ancient egypt culture essay

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Life in ancient Egypt

• The king and ideology: administration, art, and writing
• Sources, calendars, and chronology
• The recovery and study of ancient Egypt
• Predynastic Egypt
• The 1st dynasty (c. 2900–c. 2730 bce )
• The 2nd dynasty (c. 2730–c. 2590 bce )
• The 3rd dynasty (c. 2592–c. 2544 bce )
• The 4th dynasty (c. 2543–c. 2436 bce )
• The 5th dynasty (c. 2435–c. 2306 bce )
• The 6th dynasty (c. 2305–c. 2118 bce )
• The 7th and 8th dynasties (c. 2150–c. 2118 bce )
• The 9th dynasty (c. 2118–c. 2080 bce )
• The 10th (c. 2080–c. 1980 bce ) and 11th (c. 2080–c. 1940 bce ) dynasties
• The 12th dynasty (c. 1939–c. 1760 bce )
• The 13th dynasty (c. 1759–c. 1630 bce ) and 14th dynasty (c. 1759–c. 1530 bce )
• The 15th (c. 1630–c. 1530 bce ) through 17th (c. 1630–c. 1540 bce ) dynasties
• The end of the Second Intermediate Period
• Amenhotep I
• Thutmose I and Thutmose II
• Hatshepsut and Thutmose III
• Amenhotep II
• Thutmose IV
• Foreign influences during the early 18th dynasty
• Amenhotep III
• Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten)
• The aftermath of Amarna
• Ay and Horemheb
• Ramses I and Seti I
• Last years of the 19th dynasty
• The early 20th dynasty: Setnakht and Ramses III
• The later Ramesside kings
• The 21st dynasty
• Libyan rule: the 22nd and 23rd dynasties
• The 24th and 25th dynasties
• The Late period (664–332 bce )
• The 27th dynasty
• The 28th, 29th, and 30th dynasties
• The second Persian period
• The Macedonian conquest
• The Ptolemaic dynasty
• The Ptolemies (305–145 bce )
• Dynastic strife and decline (145–30 bce )
• Administration
• Egypt as a province of Rome
• Administration and economy under Rome
• Society, religion, and culture
• Egypt’s role in the Byzantine Empire
• Byzantine government of Egypt
• The advance of Christianity

By what other term are the kings of Egypt called?

• Why is Tutankhamun significant?
• How old was Tutankhamun when he ascended to the throne?
• What did Tutankhamun accomplish during his reign?
• How did Tutankhamun die?

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• Australian Museum - Ancient Egyptian Timeline
• The History Files - Ancient Egypt
• USHistory.org - Ancient Egypt
• Ancient Origins - Top 15 Interesting Facts About Ancient Egypt That You May Not Know
• Khan Academy - Ancient Egypt, an introduction
• Humanities LibreTexts - Ancient Egypt
• Smarthistory - The world of ancient Egypt
• PBS LearningMedia - How the Ancient Egyptian Pyramids Were Built
• World History Encyclopedia - Ancient Egypt
• Livescience - Ancient Egypt: History, dynasties, religion and writing
• ancient Egypt - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• ancient Egypt - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

Egyptian kings are commonly called pharaohs, following the usage of the Bible. The term pharaoh is derived from the Egyptian per ʿaa (“great estate”) and to the designation of the royal palace as an institution. This term was used increasingly from about 1400 BCE as a way of referring to the living king.

What were the two types of writing in ancient Egypt?

The two basic types of writing in ancient Egypt were hieroglyphs, which were used for monuments and display, and the cursive form known as hieratic, invented at much the same time in late predynastic Egypt (c. 3000 BCE).

Which pharaoh probably built the first true pyramid?

Snefru was the first king of ancient Egypt of the 4th dynasty (c. 2575–c. 2465 BCE). He probably built the step pyramid of Maydūm and then modified it to form the first true pyramid.

Who was the first king to unify Upper and Lower Egypt?

Menes was the legendary first king of unified Egypt. According to tradition, he joined Upper and Lower Egypt in a single centralized monarchy and established ancient Egypt’s first dynasty. Menes is also credited with irrigation works and with founding the capital, Memphis.

Who discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun?

The tomb of Tutankhamun was discovered by Howard Carter in 1922.

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ancient Egypt , civilization in northeastern Africa that dates from the 4th millennium bce . Its many achievements, preserved in its art and monuments, hold a fascination that continues to grow as archaeological finds expose its secrets. This article focuses on Egypt from its prehistory through its unification under Menes (Narmer) in the 3rd millennium bce —sometimes used as a reference point for Egypt’s origin—and up to the Islamic conquest in the 7th century ce . For subsequent history through the contemporary period, see Egypt . For a list of ancient Egyptian dynasties , see list of dynasties of ancient Egypt . For a list of Egyptian kings from the Predynastic through Ptolemaic periods, see list of pharaohs of ancient Egypt .

Introduction to ancient Egyptian civilization

Ancient Egypt can be thought of as an oasis in the desert of northeastern Africa, dependent on the annual inundation of the Nile River to support its agricultural population. The country’s chief wealth came from the fertile floodplain of the Nile valley, where the river flows between bands of limestone hills, and the Nile delta , in which it fans into several branches north of present-day Cairo . Between the floodplain and the hills is a variable band of low desert that supported a certain amount of game. The Nile was Egypt’s sole transportation artery.

The First Cataract at Aswān , where the riverbed is turned into rapids by a belt of granite , was the country’s only well-defined boundary within a populated area. To the south lay the far less hospitable area of Nubia , in which the river flowed through low sandstone hills that in most regions left only a very narrow strip of cultivable land. Nubia was significant for Egypt’s periodic southward expansion and for access to products from farther south. West of the Nile was the arid Sahara , broken by a chain of oases some 125 to 185 miles (200 to 300 km) from the river and lacking in all other resources except for a few minerals. The eastern desert , between the Nile and the Red Sea, was more important, for it supported a small nomadic population and desert game, contained numerous mineral deposits, including gold , and was the route to the Red Sea .

To the northeast was the Isthmus of Suez . It offered the principal route for contact with Sinai , from which came turquoise and possibly copper , and with southwestern Asia , Egypt’s most important area of cultural interaction, from which were received stimuli for technical development and cultivars for crops. Immigrants and ultimately invaders crossed the isthmus into Egypt, attracted by the country’s stability and prosperity. From the late 2nd millennium bce onward, numerous attacks were made by land and sea along the eastern Mediterranean coast.

At first, relatively little cultural contact came by way of the Mediterranean Sea , but from an early date Egypt maintained trading relations with the Lebanese port of Byblos (present-day Jbail). Egypt needed few imports to maintain basic standards of living, but good timber was essential and not available within the country, so it usually was obtained from Lebanon . Minerals such as obsidian and lapis lazuli were imported from as far afield as Anatolia and Afghanistan .

Agriculture centered on the cultivation of cereal crops, chiefly emmer wheat ( Triticum dicoccum ) and barley ( Hordeum vulgare ). The fertility of the land and general predictability of the inundation ensured very high productivity from a single annual crop. This productivity made it possible to store large surpluses against crop failures and also formed the chief basis of Egyptian wealth, which was, until the creation of the large empires of the 1st millennium bce , the greatest of any state in the ancient Middle East .

Basin irrigation was achieved by simple means, and multiple cropping was not feasible until much later times, except perhaps in the lakeside area of Al-Fayyūm . As the river deposited alluvial silt , raising the level of the floodplain, and land was reclaimed from marsh, the area available for cultivation in the Nile valley and delta increased, while pastoralism declined slowly. In addition to grain crops, fruit and vegetables were important, the latter being irrigated year-round in small plots. Fish was also vital to the diet. Papyrus , which grew abundantly in marshes, was gathered wild and in later times was cultivated . It may have been used as a food crop, and it certainly was used to make rope, matting, and sandals. Above all, it provided the characteristic Egyptian writing material, which, with cereals, was the country’s chief export in Late period Egyptian and then Greco-Roman times.

Cattle may have been domesticated in northeastern Africa. The Egyptians kept many as draft animals and for their various products, showing some of the interest in breeds and individuals that is found to this day in the Sudan and eastern Africa . The donkey , which was the principal transport animal (the camel did not become common until Roman times), was probably domesticated in the region. The native Egyptian breed of sheep became extinct in the 2nd millennium bce and was replaced by an Asiatic breed. Sheep were primarily a source of meat; their wool was rarely used. Goats were more numerous than sheep. Pigs were also raised and eaten. Ducks and geese were kept for food, and many of the vast numbers of wild and migratory birds found in Egypt were hunted and trapped. Desert game, principally various species of antelope and ibex , were hunted by the elite; it was a royal privilege to hunt lions and wild cattle. Pets included dogs , which were also used for hunting, cats , and monkeys . In addition, the Egyptians had a great interest in, and knowledge of, most species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish in their environment .

Most Egyptians were probably descended from settlers who moved to the Nile valley in prehistoric times, with population increase coming through natural fertility. In various periods there were immigrants from Nubia , Libya , and especially the Middle East . They were historically significant and also may have contributed to population growth , but their numbers are unknown. Most people lived in villages and towns in the Nile valley and delta. Dwellings were normally built of mud brick and have long since disappeared beneath the rising water table or beneath modern town sites, thereby obliterating evidence for settlement patterns. In antiquity, as now, the most favored location of settlements was on slightly raised ground near the riverbank, where transport and water were easily available and flooding was unlikely. Until the 1st millennium bce , Egypt was not urbanized to the same extent as Mesopotamia. Instead, a few centers, notably Memphis and Thebes , attracted population and particularly the elite, while the rest of the people were relatively evenly spread over the land. The size of the population has been estimated as having risen from 1 to 1.5 million in the 3rd millennium bce to perhaps twice that number in the late 2nd millennium and 1st millennium bce . (Much higher levels of population were reached in Greco-Roman times.)

Nearly all of the people were engaged in agriculture and were probably tied to the land. In theory all the land belonged to the king, although in practice those living on it could not easily be removed and some categories of land could be bought and sold. Land was assigned to high officials to provide them with an income, and most tracts required payment of substantial dues to the state, which had a strong interest in keeping the land in agricultural use. Abandoned land was taken back into state ownership and reassigned for cultivation. The people who lived on and worked the land were not free to leave and were obliged to work it, but they were not enslaved; most paid a proportion of their produce to major officials. Free citizens who worked the land on their own behalf did emerge; terms applied to them tended originally to refer to poor people, but these agriculturalists were probably not poor. Slavery was never common, being restricted to captives and foreigners or to people who were forced by poverty or debt to sell themselves into service. Enslaved persons sometimes even married members of their owners’ families, so that in the long term those belonging to households tended to be assimilated into free society. In the New Kingdom (from about 1539 to 1077 bce ), large numbers of captives were enslaved and acquired by major state institutions or incorporated into the army. Punitive treatment of enslaved foreigners or of native fugitives from their obligations included forced labor, exile (in, for example, the oases of the western desert), or compulsory enlistment in dangerous mining expeditions. Even nonpunitive employment such as quarrying in the desert was hazardous. The official record of one expedition shows a mortality rate of more than 10 percent.

Just as the Egyptians optimized agricultural production with simple means, their crafts and techniques, many of which originally came from Asia, were raised to extraordinary levels of perfection. The Egyptians’ most striking technical achievement, massive stone building, also exploited the potential of a centralized state to mobilize a huge labor force, which was made available by efficient agricultural practices. Some of the technical and organizational skills involved were remarkable. The construction of the great pyramids of the 4th dynasty (c. 2543–c. 2436 bce ) has yet to be fully explained and would be a major challenge to this day. This expenditure of skill contrasts with sparse evidence of an essentially neolithic way of living for the rural population of the time, while the use of flint tools persisted even in urban environments at least until the late 2nd millennium bce . Metal was correspondingly scarce, much of it being used for prestige rather than everyday purposes.

In urban and elite contexts , the Egyptian ideal was the nuclear family , but, on the land and even within the central ruling group, there is evidence for extended families . Egyptians were monogamous, and the choice of partners in marriage, for which no formal ceremony or legal sanction is known, did not follow a set pattern. Consanguineous marriage was not practiced during the Dynastic period, except for the occasional marriage of a brother and sister within the royal family, and that practice may have been open only to kings or heirs to the throne. Divorce was in theory easy, but it was costly. Women had a legal status only marginally inferior to that of men. They could own and dispose of property in their own right, and they could initiate divorce and other legal proceedings. They hardly ever held administrative office but increasingly were involved in religious cults as priestesses or “chantresses.” Married women held the title “mistress of the house,” the precise significance of which is unknown. Lower down the social scale, they probably worked on the land as well as in the house.

The uneven distribution of wealth, labor, and technology was related to the only partly urban character of society, especially in the 3rd millennium bce . The country’s resources were not fed into numerous provincial towns but instead were concentrated to great effect around the capital—itself a dispersed string of settlements rather than a city—and focused on the central figure in society, the king. In the 3rd and early 2nd millennia, the elite ideal, expressed in the decoration of private tombs, was manorial and rural. Not until much later did Egyptians develop a more pronouncedly urban character.

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Ancient Egypt

By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 24, 2023 | Original: October 14, 2009

Ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world for almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of the New Kingdom, Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and historians and created a vibrant field of study all its own: Egyptology. The main sources of information about ancient Egypt are the many monuments, objects and artifacts that have been recovered from archaeological sites, covered with hieroglyphs that have only recently been deciphered. The picture that emerges is of a culture with few equals in the beauty of its art, the accomplishment of its architecture or the richness of its religious traditions.

Predynastic Period (c. 5000-3100 B.C.)

Few written records or artifacts have been found from the Predynastic Period, which encompassed at least 2,000 years of gradual development of the Egyptian civilization.

Did you know? During the rule of Akhenaton, his wife Nefertiti played an important political and religious role in the monotheistic cult of the sun god Aton. Images and sculptures of Nefertiti depict her famous beauty and role as a living goddess of fertility.

Neolithic (late Stone Age ) communities in northeastern Africa exchanged hunting for agriculture and made early advances that paved the way for the later development of Egyptian arts and crafts, technology, politics and religion (including a great reverence for the dead and possibly a belief in life after death).

Around 3400 B.C., two separate kingdoms were established near the Fertile Crescent , an area home to some of the world’s oldest civilizations: the Red Land to the north, based in the Nile River Delta and extending along the Nile perhaps to Atfih; and the White Land in the south, stretching from Atfih to Gebel es-Silsila. A southern king, Scorpion, made the first attempts to conquer the northern kingdom around 3200 B.C. A century later, King Menes would subdue the north and unify the country, becoming the first king of the first dynasty.

Archaic (Early Dynastic) Period (c. 3100-2686 B.C.)

King Menes founded the capital of ancient Egypt at White Walls (later known as Memphis), in the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. The capital would grow into a great metropolis that dominated Egyptian society during the Old Kingdom period. The Archaic Period saw the development of the foundations of Egyptian society, including the all-important ideology of kingship. To the ancient Egyptians, the king was a godlike being, closely identified with the all-powerful god Horus. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing also dates to this period.

In the Archaic Period, as in all other periods, most ancient Egyptians were farmers living in small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the great Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year; farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it before the season of high temperatures and drought returned.

Old Kingdom: Age of the Pyramid Builders (c. 2686-2181 B.C.)

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The Old Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 B.C., the third dynasty’s King Djoser asked Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, to design a funerary monument for him; the result was the world’s first major stone building, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, near Memphis. Egyptian pyramid -building reached its zenith with the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Built for Khufu (or Cheops, in Greek), who ruled from 2589 to 2566 B.C., the pyramid was later named by classical historians as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . The ancient Greek historian Herodotus estimated that it took 100,000 men 20 years to build it. Two other pyramids were built at Giza for Khufu’s successors Khafra (2558-2532 B.C) and Menkaura (2532-2503 B.C.).

During the third and fourth dynasties, Egypt enjoyed a golden age of peace and prosperity. The pharaohs held absolute power and provided a stable central government; the kingdom faced no serious threats from abroad; and successful military campaigns in foreign countries like Nubia and Libya added to its considerable economic prosperity. Over the course of the fifth and sixth dynasties, the king’s wealth was steadily depleted, partially due to the huge expense of pyramid-building, and his absolute power faltered in the face of the growing influence of the nobility and the priesthood that grew up around the sun god Ra (Re). After the death of the sixth dynasty’s King Pepy II, who ruled for some 94 years, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.

First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 B.C.)

On the heels of the Old Kingdom’s collapse, the seventh and eighth dynasties consisted of a rapid succession of Memphis-based rulers until about 2160 B.C., when the central authority completely dissolved, leading to civil war between provincial governors. This chaotic situation was intensified by Bedouin invasions and accompanied by famine and disease.

From this era of conflict emerged two different kingdoms: A line of 17 rulers (dynasties nine and 10) based in Heracleopolis ruled Middle Egypt between Memphis and Thebes, while another family of rulers arose in Thebes to challenge Heracleopolitan power. Around 2055 B.C., the Theban prince Mentuhotep managed to topple Heracleopolis and reunited Egypt, beginning the 11th dynasty and ending the First Intermediate Period.

Middle Kingdom: 12th Dynasty (c. 2055-1786 B.C.)

After the last ruler of the 11th dynasty, Mentuhotep IV, was assassinated, the throne passed to his vizier, or chief minister, who became King Amenemhet I, founder of dynasty 12. A new capital was established at It-towy, south of Memphis, while Thebes remained a great religious center. During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt once again flourished, as it had during the Old Kingdom. The 12th dynasty kings ensured the smooth succession of their line by making each successor co-regent, a custom that began with Amenemhet I.

Middle-Kingdom Egypt pursued an aggressive foreign policy, colonizing Nubia (with its rich supply of gold, ebony, ivory and other resources) and repelling the Bedouins who had infiltrated Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. The kingdom also built diplomatic and trade relations with Syria , Palestine and other countries; undertook building projects including military fortresses and mining quarries; and returned to pyramid-building in the tradition of the Old Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom reached its peak under Amenemhet III (1842-1797 B.C.); its decline began under Amenenhet IV (1798-1790 B.C.) and continued under his sister and regent, Queen Sobekneferu (1789-1786 B.C.), who was the first confirmed female ruler of Egypt and the last ruler of the 12th dynasty.

Second Intermediate Period (c. 1786-1567 B.C.)

The 13th dynasty marked the beginning of another unsettled period in Egyptian history, during which a rapid succession of kings failed to consolidate power. As a consequence, during the Second Intermediate Period Egypt was divided into several spheres of influence. The official royal court and seat of government was relocated to Thebes, while a rival dynasty (the 14th), centered on the city of Xois in the Nile delta, seems to have existed at the same time as the 13th.

Around 1650 B.C., a line of foreign rulers known as the Hyksos took advantage of Egypt’s instability to take control. The Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty adopted and continued many of the existing Egyptian traditions in government as well as culture. They ruled concurrently with the line of native Theban rulers of the 17th dynasty, who retained control over most of southern Egypt despite having to pay taxes to the Hyksos. (The 16th dynasty is variously believed to be Theban or Hyksos rulers.) Conflict eventually flared between the two groups, and the Thebans launched a war against the Hyksos around 1570 B.C., driving them out of Egypt.

Ramses’ Temple at Abu Simbel

Ramses built the Temple at Abu Simbel in Egypt to intimidate his enemies and seat himself amongst the gods.

Building the Great Obelisks at Luxor

Workers carved the 700‑ton Obelisks of Luxor from a single piece of red granite.

History of the Mummy

A step by step process of how a body was prepared for mummification. The brain was removed along with all other major organs except the heart.

New Kingdom (c. 1567-1085 B.C.)

Under Ahmose I, the first king of the 18th dynasty, Egypt was once again reunited. During the 18th dynasty, Egypt restored its control over Nubia and began military campaigns in  Palestine , clashing with other powers in the area such as the Mitannians and the Hittites. The country went on to establish the world’s first great empire, stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River in Asia. In addition to powerful kings such as Amenhotep I (1546-1526 B.C.), Thutmose I (1525-1512 B.C.) and Amenhotep III (1417-1379 B.C.), the New Kingdom was notable for the role of royal women such as Queen Hatshepsut (1503-1482 B.C.), who began ruling as a regent for her young stepson (he later became Thutmose III, Egypt’s greatest military hero), but rose to wield all the powers of a pharaoh.

The controversial Amenhotep IV (c. 1379-1362), of the late 18th dynasty, undertook a religious revolution, disbanding the priesthoods dedicated to Amon-Re (a combination of the local Theban god Amon and the sun god Re) and forcing the exclusive worship of another sun-god, Aton. Renaming himself Akhenaton (“servant of the Aton”), he built a new capital in Middle Egypt called Akhetaton, known later as Amarna. Upon Akhenaton’s death, the capital returned to Thebes and Egyptians returned to worshiping a multitude of gods. The 19th and 20th dynasties, known as the Ramesside period (for the line of kings named Ramses) saw the restoration of the weakened Egyptian empire and an impressive amount of building, including great temples and cities. According to biblical chronology, the exodus of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt possibly occurred during the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.).

All of the New Kingdom rulers (with the exception of Akhenaton) were laid to rest in deep, rock-cut tombs (not pyramids) in the Valley of the Kings, a burial site on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes. Most of them were raided and destroyed, with the exception of the tomb and treasure of Tutankhamen (c.1361-1352 B.C.), discovered largely intact in A.D. 1922. The splendid mortuary temple of the last great king of the 20th dynasty, Ramses III (c. 1187-1156 B.C.), was also relatively well preserved, and indicated the prosperity Egypt still enjoyed during his reign. The kings who followed Ramses III were less successful: Egypt lost its provinces in Palestine and Syria for good and suffered from foreign invasions (notably by the Libyans), while its wealth was being steadily but inevitably depleted.

Third Intermediate Period (c. 1085-664 B.C.)

The next 400 years–known as the Third Intermediate Period–saw important changes in Egyptian politics, society and culture. Centralized government under the 21st dynasty pharaohs gave way to the resurgence of local officials, while foreigners from Libya and Nubia grabbed power for themselves and left a lasting imprint on Egypt’s population. The 22nd dynasty began around 945 B.C. with King Sheshonq, a descendant of Libyans who had invaded Egypt during the late 20th dynasty and settled there. Many local rulers were virtually autonomous during this period and dynasties 23-24 are poorly documented.

In the eighth century B.C., Nubian pharaohs beginning with Shabako, ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Kush, established their own dynasty–the 25th–at Thebes. Under Kushite rule, Egypt clashed with the growing Assyrian empire. In 671 B.C., the Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon drove the Kushite king Taharka out of Memphis and destroyed the city; he then appointed his own rulers out of local governors and officials loyal to the Assyrians. One of them, Necho of Sais, ruled briefly as the first king of the 26th dynasty before being killed by the Kushite leader Tanuatamun, in a final, unsuccessful grab for power.

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From the Late Period to Alexander’s Conquest (c.664-332 B.C.)

Beginning with Necho’s son, Psammetichus, the Saite dynasty ruled a reunified Egypt for less than two centuries. In 525 B.C., Cambyses, king of Persia, defeated Psammetichus III, the last Saite king, at the Battle of Pelusium, and Egypt became part of the Persian Empire . Persian rulers such as Darius (522-485 B.C.) ruled the country largely under the same terms as native Egyptian kings: Darius supported Egypt’s religious cults and undertook the building and restoration of its temples. The tyrannical rule of Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) sparked increased uprisings under him and his successors. One of these rebellions triumphed in 404 B.C., beginning one last period of Egyptian independence under native rulers (dynasties 28-30).

In the mid-fourth century B.C., the Persians again attacked Egypt, reviving their empire under Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C. Barely a decade later, in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated the armies of the Persian Empire and conquered Egypt. After Alexander’s death, Egypt was ruled by a line of Macedonian kings, beginning with Alexander’s general Ptolemy and continuing with his descendants. The last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt–the legendary Cleopatra VII–surrendered Egypt to the armies of Octavian (later Augustus ) in 31 B.C. Six centuries of Roman rule followed, during which Christianity became the official religion of Rome and the Roman Empire’s provinces (including Egypt). The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in the seventh century A.D. and the introduction of Islam would do away with the last outward aspects of ancient Egyptian culture and propel the country towards its modern incarnation.

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115 Ancient Egypt Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Ancient Egypt is one of the most fascinating civilizations in history, with a rich culture, impressive architecture, and numerous achievements that still amaze us today. If you're studying this ancient civilization or simply have a keen interest in it, you may find yourself needing essay topic ideas. To help you out, here are 115 Ancient Egypt essay topic ideas and examples that cover various aspects of this captivating civilization:

• The significance of the Nile River in Ancient Egypt's development.
• The role of pharaohs in Ancient Egypt's political structure.
• Comparing and contrasting the roles of men and women in Ancient Egyptian society.
• The construction and purpose of the pyramids.
• The religious beliefs and practices of Ancient Egyptians.
• The process of mummification and its importance in Ancient Egypt.
• The significance of hieroglyphics in Ancient Egyptian communication.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian art on other civilizations.
• The impact of trade and commerce on Ancient Egypt's economy.
• Exploring the social hierarchy in Ancient Egyptian society.
• The role of priests and temples in Ancient Egyptian religious life.
• The importance of the afterlife in Ancient Egyptian beliefs.
• The contributions of Ancient Egyptian mathematics and astronomy.
• The role of women in religion and worship in Ancient Egypt.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian medicine on modern practices.
• The cultural significance of Ancient Egyptian jewelry.
• The process of deciphering hieroglyphics and its impact on our understanding of Ancient Egypt.
• The role of animals in Ancient Egyptian religion and symbolism.
• The impact of the annual flooding of the Nile on Ancient Egyptian agriculture.
• The evolution of Ancient Egyptian architecture over time.
• The use of magic and amulets in Ancient Egyptian society.
• The significance of the Rosetta Stone in decoding Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.
• The role of music and dance in Ancient Egyptian culture.
• The impact of foreign invasions on Ancient Egypt's decline.
• The portrayal of Ancient Egypt in popular culture and media.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian literature and storytelling.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian fashion on later civilizations.
• The role of scribes in Ancient Egyptian society.
• The impact of climate change on Ancient Egypt's civilization.
• The significance of obelisks in Ancient Egyptian architecture.
• The role of Nubia in Ancient Egypt's trade and cultural exchange.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian festivals and celebrations.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian beliefs and practices on modern spirituality.
• The significance of the Book of the Dead in Ancient Egyptian funerary rituals.
• The role of women as rulers in Ancient Egypt.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian inventions on later civilizations.
• The process of creating papyrus and its importance in Ancient Egyptian writing.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses in everyday life.
• The impact of the Hittite-Egyptian peace treaty on Ancient Egypt's foreign relations.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian tombs and burial rituals.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian education and learning.
• The impact of natural resources on Ancient Egypt's economy.
• The development of Ancient Egyptian military strategies and weapons.
• The significance of the Valley of the Kings in Ancient Egyptian history.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian queens in the royal family.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian agriculture on food production.
• The significance of the Sphinx in Ancient Egyptian mythology.
• The role of magic and spells in Ancient Egyptian daily life.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian architecture on Greek and Roman structures.
• The significance of the Amarna Period in Ancient Egyptian history.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian trade routes on cultural exchange.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian priests in maintaining social order.
• The significance of the Great Sphinx in relation to pharaohs.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian hairstyles and cosmetics on fashion trends.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian astronomy on navigation.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian chariots in warfare.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian priests in healing and medicine.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics on writing systems.
• The significance of the Temple of Luxor in Ancient Egyptian religion.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian queens as regents.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian architecture on modern-day buildings.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian amulets in protection and symbolism.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian textiles on fashion and design.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian pharaohs as divine rulers.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian animal mummies in religious rituals.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian musical instruments on later civilizations.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian irrigation systems on agriculture.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian artisans in creating beautiful artwork.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian boats in trade and transportation.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian mirrors and cosmetics in daily life.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian temples on tourism today.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian priests in performing rituals and ceremonies.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian board games in leisure activities.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian hairstyles on beauty standards.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian jewelry on fashion trends.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian scribes in record-keeping and administration.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian canopic jars in mummification.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian perfume on the fragrance industry.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian courtship and marriage rituals.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian dancers in religious ceremonies.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian wall paintings in tombs.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian ophthalmology in eye treatments.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian boats on maritime navigation.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian musicians in entertainment.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian love poetry in literature.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian hairstyles on modern hairdressing.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian pottery on ceramics.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian embalmers in the mummification process.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian scarab beetles in symbolism.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian tattoos in body art.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian agricultural practices on sustainable farming.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian architects in city planning.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian animal worship in religion.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian fashion on costume design.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian musical notation on music composition.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian dancers in storytelling.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian magical spells in daily life.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian mirrors in personal grooming.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian naval warfare on maritime history.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian queens as political advisors.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian funeral processions in honoring the deceased.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian hairstyles on modern hair accessories.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian pottery on trade and cultural exchange.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian embalmers in preserving the dead.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian scarab amulets in protection.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian tattoos in social status.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian agricultural techniques on modern farming.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian architecture on urban planning.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian priests in animal worship.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian fashion in expressing identity.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian musicians in religious ceremonies.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian magical spells on daily life.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian mirrors in reflecting beauty ideals.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian naval technology in maritime exploration.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian queens on political decision-making.

These essay topic ideas provide a broad range of choices for exploring various aspects of Ancient Egypt. Whether you're interested in its art, religion, social structure, or technological advancements, there's a topic here to suit your interests. Dive into the enchanting world of Ancient Egypt and discover the wonders of this ancient civilization through your essays.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Ancient Egypt — Egypt Civilization

Egypt Civilization

• Categories: Ancient Egypt

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Words: 800 |

Published: Mar 19, 2024

Words: 800 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

I. introduction, ii. social structure in ancient egypt, iii. religious beliefs of ancient egypt, iv. artistic achievements in ancient egypt, v. legacy of ancient egypt civilization, vi. conclusion.

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The world of ancient Egypt

Few civilizations have enjoyed the longevity and global cultural reach of ancient Egypt. Their distinct visual expressions, writing system, and imposing monuments are instantly recognizable by viewers all around the world even today—put simply, their branding was on point. 

Pyramid of Khafre, Egypt (photo: MusikAnimal, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Despite portraying significant stability over a vast period of time, their civilization was not as static as it may appear at first glance, particularly if viewed through our modern eyes and cultural perspectives . Instead, the culture was dynamic even as it revolved around a stable core of imagery and concepts. The ancient Egyptians adjusted to new experiences, constantly adding to their complex beliefs about the divine and terrestrial realms, and how they interact. This flexibility, wrapped around a base of consistency, was part of the reason ancient Egypt survived for millennia and continues to fascinate.  

Read an introductory essay about ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt: an introduction

/ 1 Completed

The Natural World of Egypt

View of the Nile River, Egypt (photo: Badics, CC BY-SA 3.0)

With the blazing sun above, flanked by vast seas of shifting sand, and fed by the life-giving Nile River (which hid frightening creatures beneath its dark waters), the natural world of Egypt was inherently beautiful but also potentially deadly. Outside the lush river valley, there was little protection from the ever-dominant sun, whose intensity was both feared and revered. The deserts were home not only to many dangerous creatures, but the sands themselves were also unpredictable and constantly shifting. The clear night skies dazzled with millions of stars, some of which seemed to move of their own accord while others rose and fell at trackable intervals. The Nile, with its annual floods, brought fertility and renewal to the land, but could also overflow and wreak havoc on the villages that lined its banks. Careful observers of their environment, the Egyptians perceived divine forces in these phenomena and many of their deities, such as the powerful sun god Ra, were connected with elements from the natural world.

Hieroglyphs, detail from the White Chapel, Karnak (photo: Dr. Amy Calvert)

The perception of divine powers existing in the natural world was particularly true in connection with the animals that inhabited the region. There was an array of creatures that the Egyptians would have observed or interacted with on a regular basis and they feature heavily in the culture. One of the most distinctive visual attributes of Egyptian imagery is the myriad deities that were portrayed in hybrid form, with a human body and animal head. In addition, a wide range of birds, fishes, mammals, reptiles, and other creatures appear prominently in the hieroglyphic script —there are dozens of different birds alone.

Nebamun fowling in the marshes, Tomb-chapel of Nebamun, c. 1350 B.C.E., 18th Dynasty, paint on plaster, 83 x 98 cm, Thebes (© Trustees of the British Museum)

The Nile was packed with numerous types of fish, which were recorded in great detail in fishing scenes that became a fixture in non-royal tombs. Most relief and painting throughout Egypt’s history was created for divine or mortuary settings and they were primarily intended to be functional. Many tomb scenes included the life-giving Nile and all it’s abundance with the goal of making that bounty available for the deceased in the afterlife. In addition to the array of fish, the river also teemed with far more dangerous animals, like crocodiles and hippopotami. Protective spells and magical gestures were used from early on to aid the Egyptians in avoiding those watery perils as they went about their daily lives.

Hunefer (center) flanked by two deities: the ibis-headed Thoth (left) and the falcon-headed Horus (right), from Hunefer’s Judgement in the presence of Osiris, Book of the Dead of Hunefer, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E., papyrus, Thebes, Egypt (British Museum)

The desert, likewise, was full of potentially dangerous creatures. Lions, leopards, jackals, cobras, and scorpions were all revered for their attributes and feared for their ferocity. Soaring above were birds of prey, like falcons who were sharp-eyed hunters, and massive vultures that consumed decaying flesh and fed it to their young. Scarab beetles also seemingly brought new life from decay and the sacred ibis with their curved beaks found sustenance hidden in the muddy banks of the Nile. All of these creatures (and many others) became closely associated with different deities very early in Egyptian history. The Egyptians did not worship animals; instead, certain animals were revered because it was believed that they were related to particular gods and thus served as earthly manifestations of those deities.

Model scene of workers ploughing a field, Middle Kingdom, late Dynasty 11, 2010–1961 B.C.E., wood, 54 cm (MFA Boston)

Even domesticated animals, such as cows, bulls, rams, and geese, became associated with deities and were viewed as vitally important. Cattle were probably the first animals to be domesticated in Egypt and domesticated cattle, donkeys, and rams appear along with wild animals on Predynastic and Early Dynastic votive objects , showing massive herds that were controlled by early rulers, demonstrating their wealth and prestige. Pastoral scenes of animal husbandry appear in numerous private tomb chapels and wooden models, providing detailed evidence of their daily practices. Herdsmen appear caring for their animals in depictions that include milking, calving, protecting the cattle as they cross the river, feeding, herding, and many other aspects of their day-to-day care.

The Battlefield Palette , c. 3100 B.C.E., mudstone, found at el-Amarna, Egypt, 19.6 x 32.8 cm (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Already in the Predynastic period the king was linked with the virile wild bull, an association that continues throughout Egyptian history—one of the primary items of royal regalia was a bull tail, which appears on a huge number of pharaonic images. An early connection between the king and lions is also apparent. One scene on a Predynastic ceremonial palette ( The Battlefield Palette), shows the triumphant king as a massive lion devouring his defeated foes. First Dynasty kings appear to have kept lion cubs as pets.

The Great Sphinx (photo: superblinkymac, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

In addition, lions (among other animals) were associated with the burials of some early rulers. One of the most iconic images from ancient Egypt is the massive Great Sphinx at Giza, which was sculpted from the living rock of the plateau. This fused form, with the body of a lion and the head of the king, became a common visual expression of royal power. 

Historical Setting

While many of the religious and cultural characteristics of ancient Egypt were evident from very early on and continued all the way through the Roman era (contributing to overall cultural stability), sweeping conceptual developments and adoptions of external elements are also evident. Throughout ancient Egypt’s long history, periods of unified control were interspersed with moments of instability where parts of the country were controlled by different authorities. These repeated waves of political and cultural development create a decidedly complex history that  spans thousands of years.

Read essays to understand the historical setting and basic characteristics of each era

Ancient Egyptian chronology and historical framework: an introduction

Predynastic and Early Dynastic:  an introduction

Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period: an introduction

Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period: an introduction

New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period: an introduction

Late Period and the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods: an introduction

/ 6 Completed

Social Organization

Conceptually, the Egyptian state was an absolute monarchy where the office of pharaoh itself was considered divine. The pharaoh (king) was viewed as the earthly manifestation of the god Horus, and was responsible as the supreme commander for making all decisions affecting the nation. In reality, the king stood at the head of a hierarchical administrative structure with layers of civil officials that oversaw various systems and were responsible to the king for their success. 

Seated Scribe​ , c. 2500 B.C.E., c. 4th Dynasty, Old Kingdom, painted limestone with rock crystal, magnesite, and copper/arsenic inlay for the eyes and wood for the nipples, found in Saqqara (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Most Egyptians followed the careers of their fathers and were taught by apprenticeship. Only the children of the higher classes, destined to become officials, were taught in schools and learned to read and write. Money in the modern sense did not exist in Egypt until the mid-fourth century B.C.E., so wages were usually paid in grain that could then be exchanged for copper or silver. Agriculture was the basis of the Egyptian economy and the foundation of the state, and produce was delivered to central storehouses to be administered and distributed.

Read essays about the various social strata in Egyptian society

Egyptian Social Organization: The Pharaoh

Egyptian Social Organization: Administrative officials, priests, ranks of the military, and the general population

/ 2 Completed

Art and Function

Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut , c. 1479–1458 B.C.E., Dynasty 18, New Kingdom (Deir el-Bahri, Upper Egypt), granite, 261.5 x 80 x 137 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Egyptian art is sometimes viewed as static and abstract when compared with the more naturalistic depictions of other cultures (ancient Greece for example). Much of Egyptian imagery—especially royal imagery—was governed by decorum (a sense of what was appropriate), and remained extraordinarily consistent throughout its long history. This is why their art may appear unchanging—and this was intentional. For the ancient Egyptians, consistency was a virtue and an expression of political stability, divine balance, and clear evidence of ma’at and the correctness of their culture. The Egyptians even had a tendency, especially after periods of disunion, towards archaism where the artistic style would revert to that of the earlier Old Kingdom which was perceived as a “golden age.”

Read essays about art and function

Ancient Egyptian art: an introduction its function and basic characteristics

Materials and techniques in ancient Egyptian art: an introduction

Consistency and balance

The canon of proportions grid is clearly visible in the lower, unfinished register of the Stela of Userwer, and the use of hieratic scale (where the most important figures are largest) is evident the second register that shows Userwer, his wife and his parents seated and at a larger scale than the figures offering before them. Detail of the stela of the sculptor Userwer, 12th dynasty, limestone, from Egypt, 52 x 48 cm wide (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Consistency in representation was closely related to a fundamental belief that depictions had an impact beyond the image itself. This belief led to an active resistance to changes in codified depictions. Even the way that figures were planned and laid out by the artists was codified. During the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians developed a grid system, referred to as the canon of proportions, for creating systematic figures with the same proportions. Grid lines aligned with the top of the head, top of the shoulder, waist, hips, knees, and bottom of the foot (among other body joints). 

King Menkaura (Mycerinus) and Queen, 2490–2472 B.C.E., Old Kingdom, Dynasty 4, greywacke, Menkaura Valley Temple, Giza, Egypt, 142.2 x 57.1 x 55.2 cm, 676.8 kg (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The grid aided the artist in ensuring that the proportions of their figures were correct, but those proportions shifted over time. For example, although 18 squares was the standard used for much of Egypt’s history, in the Amarna period 20 squares were used, resulting in figures with more elongated proportions. 

Thutmose, Model Bust of Queen Nefertiti , c. 1340 BCE, limestone and plaster, New Kingdom, 18th dynasty, Amarna Period (Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection/Neues Museum, Berlin)

Below are several examples of Egyptian art that demonstrate their primary stylistic characteristics. These include:

• the use of hierarchical scale
• the use of registers
• use of the canon of proportions (described above)
• a preference for balance
• the integration of perspectives.  

Read essays and watch videos about consistency and balance

Stela of the sculptor Userwer: The lower part is still covered with the grid used for ensuring that the proportions of the figures were correct.

King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen: They both look beyond the present and into timeless eternity, their otherworldly visage displaying no human emotion whatsoever.

Thutmose, Model Bust of Queen Nefertiti : This stunning bust exemplifies a change in style.

The Seated Scribe: This painted statue differs from the ideal statues of pharaohs.

/ 4 Completed

Creative details

Nude figure of the Seal Bearer Tjetji, 2321 B.C.E.–2184 B.C.E. (6th Dynasty), from Akhmim, Upper Egypt, wood, obsidian, limestone, and copper, 75 cm high (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Although much Egyptian art is formal, many surviving examples of highly expressive depictions full of creative details prove that the ancient Egyptian artists were fully capable of naturalistic representations. Note, for example, the sensitive modeling of the musculature and close attention paid to realistic physical detail evident in a wood statue of a high official (the Seal Bearer Tjetji) from a Late Old Kingdom tomb. These very unusual and enigmatic statuettes of nude high officials, which are depicted in a standard pose of striding forward with left leg advanced and holding a long staff, were often painted and had eyes of inlaid stone set in copper. 

Musicians and dancers (detail), A feast for Nebamun, Tomb-chapel of Nebamun, c. 1350 B.C.E., 18th Dynasty, paint on plaster, whole fragment: 88 x 119 cm, Thebes © Trustees of the British Museum

Nebamun’s tomb, with its spectacular paintings, includes several examples that demonstrate a careful observation of the natural world—especially notable in the energetic hunting cat and the sinuous dancing of the entertainers at the banquet. A marvelous wooden head of Queen Tiye presents a woman of strong personality with details that hint at her formidable character. 

Portrait Head of Queen Tiye with a Crown of Two Feathers , c. 1355 B.C.E., Amarna Period, Dynasty 18, New Kingdom, Egypt, yew wood, lapis lazuli, silver, gold, faience, 22.5 cm high (Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection at the Neues Museum, Berlin)

Read essays about creative details

Wooden tomb statue of Tjeti: T he sculptor of this example has carefully modeled the muscles on the torso and legs, and paid close attention to the detail of the face.

Paintings from the Tomb-chapel of Nebamun: He is shown hunting birds from a small boat in the marshes of the Nile with his wife Hatshepsut and their young daughter.

Portrait Head of Queen Tiye: She was a powerful figure, but her royal life was complicated, as demonstrated through this changing statue.

/ 3 Completed

Metalworking Traditions

Scene showing the manufacture of valuable items, such as jewelry. Wall-painting, probably from the tomb of Sobekhotep, Thebes, c. 1400 B.C.E., New Kingdom, reign of Thutmose IV, painted stucco, 60 x 58.5 (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Egyptian artisans were highly skilled metalworkers from early times; although few metal sculptures have survived, those that are preserved show an incredible level of technical achievement. As with other types of craft, like woodworking, preserved images of artisans in their workshops found in private tombs provide information about the processes of production For instance, we can see a group of jewelers at work in a painting from the tomb of Sebekhotep.

Pectoral and Necklace of Sithathoryunet with the Name of Senwosret II, Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12, reign of Senwosret II, c. 1887–1878 B.C.E., Egypt, Fayum Entrance Area, el-Lahun (Illahun, Kahun; Ptolemais Hormos), Tomb of Sithathoryunet (BSA Tomb 8), EES 1914, Gold, carnelian, feldspar, garnet, turquoise, lapis lazuli

The most beautifully crafted pieces of jewelry display elegant designs, incredible intricacy, and astonishingly precise stone-cutting and inlay, reaching a level that modern jewelers would be hard-pressed to achieve. The jewelry of a Middle Kingdom princess, found in her tomb at el-Lahun in the Fayum region is one spectacular example.  

Statuette of Thutmose IV, 1400–1390 B.C.E., 19th Dynasty, ancient Egypt, bronze, silver, calcite, 14.7 x 6.4 cm (© Trustees of the British Museum)

The metal statues that survive demonstrate a high level of skill in both sheet working/metal forming and casting in copper and bronze. This marvelous hollow-cast bronze statuette of a kneeling Thutmosis IV, presenting an offering of wine, provides a peek into the abilities of Egypt’s craftsmen. Note that the arms were created separately and joined to the body on tenons and the eyes were originally inlaid.

Read essays and watch a video about metalworking traditions

Paintings from the tomb of Sebekhotep: Images show jewelers at work.

Pectoral and necklace of Sithathoryunet: Fashioned delicately in gold, carnelian, feldspar, garnet, turquoise, and lapis lazuli.

Bronze statuette of Thutmose IV:  Very few metal statues survive that date from before the Late Period, though the Egyptians did have the technology to make large copper statues as early as the Old Kingdom.

This brief glimpse at the world of ancient Egypt is just a springboard for gaining an understanding of this compelling and complex culture. 

A final note

The wonder of the internet is the astonishing access to information; one of the big problems with the internet is that anyone, regardless of knowledge or training, can post whatever they like and that information is presented at the same level as content put out by the experienced and trained. Information about ancient Egypt should always come from a well-vetted source, as there is a great deal of misinformation. The culture is astonishing enough on its own. Egypt remains highly influential across different areas of culture and vast swaths of time and space—Egyptian glass beads have been excavated in Viking tombs and revivals of Egyptian style still happen on an almost cyclical basis, even millenia later. We are surrounded by Egyptian imagery and concepts even if we don’t realize it; those emojis we use with such abandon are decidedly hieroglyphic. The more we know about what came before, the better we can grasp everything that has happened since. Only by understanding the past can we really envision the possibilities of the present and plan for the future.   

Key questions to guide your reading

How did the annual flooding of the nile help form the egyptian view of the world, how might the regular behavior of certain animals—like falcons, vultures, snakes, and scarab beetles— suggest "heavenly wisdom" to the careful observer, how would you want to be depicted for eternity what identifying symbols would you want to include, terms to know and use.

canon of proportions

hierarchical scale

Need teaching images?  Here is a  Google Slideshow with many of the primary images in this chapter

Read a chapter about Ancient Egyptian religious life and afterlife

Collaborators

Dr. Amy Calvert

Dr. Beth Harris

Dr. Steven Zucker

The British Museum

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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The Oxford History Of Ancient Egypt

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The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt is the only up-to-date, single-volume history of ancient Egypt available in English. The accessible essays and attractive illustrations portray the emergence and development of the distinctive civilization of the ancient Egyptians, from their prehistoric origins to their incorporation into the Roman Empire, covering the period from c. 700,000 BC to AD 311. The authors - all experts working at the cutting edge of their particular fields - outline the principal sequence of political events, including detailed examinations of the three so-called 'intermediate periods' which were previously regarded as 'dark ages' and are only now beginning to be better understood. Against the backdrop of the rise and fall of ruling dynasties, this Oxford History also examines cultural and social patterns, including stylistic developments in art and literature. The pace of change in such aspects of Egyptian culture as monumental architecture, funerary beliefs, and ethnicity was not necessarily tied to the rate of political change. Each of the authors of this history has therefore set out to elucidate, in both words and pictures, the underlying patterns of social and political change and to describe the changing face of ancient Egypt, from the biographical details of individuals to the social and economic factors that shaped the lives of the population as a whole.

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Ancient Egyptian Literature

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Ancient Egyptian Literature comprises a wide array of narrative and poetic forms including inscriptions on tombs, stele, obelisks, and temples; myths, stories, and legends; religious writings; philosophical works; wisdom literature; autobiographies; biographies; histories; poetry; hymns; personal essays; letters and court records.

Although many of these forms are not usually defined as "literature" they are given that designation in Egyptian studies because so many of them, especially from the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE), are of such high literary merit. The first examples of Egyptian writing come from the Early Dynastic Period (c. 6000- c. 3150 BCE) in the form of Offering Lists and autobiographies; the autobiography was carved on one's tomb along with the Offering List to let the living know what gifts, and in what quantity, the deceased was due regularly in visiting the grave .

Since the dead were thought to live on after their bodies had failed, regular offerings at graves were an important consideration; the dead still had to eat and drink even if they no longer held a physical form. From the Offering List came the Prayer for Offerings , a standard literary work which would replace the Offering List, and from the autobiographies grew the Pyramid Texts which were accounts of a king's reign and his successful journey to the afterlife; both these developments took place during the period of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-c.2181 BCE).

These texts were written in hieroglyphics ("sacred carvings") a writing system combining phonograms (symbols which represent sound), logograms (symbols representing words), and ideograms (symbols which represent meaning or sense). Hieroglyphic writing was extremely labor intensive and so another script grew up beside it known as hieratic ("sacred writings") which was faster to work with and easier to use.

Hieratic was based on hieroglyphic script and relied on the same principles but was less formal and precise. Hieroglyphic script was written with particular care for the aesthetic beauty of the arrangement of the symbols; hieratic script was used to relay information quickly and easily. In c. 700 BCE hieratic was replaced by demotic script ("popular writing") which continued in use until the rise of Christianity in Egypt and the adoption of Coptic script c. 4th century CE.

Most of Egyptian literature was written in hieroglyphics or hieratic script; hieroglyphics were used on monuments such as tombs, obelisks, stele, and temples while hieratic script was used in writing on papyrus scrolls and ceramic pots. Although hieratic, and later demotic and Coptic, scripts became the common writing system of the educated and literate, hieroglyphics remained in use throughout Egypt's history for monumental structures until it was forgotten during the early Christian period.

Although the definition of "Egyptian Literature" includes many different types of writing, for the present purposes attention will mostly be paid to standard literary works such as stories, legends, myths, and personal essays; other kinds or work will be mentioned when they are particularly significant. Egyptian history, and so literature, spans centuries and fills volumes of books; a single article cannot hope to treat of the subject fairly in attempting to cover the wide range of written works of the culture .

Literature in the Old Kingdom

The Offering Lists and autobiographies, though not considered "literature", are the first examples of the Egyptian writing system in action. The Offering List was a simple instruction, known to the Egyptians as the hetep -di- nesw ("a boon given by the king"), inscribed on a tomb detailing food, drink, and other offerings appropriate for the person buried there. The autobiography, written after the person's death , was always inscribed in the first person as though the deceased were speaking. Egyptologist Miriam Lichtheim writes:

The basic aim of the autobiography - the self-portrait in words - was the same as that of the self-portrait in sculpture and relief: to sum up the characteristic features of the individual person in terms of his positive worth and in the face of eternity. (4)

These early obituaries came to be augmented by a type of formulaic writing now known as the Catalogue of Virtues which grew from "the new ability to capture the formless experiences of life in the enduring formulations of the written word" (Lichtheim, 5). The Catalogue of Virtues accentuated the good a person had done in his or her life and how worthy they were of remembrance. Lichtheim notes that the importance of the Virtues was that they "reflected the ethical standards of society" while at the same time making clear that the deceased had adhered to those standards (5). Some of these autobiographies and lists of virtues were brief, inscribed on a false door or around the lintels; others, such as the well-known Autobiography of Weni , were inscribed on large monolithic slabs and were quite detailed. The autobiography was written in prose; the Catalogue in formulaic poetry. A typical example of this is seen in the Inscription of Nefer-Seshem-Ra Called Sheshi from the 6th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom:

I have come from my town I have descended from my nome I have done justice for its lord I have satisfied him with what he loves. I spoke truly, I did right I spoke fairly, I repeated fairly I seized the right moment So as to stand well with people. I judged between two so as to content them I rescued the weak from the stronger than he As much as was in my power. I gave bread to the hungry, clothes to the naked I brought the boatless to land. I buried him who had no son, I made a boat for him who lacked one. I respected my father, I pleased my mother, I raised their children. So says he whose nickname is Sheshi. (Lichtheim, 17)

These autobiographies and virtue lists gave rise to the Pyramid Texts of the 5th and 6th dynasties which were reserved for royalty and told the story of a king's life, his virtues, and his journey to the afterlife; they therefore tried to encompass the earthly life of the deceased and his immortal journey on into the land of the gods and, in doing so, recorded early religious beliefs. Creation myths such as the famous story of Atum standing on the primordial mound amidst the swirling waters of chaos, weaving creation from nothing, comes from the Pyramid Texts . These inscriptions also include allusions to the story of Osiris , his murder by his brother Set, his resurrection from the dead by his sister-wife Isis , and her care for their son Horus in the marshes of the Delta.

Following closely on the heels of the Pyramid Texts , a body of literature known as the Instructions in Wisdom appeared. These works offer short maxims on how to live much along the lines of the biblical Book of Proverbs and, in many instances, anticipate the same kinds of advice one finds in Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Psalms, and other biblical narratives. The oldest Instruction is that of Prince Hardjedef written sometime in the 5th Dynasty which includes advice such as:

Cleanse yourself before your own eyes Lest another cleanse you. When you prosper, found your household, Take a hearty wife, a son will be born to you. It is for the son you build a house When you make a place for yourself. (Lichtheim, 58)

The somewhat later Instruction Addressed to Kagemni advises:

The respectful man prospers, Praised is the modest one. The tent is open to the silent, The seat of the quiet is spacious Do not chatter!... When you sit with company, Shun the food you love; Restraint is a brief moment Gluttony is base and is reproved. A cup of water quenches the thirst, A mouthful of herbs strengthens the heart. (Lichtheim, 59-60)

There were a number of such texts, all written according to the model of Mesopotamian Naru Literature , in which the work is ascribed to, or prominently features, a famous figure. The actual Prince Hardjedef did not write his Instruction nor was Kagemni's addressed to the actual Kagemni. As in Naru literature, a well-known person was chosen to give the material more weight and so wider acceptance. Wisdom Literature, the Pyramid Texts , and the autobiographical inscriptions developed significantly during the Old Kingdom and became the foundation for the literature of the Middle Kingdom.

Middle Kingdom Literature

The Middle Kingdom is considered the classical age of Egyptian literature. During this time the script known as Middle Egyptian was created, considered the highest form of hieroglyphics and the one most often seen on monuments and other artifacts in museums in the present day. Egyptologist Rosalie David comments on this period:

The literature of this era reflected the added depth and maturity that the country now gained as a result of the civil wars and upheavals of the First Intermediate Period . New genres of literature were developed including the so-called Pessimistic Literature, which perhaps best exemplifies the self-analysis and doubts that the Egyptians now experienced. (209)

The Pessimistic Literature David mentions is some of the greatest work of the Middle Kingdom in that it not only expresses a depth of understanding of the complexities of life but does so in high prose. Some of the best known works of this genre (generally known as Didactic Literature because it teaches some lesson) are The Dispute Between a Man and his Ba (soul) , The Eloquent Peasant , The Satire of the Trades , The Instruction of King Amenemhet I for his Son Senusret I , the Prophecies of Neferti , and the Admonitions of Ipuwer .

The Dispute Between a Man and his Ba is considered the oldest text on suicide in the world. The piece presents a conversation between a narrator and his soul on the difficulties of life and how one is supposed to live in it. In passages reminiscent of Ecclesiastes or the biblical Book of Lamentations, the soul tries to console the man by reminding him of the good things in life, the goodness of the gods, and how he should enjoy life while he can because he will be dead soon enough. Egyptologist W.K. Simpson has translated the text as The Man Who Was Weary of Life and disagrees with the interpretation that it has to do with suicide. Simpson writes:

This Middle Kingdom text, preserved on Papyrus Berlin 3024, has often been interpreted as a debate between a man and his ba on the subject of suicide. I offer here the suggestion that the text is of a somewhat different nature. What is presented in this text is not a debate but a psychological picture of a man depressed by the evil of life to the point of feeling unable to arrive at any acceptance of the innate goodness of existence. His inner self is, as it were, unable to be integrated and at peace. (178)

The depth of the conversation between the man and his soul, the range of life experiences touched on, is also seen in the other works mentioned. In The Eloquent Peasant a poor man who can speak well is robbed by a wealthy landowner and presents his case to the mayor of the town. The mayor is so impressed with his speaking ability that he keeps refusing him justice so he can hear him speak further. Although in the end the peasant receives his due, the piece illustrates the injustice of having to humor and entertain those in positions of authority in order to receive what they should give freely.

The Satire of the Trades is presented as a man advising his son to become a scribe because life is hard and the best life possible is one where a man can sit around all day doing nothing but writing. All the other trades one could practice are presented as endless toil and suffering in a life which is too short and precious to waste on them.

The motif of the father advising his son on the best course in life is used in a number of other works. The Instruction of Amenemhat features the ghost of the assassinated king warning his son not to trust those close to him because people are not always what they seem to be; the best course is to keep one's own counsel and be wary of everyone else. Amenemhat's ghost tells the story of how he was murdered by those close to him because he made the mistake of believing the gods would reward him for a virtuous life by surrounding him with those he could trust. In Shakespeare's Hamlet Polonius advises his son, "Those friends thou hast, and their adoption tried/ Grapple them unto thy soul with hoops of steel/ But do not dull thy palm with entertainment of each new-hatched, unfledged courage" (I.iii.62-65). Polonius here is telling his son not to waste time on those he barely knows but to trust only those who have proven worthy. Amenemhat I's ghost makes it clear that even this is a foolish course:

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Put no trust in a brother, Acknowledge no one as a friend, Do not raise up for yourself intimate companions, For nothing is to be gained from them. When you lie down at night, let your own heart be watchful over you, For no man has any to defend him on the day of anguish. (Simpson, 168)

The actual king Amenemhat I (c. 1991-1962 BCE) was the first great king of the 12th Dynasty and was, in fact, assassinated by those close to him. The Instruction bearing his name was written later by an unknown scribe, probably at the request of Senusret I (c. 1971-1926 BCE) to eulogize his father and vilify the conspirators. Amenemhat I is further praised in the work Prophecies of Neferti which foretell the coming of a king (Amenemhat I) who will be a savior to the people, solve all the country's problems, and inaugurate a golden age. The work was written after Amenemhat I's death but presented as though it were an actual prophecy pre-dating his reign.

This motif of the "false prophecy" - a vision recorded after the event it supposedly predicts - is another element found in Mesopotamian Naru literature where the historical "facts" are reinterpreted to suit the purposes of the writer. In the case of the Prophecies of Neferti, the focus of the piece is on how mighty a king Amenemhat I was and so the vision of his reign is placed further back in time to show how he was chosen by the gods to fulfil this destiny and save his country. The piece also follows a common motif of Middle Kingdom literature in contrasting the time of prosperity of Amenemhat I's reign, a "golden age", with a previous one of disunity and chaos.

The Admonitions of Ipuwer touches on this theme of a golden age more completely. Once considered historical reportage, the piece has come to be recognized as literature of the order vs. chaos didactic genre in which a present time of despair and uncertainty is contrasted with an earlier era when all was good and life was easy. The Admonitions of Ipuwer is often cited by those wishing to align biblical narratives with Egyptian history as proof of the Ten Plagues from the Book of Exodus but it is no such thing.

Not only does it not - in any way - correlate to the biblical plagues but it is quite obviously a type of literary piece which many, many cultures have produced throughout history up to the present day. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that everyone, at some point in his or her life, has looked back on the past and compared it favorably to the present. The Admonitions of Ipuwer simply records that experience, though perhaps more eloquently than most, and can in no way be interpreted as an actual historical account.

In addition to these prose pieces, the Middle Kingdom also produced the poetry known as The Lay of the Harper (also known as The Songs of the Harper ), which frequently question the existence of an ideal afterlife and the mercy of the gods and, at the same time, created hymns to those gods affirming such an afterlife. The most famous prose narratives in Egyptian history - The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor and The Story of Sinuhe both come from the Middle Kingdom as well. The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor holds Egypt up as the best of all possible worlds through the narrative of a man shipwrecked on an island and offered all manner of wealth and happiness; he refuses, however, because he knows that all he wants is back in Egypt. Sinuhe's story reflects the same ideal as a man is driven into exile following the assassination of Amenemhat I and longs to return home.

The complexities Egypt had experienced during the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) were reflected in the literature which followed in the Middle Period. Contrary to the claim still appearing in history books on Egypt, the First Intermediate Period had not been a time of chaos, darkness, and universal distress; it was simply a time when there was no strong central government. This situation resulted in a democritization of art and culture as individual regions developed their own styles which were valued as greatly as royal art had been in the Old Kingdom.

The Middle Kingdom scribes, however, looked back on the time of the First Intermediate Period and saw in it a clear departure from the glory of the Old Kingdom. Works such as The Admonitions of Ipuwer were interpreted by later Egyptologists as accurate accounts of the chaos and disorder of the era preceding the Middle Kingdom but actually, if it were not for the freedom of exploration and expression in the arts the First Intermediate Period encouraged, the later scribes could never have written the works they produced.

The royal autobiographies and Offering Lists of the Old Kingdom, only available to kings and nobles, were made use of in the First Intermediate Period by anyone who could afford to build a tomb, royal and non-royal alike. In this same way, the literature of the Middle Kingdom presented stories which could praise a king like Amenemhat I or present the thoughts and feelings of a common sailor or the nameless narrator in conflict with his soul. The literature of the Middle Kingdom opened wide the range of expression by enlarging upon the subjects one could write about and this would not have been possible without the First Intermediate Period.

Following the age of the 12th Dynasty, in which the majority of the great works were created, the weaker 13th Dynasty ruled Egypt. The Middle Kingdom declined during this dynasty in all aspects, finally to the point of allowing a foreign people to gain power in lower Egypt: The Hyksos and their period of control, just like the First Intermediate Period, would be vilified by later Egyptian scribes who would again write of a time of chaos and darkness. In reality, however, the Hyksos would provide valuable contributions to Egyptian culture even though these were ignored in the later literature of the New Kingdom .

Literature in the New Kingdom

Between the Middle Kingdom and the era known as the New Kingdom falls the time scholars refer to as the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1782-c.1570 BCE). During this era rule in Egypt was divided between the foreign kings of the Hyksos in Lower Egypt at Avaris, Egyptian rule from Thebes in Upper Egypt, and control of the southern reaches of Upper Egypt by the Nubians. Egypt was united, and the Hyksos and Nubians driven beyond the borders, by Ahmose of Thebes (c. 1570-1544 BCE) who inaugurated the New Kingdom. The memory of the Hyksos "invasion" remained fresh in the minds of the Egyptians and was reflected in the political policies and the literature of the period.

The early pharaohs of the New Kingdom dedicated themselves to preventing any kind of incursion like that of the Hyksos and so embarked on a series of military campaigns to expand Egypt's borders; this resulted in the Age of Empire for Egypt which was reflected in a broader scope of content in the literature and art. Monumental inscriptions of the gods of Egypt and their enduring support for the pharaoh became a vehicle for expressing the country's superiority over its neighbors, stories and poems reflected a greater knowledge of the world beyond Egypt's borders, and the old theme of order vs. chaos was re-imagined as a divine struggle. These larger themes were emphasized over the pessimistic and complex views of the Middle Kingdom. The Hyksos and the Second Intermediate Period did the same for New Kingdom art and literature that the First Intermediate Period had for the Middle Kingdom; it made the works richer and more complex in plot, style, and characterization. Rosalie David writes:

New Kingdom literature, developed in a period when Egypt had founded an empire, displays a more cosmopolitan approach. This is expressed in texts that seek to promote the great state god , Amun -Ra, as a universal creator and in the inscriptions carved on temple walls and elsewhere that relate the king's military victories in Nubia and Syria . (210)

This is true only of the monumental inscriptions and hymns, however. The inscriptions are religious in nature and focus on the gods, usually either on Amun or Osiris and Isis, the gods of the two most popular religious cults of the time. Stories and poems, however, continued to deal for the most part with the conflicts people faced in their lives such as dealing with injustice, an unfaithful spouse, and trying to live one's life fully in the face of death. These same themes had been touched on or fully dealt with during the Middle Kingdom but the New Kingdom texts show an awareness of other cultures, other values, outside of the Egyptian paradigm.

Middle Kingdom literature was now considered "classical" and studied by students learning to be scribes. An interesting aspect of New Kingdom literature is its emphasis on the importance of the scribal tradition. Scribes had always been considered an important aspect of Egyptian daily life and the popularity of The Satire of the Trades makes clear how readers in the Middle Kingdom recognized this. In the New Kingdom, however, in the works extant in the Papyrus Lansing and the Papyrus Chester Beatty IV , a scribe is not simply a respected profession but one who is almost god-like in the ability to express concepts in words, to create something out of nothing, and so become immortal through their work. Lichtheim comments on the Papyrus Chester Beatty IV :

Papyrus Chester Beatty IV is a typical scribal miscellany. The recto contains religious hymns; the verso consists of several short pieces relating to the scribal profession. Among these, one piece is of uncommon interest. It is a praise of the writer's profession which goes beyond the usual cliches and propounds the remarkable idea that the only immortality man can achieve is the fame of his name transmitted by his books. Man becomes dust; only the written word endures. (New Kingdom, 167)

The concept of the sacred nature of words had a long history in Egypt. The written word was thought to have been given to humanity by the god of wisdom and knowledge, Thoth . Worship of Thoth can be dated to the late Pre-Dynastic Period (c. 6000-c. 3150 BCE) when Egyptians first began to discover writing. During the 2nd Dynasty of the Early Dynastic Period, Thoth received a consort: his sometimes-wife/sometimes-daughter Seshat . Seshat was the goddess of all the different forms of writing, patroness of libraries and librarians, who was aware of what was written on earth and kept a copy of the scribe's work in the celestial library of the gods.

Seshat ("the female scribe"), as part of her responsibilities, also presided over accounting, record-keeping, census-taking, and measurements in the creation of sacred buildings and monuments. She was regularly invoked as part of the ceremony known as "the stretching of the cord" in which the king would measure out the ground on which a temple was built. In this capacity she was known as Mistress of Builders who measured the land and lay the foundation of temples. Egyptologist Richard H. Wilkinson writes, "she appears to have had no temple of her own, but by virtue of her role in the foundation ceremony, she was part of every temple building" (167). Her involvement in a temple complex did not end with its inception, however, as she continued to inhabit a part of the temple known as the House of Life. Rosalie David explains the function of this part of the temple:

The House of Life appears to have been an area of the temple that acted as a library, scriptorium, and higher teaching institution, where the sacred writings were produced and stored and where instruction was given. Medical and magical texts as well as religious books were probably compiled and copied there. Sometimes this institution may have been situated within the temple itself, but elsewhere it was probably located in one of the buildings within the temple precinct. Very little is known of its administration or organization but it is possible that every sizable town had one. They are known to have existed at Tell el- Amarna , Edfu, and Abydos. (203)

The name of the institution reflects the value Egyptians placed on the written word. The House of Life - a school, library, publishing house, distributor, and writer's workshop combined - was presided over by Seshat who made sure to keep copies of all that was produced there in her own celestial library.

During the New Kingdom these works were largely hymns, prayers, instructions in wisdom, praise songs, love poems, and stories. The Egyptian love poem of the New Kingdom is remarkably similar on many levels to the biblical Song of Solomon and the much later compositions of the troubadors of 12th century CE France in their evocation of a beloved who is beyond compare and worthy of all devotion and sacrifice. The same sentiments, and often imagery, used in these New Kingdom love poems are still recognizable in the lyrics of popular music in the present day.

The narrative structure of the prose work of the time, and sometimes even plot elements, will also be recognized in later works. In the story of Truth and Falsehood (also known as The Blinding of Truth by Falsehood ), a good and noble prince (Truth) is blinded by his evil brother (Falsehood) who then casts him out of the estate and assumes his role. Truth is befriended by a woman who falls in love with him and they have a son who, when he discovers the noble identity of his father, avenges him and takes back his birthright from the usurper.

This plot line has been used, with modifications, in many stories since. The basic plot of any adventure tale is utilized in the story known as The Report of Wenamun which is a story about an official sent on a simple mission to procure wood for a building project. In the course of what was supposed to be a short and easy trip, Wenamun encounters numerous obstacles he needs to overcome to reach his goal and return home.

Two of the best known tales are The Prince Who Was Threatened by Three Fates (also known as The Doomed Prince ) and The Two Brothers (also known as The Fate of an Unfaithful Wife ). The Doomed Prince has all the elements of later European fairy tales and shares an interesting similarity with the story of the awakening of the Buddha : a son is born to a noble couple and the Seven Hathors (who decree one's fate at birth) arrive to tell the king and queen their son will die by a crocodile, a snake, or a dog. His father, wishing to keep him safe, builds a stone house in the desert and keeps him there away from the world. The prince grows up in the isolation of this perfectly safe environment until, one day, he climbs to the roof of his home and sees the world outside of his artificial environment.

He tells his father he must leave to meet his fate, whatever it may be. On his journeys he finds a princess in a high castle with many suitors surrounding the tower trying to accomplish the feat of jumping high enough to catch the window's edge and kiss her. The prince accomplishes this, beating out the others, and then has to endure a trial to win the father's consent. He marries the princess and later meets all three of his fates - the crocodile, snake, and dog - and defeats them all. The end of the manuscript is missing but it is assumed, based on the narrative structure, that the conclusion would be the couple living happily ever after.

The Two Brothers tells the story of the divine siblings Anubis and Bata who lived together with Anubis' wife. The wife falls in love with the younger brother, Bata, and tries to seduce him one day when he returns to the house from the fields. Bata refuses her, promising he will never speak of the incident to his brother, and leaves. When Anubis returns home he finds his wife distraught and she, fearing that Bata will not keep his word, tells her husband that Bata tried to seduce her. Anubis plans to kill Bata but the younger brother is warned by the gods and escapes. Anubis learns the truth about his unfaithful wife - who goes on to cause more problems for them both - and must do penance before the brothers are united and the wife is punished.

From this same period comes the text known as The Contendings of Horus and Set , although the actual story is no doubt older. This tale is a divine version of the Middle Kingdom order vs. chaos motif in which Horus (champion of order) defeats his uncle Set (symbolizing chaos) to avenge his father Osiris and restore the kingdom which Set has usurped. Horus, the prince, must avenge the murder of his father by his uncle and, to do this, must endure a number of trials to prove himself worthy of the throne. This is the basic paradigm of what scholar Joseph Campbell calls "the hero's journey" and can be seen in myths around the world and throughout history. The enduring popularity of George Lucas' Star Wars films is their adherence to the narrative form and symbolism of this type of tale.

The Contendings of Horus and Set , although likely never read by later authors, is a precursor to two of the best-loved and most popular plots in western literature: Hamlet and Cinderella . American author Kurt Vonnegut has pointed out that both of these stories have been re-imagined with great success multiple times. The story of the disenfranchised who wins back what is rightfully theirs, sometimes at great cost, continues to resonate with audiences in the present day just as The Contendings of Horus and Set did for an ancient Egyptian audience.

Probably the best-known piece of literature from New Kingdom texts, however, is The Book of Coming Forth by Day , commonly known as The Egyptian Book of the Dead . Although the concepts and spells in The Egyptian Book of the Dead originated in the Early Dynastic Period and the book took form in the Middle Kingdom, it became extremely popular in the New Kingdom and the best preserved texts we have of the work date to that time.

The Egyptian Book of the Dead is a series of "spells" which are instructions for the deceased in the afterlife to help them navigate their way through various hazards and find everlasting peace in paradise. The work is not an "ancient Egyptian Bible ", as some have claimed, nor is it a "magical text of spells". As the afterlife was obviously an unknown realm, The Egyptian Book of the Dead was created to provide the soul of the deceased with a kind of map to help guide and protect them in the land of the dead.

The literature of ancient Egypt would be a contender as the basis for later works but for the fact that the texts were lost and the language forgotten for centuries. The best one can argue is that the Hebrew scribes who wrote the biblical narratives may have been acquainted with some versions of these texts and later writers took plots and motifs from there but this is speculation.

Different cultures come to similar conclusions, without any apparent contact, many times throughout history as best exemplified by the pyramid form of the Maya , Egyptians, and Chinese. It is possible, however, that Egyptian texts inspired or at least lent certain aspects to biblical narratives which were then borrowed by later writers in their works. It is, of course, equally possible that the story of the hero who triumphs over the forces of darkness and disorder simply resonates on a very deep level with humanity and there need be no original work later writers borrowed from.

Following the New Kingdom came the era known as the Third Intermediate Period (c. 1069-525 BCE) and then the Late Period (525-323 BCE) and the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE) after which Egypt was annexed by Rome . Around the 4th century CE Christianity rose to prominence in Egypt and the Christian Egyptians (known as Copts) developed their own script, a kind of hybrid of demotic Egyptian and Greek , and the old texts of hieroglyphic and hieratic script were forgotten.

Inscriptions on monuments and temples, and all the texts in the libraries and Houses of Life, became incomprehensible until the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1798 CE and the breakthrough in deciphering hieroglyphics it enabled by Jean-Francois Champollion in 1824 CE. By the time Champollion unlocked the mystery of the ancient text a whole world of literature had been created without the benefit of the ancient Egyptian works and yet the plots of these forgotten stories and poems appear in texts all over the world; testament to the primal and powerful nature of these themes to touch upon the most resonant aspects of the human experience.

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Bibliography

• Bard, K. A. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.
• David, R. Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt Revised. Oxford University Press, 2007.
• Lewis, J. E. The Mammoth Book of Eyewitness Ancient Egypt. Running Press, 2003.
• Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Late Period, Volume III. University of California Press, 2006.
• Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature: The New Kingdom, Volume II. University of California Press, 2006.
• Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms, Volume I. University of California Press, 2006.
• Shakespeare, W. Hamlet. Signet, 1998.
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• Wilkinson, R. H. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2003.
• Zauzich, K. Hieroglyphs without Mystery: An Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Writing. University of Texas Press, 1992.

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Mark, J. J. (2016, November 14). Ancient Egyptian Literature . World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Literature/

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Religion and Society in Ancient Egypt Essay

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Early Egypt was divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper kingdoms along with other villages and tribes nearby. Eventually, they united into a single kingdom, establishing the capital at Memphis. Kingship was the primary form of Egyptian government at first, consisting of dynasties of ruling families. At this time, kings had strong power but were not yet considered absolute and godlike. Over generations, the kings usurped more power and resources as well as attempted to glorify their rule.

Society was gradually transitioning into a class-based hierarchical system, of which the king was the leader. The government administrative complex housing the king was known as The Great House or Per Ao. The name eventually became adapted into the title for the king after 1400 BC, now known as pharaoh. The king sought to control the flow of resources which were collected from the provinces and peasants and channeled upward. Large palaces and symbols were erected as the king and his officials led a lavish way of life (Freeman, 2014).

The transition of Ancient Egypt is extraordinary. Before the unification, the Ancient Egyptian society was agricultural and egalitarian. However, the transition created a hierarchy and aristocracy which was difficult to escape. The first leaders which emerged were actively engaged and voluntarily escaped the role. Eventually, the transition led to pharaohs becoming despots. Pharaohs were extremely powerful, both practically and symbolically due to the monuments erected in their honor as well as their status as gods. Egypt is considered to be one of the first examples of civilization where one person and his royalty accumulated such tremendous wealth and power over the nation.

The rise to power of the pharaohs was based on a few factors. One was the natural growth of population density which occurs in an organized and agrarian society. With population growth, there is less availability of land and resources.

Populations grow denser and people become dependent on the distribution of resources from the government. Furthermore, the location of the Egyptian civilization in the Nile River valley and surrounded by desert prevented people from massively migrating or seeking residence outside the pharaoh’s influence. Therefore, the cost of leaving was high, forcing populations into an autocratic rule of the pharaohs for centuries. Meanwhile, the government maintained its power by all means of control, preventing any mass uprisings at early stages.

Religion was central to Egyptian society. They believed in the idea of deities and god ( neter) as an omniscient power that guided all their aspects of life. Wealth, power, good crop yields, familial life, and other aspects were believed to be a result of the divine will which could not be disputed (Budge, 1895). Egyptian polytheistic religion was in place from the early days of its formation as a civilization, with evidence suggesting worship around 2400 BC, far before the building of the pyramids.

Order and a sense of community were centered around religion, as Egyptians were increasingly sensitive to spiritual influences. They believed that worshipping specific gods would protect against disorder, misfortune, and environmental disasters. The belief was so far-reaching that even familial conflicts would be rationalized through stories of gods and their humanized emotions. Political disunity would be spiritualized as well by “merging” deities to form new gods (Freeman, 2014).

The period of the most popular religious following in Egypt was the Osiris period. The symbolic nature of gods symbolizing practically every aspect, both natural and manmade in Egyptian society made religion both an unavoidable and irreplaceable component of society. Individuals had no incentive to reject religious beliefs and traditions so deeply integrated into daily life. Religion was flexible in its mainstream popularity and culture. Egyptian gods took upon different forms, could group, merge, and assume various identities within the well-developed mythology of the civilization to meet the human and spiritual needs of the society. Religion was involved in explaining aspects such as creation and afterlife as well which dominated the purpose of life for many Egyptians (Freeman, 2014).

Ancient Egyptian society was held together by religious concepts as it defined their beliefs, traditions, as well as societal order. There was class division present, led by priests and royalty, and government or military officials followed by the middle class of crafters and merchants. The lowest tier was unskilled peasants and slaves. The class division was strongly present in the mythology of Ancient Egypt and was accepted as status quo. Pharaohs were viewed as gods rather than human rulers. Rural areas or classes which did not have open access to temples prompted the rise in domestic religion and the presence of private shrines and chapels.

The nonroyals attempted to copy the architecture of temples for at-home worship. Meanwhile, temples became a place that collected all the cultural aspects of civilization. The cohesiveness brought by religion had positive aspects as well since communities throughout Egypt had common beliefs and values (Bussmann, 2015). Religion was a driving force of cultural expression which, in turn, reflected in the expansion of the civilization

Budge, W. E. A. (1895). The book of the dead: The papyrus of Ani . Web.

Bussmann, R. (2015). Egyptian archaeology and social anthropology. Oxford Handbooks Online, 1-29. Web.

Freeman, Charles. (2014). Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Civilizations of the ancient Mediterranean . (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

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Essay on Egypt Culture

Students are often asked to write an essay on Egypt Culture in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Egypt Culture

Egyptian history.

Egypt is an old country with a rich history. It’s known for its ancient Pharaohs and Pyramids. These leaders built grand structures to show their power. Pharaohs were like kings and queens. They ruled Egypt thousands of years ago. Many people visit Egypt to see these amazing structures.

Religion in Egypt

Egyptians have always been very religious. In the past, they believed in many gods. Today, most Egyptians are Muslims. They believe in one god, Allah. They pray five times a day. Fridays are special for them. They gather in mosques for prayer.

Egyptian Food

Egyptian food is tasty and unique. It includes dishes like Koshari and Ful Medames. Koshari is a mix of rice, lentils, and pasta. Ful Medames is a dish made from fava beans. Egyptians also love to eat bread. They call it ‘Aish’, which means life.

Egyptian Clothing

Traditional Egyptian clothes are simple and comfortable. Men wear a long dress called a ‘Galabeya’. Women wear a ‘Kaftan’. These clothes are loose and cool. They are perfect for Egypt’s hot weather.

Egyptian Language

250 words essay on egypt culture, egypt’s history.

Egypt has a rich history that goes back thousands of years. This land of Pharaohs and Pyramids is known for its ancient civilization. The culture of Egypt has its roots in the past, but it also takes in new ideas.

Religion plays a big part in the culture of Egypt. In ancient times, Egyptians believed in many gods and goddesses. Today, most Egyptians are Muslims, and Islam is the main religion. There are also Christians, mainly Coptic Christians, who have been in Egypt for a long time.

Festivals and Celebrations

Festivals are a big part of Egyptian culture. One of the most famous is the Islamic festival of Eid. There is also a Christian festival called Christmas. Egyptians love to celebrate these festivals with food, music, and family gatherings.

Egyptian food is tasty and unique. It includes dishes like falafel, koshari, and molokhia. Bread, called ‘eish’, is a staple food in Egypt. They also love sweets, especially during festivals.

Egyptian Art and Architecture

Egypt is famous for its art and architecture. The Pyramids and Sphinx are examples of ancient Egyptian architecture. Egyptian art includes beautiful wall paintings and sculptures.

Language in Egypt

In conclusion, Egypt’s culture is a mix of old and new. It is full of history, religion, food, art, and language. It is a fascinating culture that continues to thrive and evolve.

500 Words Essay on Egypt Culture

Introduction.

Egypt is a country rich in history and culture. Located in North Africa, it is known for its ancient civilization and some of the world’s most famous monuments. Egypt’s culture is a unique blend of traditions and customs. This essay will explore different aspects of Egypt’s culture including its history, language, food, and arts.

The main language spoken in Egypt is Arabic, which is also the country’s official language. Many Egyptians also speak and understand English and French. The ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphs, a system of pictures and symbols, to write. Today, this ancient writing is often seen on monuments and in museums.

Egyptian food is a mix of all the different civilizations that came over Egypt in the history of its existence. Bread is the main food in the Egyptian diet. The Egyptian cuisine is not very fancy; it is not as elaborate as French or Italian cuisine and not as heavy as some of the food in the Arabian Gulf, it also doesn’t rely on a massive amount of spices. It is simple, and this simplicity is what makes it very tasty. Some of the popular dishes include Ful Medames (mashed fava beans), Koshari (a mix of lentils, rice, and pasta), and Molokhia (a green soup made from jute leaves).

In conclusion, Egypt’s culture is a complex blend of ancient traditions and modern influences. Its rich history, unique language, delicious food, and diverse arts make it a fascinating place to explore. Despite modern changes, the people of Egypt maintain a strong connection to their past, ensuring the survival of their unique culture for future generations.

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Key Figures of Ancient Egypt

Due to the limited nature of the information we have about ancient Egypt, the historical figures that we call key is a more limited group than it would be in contemporary times. The article explores three groups of key figures: those involved in developing the form of the pyramid, famous Egyptian rulers, and important non-Egyptian rulers.

Anthropology, Archaeology, Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations

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If asked to name 10 key figures of contemporary America, one would have a wide choice. The list could include people from many walks of life. It might include a political figure, a religious leader, a military or civic hero, an actor, a musician, an author, an athlete, a doctor, a scientist, and an inventor. People in all of those careers contribute to society in important ways. If you were short on names, you could turn to websites, newspapers, television, and libraries to remind you of the people making an impact here and now.

But if asked to name the key figures of ancient Egypt , our range of roles and occupations becomes much narrower. Although the Egyptians recorded their history through hieroglyphs and hieratic script, most of the existing records highlight political and religious rulers. Even some of these key figures have acquired layers of legend as their stories were carried through the centuries, making it sometimes difficult to separate myth from fact. Many influential figures in ancient Egypt, however, remain unknown to us because many records were lost or have not been recovered.

We will look at three groups of key figures of ancient Egypt : those who contributed to the early development of the pyramid as an important emblem of ancient Egyptian society; those ancient Egyptians whose leadership is noteworthy; and important rulers from outside of Egypt.

Monumental Figures

There are three key figures of the Old Kingdom ( circa 2700–2100 B.C.E.) who drove the development of Egypt’s most famous monument , the pyramid . As the architect to King Djoser ( circa 2650–2575 B.C.E.), Imhotep is credited with the development of a six-layer step pyramid at Saqqarah and is the only key figure we cite who is not a ruler. The world’s oldest stone monument , the Step Pyramid , was built over a mastaba , an older form of a rectangular, one-layer tomb in use at the time and is considered the essential first step in the development of the pyramid.

It was Snefru (reigned circa 2600 B.C.E.) who covered the ground between a stepped pyramid and a true pyramid, albeit with some issues along the way—such as the limestone casing falling off the Meidum Pyramid and getting the angle wrong on the Bent Pyramid. But with the Red Pyramid at Dashur, he achieved what is widely considered to be the first true pyramid.

Snefru’s son, Khufu (reigned circa 2580–2565 B.C.E.), learned from his father’s technological advances. He had the Great Pyramid at Giza built, a structure that—with a height of 147 meters (481 feet)—was the world’s tallest building for about 3,800 years, until the Cathedral at Lincoln, England, was completed in 1311 C.E.

Egyptian Rulers of Renown

In the New Kingdom (circa 1560–1070 B.C.E.), a set of Egyptian rulers achieved renown for vastly different reasons.

Hatshepsut (reigned circa 1473–1458 B.C.E.) began her rule first as a queen married to Thutmose II, then as regent to her stepson Thutmose III, but ended it as a king in her own right, the first woman to rule Egypt as king.

Thutmose III (reigned circa 1479–1425 B.C.E.) followed Hatshepsut to the throne after she died and apparently tried to eradicate all evidence of her rule. It is now believed he did this to secure the tradition of males serving as the ultimate rulers. Under his rule, Egypt reached the height of its power, with holdings in southwest Asia up to the Euphrates River , supply ports along the Levantine coast in the Middle East, and continued dominance over Nubia , the region along the almighty Nile River .

Amenhotep IV (reigned circa 1353–1336 B.C.E.) instituted dramatic changes in Egyptian religion by promoting the worship of the sun god, Aten, at the expense of other traditional Egyptian gods. Changing his name to Akhenaten , he declared that as pharaoh , he was the highest priest in the land. Through this move, he effectively dismissed the priests of the chief god of the pantheon , Amun. Busy establishing a new capital in Amarna, he neglected other aspects of political rule, which would have been disastrous, had he not died. Shortly thereafter, the priests and people went back to traditional worship and the capital returned to Memphis.

Non-Egyptian Rulers of Note

Cambyses II (reigned circa 530–522 B.C.E.), a king of the Achaemenid Persian Empire , conquered Egypt in 525 B.C.E. during the reign of Pharaoh Psamtik III. Cambyses initiated the rule of Egypt as a pharaoh , and Persian control of Egypt lasted until 404 B.C.E.

There was a second shorter period of Persian rule from 343 to 332 B.C.E., which was ended by Macedonian King Alexander the Great (reigned circa 332–323 B.C.E.). Alexander conquered Persia and its extended provinces through Southwest Asia, reaching Egypt in 332 B.C.E. After being greeted by the surrender of the current governor, Alexander proceeded to adopt local customs to foster acceptance. In part, this included traveling to the oracle of the chief god, Amun, where he received the priest ’s greeting to a pharaoh , under which title he was crowned ruler of Egypt. He also founded the city of Alexandria.

After Alexander’s death, the rule of Egypt was taken up by one of his companions, Ptolemy Soter (reigned circa 323–282 B.C.E.). Cleopatra VII Philopator (reigned 51–30 B.C.E.) was the last of the Ptolemy line. She ascended the throne along with her brother, Ptolemy XIII, but was forced out of Egypt by ministers loyal to her brother. Raising an army, she returned to fight her brother, but Julius Caesar’s intervention brought about a transient period of peace. After Ptolemy XIII’s death, she co-ruled with another brother, Ptolemy XIV, until his death in 44 B.C.E., the same year Caesar was murdered. Eventually, Marc Antony and Cleopatra combined forces and faced off against Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian, who defeated them in the Battle of Actium in 30 B.C.E. and was crowned Emperor of the Roman Empire three years later, with Egypt incorporated into the empire . Thus ended ancient Egypt ’s existence as an independent state.

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Related Resources

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Ancient egyptian amulets.

Cobra Amulet

Isis amulet

Amulet in the form of a head of an elephant

Heart Scarab of Hatnefer

Headrest amulet

Bes-Image Amulet

Amulet depicting Isis, Horus, and Nephthys

Winged Scarab Amulet

Two-finger amulet

Wedjat Eye Amulet

Djed Pillar Amulet

Papyrus column amulet

Scarab with Baboons of Thoth Adoring Amun

Fish Pendant

Isabel Stünkel Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

February 2019

People everywhere want to avoid disease and other misfortune, and to that end, many use amulets to ensure well-being. Today, an individual might wear a bracelet made of beads with a concentric circle design to combat the evil eye, or keep a lucky penny in his or her pocket. A favorite for centuries in some parts of the world is a pendant with a depiction of Saint Christopher ( 30.95.107 ). In ancient Egypt, amulets were abundant and most were probably inexpensive, which made them available to nearly everyone.

An amulet is an object believed to have certain positive properties that, as the amulet’s main function, can magically be bestowed upon its owner. In ancient Egypt, this magical power was often derived from a combination of several aspects, such as the amulet’s shape, decoration, inscription, color, material, and words spoken over the piece or acts performed with it. Amulets were usually worn or placed on the body to transfer their powers directly to the owner. Often amulets were pierced or featured a loop, which allowed their use as pendants on a necklace, for example. Among many other possibilities, they could be incorporated into rings or enfolded in a piece of fabric that was then attached to a string. This means that amulets could be worn without having any means of suspension themselves. When used for the dead, they were  placed on the mummy or in between the mummy’s bandages . While amulets are often small, on average ranging from two to six centimeters (about 1/2 to 2 1/2 inches) ( 1984.176 ), funerary pieces such as winged scarabs ( 25.5.1a–c ) can be as large as twenty-five centimeters (nearly ten inches) wide.

Ancient Egyptian amulets represented animals, deities, symbols, or objects in miniature. In addition, certain things found in nature, such as a claw or shell, were thought to be imbued with magical power and therefore could function as an amulet as well. So-called textual amulets also occur; these usually consist of a short magical spell written on a piece of linen or papyrus that was then folded and put on a string. Theoretically, anything could be made into an amulet through a magical act. Today, we often identify an ancient Egyptian object as an amulet based on its shape and size, and—in some cases—its use as a pendant. However, outside of their original context, many amulets, especially those created in nature, can no longer easily be recognized as such.

Faience was the most popular material for man-made amulets. It could be produced in green and blue colors, favored for their association with life and regeneration. Semiprecious stones were common as well, and their color often had a specific meaning. Red, for example, was associated with dangerous forces but was thus also considered to be protective. Expensive materials such as gold , silver , and electrum, appreciated for their durability, were employed for amulets by the higher classes of Egyptian society. Bronze, a material that was very popular for temple donations, was rarely used for amulets, though the reasons are unknown.

The use of amulets can be traced throughout all of ancient Egypt, from the Predynastic to the Roman Period (ca. 4400 B.C.–fourth century A.D.). Early amulets often take the shape of animals ( 59.101.1 ), while only a few amulets that clearly represent deities predate the New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1070 B.C.). Funerary amulets peaked in the Late Period (664–332 B.C.), when many new types appear that are only beneficial for the dead, such as the two-finger amulet ( 66.99.182 ). Strictly funerary amulets often refer to the belief that after death, the heart of a person would be weighed against maat , the principle of truth and justice. Only if the individual had lived a righteous life before his or her death was the person allowed to live on in the afterlife. Understandably, the Egyptians feared a negative outcome, and special amulets were designed to ensure a positive judgment, such as heart scarabs. These depict a large scarab beetle and were inscribed with text on the underside that linked the amulet to the weighing of the heart ( 36.3.2 ).

Amulets often carried more than one meaning, and thus more than one possible function. Headrest amulets ( 04.2.80 ) depict a piece of furniture that supported the neck of a sleeping person and was often decorated with protective images. From early times on, full-size headrests were placed in tombs to protect the dead. Additionally, their function of raising the head was associated with the deceased rising and being revived, and further significance resulted from the formal resemblance between the round head on the curved headrest and the sun rising between two hills, which evoked a powerful symbol of resurrection and rebirth. An amulet depicting a headrest in miniature was not meant as a simple substitute for the actual furniture item, but rather to ensure its functions; it was thought to protect the head of the deceased and also to guarantee his or her rebirth. Headrest amulets were used exclusively as funerary amulets, and thus usually do not feature any means of suspension, since they could be held in place by the mummy’s wrappings. They belong to the very few amulet groups for which an assigned position on the body can be established: under the mummy’s neck, reflecting the use of the actual furniture.

In addition to strictly funerary types, amulets worn by the living were generally used for the dead as well, since their benefit also applied to the afterlife. Amulets representing a goddess or god ( 1984.176 ), for example, occur in both spheres, as they were meant to invoke the deity’s specific powers. It is possible that a deity amulet was used with a very specific hope, but since a god or goddess usually had multiple meanings, several functions might have been addressed at the same time.

One of the most common amulets used by the living and the dead is the wedjat -eye ( 89.2.415 ). It depicts the healed eye of the god Horus and is actually a combination of a human and a falcon eye, as Horus was associated with the falcon. In Egyptian mythology, Horus’s eye was injured or stolen by the god Seth and then restored by another deity named Thoth. The wedjat -eye embodies the healing power used on it and thus symbolizes regeneration. Appropriately, its ancient Egyptian name means “the one that is sound (again).” A wedjat -eye amulet was thought to transfer the power of regeneration onto its wearer and to generally protect the individual.

A special category of amulets is the so-called seal-amulet, which functioned as an amulet but could also be used as a seal. Many take the shape of an animal, such as scarabs ( 26.7.470 ). The scarab beetle was believed to generate itself spontaneously in the ground, and its behavior of rolling large dung balls was associated with the sun’s daily movement across the sky. This made scarabs symbols of life and regeneration, and as amulets they could transfer these powers. Most commonly, their flat undersides were incised with very short inscriptions or with symbols or other images, which had further magical meaning. Scarabs inscribed with the name and title of the owner were often used as a seal by pressing the underside into a lump of clay that would then bear an impression of the incised decoration ( 22.1.120 ).

Egyptian amulets could be exported, but also locally made amulets in Egyptian style were produced throughout the Mediterranean region. Whether the Egyptian meaning and function of these amulets were shared outside of Egypt can be debated, but clearly they were seen as potent magical objects in other cultures as well.

Isabel Stünkel. “Ancient Egyptian Amulets.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egam/hd_egam.htm (February 2019)

Further Reading

Andrews, Carol. Amulets of Ancient Egypt . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.

Ben-Tor, Daphna. The Scarab: A Reflection of Ancient Egypt . Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1989.

Müller-Winkler, Claudia. Die ägyptischen Objekt-Amulette . Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 5. Freiburg: Universitätsverlag Freiburg Schweiz, 1987.

Petrie, W. M. Flinders. Amulets . London: Constable & Co., 1914.

Reisner, George Andrew. Amulets . 2 vols. Cairo: Impr. de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 1907–58.

Additional Essays by Isabel Stünkel

• Stünkel, Isabel. “ Hippopotami in Ancient Egypt .” (November 2017)

Related Essays

• Egypt in the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2030–1650 B.C.)
• Egypt in the New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1070 B.C.)
• Egypt in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 B.C.)
• Egypt in the Third Intermediate Period (ca. 1070–664 B.C.)
• Egyptian Faience: Technology and Production
• Amulets and Talismans from the Islamic World
• Egyptian Tombs: Life Along the Nile
• Ethiopian Healing Scrolls
• Gold in Ancient Egypt
• Hippopotami in Ancient Egypt
• The Magic of Signs and Patterns in North African Art
• Medicine in the Middle Ages
• Mesopotamian Magic in the First Millennium B.C.
• Popular Religion: Magical Uses of Imagery in Byzantine Art
• Silver in Ancient Egypt
• Turkmen Jewelry
• Turquoise in Ancient Egypt
• Tutankhamun’s Funeral

List of Rulers

• List of Rulers of Ancient Egypt and Nubia
• List of Rulers of Ancient Sudan
• Egypt, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• Egypt, 2000–1000 B.C.
• Egypt, 8000–2000 B.C.
• 10th Century B.C.
• 1st Century B.C.
• 2nd Century B.C.
• 2nd Millennium B.C.
• 3rd Century B.C.
• 3rd Millennium B.C.
• 4th Century B.C.
• 4th Millennium B.C.
• 5th Century B.C.
• 5th Millennium B.C.
• 6th Century B.C.
• 7th Century B.C.
• 8th Century B.C.
• 9th Century B.C.
• Ancient Egyptian Art
• Anthropomorphism
• Archaeology
• Deity / Religious Figure
• Egyptian Art in the Middle Kingdom
• Egyptian Art in the New Kingdom
• Egyptian Art in the Old Kingdom
• Egyptian Faience
• Egyptian Mythology
• Funerary Art
• Hieroglyphs
• Immortality
• North Africa
• Personal Ornament
• Predynastic Period in Egypt
• Religious Art
• Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

Online Features

• Blogs: Now at The Met : “Nesmin: A Man Who Lived and Died More Than 2,000 Years Ago” by Isabel Stünkel
• Blogs: Now at The Met : “The Mummy of Nesmin: A Closer Look” by Isabel Stünkel and Sarah Nankivell
• MetMedia: The Charles K. Wilkinson Lecture Series: Talismans, Charms, and Amulets
• MetMedia: The Weighing of the Heart