although a 2021 review did not uncover more recent articles related to bipolar disorder, they argued that existing work suggests music therapy has the potential both to treat bipolar disorder symptoms and alleviate subthreshold symptoms in early stages of the disorder [ 85 ].

Much like internalizing, findings from the few existing studies suggest that musicians may be at higher risk for thought disorders. In the large sample of Swedish twins described earlier [ 54 ], playing an instrument was associated with more schizotypal symptoms across multiple comparisons (professional musicians vs. non-players; amateur musicians vs. non-players; still plays an instrument vs. never played). However, no associations were observed for schizophrenia or bipolar disorder diagnoses across any set of comparison groups. Another study demonstrated that individuals with higher genetic risk for schizophrenia or bipolar disorder were more likely to be a member of a creative society (i.e., actor or dancer, musician, visual artist, or writer) or work in a profession in these fields [ 86 ]. Furthermore, musician status was associated with “bipolar disorder” (OR = 1.18) and “schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders” (OR = 1.18) in US electronic health records (EHRs) [ 55 ].

Interim summary

There is promising evidence that music engagement is associated with better mental health outcomes. Music engagement is positively associated with quality of life, well-being, social connectedness, and emotional competence. However, some individuals who engage with music may be at higher risk for mental health problems, especially internalizing and thought disorders. More research is needed to disentangle these contrasting results, including clarifying how “healthy” music engagement (e.g., for relaxation or social connection) leads to greater well-being or successful emotion regulation, and testing whether some individuals are more likely to use music as a tool to regulate emotions (e.g., those with high neuroticism) [ 34 , 35 ]. Similarly, it will be important to clarify whether the fact that musicians may be an at-risk group is an extension of working in an artistic field in general (which may feature lower pay or lack of job security) and/or if similar associations are observed with continuous music engagement phenotypes (e.g., hours of practice). As we elaborate on later, genetically informative datasets can help clarify these complex associations, for example by tested whether musicians are at higher genetic risk for mental health problems but their music engagement mitigates these risks.

Music intervention studies are feasible and potentially effective at treating symptoms in individuals with clinical diagnoses, including depression, anxiety, and SUDs. However, it will be essential to expand these studies to include larger samples, random sampling, and active control groups that compare the benefits of music interventions to traditional therapies and address possible confounds. These limitations make it hard to quantify how specific factors influence the effectiveness of interventions, such as length/depth of music training, age of sample, confounding variables (e.g., socioeconomic status), and type of intervention (e.g., individual vs. group sessions, song playing vs. songwriting, receptive vs. active methods). Similarly, the tremendous breadth of music engagement activities and measures makes it difficult to identify the specific aspects of music engagement that convey the most benefits to health and well-being [ 87 ]. It is therefore necessary to improve reporting quality of studies so researchers can better identify these potential moderators or confounds using systematic approaches (e.g., meta-analyses).

Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the therapeutic effects of music on mental health, including psychological (e.g., building communities, developing coping strategies) [ 10 , 11 ] and specific neurobiological drivers (e.g., oxytocin, cortisol, autonomic nervous system activity) [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. However, it will be vital to conduct more systematic research comparing the effects of music interventions to existing therapeutic methods and other types of creative activities (e.g., art [ 88 ]) to quantify which effects and mechanisms are specific to music engagement. Music interventions also do not have to be an alternative to other treatments, but may instead support key elements of traditional interventions, such as being engaging, enjoyable, providing social context, and increasing structure and predictability [ 89 ]. Indeed, some music therapists incorporate principals from existing psychotherapeutic models [ 42 , 90 ] and, conversely, newer therapeutic models (e.g., mindfulness) incorporate music into their practice [ 43 , 44 ]. It is not yet possible to disentangle which aspects of music interventions best synergize with or strengthen standard psychotherapeutic practices (which are also heterogeneous), but this will be possible with better reporting standards and quality experimental design.

To encapsulate and extend these ideas, we next propose a theoretical framework that delineates key aspects of how music engagement may relate to mental health, which is intended to be useful for guiding future investigations in a more systematic way.

Theoretical framework for future studies

Associations between music engagement and mental health may take multiple forms, driven by several different types of genetic predispositions and environmental effects that give rise to, and interact with, proposed psychological and neurobiological mechanisms described earlier. Figure 2 displays our theoretical model in which potential beneficial associations with music are delineated into testable hypotheses. Four key paths characterize specific ways in which music engagement may relate to (and influence) mental health traits, and thus represent key research questions to be addressed in future studies.

Progression of mental health problems is based on a diathesis-stress model, where genetic predispositions and environmental exposures result in later problems (which can be remedied through treatment). Potential associations with music engagement include (Path 1; blue arrows) correlated genetic/environmental influences and/or causal associations between music engagement and trait-level mental health outcomes; (Path 2; red arrows) interactions between music engagement and risk factors to predict later trait-level or clinical level symptoms; and (Path 3; gold arrow) direct effects of music engagement on reducing symptoms or improving treatment efficacy. Path 4 (orange arrows) illustrates the importance of understanding how these potential protective associations are driven by neuroanatomy and function. MDD major depressive disorder, GAD generalized anxiety disorder, PTSD posttraumatic stress disorder, SUD substance use disorder(s).

Path 1: Music engagement relates to mental health through correlated genetic and environmental risk factors and/or causation

The diathesis-stress model of psychiatric disease posits that individuals carry different genetic liabilities for any given disorder [ 91 , 92 , 93 ], with disorder onset depending on the amount of negative vs. protective environmental life events and exposures the individual experiences. Although at first glance music engagement appears to be an environmental exposure, it is actually far from it. Twin studies have demonstrated that both music experiences and music ability measures are moderately heritable and genetically correlated with cognitive abilities like non-verbal intelligence [ 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 ]. Music engagement may be influenced by its own set of environmental influences, potentially including socioeconomic factors and availability of instruments. Thus, music engagement can be viewed as a combination of genetic and environmental predispositions and availability of opportunities for engagement [ 98 ] that are necessary to consider when evaluating associations with mental health [ 54 ].

When examining music-mental health associations, it is thus important to evaluate if associations are in part explained by correlated genetic or environmental influences (see Fig. 3 for schematic and explanation for interpreting genetic/environmental correlations). On one hand, individuals genetically predisposed to engage with music may be at lower risk of experiencing internalizing or externalizing problems. Indeed, music engagement and ability appear associated with cognitive abilities through genetic correlations [ 3 , 99 ], which may apply to music-mental health associations as well. On the other, individuals at high genetic risk for neuroticism or psychopathology may be more likely to engage with music because it is therapeutic, suggesting a genetic correlation in the opposite direction (i.e., increased genetic risk for musicians). To understand and better contextualize the potential therapeutic effects of music engagement, it is necessary to quantify these potential genetic associations, while simultaneously evaluating whether these associations are explained by correlated environmental influences.

Variance in any given trait is explained by a combination of genetic influences (i.e., heritability) and environmental influences. For complex traits (e.g., MDD or depression symptoms), cognitive abilities (e.g., intelligence), and personality traits (e.g., impulsivity), many hundreds or thousands of independent genetic effects are combined together in the total heritability estimate. Similarly, environmental influences typically represent a multitude of factors, from individual life events to specific exposures (e.g., chemicals, etc.). The presence of a genetic or environmental correlation between traits indicates that some set of these influences have an impact on multiple traits. A Displayed using a Venn diagram. Identifying the strength of genetic vs. environmental correlations can be useful in testing theoretical models and pave the way for more complex genetic investigations. Beyond this, gene identification efforts (e.g., genome-wide association studies) and additional analyses of the resulting data can be used to classify whether these associations represent specific genetic influences that affect both traits equally (i.e., genetic pleiotropy ( B )) or whether a genetic influence impacts only one trait which in turn causes changes in the other (i.e., mediated genetic pleiotropy ( C )). Environmental influences can also act pleiotropically or in a mediated-pleiotropy manner, but only genetic influences are displayed for simplicity.

Beyond correlated genetic and environmental influences, music engagement and mental health problems may be associated with one another through direct influences (including causal impacts). This is in line with earlier suggestions that music activities (e.g., after-school programs, music practice) engage adolescents, removing opportunities for drug-seeking behaviors [ 100 ], increasing their social connections to peers [ 101 ], and decreasing loneliness [ 41 ]. Reverse causation is also possible, for example, if experiencing mental health problems causes some individuals to seek out music engagement as a treatment. Longitudinal and genetically informative studies can help differentiate correlated risk factors (i.e., genetic/environmental correlations) from causal effects of music engagement (Fig. 2 , blue arrows) [ 102 ].

Path 2: Engagement with music reduces the impact of genetic risk

Second, genetic and environmental influences may interact with each other to influence a phenotype. For example, individual differences in music achievement are more pronounced in those who engage in practice or had musically enriched childhood environments [ 97 , 98 ]. Thus, music exposures may not influence mental health traits directly but could impact the strength of the association between genetic risk factors and the emergence of trait-level symptoms and/or clinical diagnoses. Such associations might manifest as decreased heritability of trait-level symptoms in musicians vs. non-musicians (upper red arrow in Fig. 2 ). Alternatively, if individuals high in neuroticism use music to help regulate their emotions [ 34 , 35 ], those who are not exposed to music environments might show stronger associations between neuroticism and later depressive symptoms or diagnoses than those engaged with music (lower red arrow in Fig. 2 ). Elucidating these possibilities will help disentangle the complex associations between music and mental health and could be used to identify which individuals would benefit most from a music intervention (especially preventative interventions). Later, we describe some specific study designs that can test hypotheses regarding this gene-environment interplay.

Path 3: Music engagement improves the efficacy of treatment (or acts as a treatment)

For individuals who experience severe problems (e.g., MDD, SUDs), engaging with music may reduce symptoms or improve treatment outcomes. This is the primary goal of most music intervention studies [ 27 , 33 ] (Fig. 2 , gold arrow). However, and this is one of the central messages of this model, it is important to consider interventions in the context of the paths discussed above. For example, if music engagement is genetically correlated with increased risk for internalizing or externalizing problems (Path 1) and/or if individuals at high genetic risk for mental health problems have already been using music engagement to develop strategies to deal with subthreshold symptoms (Path 2), then may be more likely to choose music interventions over other alternatives and find them more successful. Indeed, the beneficial aspects of music training on cognitive abilities appear to be drastically reduced in samples that were randomly sampled [ 103 ]. Therefore, along with other necessary reporting standards discussed above [ 32 , 33 ], it will be useful for studies to report participants’ prior music experience and consider these exposures in evaluating the efficacy of interventions.

Path 4: Music engagement influences brain structure and function

Exploring associations between music engagement and brain structure and function will be necessary to elucidate the mechanisms driving the three paths outlined above. Indeed, there are strong links between music listening and reward centers of the brain [ 104 , 105 ] including the nucleus accumbens [ 106 , 107 ] and ventral tegmental areas [ 108 ] that are implicated in the reward system for all drugs of abuse [ 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 ] and may relate to internalizing problems [ 113 , 114 , 115 ]. Moreover, activity in the caudate may simultaneously influence rhythmic sensorimotor synchronization, monetary reward processing, and prosocial behavior [ 116 ]. Furthermore, music listening may help individuals control the effect of emotional stimuli on autonomic and physiological responses (e.g., in the hypothalamus) and has been shown to induce the endorphinergic response blocked by naloxone, an opioid antagonist [ 18 , 117 ].

This work focusing on music listening and reward processing has not been extended to music making (i.e., active music engagement), though some differences in brain structure and plasticity between musicians and non-musicians have been observed for white matter (e.g., greater fractional anisotropy in corpus callosum and superior longitudinal fasciculus) [ 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 ]. In addition, longitudinal studies have revealed that instrument players show more rapid cortical thickness maturation in prefrontal and parietal areas implicated in emotion and impulse control compared to non-musician children/adolescents [ 122 ]. Importantly, because the existing evidence is primarily correlational, these cross-sectional and longitudinal structural differences between musicians and non-musicians could be explained by genetic correlations, effects of music training, or both, making them potentially relevant to multiple paths in our model (Fig. 2 ). Examining neural correlates of music engagement in more detail will shed light on these possibilities and advance our understanding of the correlates and consequences of music engagement, and the mechanisms that drive the associations discussed above.

New approaches to studying music and mental health

Using our theoretical model as a guide, we next highlight key avenues of research that will help disentangle these music-mental health associations using state-of-the-art approaches. They include the use of (1) genetic designs, (2) neuroimaging methods, and (3) large biobanks of EHRs.

Genetic designs

Genetic designs provide a window into the biological underpinnings of music engagement [ 123 ]. Understanding the contribution of genetic risk factors is crucial to test causal or mechanistic models regarding potential associations with mental health. At the most basic level, twin and family studies can estimate genetic correlations among music ability or engagement measures and mental health traits or diagnoses. Genetic associations can be examined while simultaneously quantifying environmental correlations, as well as evaluating (bidirectional) causal associations, by testing competing models or averaging across different candidate models [ 102 , 124 ], informing Path 1.

By leveraging samples with genomic, music engagement, and mental health data, investigators can also examine whether individuals at higher genetic risk for psychopathology (e.g., for MDD) show stronger associations between music engagement measures and their mental health outcomes (Path 2). As a theoretical example, individuals with low genetic risk for MDD are unlikely to have many depressive symptoms regardless of their music engagement, so the association between depressive symptoms and music engagement may be weak if focusing on these individuals. However, individuals at high genetic risk for MDD who engage with music may have fewer symptoms than their non-musician peers (i.e., a stronger negative correlation). This is in line with recent work revealing the heritability of depression is doubled in trauma exposed compared to non-trauma exposed individuals [ 125 ].

Gene–environment interaction studies using polygenic scores (i.e., summed indices of genetic risk based on genome-wide association studies; GWAS) are becoming more common [ 126 , 127 ]. There are already multiple large GWAS of internalizing and externalizing traits [ 128 , 129 , 130 ], and the first large-scale GWAS of a music measure indicates that music rhythm is also highly polygenic [ 131 ]. Importantly, is not necessary to have all traits measured in the same sample to examine cross-trait relationships. Studies with only music engagement and genetic data, for example, can still examine how polygenic scores for depression predict music engagement, or interact with music engagement measures to predict other study outcomes. Figure 4 displays an example of a GWAS and how it can be used to compute and apply a polygenic score to test cross-trait predictions.

A GWAS are conducted by examining whether individual genetic loci (i.e., single-nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs, depicted with G, A, C, and T labels within a sample (or meta-analysis) differentiate cases from controls. The example is based on a dichotomous mental health trait (e.g., major depressive disorder diagnosis), but GWAS can be applied to other dichotomous and continuous phenotypes, such as trait anxiety, musician status, or hours of music practice. Importantly, rather than examining associations on a gene-by-gene basis, GWAS identify relevant genetic loci using SNPs from across the entire genome (typically depicted using a Manhattan plot, such as that displayed at the bottom of A ). B After a GWAS has been conducted on a given trait, researchers can use the output to generate a polygenic score (sometimes called a polygenic risk score) in any new sample with genetic data by summing the GWAS effect sizes for each SNP allele present in a participant’s genome. An individual with a z  = 2.0 would have many risk SNPs for that trait, whereas an individual with z = −2 would have much fewer risk SNPs. C Once a polygenic score is generated for all participants, it can be applied like any other variable in the new sample. In this example, researchers could examine whether musicians are at higher (or lower) genetic risk for a specific disorder. Other more complex analyses are also possible, such as examining how polygenic scores interact with existing predictors (e.g., trauma exposure) or polygenic scores for other traits to influence a phenotype or predict an intervention outcome. Created with BioRender.com.

Finally, longitudinal twin and family studies continue to be a promising resource for understanding the etiology and developmental time-course of the correlates of mental health problems. Such designs can be used to examine whether associations between music and mental health are magnified based on other exposures or psychological constructs (gene-by-environment interactions) [ 132 ], and whether parents engaged with music are more likely to pass down environments that are protective or hazardous for later mental health (gene-environment correlations) in addition to passing on their genes. These studies also provide opportunities to examine whether these associations change across key developmental periods. The publicly available Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study, for example, is tracking over 10,000 participants (including twin and sibling pairs) throughout adolescence, with measures of music engagement and exhaustive measures of mental health, cognition, and personality, as well as neuroimaging and genotyping [ 133 , 134 ]. Although most large samples with genomic data still lack measures of music engagement, key musical phenotypes could be added to existing study protocols (or to similar studies under development) with relatively low participant burden [ 135 ]. Musical questionnaires and/or tasks may be much more engaging and enjoyable than other tasks, improving volunteers’ research participation experience.

Neuroimaging

Another way to orient the design of experiments is through the exploration of neural mechanisms by which music might have an impact on mental health. This is an enormous, growing, and sometimes fraught literature, but there is naturally a great potential to link our understanding of neural underpinnings of music listening and engagement with the literature on neural bases of mental health. These advances can inform the mechanisms driving successful interventions and inform who may benefit the most from such interventions. We focus on two areas among many: (1) the activation of reward circuitry by music and (2) the impact music has on dynamic patterns of neural activity, both of which are likely vectors for the interaction of music and mental health and provide examples of potential interactions.

Music and reward

The strong effect of music on our emotions has been clearly grounded in its robust activation of reward circuitry in the brain, and motivational and hedonic effects of music listening have been shown to be specifically modulated by dopamine [ 16 , 105 , 136 ]. The prevalence of reward and dopaminergic dysfunction in mental illness makes this a rich area for future studies. For example, emotional responses to music might be used as a substitute for reward circuit deficiencies in depression, and it is intriguing to consider if music listening or music engagement could potentiate such function [ 137 , 138 ].

Music and brain network dynamics

The search for neuronally based biomarkers of aspects of mental illness has been a central thrust within the field [ 139 ], holding promise for the understanding of heterogeneity within disorders and identification of common mechanistic pathways [ 140 ]. A thorough review is beyond the scope of this paper, but several points of contact can be highlighted that might suggest neuro-mechanistic mediators of musical effects on mental health. For example, neurofeedback-directed upregulation of activity in emotion circuitry has been proposed as a therapy for MDD [ 141 ]. Given the emotional effects of music, there is potential for using musical stimuli as an adjuvant, or as a more actively patient-controlled output target for neurofeedback. Growing interest in measures of the dynamic complexity of brain activity in health and disease as measured by magnetic resonance imaging or magneto/electroencephalography (M/EEG) [ 142 ] provides a second point of contact, with abnormalities in dynamic complexity suggested as indicative of mental illness [ 143 ], while music engagement has been suggested to reflect and perhaps affect dynamic complexity [ 144 , 145 ].

The caveats identified in this review apply equally to such neuro-mechanistic studies [ 146 ]. High-quality experimental design (involving appropriate controls and randomized design) has been repeatedly shown to be critical to providing reliable evidence for non-music outcomes of music engagement [ 103 ]. For such studies to have maximal impact, analysis of M/EEG activity not at the scalp level, but at the source level, has been shown to improve the power of biomarkers, and their mechanistic interpretability [ 147 , 148 ]. Moreover, as with genetic influences that typically influence a trait through a multitude of small individual effects [ 149 ], the neural underpinnings of music-mental health associations may be highly multivariate. In the longer term, leveraging large-scale studies and large-scale data standardization and aggregation hold the promise of gleaning deeper cross-domain insights, for which current experimentalists can prepare by adopting standards for the documentation, annotation, and storage of data [ 150 ].

Biobanks and electronic health records

Finally, the use of EHR databases can be useful in quantifying associations between music engagement and mental health in large samples. EHR databases can include hundreds of thousands of records and allow for examination with International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems codes, including MDD, SUD, and schizophrenia diagnoses. This would allow for powerful estimates of music-mental health associations, and exploration of music engagement with other health outcomes.

The principal roadblock to this type of research is that extensive music phenotypes are not readily available in EHRs. However, there are multiple ways to bypass this limitation. First, medical records can be scraped using text-mining tools to identify cases of musician-related terms (e.g., “musician”, “guitarist”, “violinist”). For example, the phenome-wide association study described earlier [ 55 ] compared musician cases and controls identified in a large EHR database through text-mining of medical records and validated with extensive manual review charts. This study was highly powered to detect associations with internalizing and thought disorders (but showed null or protective effects for musicians for SUDs). Many EHR databases also include genomic data, allowing for integration with genetic models even in the absence of music data (e.g., exploring whether individuals with strong genetic predispositions for musical ability are at elevated or reduced risk for specific health diagnosis).

EHRs could also be used as recruitment tools, allowing researchers to collect additional data for relevant music engagement variables and compare with existing mental health diagnoses without having to conduct their own diagnostic interviews. These systems are not only relevant to individual differences research but could also be used to identify patients for possible enrollment in intervention studies. Furthermore, if recruitment for individual differences or intervention studies is done in patient waiting rooms of specific clinics, researchers can target specific populations of interest, have participants complete some relevant questionnaires while they wait, and be granted access to medical record data without having to conduct medical interviews themselves.

Concluding remarks

Music engagement, a uniquely human trait which has a powerful impact on our everyday experience, is deeply tied with our social and cultural identities as well as our personality and cognition. The relevance of music engagement to mental health, and its potential use as a therapeutic tool, has been studied for decades, but this research had not yet cohered into a clear picture. Our scoping review and framework integrated across a breadth of smaller literatures (including extant reviews and meta-analyses) relating music engagement to mental health traits and treatment effects, though it was potentially limited due to the lack of systematic literature search or formal quality appraisal of individual studies. Taken together, the current body of literature suggests that music engagement may provide an outlet for individuals who are experiencing internalizing, externalizing, or thought disorder problems, potentially supporting emotion regulation through multiple neurobiological pathways (e.g., reward center activity). Conducting more rigorous experimental intervention studies, improving reporting standards, and harnessing large-scale population-wide data in combination with new genetic analytic methods will help us achieve a better understanding of how music engagement relates to these mental health traits. We have presented a framework that illustrates why it will be vital to consider genetic and environmental risk factors when examining these associations, leading to new avenues for understanding the mechanisms by which music engagement and existing risk factors interact to support mental health and well-being.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by NIH grants DP2HD098859, R01AA028411, R61MH123029, R21DC016710, U01DA04112, and R03AG065643, National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) research lab grants 1863278-38 and 1855526-38, and National Science Foundation grant 1926794. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health or National Endowment for the Arts. The authors would like to thank Navya Thakkar and Gabija Zilinskaite for their assistance.

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Gustavson, D.E., Coleman, P.L., Iversen, J.R. et al. Mental health and music engagement: review, framework, and guidelines for future studies. Transl Psychiatry 11 , 370 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01483-8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01483-8

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