research paper vs research study

Study vs. Research — What's the Difference?

Difference Between Study and Research

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Q. What's the difference between a research article (or research study) and a review article?

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Answered By: Priscilla Coulter Last Updated: Jul 26, 2024     Views: 234445

A research paper is a primary source ...that is, it reports the methods and results of an original study performed by the authors . The kind of study may vary (it could have been an experiment, survey, interview, etc.), but in all cases, raw data have been collected and analyzed by the authors , and conclusions drawn from the results of that analysis.

Research papers follow a particular format.  Look for:

• A brief introduction will often include a review of the existing literature on the topic studied, and explain the rationale of the author's study.  This is important because it demonstrates that the authors are aware of existing studies, and are planning to contribute to this existing body of research in a meaningful way (that is, they're not just doing what others have already done).
• A methods section, where authors describe how they collected and analyzed data.  Statistical analyses are included.  This section is quite detailed, as it's important that other researchers be able to verify and/or replicate these methods.
• A results section describes the outcomes of the data analysis.  Charts and graphs illustrating the results are typically included.
• In the discussion , authors will explain their interpretation of their results and theorize on their importance to existing and future research.
• References or works cited are always included.  These are the articles and books that the authors drew upon to plan their study and to support their discussion.

You can use the library's databases  to search for research articles:

• A research article will nearly always be published in a peer-reviewed journal; click here for instructions on limiting your searches to peer-reviewed articles .  
• If you have a particular type of study in mind, you can include keywords to describe it in your search .  For instance, if you would like to see studies that used surveys to collect data, you can add "survey" to your topic in the database's search box. See this example search in our EBSCO databases: " bullying and survey ".   
• Several of our databases have special limiting options that allow you to select specific methodologies.  See, for instance, the " Methodology " box in ProQuest's PsycARTICLES Advanced Search (scroll down a bit to see it).  It includes options like "Empirical Study" and "Qualitative Study", among many others.  

A review article is a secondary source ...it is written about other articles, and does not report original research of its own.  Review articles are very important, as they draw upon the articles that they review to suggest new research directions, to strengthen support for existing theories and/or identify patterns among exising research studies.  For student researchers, review articles provide a great overview of the existing literature on a topic.    If you find a literature review that fits your topic, take a look at its references/works cited list for leads on other relevant articles and books!

You can use the library's article databases to find literature reviews as well!  Click here for tips.

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Types of research papers

Analytical research paper

Argumentative or persuasive paper, definition paper, compare and contrast paper, cause and effect paper, interpretative paper, experimental research paper, survey research paper, frequently asked questions about the different types of research papers, related articles.

There are multiple different types of research papers. It is important to know which type of research paper is required for your assignment, as each type of research paper requires different preparation. Below is a list of the most common types of research papers.

➡️ Read more:  What is a research paper?

In an analytical research paper you:

• pose a question
• collect relevant data from other researchers
• analyze their different viewpoints

You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic. It is important to stay neutral and not show your own negative or positive position on the matter.

The argumentative paper presents two sides of a controversial issue in one paper. It is aimed at getting the reader on the side of your point of view.

You should include and cite findings and arguments of different researchers on both sides of the issue, but then favor one side over the other and try to persuade the reader of your side. Your arguments should not be too emotional though, they still need to be supported with logical facts and statistical data.

Tip: Avoid expressing too much emotion in a persuasive paper.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information. You should include facts from a variety of sources, but leave those facts unanalyzed.

Compare and contrast papers are used to analyze the difference between two:

Make sure to sufficiently describe both sides in the paper, and then move on to comparing and contrasting both thesis and supporting one.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students write. They trace probable or expected results from a specific action and answer the main questions "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes.

In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

An interpretative paper requires you to use knowledge that you have gained from a particular case study, for example a legal situation in law studies. You need to write the paper based on an established theoretical framework and use valid supporting data to back up your statement and conclusion.

This type of research paper basically describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like:

Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions. You need to describe your experiment with supporting data and then analyze it sufficiently.

This research paper demands the conduction of a survey that includes asking questions to respondents. The conductor of the survey then collects all the information from the survey and analyzes it to present it in the research paper.

➡️ Ready to start your research paper? Take a look at our guide on how to start a research paper .

In an analytical research paper, you pose a question and then collect relevant data from other researchers to analyze their different viewpoints. You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students are confronted with. The answer questions like "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes. In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

This type of research paper describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like biology, chemistry or physics. Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions.

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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

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Scholarly Journals and Popular Magazines: Differences in Research, Review, and Opinion Articles

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• How Do I Compare Periodical Types?
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Research Articles, Reviews, and Opinion Pieces

Scholarly or research articles are written for experts in their fields. They are often peer-reviewed or reviewed by other experts in the field prior to publication. They often have terminology or jargon that is field specific. They are generally lengthy articles. Social science and science scholarly articles have similar structures as do arts and humanities scholarly articles. Not all items in a scholarly journal are peer reviewed. For example, an editorial opinion items can be published in a scholarly journal but the article itself is not scholarly. Scholarly journals may include book reviews or other content that have not been peer reviewed.

Empirical Study: (Original or Primary) based on observation, experimentation, or study. Clinical trials, clinical case studies, and most meta-analyses are empirical studies.

Review Article: (Secondary Sources) Article that summarizes the research in a particular subject, area, or topic. They often include a summary, an literature reviews, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses.

Clinical case study (Primary or Original sources): These articles provide real cases from medical or clinical practice. They often include symptoms and diagnosis.

Clinical trials ( Health Research): Th ese articles are often based on large groups of people. They often include methods and control studies. They tend to be lengthy articles.

Opinion Piece:  An opinion piece often includes personal thoughts, beliefs, or feelings or a judgement or conclusion based on facts. The goal may be to persuade or influence the reader that their position on this topic is the best.

Book review: Recent review of books in the field. They may be several pages but tend to be fairly short. 

Social Science and Science Research Articles

The majority of social science and physical science articles include

• Journal Title and Author
• Abstract 
• Introduction with a hypothesis or thesis
• Literature Review
• Methods/Methodology
• Results/Findings

Arts and Humanities Research Articles

In the Arts and Humanities, scholarly articles tend to be less formatted than in the social sciences and sciences. In the humanities, scholars are not conducting the same kinds of research experiments, but they are still using evidence to draw logical conclusions.  Common sections of these articles include:

• an Introduction
• Discussion/Conclusion
• works cited/References/Bibliography

Research versus Review Articles

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Difference between research paper and scientific paper

What is the difference between a research paper and a scientific paper? Does the research paper also mean a term paper at the end of your Masters?

I need to present a research paper. So does it mean I need to present a solution to an existing problem or does it mean a summary of various solutions already existing?

• terminology

2 Answers 2

A research paper is a paper containing original research. That is, if you do some work to add (or try to add) new knowledge to a field of study, and then present the details of your approach and findings in a paper, that paper can be called a research paper.

Not all academic papers contain original research; other kinds of academic papers that are not research papers are

• review papers, (see What is the difference between a review paper and a research paper? )
• position papers (which present an opinion without original research to support it)
• tutorial papers (which contain a tutorial introduction a topic or area, without contributing new results).

A scientific paper is any paper on a scientific subject.

Does the research paper also mean a term paper at the end of your Masters? I need to present a research paper. So does it mean I need to present a solution to an existing problem or does it mean a summary of various solutions already existing?

If the term paper at the end of your masters contains original research, then it's a research paper.

Depending on the policies of your department, you may or may not be required to attempt original research during your masters. In some departments, a review of existing literature may be fine. If you're not sure exactly what's required from you, you need to ask the relevant faculty or staff members in your department.

• Related: What is a "white paper"? . –  E.P. Commented Jan 20, 2015 at 18:15
• It also bears mention that "a summary of various solutions already existing" does not usually qualify as a research paper. –  E.P. Commented Jan 20, 2015 at 18:16

Research means that you add something new. Something you didn't know before, and ideally something no-one knew before (although at BSc. and MSc. levels the novelty requirement is generally relaxed). This can be a new investigation, or simply an analysis of a number existing papers. It must however not be a summary of existing solutions. It should go beyond that.

An important thing to remember is that in terms of assignment you are expected to demonstrate insight and understanding. To demonstrate this you need to engage with the topics, not merely summarise (which requires less understanding).

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Case Study vs. Research

What's the difference.

Case study and research are both methods used in academic and professional settings to gather information and gain insights. However, they differ in their approach and purpose. A case study is an in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or situation, aiming to understand the unique characteristics and dynamics involved. It often involves qualitative data collection methods such as interviews, observations, and document analysis. On the other hand, research is a systematic investigation conducted to generate new knowledge or validate existing theories. It typically involves a larger sample size and employs quantitative data collection methods such as surveys, experiments, or statistical analysis. While case studies provide detailed and context-specific information, research aims to generalize findings to a broader population.

Further Detail

Introduction.

When it comes to conducting studies and gathering information, researchers have various methods at their disposal. Two commonly used approaches are case study and research. While both methods aim to explore and understand a particular subject, they differ in their approach, scope, and the type of data they collect. In this article, we will delve into the attributes of case study and research, highlighting their similarities and differences.

A case study is an in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, event, or phenomenon. It involves a detailed examination of a particular case to gain insights into its unique characteristics, context, and dynamics. Case studies often employ multiple sources of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject under investigation.

One of the key attributes of a case study is its focus on a specific case, which allows researchers to explore complex and nuanced aspects of the subject. By examining a single case in detail, researchers can uncover rich and detailed information that may not be possible with broader research methods. Case studies are particularly useful when studying rare or unique phenomena, as they provide an opportunity to deeply analyze and understand them.

Furthermore, case studies often employ qualitative research methods, emphasizing the collection of non-numerical data. This qualitative approach allows researchers to capture the subjective experiences, perspectives, and motivations of the individuals or groups involved in the case. By using open-ended interviews and observations, researchers can gather rich and detailed data that provides a holistic view of the subject.

However, it is important to note that case studies have limitations. Due to their focus on a specific case, the findings may not be easily generalized to a larger population or context. The small sample size and unique characteristics of the case may limit the generalizability of the results. Additionally, the subjective nature of qualitative data collection in case studies may introduce bias or interpretation challenges.

Research, on the other hand, is a systematic investigation aimed at discovering new knowledge or validating existing theories. It involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. Research can be conducted using various methods, including surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis, depending on the nature of the study.

One of the primary attributes of research is its emphasis on generating generalizable knowledge. By using representative samples and statistical techniques, researchers aim to draw conclusions that can be applied to a larger population or context. This allows for the identification of patterns, trends, and relationships that can inform theories, policies, or practices.

Research often employs quantitative methods, focusing on the collection of numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical techniques. Surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis allow researchers to measure variables, establish correlations, and test hypotheses. This objective approach provides a level of objectivity and replicability that is crucial for scientific inquiry.

However, research also has its limitations. The focus on generalizability may sometimes sacrifice the depth and richness of understanding that case studies offer. The reliance on quantitative data may overlook important qualitative aspects of the subject, such as individual experiences or contextual factors. Additionally, the controlled nature of research settings may not fully capture the complexity and dynamics of real-world situations.

Similarities

Despite their differences, case studies and research share some common attributes. Both methods aim to gather information and generate knowledge about a particular subject. They require careful planning, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Both case studies and research contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields.

Furthermore, both case studies and research can be used in various disciplines, including social sciences, psychology, business, and healthcare. They provide valuable insights and contribute to evidence-based decision-making. Whether it is understanding the impact of a new treatment, exploring consumer behavior, or investigating social phenomena, both case studies and research play a crucial role in expanding our understanding of the world.

In conclusion, case study and research are two distinct yet valuable approaches to studying and understanding a subject. Case studies offer an in-depth analysis of a specific case, providing rich and detailed information that may not be possible with broader research methods. On the other hand, research aims to generate generalizable knowledge by using representative samples and quantitative methods. While case studies emphasize qualitative data collection, research focuses on quantitative analysis. Both methods have their strengths and limitations, and their choice depends on the research objectives, scope, and context. By utilizing the appropriate method, researchers can gain valuable insights and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields.

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Thesis vs. Research Paper: Know the Differences

It is not uncommon for individuals, academic and nonacademic to use “thesis” and “research paper” interchangeably. However, while the thesis vs. research paper puzzle might seem amusing to some, for graduate, postgraduate and doctoral students, knowing the differences between the two is crucial. Not only does a clear demarcation of the two terms help you acquire a precise approach toward writing each of them, but it also helps you keep in mind the subtle nuances that go into creating the two documents. This brief guide discusses the main difference between a thesis and a research paper.

This article discusses the main difference between a thesis and a research paper. To give you an opportunity to practice proofreading, we have left a few spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors in the text. See if you can spot them! If you spot the errors correctly, you will be entitled to a 10% discount.

It is not uncommon for individuals, academic and nonacademic to use “thesis” and “research paper” interchangeably. After all, both terms share the same domain, academic writing . Moreover, characteristics like the writing style, tone, and structure of a thesis and research paper are also homogenous to a certain degree. Hence, it is not surprising that many people mistake one for the other.

However, while the thesis vs. research paper puzzle might seem amusing to some, for graduate, postgraduate and doctoral students, knowing the differences between the two is crucial. Not only does a clear demarcation of the two terms help you acquire a precise approach toward writing each of them, but it also helps you keep in mind the subtle nuances that go into creating the two documents.

Defining the two terms: thesis vs. research paper

The first step to discerning between a thesis and research paper is to know what they signify.

  Thesis: A thesis or a dissertation is an academic document that a candidate writes to acquire a university degree or similar qualification. Students typically submit a thesis at the end of their final academic term. It generally consists of putting forward an argument and backing it up with individual research and existing data.

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Research Paper: A research paper is also an academic document, albeit shorter compared to a thesis. It consists of conducting independent and extensive research on a topic and compiling the data in a structured and comprehensible form. A research paper demonstrates a student's academic prowess in their field of study along with strong analytical skills.

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How to Formulate Research Questions

Now that we have a fundamental understanding of a thesis and a research paper, it is time to dig deeper. To the untrained eye, a research paper and a thesis might seem similar. However, there are some differences, concrete and subtle, that set the two apart.

1. Writing objectives

The objective behind writing a thesis is to obtain a master's degree or doctorate and the ilk. Hence, it needs to exemplify the scope of your knowledge in your study field. That is why choosing an intriguing thesis topic and putting forward your arguments convincingly in favor of it is crucial.

A research paper is written as a part of a course's curriculum or written for publication in a peer-review journal. Its purpose is to contribute something new to the knowledge base of its topic.

2. Structure

Although both documents share quite a few similarities in their structures, the framework of a thesis is more rigid. Also, almost every university has its proprietary guidelines set out for thesis writing.

Comparatively, a research paper only needs to keep the IMRAD format consistent throughout its length. When planning to publish your research paper in a peer-review journal, you also must follow your target journal guidelines.

3. Time Taken

A thesis is an extensive document encompassing the entire duration of a master's or doctoral course and as such, it takes months and even years to write.

A research paper, being less lengthy, typically takes a few weeks or a few months to complete.

4. Supervision

Writing a thesis entails working with a faculty supervisor to ensure that you are on the right track. However, a research paper is more of a solo project and rarely needs a dedicated supervisor to oversee.

5. Finalization

The final stage of thesis completion is a viva voce examination and a thesis defense. It includes proffering your thesis to the examination board or a thesis committee for a questionnaire and related discussions. Whether or not you will receive a degree depends on the result of this examination and the defense.

A research paper is said to be complete when you finalize a draft, check it for plagiarism, and proofread for any language and contextual errors . Now all that's left is to submit it to the assigned authority.

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In the context of academic writing, a thesis and a research paper might appear the same. But, there are some fundamental differences that set apart the two writing formats. However, since both the documents come under the scope of academic writing, they also share some similarities. Both require formal language, formal tone, factually correct information & proper citations. Also, editing and proofreading are a must for both. Editing and Proofreading ensure that your document is properly formatted and devoid of all grammatical & contextual errors. So, the next time when you come across a thesis vs. research paper argument, keep these differences in mind.

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Best Edit & Proof expert editors and proofreaders focus on offering papers with proper tone, content, and style of  academic writing,  and also provide an upscale  editing and proofreading service  for you. If you consider our pieces of advice, you will witness a notable increase in the chance for your research manuscript to be accepted by the publishers. We work together as an academic writing style guide by bestowing subject-area editing and proofreading around several categorized writing styles. With the group of our expert editors, you will always find us all set to help you identify the tone and style that your manuscript needs to get a nod from the publishers.

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You can also avail of our assistance if you are looking for editors who can format your manuscript, or just check on the  particular styles  for the formatting task as per the guidelines provided to you, e.g.,  APA,  MLA, or Chicago/Turabian styles. Best Edit & Proof editors and proofreaders provide all sorts of academic writing help, including editing and proofreading services, using our user-friendly website, and a streamlined ordering process.

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Writing assignments is not like any other homework you’ve ever done or will do in your academic life. Writing assignments demands unrestrained dedication and plenty of willpower. You cannot just open a book and copy-paste its contents with some rephrasing. To write a better assignment, you need to work hard, you need to research, plan, draft, and edit carefully. Writing an assignment paper is one thing and writing an impactful assignment paper that instills a positive impression of you in your professor’s books and elicits good grades out of him/her is another one. The following tips will help you write a perfect assignment paper.

As a college student in the USA, the UK, Canada, or anywhere else, you may have a wealth of opportunities for freelance work due to your connections. Freelancing can be an excellent way to create an income stream and expand your writing portfolio. Take early advantage of your education while you're still in school and start a freelancing career. This handout provides an easy guide for freelance opportunities for college students.

Maintaining parallel structure prevents writers from making grammatically incorrect sentences and helps them to improve their writing styles. Although lack of parallelism is not always strictly incorrect, sentences with the parallel structure are easier to read and add a sense of balance to your academic writing. In this article, we will focus on what is parallel structure and how to use parallel structure in academic writing.

Briefly, research objectives are all about what you intend to achieve in your project. Therefore, they are expected to list every stage of the research and cover which methods they have used to gather data, establish their focal point, and advance their conclusions.

When you deal with experiments, you investigate the causal relationship between variables. What you fundamentally do is manipulate one or more than one independent variable (x) to determine their effect on dependent variables (y).

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IJR Journal is Multidisciplinary, high impact and indexed journal for research publication. IJR is a monthly journal for research publication.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESEARCH PAPER AND JOURNAL ARTICLE

Difference between research paper and journal article.

Research Paper

Argumentative Research Paper

Analytical research paper, journal article, the differences, research paper:, journal article:.

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What is the difference between Research Paper, Research Article, Review Paper & Review Article?

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• A research paper is based on original research.
• The kind of research may vary, depending on your field or the topic, (experiments, survey, interview, questionnaire, etc.), but authors need to collect and analyze raw data and conduct an original study.
• The research paper will be based on the analysis and interpretation of this data.
• Research articles will usually contain:
• a summary or “abstract”
• a description of the research
• the results they got
• the significance of the results.
• A narrative review explains the existing knowledge on a topic based on all the published research available on the topic.
• A systematic review searches for the answer to a particular question in the existing scientific literature on a topic.
• A meta-analysis compares and combines the findings of previously published studies, usually to assess the effectiveness of an intervention or mode of treatment.
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Empirical Articles

• How to Limit to Empirical Articles
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Empirical articles are those in which authors report on their own study. The authors will have collected data to answer a research question.  Empirical research contains observed and measured examples that inform or answer the research question. The data can be collected in a variety of ways such as interviews, surveys, questionnaires, observations, and various other quantitative and qualitative research methods. 

Empirical research  is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. 

How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology." Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?

Key characteristics to look for:

• Specific research questions  to be answered
• Definition of the  population, behavior, or   phenomena  being studied
• Description of the  process  used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)

Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:

• Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
• Methodology:  sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
• Results : sometimes called "findings"  --  what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
• Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies

General Advice

• Plan to read the article more than once
• Don't read it all the way through in one sitting, read strategically first.
• Identify relevant conclusions and limitations of study

Abstract: Get a sense of the article’s purpose and findings. Use it to assess if the article is useful for your research.

Skim: Review headings to understand the structure and label parts if needed.

Introduction/Literature Review: Identify the main argument, problem, previous work, proposed next steps, and hypothesis.

Methodology: Understand data collection methods, data sources, and variables.

Findings/Results: Examine tables and figures to see if they support the hypothesis without relying on captions.

Discussion/Conclusion: Determine if the findings support the argument/hypothesis and if the authors acknowledge any limitations.

Anatomy of a Research Paper    by Richard D. Branson published in Respir Care.  2004 October;  49(10): 1222–1228.

How to Read a Scholarly Chemistry Artricle -  Rider tutorial.

How to read and understand a scientific paper - a guide for non-scientists  - Violent Metaphors (blog post).

Compare your article to this table to help determine you have located an empirical study/research report.

Look for the following words in the title/abstract: empirical, experiment, research, or study.

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

Home » Education » What is the Difference Between Thesis and Research Paper

What is the Difference Between Thesis and Research Paper

The main difference between thesis and research paper is that thesis is a long academic paper that typically serves as the final project for a university degree, while research paper is a piece of academic writing on a particular topic.

In brief, both thesis and research paper are types of academic writing students need to complete in their academic life. While there are many similarities between the two, including the use of academic writing and structure, they are not the same. 

Key Areas Covered

1.  What is a Thesis       – Definition, Features 2.  What is a Research Paper      – Definition, Features 3.  Difference Between Thesis and Research Paper     – Comparison of Key Differences

What is a Thesis

A thesis is a long paper that typically serves as the final project for a university degree. Submitting a thesis is generally required for completing undergraduate honours, masters , and  doctoral degrees . The theses are very long and may contain hundreds of pages. They are also scholarly in nature and allows students to contribute valuable research in their field of study.

Moreover, a major part of a thesis work involves research and writing. It generally has advanced  research design  and analysis. When writing a thesis, the students will have to prove or disapprove a  hypothesis , and their conclusions have to be backed by extensive research and an insightful, learned description of how they got to that conclusion. In some degree programs, students also have to perform an oral defence of the thesis paper in front of a panel of experts.

Components of a Thesis

These are the components you will usually find in a thesis paper.

• Title Page                       
• Abstract           
• Table of Contents           
• List of Figures
• List of Tables           
• Introduction           
• Methods           
• Discussion             
• Conclusions
• Recommendations           
• Acknowledgements
• References             

What is a Research Paper

A research paper is a type of academic writing that involves research, source evaluation, critical thinking, organization, and composition. Moreover, through a research paper, students can explore, interpret, and evaluate sources related to a particular topic. In fact, primary and secondary sources are very important components of a research paper. But it’s important to note that a research paper is not just a summary of a topic using primary and secondary sources. It’s not just an opinion essay or an expository essay that contains the writer’s opinions and views, either. A research paper is a type of writing that requires evaluating different sources and interpreting the information of these sources through one’s own lens. Furthermore, the main purpose of this type of writing is to offer a unique perspective on a topic analyzing and evaluating what others have already said about it.

In addition, there are different types of research papers. Argumentative research papers and analytical research papers are two of the main types of research papers.

Difference Between Thesis and Research Paper

A thesis or dissertation is a long academic paper that typically serves as the final project for a university degree while a research paper is a type of academic writing that involves research, source evaluation, critical thinking, organization, and composition.

In an Academic Context

In an academic context, students may be required to write research papers for assignments and homework, but a thesis is usually the final project.

A thesis tends to be longer than a research paper; in fact, a thesis can take many months, sometimes years, to complete.

Supervision

The thesis is written under the supervision of one or more academic supervisors whereas research papers usually do not have supervisors.

Students have to complete a thesis in order to complete their degree, whereas students write research papers to expand their knowledge.

In brief, the main difference between thesis and research paper is that thesis is a long research paper that typically serves as the final project for a university degree, while a research paper is a piece of academic writing on a particular topic. Moreover, in an academic context, students may be required to write research papers for assignments and homework. But the thesis is usually the final project.

1. Stute, Martin. “ How to Write Your Thesis .” Columbia University. 2. “ Genre and the Research Paper .” Purdue Writing Lab.

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1. “ Research Paper ” (CC BY-SA 3.0) By Nick Youngson via Alpha Stock Images 

About the Author: Hasa

Hasanthi is a seasoned content writer and editor with over 8 years of experience. Armed with a BA degree in English and a knack for digital marketing, she explores her passions for literature, history, culture, and food through her engaging and informative writing.

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Literature Review vs Research Paper: What’s the Difference?

by  Antony W

June 26, 2024

This is a complete student’s guide to understanding literature review vs research paper.

We’ll teach you what they’re, explain why they’re important, state the difference between the two, and link you to our comprehensive guide on how to write them.

Literature Review Writing Help

Writing a literature review for a thesis, a research paper, or as a standalone assignment takes time. Much of your time will go into research, not to mention you have other assignments to complete. 

If you find writing in college or university overwhelming, get in touch with our literature review writers for hire at 25% discounts and enjoy the flexibility and convenience that comes with professional writing help. We’ll help you do everything, from research and outlining to custom writing and proofreading.

What is a Literature Review?

A literature review document is a secondary source of information that provides an overview of existing knowledge, which you can use to identify gaps or flaws in existing research. In literature review writing, students have to find and read existing publications such as journal articles, analyze the information, and then state their findings.

Credit: Pubrica

You’ll write a literature review to demonstrate your understanding on the topic, show gaps in existing research, and develop an effective methodology and a theoretical framework for your research project.

Your instructor may ask you to write a literature review as a standalone assignment. Even if that’s the case, the rules for writing a review paper don’t change.

In other words, you’ll still focus on evaluating the current research and find gaps around the topic.

Types of Literature Reviews

There are three types of review papers and they’re a follows:

 1. Meta-analysis

In meta-analysis review paper, you combine and compare answers from already published studies on a given subject.

2. Narrative Review

A narrative review paper looks into existing information or research already conducted on a given topic.

3. Systematic Review

You need to do three things if asked to write a systematic review paper.

First, read and understand the question asked. Second, look into research already conducted on the topic. Third, search for the answer to the question from the established research you just read.

What’s a Research Paper?

A research paper is an assignment in which you present your own argument, evaluation, or interpretation of an issue based on independent research.

In a research paper project, you’ll draw some conclusions from what experts have already done, find gaps in their studies, and then draw your own conclusions.

While a research paper is like an academic essay, it tends to be longer and more detailed.

Since they require extended research and attention to details, research papers can take a lot of time to write.

If well researched, your research paper can demonstrate your knowledge about a topic, your ability to engage with multiple sources, and your willingness to contribute original thoughts to an ongoing debate.

Types of Research Papers

 There are two types of research papers and they’re as follows:

 1. Analytical Research Papers

 Similar to analytical essay , and usually in the form of a question, an analytical research paper looks at an issue from a neutral point and gives a clear analysis of the issue.

Your goal is to make the reader understand both sides of the issue in question and leave it to them to decide what side of the analysis to accept.

Unlike an argumentative research paper, an analytical research paper doesn’t include counterarguments. And you can only draw your conclusion based on the information stretched out all through the analysis.

2. Argumentative Research Papers

In an argumentative research paper, you state the subject under study, look into both sides of an issue, pick a stance, and then use solid evidence and objective reasons to defend your position.

In   argumentative writing, your goal isn’t to persuade your audience to take an action. 

Rather, it’s to convince them that your position on the research question is more accurate than the opposing point of views.

Regardless of the type of research paper that you write, you’ll have to follow the standard outline for the assignment to be acceptable for review and marking.

Also, all research paper, regardless of the research question under investigation must include a literature review.

Literature Review vs Research Paper

The table below shows the differences between a literature review (review paper) and a research paper. 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. is there a literature review in a research paper.

A research paper assignment must include a literature review immediately after the introduction chapter.

The chapter is significant because your research work would otherwise be incomplete without knowledge of existing literature. 

2. How Many Literature Review Should Be in Research Paper?

Your research paper  should have only one literature review. Make sure you write the review based on the instructions from your teacher.

Before you start, check the required length, number of sources to summarize, and the format to use. Doing so will help you score top grades for the assignment. 

3. What is the Difference Between Research and Literature?

Whereas literature focuses on gathering, reading, and summarizing information on already established studies, original research involves coming up with new concepts, theories, and ideas that might fill existing gaps in the available literature.

4. How Long is a Literature Review?

How long a literature review should be will depend on several factors, including the level of education, the length of the assignment, the target audience, and the purpose of the review.

For example, a 150-page dissertation can have a literature review of 40 pages on average.

Make sure you talk to your instructor to determine the required length of the assignment.

5. How Does a Literature Review Look Like?

Your literature review shouldn’t be a focus on original research or new information. Rather, it should give a clear overview of the already existing work on the selected topic.

The information to review can come from various sources, including scholarly journal articles , government reports, credible websites, and academic-based books. 

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Thesis and Research Paper

On the other hand, a research paper is analytical, argumentative and interpretative in nature. It involves the pursuit of knowledge and intelligent analysis of the information collected. It contains the idea of the author, often supported by expert opinions, research and information available in this regard.

Whether you are writing a thesis or research paper, they are equally challenging and take a lot of time to prepare. In this post, we will update you on all the points of difference between thesis and  research paper.

Content: Thesis Vs Research Paper

• Key Elements
• Thesis Statement

How to start a research paper?

Comparison chart.

What is Thesis?

The thesis is a document containing the research and findings that students submit to get the professional qualification or degree . It has to be argumentative, which proposes a debatable point with which people could either agree or disagree. In short, it is a research report in writing that contains a problem which is yet to be dealt with.

In a thesis, the researcher puts forth his/her conclusion. The researcher also gives evidence in support of the conclusion.

Submission of the thesis is a mandatory requirement of a postgraduate course and PhD degree. In this, the primary focus is on the novelty of research along with the research methodology.

It is all about possibilities, by introducing several anti-thesis. Also, it ends up all the possibilities by nullifying all these anti-thesis.

Key Elements of Thesis

• Proposition : The thesis propagates an idea, hypothesis or recommendation.
• Argument : Gives reasons for accepting the proposition instead of just asserting a point of view.
• Maintenance of argument : The argument should be made cogent enough by providing suitable logic and adequate evidence.

Features of An Ideal Thesis

• An Ideal thesis is expected to add fresh knowledge to the existing theory.
• It communicates the central idea of the research in a clear and concise manner.
• An effective thesis is more than a simple statement, fact or question.
• It answers why and how questions concerned with the topic.
• To avoid confusion, it is worded carefully.
• It outlines the direction and scope of your essay.
• It gives reasons to the reader to continue reading.

Also Read : Difference Between Thesis and Dissertation

What is Thesis Statement?

A thesis statement is a sentence of one line, usually written at the end of your first paragraph. It presents the argument to the reader.

It is a blueprint of your thesis that directs the writer while writing the thesis and guides the reader through it.

What is Research Paper?

Research Paper is a form of academic writing. It is prepared on the basis of the original research conducted by the author on a specific topic, along with its analysis and interpretation of the findings.

An author generally starts writing a research paper on the basis of what he knows about the topic and seeks to find out what experts know. Further, it involves thorough and systematic research on a particular subject to extract the maximum information.

In short, a research paper is a written and published report containing the results of scientific research or a review of published scientific papers. Here, the scientific research is the primary research article, while the review of a published scientific paper is the review article.

In case of the primary research article, the author of the research paper provides important information about the research. This enables the scientific community members to:

• Evaluate it
• Reproduce the experiments
• Assess the reasoning and conclusions drawn

On the other hand, a review article is written to analyze, summarize and synthesize the research carried out previously.

When a research work is published in a scientific journal, it conveys the knowledge to a larger group of people and also makes people aware of the scientific work. Research work published as a research paper passes on knowledge and information to many people. The research paper provides relevant information about the disease and the treatment options at hand .

To start writing a research paper, one should always go for a topic that is interesting and a bit challenging too. Here, the key to choosing the topic is to pick the one that you can manage. So, you could avoid such topics which are very technical or specialized and also those topics for which data is not easily available. Also, do not go for any controversial topic.

The researcher’s approach and attitude towards the topic will decide the amount of effort and enthusiasm.

Steps for writing Research Paper

The total number of pages included in a Research Paper relies upon the research topic. It may include 8 to 10 pages, which are:

• Introduction
• Review of Literature
• Methodology
• Research Analysis
• Recommendations

Also Read : Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

Key Differences Between Thesis and Research Paper

• A thesis implies an original, plagiarism-free, written academic document that acts as a final project for a university degree of a higher level. But, Research Paper is a novel, plagiarism-free long essay. It portrays the interpretation, evaluation or argument submitted by a researcher.
• The thesis acts as a final project. Whereas a research paper is a kind of research manual of journals.
• The length of the thesis is around 20,000 to 80,000 words. On the contrary, the length of the research paper is relative to the study.
• The thesis focuses on the central question or statement of an intellectual argument that entails further research. On the contrary, the research paper is concerned with proving the central argument.
• The purpose of submitting the thesis is to get the degree or professional qualification. It also presents the knowledge of the candidate in the respective field. Conversely, the aim of publishing research papers is to prove credibility and contribute knowledge in the respective field.
• While the student submits the thesis to the educational committee or panel of professors who review it. In contrast, scientists and other researchers read and review the research paper.
• Preparation and completion of thesis is always under the guidance of a supervisor. For submission of the thesis, the university assigns a supervisor to each student, under whose guidance the thesis must be completed. As against, no supervisor is appointed as a guide in case of a research paper.
• The thesis contains a broader description of the subject matter. In contrast, the research paper contains a narrow description of the subject matter.

Once the research paper is published, it increases the fellowship and job opportunities for new researchers. On the other hand, thesis writing will enable the students to get the desired degree at the end of the course they have opted.

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Dr. Owenga says

February 23, 2023 at 2:38 pm

So good and informative. These are quite beneficial insights. Thanks

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Journal Article Investigates Explosion Hazards from Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Runaway Gas

The new peer-reviewed journal article, Experimental Investigation of Explosion Hazard from Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Runaway has been published in FUEL . The paper was authored by Nate Sauer and Adam Barowy from the Fire Safety Research Institute (FSRI), part of UL Research Institutes, as well as Benjamin Gaudet from UL Solutions . As part FSRI’s Impact of Batteries on Fire Dynamics research project, the paper investigates the explosion hazards of lithium-ion battery thermal runaway gas.

Investigating the Explosion Hazards from Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Runaway Effluent Gas 

As adoption of lithium-ion battery technology increases worldwide, safety hazards from fire and explosions present a real concern to the fire service. To better understand the hazards,  21 experiments were conducted within a full-scale garage structure designed based on demographic data and modern North American construction. The experiments included  two flammable gas mixtures derived from commercial testing of nickel cobalt aluminum oxide and lithium iron phosphate cathode cells with the UL 9540A methodology including gas chromatography to determine gas composition. Experiments were designed to simulate:

• prompt-ignition of flammable off-gas emanating from an energy storage system (ESS) lithium-ion battery experiencing propagating thermal runaway; and
• delayed-ignition deflagration occurring after ESS lithium-ion battery off-gas accumulates and mixes within the garage volume

During tests, pressure rise within the enclosed garage was measured using high-speed piezoelectric pressure transducers. Overpressure data was compared to known ranges for structural damage and bodily injury thresholds while time-resolved overpressure was compared to vented explosion models. Correlations were developed between gas volume and measured impulse and overpressure.

“As we see more incidents related to explosions of lithium-ion batteries, there is a clear need for concrete data to characterize the associated hazards. This data can facilitate conversations about how to mitigate the risks associated with thermal runaway.” — Nate Sauer , post-doctoral researcher, FSRI

The Impact of Explosions Resulting from Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Runaway Gas

Data shows that when lithium-ion batteries fail and go into thermal runaway, the accumulation of thermal runaway gas poses an explosion hazard. This study finds that battery sizes such as those found in electric lawn mowers, electric vehicles, and e-mobility devices may produce enough gas during thermal runaway to damage a residential structure and risk injury to first responders or occupants. Report findings summarize the relationship between battery size and potential explosion severity. The data   is freely available to the public through an online repository .

About FUEL : 

Research into energy sources is a critical area of study. For nearly 90 years, FUEL has been the leading source of research in fuel science. The research scope is broad and includes many topics of increasing interest such as environmental aspects and pollution.

Experiments Investigate Lithium-Ion Battery Explosion Hazards

Read about the experiments investigating explosion hazards from lithium-ion battery thermal runaways in residential garages.

Near Miss Incident Involving Energy Storage System

Technical Report

Read FSRI’s report investigating this near miss incident in Surprise, AZ.

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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• Published: 16 September 2024

Food diversity and accessibility enabled urban environments for sustainable food consumption: a case study of Brisbane, Australia

• Lijun Summerhayes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2368-898X 1 ,
• Douglas Baker 2 &
• Karen Vella 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1227 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Food overconsumption is being addressed increasingly in the policy agendas of many advanced economies to achieve sustainable consumption. Yet, few studies define and research sustainable food consumption, particularly in understanding socioeconomic and environmental challenges and opportunities in urban environments. This paper evaluates 500 online surveys conducted in Brisbane, Australia, to explore public perceptions of food consumption and the underlying challenges and opportunities. A key finding is the co-existence of over- and underconsumption prevailing over the traditional focus on unhealthy food overconsumption. The challenges of affordability, access to healthy foods, limited retail options, and increasing carbon urban footprints complicate food consumption as a demand issue more conditional to the socio-spatial characteristics of urban environments. Opportunities for sustainable food consumption also arise in high health awareness and willingness to change dietary habits if facilitated by improved urban food provisioning. We argue that food diversity and accessibility-conducive urban environments can help transform food consumption by enabling enhanced access to affordable and nutritious foods, diversified food retail options and variety, and reduced food waste and loss-associated carbon emissions. To do so means improved global equity in food consumption and carbon footprint can optimistically reduce global food demand by 9% and generate better environmental outcomes, positively contributing to the UN’s Responsible Consumption (SDG12) and Climate Action (SDG 13) for 2030.

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Introduction.

Sustainable food consumption is essential for achieving multiple United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030, including Zero Hunger (SDG2), Responsible Consumption (SDG12) and Climate Action (SDG 13). Efforts to achieve these goals have been relatively scarce, with the United Nations (UN) 2023 annual report highlighting the slow and even regressive progress towards these global sustainability goals (United Nations, 2023 ). One recommendation from this report is for countries outside Europe and Central Asia, including Australia, to contribute more to developing and implementing policy instruments that support the shift to sustainable consumption (Target 12.1) and integrate climate measures into national policies and planning (Target 13.2) (United Nations, 2023 ). Whilst global temperatures have already surpassed 1.1 °C halfway to the 2030 deadline (United Nations, 2023 ), significant disparities in food consumption are also broadening between developed and developing countries, with inequitable food consumption (Bruckner et al., 2022 ; Hasegawa et al., 2019 ) and unequal global carbon footprints (Chancel, 2022 ; Halpern et al., 2022 ). These challenges are exacerbated by other intermingled planetary challenges, such as rapid urbanisation and climate change, with the world’s urban population projected to rise from 55% to 68% by 2050 (United Nations, 2018 ), where 70% of the food produced is already consumed (FAO, 2017 ).

While attention to sustainable food consumption is gathering momentum, solutions of solely increasing food production to eradicate hunger and undernourishment are arguably untenable to feeding a growing world population, especially targeting developing countries. This uncertainty persists despite significant scientific advancements in food quantity and nutrition quality to satisfy additional food demand (FAO, 2017 ; Hasegawa et al., 2019 ; United Nations, 2018 ). Scholars argue that the fundamental cause of inequitable consumption lies in the disproportionate distribution of global wealth and income (Bruckner et al., 2022 ). Overconsumption, food waste, agricultural intensification, and environmental impacts reflect an often overlooked aspect of food consumption, especially with most food consumed and wasted in advanced economies (Hasegawa et al., 2019 ). These concerns compel better improvement in sustainable food consumption to achieve global sustainability goals rather than merely targeting developing countries by increasing food production. A two-pronged approach to addressing hunger in low-income countries and overconsumption in rich worlds is arguably more beneficial. This approach would reduce global food demand by 9% while improving overall environmental sustainability rather than narrowly focusing on increasing food production by 20% to tackle hunger and undernourishment prevalent in developing countries (Hasegawa et al., 2019 ).

Despite increasing attention to sustainable food consumption, especially in tackling overconsumption and reducing food waste in high-income countries, a large body of literature and policies focus on obesity or overweight reduction and the promotion of healthy diets (Greater London Authority, 2022 ; Lang, 2009 ; Murphy et al., 2018 ; Raja et al., 2010 ; Whitfield et al., 2016 ). Little research offers a comprehensive understanding of sustainable food consumption in urban areas beyond the overconsumption of unhealthy food. Few studies investigate the socioeconomic and environmental challenges embedded in urban environments, which impact how urbanites consume food and why, and possible opportunities for food consumption to become sustainable. Such an investigation aligns with the UN request to develop and implement policy instruments that support the shift to sustainable consumption (Target 12.1) and, at the same time, integrate climate measures into national policies and planning (Target 13.2) (United Nations, 2023 ).

This paper presents one investigation using Brisbane, Australia, as a case study area. We first conceptualise a framework for sustainable food consumption, which guides an empirical analysis of public perceptions collected in 500 online surveys. The revealing status of sustainability in food consumption enables key socioeconomic and environmental challenges to be identified, with opportunities for improved consumption also highlighted in urban settings.

Our study makes two primary contributions. First, the conceptualisation of sustainable food consumption provides a more advanced and structured understanding of food consumption, transcending the traditional focus on the overconsumption of unhealthy food to include the underconsumption of healthy food. Even in wealthy nations, this double-helix of consumption can lead to malnutrition and undernourishment. Food consumption in urban environments is no longer a mere demand issue but more conditional to the socio-spatial characteristics of urban forms. A second contribution is policy implications through the revelation of complex socioeconomic and environmental urban challenges hindering urban residents from consuming food sustainably. The public perceptions and experience derived from empirical data and statistical analysis provide an evidence-based case study for policymakers and decision-makers to develop more effective urban policies and policies that facilitate the shift to sustainable food consumption in wealthy and underdeveloped countries. Deliberate policies that create changes for urban environments may optimistically reduce global food demand by 9% (Hasegawa et al., 2019 ) and accelerate efforts to achieve Responsible Consumption Patterns (SDG12) and Climate Action (SDG 13).

Sustainable food consumption: a conditional demand issue

The framework of sustainable food consumption is conceptualised to distinguish food consumption as a demand issue but is more conditional on four socioeconomic factors embedded in urban environments. This framework embodies three layers at its core: a demand issue, conditional demand, and enabling factors.

The first layer of the framework acknowledges food consumption as a demand issue in advanced economies. This issue, however, transcends securing and consuming healthy food as individual responsibilities (Howe, 2002 ; Martin and Marsden, 1999 ; Morgan, 2015 ). Consumption activities and outcomes often impact urban sustainability in health, social, economic, environmental, and many other domains (Morgan, 2013 ; Morgan and Sonnino, 2010 ; Sonnino, 2009 ). Notably, the increasing interactions between these domains impact food consumption at an unprecedented level. For example, the advent of the “new food equation” represents an interplay between rising food prices, food insecurity, national security, climate change, land conflicts and urbanisation (Morgan, 2009 , 2015 ; Morgan and Sonnino, 2010 ). The emerging issues of global inequity in food consumption (Bruckner et al., 2022 ; Hasegawa et al., 2019 ) and global carbon footprints (Chancel, 2022 ; Halpern et al., 2022 ) demand more responsible and sustainable food consumption from wealthy nations, given most food consumed and wasted is in developed countries (Hasegawa et al., 2019 ).

The evolving complexity of food consumption indicates that examining this demand issue must consider both the overconsumption of unhealthy food and the underconsumption of nutritious food. While addressing unhealthy food overconsumption is ostensibly the most prominent policy agenda for reducing obesity and overweight issues (Béné et al., 2020 ; Development Initiatives Poverty Research Ltd, 2018 ; Havewala, 2020 ; Horst et al., 2017 ; Steel, 2009 ; Tansey, 1994 ), this approach is no longer adequate. Issues of under-consuming healthy and nutritious food are already rising, although traditionally overlooked in many high-income economies. Low intake of healthy foods is associated with phenomena such as “food deserts” due to low-density residential development and urban sprawl (Hamidi, 2020 ; Zurayk, 2020 ) or diet-related chronic diseases, particularly prevalent in low-income and vulnerable demographic segments (Bedore, 2010 ; Havewala, 2020 ; Horst et al., 2017 ; Sonnino, 2016 ; Widener et al., 2012 ). Balancing over- and underconsumption challenges the overall ability to achieve sustainable food consumption.

While featured as a demand issue, the sustainable food consumption framework also emphasises its conditional demand nature as the second layer. Markets dominate food provision significantly, featuring an economic policy supported and prevailing in many neo-liberal cities. The socio-spatial characteristics of urban environments in wealthy nations challenge food consumption caused by and as the result of multiple interactive market mechanisms. These urban conditions significantly determine what foods are available and how consumption can occur at the receiving end. A comprehensive review of the latest literature identifies that affordability, access to healthy food, variety of food retail options, and carbon footprint are strongly associated with socio-spatial urban conditions. Each of the four factors individually and collectively impacts sustainable food consumption in urban environments, relevant to and beyond the demand perspective.

Food affordability is essential for sustainable food consumption as food fulfils basic human requirements (Stoianov, 2017 ). Meeting this demand, however, becomes challenging as rising food prices continue, among other factors of the “new food equation” characterising urban life in many developed countries (Morgan, 2009 , 2015 ; Morgan and Sonnino, 2010 ). Many cities are experiencing increasingly disrupted supply chains due to unexpected events such as floods, bushfires, and the recent COVID-19 pandemic (MacMahon et al., 2015 ; McLachlan, 2020 ; Wong-See and Jacques, 2020 ). While upholding the right to access fresh, healthy, culturally relevant, ecologically produced, and affordable food (Horst et al., 2017 ; Lockie, 2009 ; Morgan, 2015 ), the unpredictability-induced continuous food price increase will further dampen affordability and worsen household living costs. If a household spends 30% of its income on food, they are in the category of “food poverty” (Ilieva, 2016 , p. 142). This economic inability is even more detrimental to people who live in socio-economically disadvantaged areas (Horst et al., 2017 ). Scholars warn, therefore, of the undesirable consequences of compounding the issues of deprivation and social exclusion (Wrigley et al., 2003 ) and the pervasive adverse effects on society and nature (Ekins and Max-Neef, 1992 , p. 181).

Concomitant with affordability, the second factor of sustainable food consumption is the ability of people to access healthy food and the consequential trade-off in consumption between healthy and unhealthy foods. This ability to access food and its types is contingent on food provision. On one hand, access to food can be physically bound, depending on the spatial dispersal of urban forms. Excessive spatial separation between residential and retail land use in low-density cities can negatively impact access to food (Zurayk, 2020 ). Duany and Steuteville ( 2021 ) explain this negative correlation using a five-minute model. The need to drive a five-minute distance to access services at an average speed of 40 miles per hour (equals two and one-third miles or 3.7 kilometres) represents a low-density urban development, typically occupied by eight residential units per acre (or 1 unit per 505 square metres) (Duany and Steuteville, 2021 ). This spatial condition causes an overreliance on driving to access food. A lack of public transport networks can further exacerbate physical barriers in this type of urban environment, particularly harder for people who cannot drive due to various factors (Zurayk, 2020 ). While claiming healthy food is a public good and access to it should be safeguarded as an unalienable human right (Horst et al., 2017 ; McClintock, 2014 , p. 153; Morgan, 2013 , 2015 ), such spatial dispersal compromises the ability of urban residents to access healthy food. Instead, it further decreases affordability due to costs associated with food distribution.

A second issue of easy access to the abundance of unhealthy foods tends to prevail over the difficulties of accessing healthy, fresh, and nutritious foods. This push-and-pull interplay constitutes an insufficient healthy mix (Tansey, 1994 ), leading to an extreme phenomenon of “food swamps” featured as an abundant supply of predominantly unhealthy food (Havewala, 2020 ; Horst et al., 2017 ). Spatial segregation by race, income, and socioeconomic status further exacerbates the overconsumption of unhealthy food (Havewala, 2020 ; Horst et al., 2017 ; Steel, 2009 ; Tansey, 1994 ). The resultant disparity affects communities unequally, with low-income groups as one vulnerable demographic segment more susceptible to food-related dietary diseases (Bedore, 2010 ; Havewala, 2020 ; Horst et al., 2017 ; Sonnino, 2016 ; Widener et al., 2012 ).

While urban forms can physically constrain access to healthy foods, fewer retail options can further jeopardise this ability and impact sustainable food consumption. This third factor impacting food consumption represents more of a supply issue embedded in the socio-spatial characteristics of urban environments than a demand issue focusing on consumers. One significant factor for this unbalanced food consumption is the increasing concentration of fewer large food corporations, notably the supermarkets’ 80% market share in the UK (Morgan, 2015 ) and 70% in Australia (Bariacto and Nunzio, 2014 ; MacMahon et al., 2015 ). Market acquisition and consolidation further strengthen food retail hegemony in urban areas, often in the form of supermarket monopoly, reducing the diversity of food provision and restricting consumer choices (Bariacto and Nunzio, 2014 ; MacMahon et al., 2015 ; Morgan, 2015 ). The resultant lack of competition and society-wide distributional issues squeeze out small retailers, rendering less variety in food choices and little affordability for consumers who especially prefer fresh and healthy foods.

The last socioeconomic and environmental factor affecting sustainable food consumption is the increasing food-related carbon emissions and environmental challenges in urban areas that can influence food consumption as an interplay between demand and supply. Although rarely perceived by urban consumers, food activities have interconnectedly encumbered food systems with environmental issues and ecological imbalance (Ashe and Sonnino, 2013 ; Morgan, 2013 ). It is estimated that food production, processing, distribution, transportation, retail, and consumption, along with food loss and food waste generated in urban areas, amount to 30% of global greenhouse gas emissions (Lang and Miao, 2013 ; Morgan, 2013 ; Morgan and Sonnino, 2010 ; Vermeulen et al., 2012 ). Such spatial dispersal then requires travelling further and longer between food production and consumption, increasing demand for energy and fuel consumption (Martin and Marsden, 1999 ) and the likelihood and frequency of food waste and loss before and after consumption in urban areas, with carbon emissions even more prevalent in low-density urban environments.

The framework of sustainable food consumption also underpins the third layer—the enabling factors. While highlighting four socioeconomic and environmental factors that challenge the overconsumption of unhealthy foods and the underconsumption of nutritious foods in urban environments, the complexity of their collective interactions represents and is the result of the socio-spatial characteristics of urban environments. Its core linkage to urban settings underscores the potential policy interventions of creating accessibility and diversity-conducive urban environments, holistically enabling enhanced access to affordable and healthy foods, diversified food retail options, and reduced food-related carbon emissions due to improved access and diversification. Both accessibility and diversity enablers can collectively address these four challenges to foster more sustainable food consumption. This conceptual framework provides a structural and holistic approach to analyse food consumption in developed countries like Australia. The case study assessment of Brisbane, Queensland, investigates the sustainable level of food consumption using the framework of sustainable food consumption.

Case study area: Brisbane, Queensland

Brisbane is the capital city of Queensland and Australia’s third most populous capital city, with a population of 2.6 million people in 2022 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2023 ). As one of the OECD countries, Australia is one of the world’s most urbanised countries, with low-density residential development featuring most cities and 90% of the population living in urban areas (ABS, 2019 ; Gurran, 2011 ; Kent and Thompson, 2019 ). Brisbane is the microcosm of Australian cities in many aspects. First, Brisbane is experiencing rapid population growth and is projected to triple by 2101. Brisbane resembles many other Australian cities with rich and diverse racial and cultural backgrounds. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples comprise 3% of the local population, and 68% of the Australian residents have non-Australian ancestry. Socioeconomic features mirror the national trend, such as the average number of people per household (2.6 in 2021) and the median weekly household income ($1,849 in 2021), with Brisbane slightly higher than those in Queensland and Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021 ).

One common feature of Brisbane is its low-density urban development, resembling many other cities in developed countries dominated by the Broadacre City model (Wright, 1932 , pp. 61-65) and influenced by the Australian dream of owning a house with a big yard. In 2016, housing density was 16.2 dwellings per hectare, equating to 450 square metres per dwelling, representing a slight increase from 14 dwellings per hectare in 2011, or 591sq m (The State of Queensland, 2017 ). While the targeted housing density for 2041 surpasses the 2016 benchmark to reach 20–30 units per hectare (The State of Queensland, 2017 ), the proposal to achieve this target appears untenable, given that 60% of housing is by infill and 40% by greenfield development on average. While infill development entails the potential for higher density within the existing urban footprint, greenfield development means additional land clearing and infrastructure investment, often leading to longer travel distances for residents to access supermarkets for food shopping, lower accessibility to services, higher carbon footprint, and higher automobile dependence on dispersed and low-density urban development compared to compact city or infill development ( Compact City Policies A Comparative Assessment , 2012 ; Newman and Kenworthy, 1989 ).

Another commonality between Brisbane and other Australian cities is that food supply and production have historically been self-sufficient, with Australia long renowned as an agricultural and food producer and exporter. Even during the onset of COVID-19, the Australian government urged residents not to panic buy as local food produce was enough to feed 75 million people (Australian Food and Grocery Council, 2020 ), a figure three times greater than its national population. Contrary to this claim, one in three Australians experienced food insecurity in 2020 (Foodbank, 2020 ), with one in six Australian adults in 2021 (Foodbank, 2021 ).

Overall, Brisbane exemplifies the quintessential urbanised city of a developed nation—a city with a diverse culture, affluence, rapid urbanisation, and low-density detached housing development. Policies are concurrently in place to densify existing urban forms while expanding low-density housing development in outer suburbs. Examining food consumption sustainability in Brisbane as a case study provides a timely opportunity to offer insights into the sustainability of these policy trajectories, locally and globally.

Data design

The survey design was structured to investigate urban dwellers’ experiences and perceptions of food consumption to validate the impacts of four factors theoretically constructed in the sustainable food consumption framework. Survey questions were developed to solicit detailed responses while minimising respondent burden. Most questions were on a Likert scale with five options from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree , with a few solicited yes or no answers for further insights. Each survey response took 10–15 min to complete. An overview of the survey design is as follows.

Surveys explored both aspects of food consumption—overconsumption and underconsumption, with detailed questions and sub-questions exploring consumption patterns and issues. Questions were designed to uncover the underlying challenges of sustainable food consumption and potential opportunities for improvement, in terms of the four factors of food consumption sustainability: affordability, access to healthy food, retail options, and carbon footprints.

Survey questions concerning the affordability factor included the availability of fresh and healthy foods, their affordability, the availability of culturally relevant foods and their affordability, and household food spending. Questions also addressed the shopping for non-essential foods, including shopping preference, frequency, and reasons for these shopping habits.

Questions for access to healthy food explored the transport mode used for food shopping, driving duration, the availability of food charity support, and the experiences with these support services. Participants were asked whether they agreed that fresh and healthy foods should be available, accessible, and affordable for everyone and whether more fresh and healthy food should be available, accessible, and affordable for everyone.

Questions were designed to explore public sentiment on diversifying food retail options to understand the dominant status of supermarkets and public preferences for retail options. Specific questions addressed whether supermarkets were the dominant shopping avenue and whether they desired more supermarkets and small-scale retail.

Survey questions on food carbon footprint in urban areas were simplified to primarily explore whether the public agreed that food waste and loss contributed to global greenhouse gas emissions (GGE), whether a food waste disposal infrastructure should be established in their neighbourhood to reduce food waste, and whether food-related companies should improve their commercial practices, such as less waste in food production, environmentally friendly packaging, better transportation system and application of technology.

Data collection

Surveys received 564 responses between September and November 2021. Four screening and filtering steps were applied during data collection to ensure data quality and representation of food consumption until reaching an eligible data set of 500 survey responses. This sample size adopted a simple random sampling technique and represented 50% of the population proportion, achieving a 95% confidence level at an alpha index of 0.05 for a power of 0.8.

Data analysis

The research predominantly adopted descriptive statistic techniques, supplemented with inferential statistical analysis where appropriate in Microsoft Excel and SPSS. The descriptive analysis primarily evaluated data distribution to categorise and regroup results. This process explored the demographic profile of survey respondents regarding age group, gender, culture, religion, employment, income level, and household structure. Understanding survey profiles ensured the controlled influence of each factor on their perceptions and experiences of food consumption to various extents. The survey sample size was large, representing all age groups, excluding those under 18, with relatively even gender allocation, diverse cultural and religious representation, various employment, income distribution, and heterogenous household structures.

The inferential analysis in SPSS determined the associations between categorical variables collected in the survey data. The Pearson chi-square test of independence determines whether a significant relationship exists between two categorical variables within the population (Field and Field, 2018 ). The survey data was re-coded and re-processed in SPSS before performing the chi-squared test. Part of this data process included combining or collapsing 5-point Likert responses into 3-point responses, so the expected values were equal to or greater than 5, thereby meeting the basic assumption of analysing categorical data using the chi-square test.

The analysis of the survey results identified public experiences and perceptions of food consumption regarding four factors of sustainable food consumption: affordability, access to healthy food, food retail options, and carbon footprint. The results established how food consumption occurred in urban areas and revealed how these four factors influenced the consumption of healthy and unhealthy foods.

Data profile

The data sample included 500 survey responses, with diverse and representative data distributed across various demographic variables. Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of demographic factors in terms of culture, gender, religion, and household income, which can significantly influence the food choice and consumption of certain foods.

a Distribution in ethnicity and cultural backgrounds. b Distribution of gender. c Distribution of religion. d Distribution in household income level.

Figure 1a depicts that 10.7% of the respondents are Indigenous Australians, and approximately 20% are associated with various cultural backgrounds. Gender allocation is relatively even, with the number of females completing the survey slightly higher than the number of males (Fig. 1b ). Although most respondents are non-religious, 33.3% have differing religious beliefs (Fig. 1c ). The household income level graph (Fig. 1d ) reveals that 61.4% of respondents have a household income of more than $48k per annum, with 38.6% less than that, including 11.2% earning between $10k and $25k and 4% less than $10k.

Affordability

Public perceptions of food affordability were compared with food availability. Two categories of foods were investigated: fresh and healthy food, and culturally relevant food due to its sensitivity to people with culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse backgrounds. This diversity in backgrounds potentially demands more culturally diverse foods (Horst et al., 2017 ; Morgan, 2013 , 2015 ). Most respondents (90%) agreed strongly and somewhat with the adequacy of healthy and fresh foods in general (Fig. 2a ), with only 48.6% confident with food affordability (Fig. 2b ). Similarly, the confidence level dropped to 42.3% for culturally relevant food (Fig. 2d ), despite its adequacy in supply reaching 72% (Fig. 2c ).

a Adequate supply of fresh and healthy food. b Affordability of fresh and healthy food. c Adequate supply of culturally relevant food. d Affordability of culturally relevant food.

Survey results identified a strong tendency for urban residents to shop for non-essential food. Only 58.2% preferred to spend more on fresh and healthy essential food (Fig. 3a ), with more than 30% shopping frequently, more than twice a week and all the time, for discretionary food (Fig. 3b ).

a Food Spending Preference. b Shopping frequency for non-essential food. c Household spending on food. d Food shopping preference vs perceiving the consequences of overconsuming discretionary food. There was a significant relationship between these two variables, X 2 (4, N  = 500) = 28.017, p  < 0.001. People who spent more on fresh and healthy food were more likely to agree with the consequences of overconsuming non-essential foods, i.e., causing the high rates of obesity and being overweight in Australia. c Shopping frequency for non-essential food. e Differences in shopping frequency for non-essential food vs. perceiving the consequences of overconsuming discretionary food. No significant relationship returned, with X 2 (4, N  = 500) = 6.106, p  = 0.191. People’s shopping habits and frequency of non-essential food did not influence people’s perception of the consequences of overconsuming unhealthy and non-essential food.

Justifications for these shopping habits included convenient (28%), accessible (19%), available (19%), delicious (16%), and always on promotion and thus affordable (11%). These responses were significant despite data showing that 81.4% were acutely aware of the consequences of overconsuming non-essential food in causing health problems.

Figure 3c further reveals household spending on food, with 42% spending more than one-third on food expenditure, including 6.1% (31) who spent more than half. This result contrasts with 61.4% of respondents holding an annual household income of more than $48k.

The awareness of health problems closely associated with too frequently overconsuming non-essential food was high, regardless of many residents’ existing shopping preferences and habits. Respondents who preferred to spend more on fresh and healthy food were more likely than others to agree with this perception, with X 2 (4, N  = 500) = 28.017, p  < 0.001 (Fig. 3d ). However, people with unhealthy shopping habits were also aware of this health issue, with X 2 (4, N  = 500) = 6.106, p  = 0.191 (Fig. 3e ). This p -value result ( p  = 0.191 > 0.01) implies that unhealthy shopping habits and a high frequency of purchasing non-essential food did not mean people did not understand the harmful impacts of overconsuming unhealthy and non-essential foods on their health and well-being.

Access to healthy food

Access to healthy food explored any overreliance on automobiles, driving duration, access to food support services, and perceptions of food accessibility, availability, and affordability. Many respondents chose driving (66.6%) as the dominant mode. However, only 38% of those who drove for food shopping spent less than five minutes driving, with 63% longer than five minutes. Slightly more than half the respondents (51%) were unaware of a food charity when experiencing financial hardship. Respondents also expressed awkwardness in asking for help or encountered physical difficulties when having no other choice but to walk a long distance to the charity service.

Most respondents (90.6%) agreed that “more fresh and healthy food should be available, accessible, and affordable to everyone”. An insignificant relationship between this perception and affordability (Fig. 4a ) indicated that fresh and healthy foods should be available, accessible, and affordable to everyone regardless of their purchasing power. The Pearson chi-square test further revealed that those who had received food charity benefits before (94.8%) were more likely to agree with this statement than those who did not (86.5%) (Fig. 4b ).

a Ability to purchase fresh and healthy food vs the perception of rights to buy fresh and healthy food. The relationship was insignificant, with X 2 (4, N  = 500) = 5.185, p  = 0.269, confirming most people believed fresh and healthy foods should be available, accessible, and affordable to everyone regardless of whether they could afford to buy them. b Differences in food charity experiences in perceiving “more fresh and healthy food available, accessible, and affordable to everyone”. There was a significant relationship, with X 2 (2, N  = 500) = 10.175, p  = 0.006. The significance level meant that while most agreed with this statement, people who had received food charity benefits before (94.8%) were more likely to agree with this statement than those who did not (86.5%). c Ability to purchase culturally relevant and diverse food vs perceptions of ‘more culturally relevant and diverse food should be available, accessible, and affordable to everyone”. No significant relationship returned, with X 2 (4, N  = 500) = 9.460, p  = 0.051. d Differences in cultural backgrounds in perceiving that more culturally relevant and diverse food should be available, accessible, and affordable to everyone. The chi-square test returned a significant relationship, with X 2 (2, N  = 500) = 7.838, p  = 0.020. Blue = Disagree, Red = Neutral, Green = Agree.

More than half the respondents (59%) agreed that more culturally relevant and diverse foods should be available, accessible, and affordable for everyone. This perception was further tested for bias by analysing respondents’ cultural background and financial hardship. Figure 4c indicates that Australians with cultural heritage or backgrounds, including respondents with heritage of Asian, Indigenous, European, American and others (77.4%), were more likely to agree with this statement than those without (64.9%), with X 2 (2, N  = 500) = 7.838, p  = 0.020. However, no significant relationship returned between the affordability of culturally relevant foods and the perception of these foods (Fig. 4d ). People who supported this perception were independent of their ability to purchase culturally more relevant and diverse foods.

Food retail options

Surveys identified diversification in food retail was lacking. Figure 5a depicts 78.0% selecting supermarkets as their dominant shopping option. When the household income level was chi-square tested against this choice in shopping mode, no significant relationship was returned (Fig. 5b ). This result affirmed the dominance of supermarkets for most households regardless of household income.

a Food shopping mode. b Differences in household income vs the choice of food shopping mode. There was no significant relationship, with X 2 (2, N  = 500) = 5.266, p  = 0.072. Household income level did not impact people who predominantly shopped for food in supermarkets. Blue means supermarkets; red represents other forms of retail. c The desire for more supermarkets. d The desire for more small retail. e Perceptions for food retail diversity. f Differences in food shopping mode vs perceiving the diversity in food retail. A chi-square test returned no significant relationship, with X 2 (2, N  = 500) = 0.615, p  = 0.735.

The public did want greater diversity in food retail, with 63.4% supporting more supermarkets (Fig. 5c ) and 68.8% more small-scale retail shops, markets, and food outlets (Fig. 5d ). Over sixty-per cent (60.4%) believed greater diversity in food retail could encourage the buying of more fresh and healthy food (Fig. 5e ). The support for food retail diversity was not influenced by their current shopping mode at supermarkets, as evidenced by the chi-square test between food shopping mode and food retail diversity (Fig. 5f ).

Carbon footprint

Survey results indicated a high level of awareness of the carbon footprint generated in the consumption and provision of food in urban areas. Most respondents (71%) agreed food waste and loss contributed significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions (GGE). A chi-square test determined whether people with cultural backgrounds can biasedly affect this perception. Figure 6a indicates people with various cultural backgrounds (78.1%) were more likely to agree with this statement than those without (68.7%), with X 2 (2, N  = 500) = 6.014, p  = 0.049. However, the difference in household income did not influence this view, with no significant relationship between household income and this perception (Fig. 6b ). This result underscored the prevalence of food waste and loss and the negative impacts on the urban environment.

a Differences in people with cultural backgrounds vs perceiving the impacts of food waste and loss causing greenhouse gas emissions. The chi-square test returned a significant relationship between these two variables, X 2 (2, N  = 500) = 6.014, p  = 0.049. People with various cultural and ethnic backgrounds (78.1%) were more likely to agree with this statement than those without (68.7%). b Differences in household income vs the perception of food waste and loss. There was no significant relationship between these two variables, X 2 (4, N  = 500) = 8.273, p  = 0.082, indicating most people acknowledged the impact of food waste and loss in causing global greenhouse gas emissions regardless of household income.

High public awareness was evident with 69% supporting “a food waste disposal infrastructure could be established as a way in their neighbourhood to reduce food waste”, and 77% agreeing that food-related companies should improve their commercial practices, such as less waste in food production, environmentally friendly packaging, better transportation system and application of technology.

The case study of Brisbane in Australia has served to evaluate the sustainability status of food consumption. Analysis of public perceptions collected in the survey helps to understand what contributes to consumption decisions and behaviours in urban settings. Analysis of demographic factors expands this understanding while evaluating people’s perception biases. The study has identified the presence of a double-helix in overconsumption and underconsumption in a typical neo-liberal city where market mechanisms prevail. Challenges of food affordability, access to healthy food, limited food retail options, and increasing food-related carbon emissions are strongly associated with the socio-spatial characteristics of urban environments impacting sustainable food consumption. These findings advance the traditional understanding of food consumption as a sole demand issue, with challenges of these four factors highlighted in the urban environments and opportunities for improvement underpinning potential policy directions for future interventions.

A double-helix of overconsumption and underconsumption

The emergence of a double-helix in both consumption patterns—overconsumption of unhealthy food and underconsumption of healthy food—signifies the insufficiency of traditional policies focusing on unhealthy food overconsumption in developed nations. While a significant body of research and policies are already devoted to tackling these unhealthy diets, especially the overconsumption of unhealthy foods (Béné et al., 2020 ; Development Initiatives Poverty Research Ltd, 2018 ; Havewala, 2020 ; Horst et al., 2017 ; Steel, 2009 ; Tansey, 1994 ), this approach alone will only partially address the health problems in urban environments. Instead, the lens of socio-spatial factors in urban environments represents a holistic yet overlooked aspect of analysing consumption behaviours and offering more transformative solutions to achieving sustainable food consumption.

Understanding this co-existence from an urban lens is particularly critical for potential policy interventions given that only over half of the Brisbane residents perceive fresh and healthy foods to be affordable despite the adequate food supply. The magnitude of this affordability issue is highlighted and substantiated by 42% of residents spending more than one-third on food, including 6.1% (31) more than half, meeting the definition of food poverty (Ilieva, 2016 , p. 142). These results underscore the impacts of high food prices in eroding living conditions, a key feature reflected in the rising “new food equation” in many neo-liberal cities driven by markets (Morgan, 2009 , 2015 ; Morgan and Sonnino, 2010 ). This prevalence of multiple urban food issues inevitably questions the demand and supply equation in urban environments, especially given the stark contrast between affordability issues faced by over half of urban residents and adequate local food production to feed 75 million people (Australian Food and Grocery Council, 2020 ).

While food production and supply in developed countries are generally dismissed as a supply issue (Howe, 2002 ; Martin and Marsden, 1999 ), the double-helix of food consumption represents evolving challenges in urban settings. These findings of the consumption complexity underscore the importance of equally recognising factors affecting the underconsumption of healthy and nutritious food and the overconsumption of unhealthy food. Sustainable food consumption is thus arguably no longer a mere demand issue but conditional and embedded in the socio-spatial characteristics of urban environments. The oxymoron of co-existence associated with these conditions in urban forms renders challenges increasingly emerging in affordability, access to healthy food, food retail options, and carbon footprint, individually and combined.

These four key findings indicate that challenges in food affordability, access to healthy food, food retail options, and carbon footprints can impede sustainable food consumption. Each challenge reflects the differing dimensions of interplays between demand and provisioning associated with the socio-spatial characteristics of urban environments.

Affordability of fresh and healthy foods affects healthy food consumption. Despite the capacity to feed 75 million people in Australia (Australian Food and Grocery Council, 2020 ), a high percentage drop for this kind of food from 90% in availability to 48.6% in affordability strongly suggests food affordability is no longer a societal issue for ‘the few’ but for ‘the many’ (Morgan, 2013 ). A similar pattern applies to culturally relevant and diverse food (71.4% to 42%). These patterns represent an increasing risk of reaching food poverty when food expenditure continuously constitutes significant household income (Ilieva, 2016 , p. 142). Even in wealthy nations, food poverty (Ilieva, 2016 , p. 142), often impacted by food price surges (MacMahon et al., 2015 ; Morgan, 2015 ; Morgan and Sonnino, 2010 ), can potentially worsen the displacement of low-income households (Horst et al., 2017 ). The scale of this issue underpins the findings that one in three Australians experienced food insecurity in 2020 (Foodbank, 2020 ), with one in six Australian adults in 2021 (Foodbank, 2021 ).

The affordability of unhealthy food, on the other hand, further impairs the sustainability of food consumption in urban areas. The individual and combined factors of convenience (28%), accessibility (19%), availability (19%), delicious (16%), and always on promotion and therefore affordable (11%), signify the increasing dominance of non-essential food in the market. Despite the broad awareness of the consequences of overconsuming non-essential food (81.4%), more than 30% of residents shop for these items frequently. Less fresh and nutritious foods are purchased and consumed, with more food wasted and lost, leading to the next cycle of rising food prices and increased consumption of unhealthy food. These disparities in provisioning between healthy and unhealthy food and resultant consumption trends highlight the significant influence of unhealthy food on urban dwellers and the economic power some food retail agents can wield in urban environments. What contributes to this urban dilemma in food affordability is inevitably linked to access to healthy food.

While affordability focuses on the personal economic level in driving the demand for various foods, access to healthy food represents a more implicit and overlooked issue that hinders sustainable food consumption in spatially dispersed urban environments. Geographical dispersion of the population renders walkability less practical, compelling greater reliance on automobiles, either privately owned or public transport. Overreliance on automobiles is proven by 66.6% of respondents selecting driving as the dominant mode to obtain food. Spatial sparseness is also evident, as reflected in surveys of 63% who drove longer than five minutes to reach their food shopping destinations. Driving longer than five minutes to do food shopping indicates the issue of urban sprawl, typically characterised by low-density residential development (Duany and Steuteville, 2021 ). Concurrent with this issue is the potential lack of adequate public transport networks, often requiring substantial infrastructure investment in dispersed residential areas ( Compact City Policies A Comparative Assessment , 2012 ; Newman and Kenworthy, 1989 ).

The access to food issue also includes inadequate access to food support services. The limited provision of food charities, with only 49% accessing their services in Australia, and its subsequent revelation of physical distance and difficulties accessing food, highlight the issue of inequitable food access and distribution (McClintock, 2014 , p. 153). Inequitable access is particularly acute for demographic segments with low socioeconomic status, impaired further by living in spatially segregated low-density urban environments. The lack of sufficient public transport networks can further disadvantage residents who do not own a vehicle or drive. Failing to fulfil basic food needs can risk societal foundation with compounding deprivation and social exclusion (Ekins and Max-Neef, 1992 , p. 181; Wrigley et al., 2003 ), displacing people who are already marginalised and underprivileged (Horst et al., 2017 ). The resultant injustice will further exacerbate inequality among humanity, regionally and globally.

One direct consequence of these access issues is consuming more discretionary food, already perceived as available, accessible, convenient, and affordable, as evidenced by survey findings. Shopping preference and frequency for unhealthy food, combined with less exercise, reinforce the locked-in dietary habits (Zurayk, 2020 ) and amplify malnutrition, being overweight, or obesity, all of which are already prevalent in urban areas caused by nutritional poverty (Morgan, 2013 , 2015 ; Zurayk, 2020 ). The prevalence of non-essential food provision also reflects the phenomenon of food swamps, lacking healthy food but abundant with unhealthy food (Havewala, 2020 ; Horst et al., 2017 ).

Access to healthy food underscores the issue of food consumption, constrained by socio-spatial characteristics of low-density urban environments, and no longer a demand issue on its own.

While access can restrict food choices, limited retail options can further influence consumption when a healthy mix is inadequate. This lack of food variety is more significant in spatially dispersed land use patterns and low-density urban environments. Indeed, the monopoly of supermarkets is prominent, with 78% of Brisbane residents predominantly shopping for food in supermarkets. This evidence affirms previous research findings that supermarket market share in Australia remains dominant (Bariacto and Nunzio, 2014 ; MacMahon et al., 2015 ). The concentration of global food corporations and market monopolies can reduce the diversity of food provision and restrict consumer choices (Bariacto and Nunzio, 2014 ; MacMahon et al., 2015 ; Morgan, 2015 ). The lack of competition has more recently resulted in unchecked higher prices in the cost of food. The reduced provisions in small-scale food retail, such as fresh food markets, further reinforce supermarket domination in urban environments.

The proliferation of non-essential food from multinational fast-food chains, in contrast with the limited choices offered by the oligopoly of supermarkets, attracts more consumers due to their convenience, easy access, affordable prices, and exceptional taste. This trend is concerning given that most urban residents (81.4%) are acutely aware of the consequences of overconsuming non-essential food in causing health problems. Further research can examine the factors causing the increasing disappearance of smaller-scale food outlets, including fresh food markets and shops. This phenomenon is particularly relevant for urban consumption as the asymmetry of power wielded by supermarkets and multinational food corporations has influenced both upstream food production and downstream consumption choices (Bariacto and Nunzio, 2014 ; MacMahon et al., 2015 ; Morgan, 2015 ). These findings of the lack of diverse food retail from small providers can help transform existing consumption patterns as urban residents desire and are willing to embrace healthy food choices, including additional retail options and competition. Further research can investigate policy adequacy in supporting small and medium-sized food businesses to compete with large companies to provide healthy food to urban dwellers.

The increasing carbon footprint is inevitable since most food produced is consumed and wasted in urban areas (FAO, 2017 ; Hasegawa et al., 2019 ). Many negative ecological impacts are associated with food production, distribution, and retail activities even before consumption can occur. Although this issue is no longer remote to most urban dwellers (Kirschenmann, 2008 ; Roggema and Spangenberg, 2015 ), with 71% of urban dwellers acknowledging this food-induced ecological imbalance, contemporary urban environments often fail to translate this awareness into action. For example, food waste disposal infrastructure is deficient in many urban areas, as reflected in the surveys. Dispersed land use patterns exacerbate this issue by increasing food mileage and packaging, leading to intensified rather than reduced food loss and waste. Equally significant to reducing food waste and loss is the responsibility of food-related companies to improve their commercial practices, considering the substantive climate-sensitive resources used in food production and distribution in urban environments (Vermeulen et al., 2012 ). Ultimately, ecological improvements in urban environments require a multi-faceted approach from the public and all forms of food providers.

The challenges of affordability, access to healthy food, food retail options, and carbon footprint are inherently associated with the socio-spatial characteristics of urban environments (Hamidi, 2020 ; Zurayk, 2020 ). These challenges, individually and combined, affect the overconsumption of unhealthy food and underconsumption of healthy food, especially in low-density residential urban environments. While these findings affirm food consumption is no longer a sole demand issue but a conditional one, opportunities also arise for better and more sustainable consumption.

Opportunities

Opportunities emerge in four key areas to improve sustainable food consumption. First, potential transformation to healthy eating habits is possible as the public awareness of overconsuming non-essential food causing health problems is high. A heightened awareness sets the primary momentum to transforming consumption habits if urban areas provide the right conditions for urban residents to change.

Public sentiment is a second opportunity to enable more fresh and healthy foods to be available, accessible, and affordable to everyone. Similar support for culturally more relevant and diverse foods is also evident. These supports underscore the fundamental relationships between food and human needs, where healthy food is a public good to fulfil basic human needs (Stoianov, 2017 ). Once safeguarded as an unalienable human right regardless of purchasing power (Horst et al., 2017 ; McClintock, 2014 , p. 153; Morgan, 2013 , 2015 ), less undesirable consequences will occur, such as the issues of deprivation and social exclusion (Ekins and Max-Neef, 1992 , p. 181; Wrigley et al., 2003 ).

The third opportunity lies in the strong public desire to embrace more food retail options. This willingness signifies urban eagerness for improved and diversified food provisions and choices. Reduced provision and options attributable to the market monopoly can restrict consumption choices and reinforce unhealthy dietary habits (Bariacto and Nunzio, 2014 ; MacMahon et al., 2015 ; Morgan, 2015 ). Public support for establishing urban food waste infrastructure also indicates an opportunity for reducing unequal food consumption and carbon footprint (Lang and Miao, 2013 ; Morgan, 2013 ; Morgan and Sonnino, 2010 ; Vermeulen et al., 2012 ).

Significant opportunities to improve sustainable food consumption also exist in urban environments. Multiple health, social, economic, and environmental benefits can be amplified (Morgan, 2013 ; Morgan and Sonnino, 2010 ; Sonnino, 2009 ) if urban environments are enabled to densify and intensify land uses, allowing for more mixed uses, people-friendly walkable streets, and the establishment of smaller-scale food retail options. These changes in urban environments can reduce the need for long-distance travel, automobile dependence, and carbon footprint while simultaneously improving access to food and support services through shorter and walkable streets and better use of infrastructure investment ( Compact City Policies A Comparative Assessment , 2012 ; Newman and Kenworthy, 1989 ). Creating an urban environment conducive to food accessibility, distribution, and diversification with appropriate urban policy interventions can increase food affordability and access to healthy food and support services, reduce food waste and loss, and decrease carbon footprints. While leveraging the demand side, the changes from the perspective of food provisioning will foster and render urban environments more liveable, vibrant, and sustainable, especially when consuming food.

This evaluation of food consumption in Brisbane, Australia, has established that sustainable food consumption is no longer a mere demand issue but conditional upon the socio-spatial characteristics of urban environments. Four challenging factors impact food consumption in a complex way in a market-driven neo-liberal city, especially in urban areas characterised by spatial dispersion and low-density residential development. These four factors collectively contribute to the formation of the double-helix of overconsumption of unhealthy food and underconsumption of healthy food, a phenomenon currently present in many advanced economies. Decreasing food affordability, limited access to food and support services, fewer options in food retail, and increasing urban carbon footprint impede sustainable food consumption, individually and combined. We here argue that creating food accessibility and diversity-conducive urban environments can achieve sustainable food consumption when access to affordable healthy food with greater variety and reduced environmental impacts is enabled. These changes from the food provisioning perspective enabled by appropriate urban land use policies, along with the public desire and demand for healthy foods and choices, will ultimately address the problem of a double-helix in both the overconsumption of unhealthy food and the underconsumption of nutritious food.

This paper and its key findings of the double-helix of consumption and associated four urban factors are timely, and the implications are valuable for urban policymakers who leverage opportunities identified in this research. Better and more sustainable urban food consumption from developed countries will help reduce local and global disparities in food consumption and carbon footprints. Similar approaches are also applicable to developing countries since many urban areas resemble identical problems in food consumption and waste despite this case study focusing on a typical neo-liberal city. Achieving sustainable food consumption in urban areas, for both developed and developing countries, may optimistically reduce global food demand by 9% (Hasegawa et al., 2019 ) and accelerate efforts to achieve Responsible Consumption Patterns (SDG12) and Climate Action (SDG 13) as part of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals.

Data availability

This work is based on the online questionnaire survey data collected primarily in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The raw datasets are publicly available in the Research Data Finder repository administrated by the Queensland University of Technology ( https://doi.org/10.25912/RDF_1650514848116 ).

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the financial and other support of the Future Food Systems Cooperative Research Centre (FFS CRC), established, and supported under the Australian Government’s CRC Programme. We would also like to acknowledge Ms. Karyn Gonano for kindly providing editing and proofreading services. The authors also appreciate the two anonymous reviewers and an associate editor for their valuable comments and suggestions.

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LS and DB collected the data, LS developed the research design, analysed the data, and drafted the manuscript; DB and KV supervised the research and substantively revised the manuscript with relevant intellectual input. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Summerhayes, L., Baker, D. & Vella, K. Food diversity and accessibility enabled urban environments for sustainable food consumption: a case study of Brisbane, Australia. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1227 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03724-9

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Received : 21 October 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03724-9

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