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Harvard educational review.

Edited by Hannah Castner, Jane Choi, Moisés G. Contreras, Jen Ha, Woohee Kim, Melina Melgoza, Brien Y. Mosely, Catherine E. Pitcher, Anakaren Quintero Davalos, Elizabeth Salinas, Jesse Y. Tang

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• ISSN: 0017-8055
• eISSN: 1943-5045
• Keywords: scholarly journal, education research
• First Issue: 1930
• Frequency: Quarterly

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The Harvard Educational Review (HER) is a scholarly journal of opinion and research in education. The Editorial Board aims to publish pieces from interdisciplinary and wide-ranging fields that advance our understanding of educational theory, equity, and practice. HER encourages submissions from established and emerging scholars, as well as from practitioners working in the field of education. Since its founding in 1930, HER has been central to elevating pieces and debates that tackle various dimensions of educational justice, with circulation to researchers, policymakers, teachers, and administrators.

Our Editorial Board is composed entirely of doctoral students from the Harvard Graduate School of Education who review all manuscripts considered for publication. For more information on the current Editorial Board, please see here.

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Editorial Board

2024-2025 Harvard Educational Review Editorial Board Members  

  Hannah Castner  

Editor, 2024-2026  

Hannah Castner is a second year PhD student in the Sociology Department at Harvard University. She studies how culture shapes and reproduces inequality within education organizations. In particular, she is interested in how parents, teachers, politicians, and administrators lay claim to education curricula and systems and the consequences of these assertions. One of her ongoing areas of research investigates how teachers respond to state laws restricting discussion of race, gender, and sexuality in U.S. schools. Prior to starting her doctoral studies, Hannah taught English to middle and high school students in France. Hannah holds BAs in sociology and data science from Mount Holyoke College.  

Jane Choi  

Content Editor 2024-2025 Editor 2023-2025 [email protected] [email protected]  

Jane Choi is a third-year PhD student in Sociology with broad interests in culture, race, education, and inequality. Her research examines intra-racial and interracial boundaries in US educational contexts. She has researched legacy and first-generation students at Ivy League colleges, families served by Head Start and Early Head Start programs, and parents of pre-K and kindergarten-age children in the New York City School District. Previously, Jane worked as a Research Assistant in the Family Well-Being and Children’s Development policy area at MDRC and received a BA in Sociology from Columbia University.  

Moisés G. Contreras  

Moisés G. Contreras is a third-year PhD student in the Culture, Institutions, and Society concentration at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. He is interested in the promise and potential of liberatory and humanizing education occurring within community-based educational spaces. Moisés’s work is informed by diverse youth work experiences both locally and transnationally, having been an English teaching assistant with the Fulbright Program in Italy and a tutor and mentor in a predominantly-Latine Chicago public high school with the AmeriCorps program, City Year. Moisés holds an MA in Educational Policy Studies from the University of Wisconsin-Madison and a BS in Psychology and Italian, with a minor in Latina/Latino Studies, from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.   

Content Editor 2024-2025 Editor 2023-2025 [email protected] [email protected]  

Jen Ha is a third-year PhD student in the Culture, Institutions, and Society concentration at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Her research explores how high school and undergraduate students produce personal narratives for school applications, scholarships, and professional opportunities. Prior to doctoral studies, Jen served as the Coordinator of Public Humanities at Bard Graduate Center and worked in several roles organizing academic enrichment opportunities and supporting postsecondary planning for students in New Haven and New York City. Jen holds a BA in Humanities from Yale University, where she was an Education Studies Scholar.  

Woohee Kim  

Co-Chair 2024-2025 Editor 2023-2025 [email protected]  

Woohee Kim is a PhD student studying youth activists’ civic and pedagogical practices. Shaped by her activism and research across South Korea, the US, and the UK, Woohee seeks to interrogate how educational spaces are shaped as cultural and political sites and reshaped by activists as sites of struggle. Grounded in her scholar-activist commitments to creating spaces for pedagogies of resistance and transformative possibilities, Woohee hopes to continue exploring the intersections of education, knowledge, power, and resistance.  

Melina Melgoza  

Melina Melgoza (she/her/ella) is a third-year doctoral student in the Culture, Institutions, and Society concentration at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She was born and raised in Los Angeles, California, and taught Ethnic Studies and Social Studies in Los Angeles public schools. She is enthusiastic and hopeful about advocating for and participating in liberatory Ethnic Studies practices, both within an educational setting and as an integral aspect of life. Through her research, she hopes to collaborate with various communities in Los Angeles to shed light on the power, message, and potential of Ethnic Studies praxis in educational environments. She sees Ethnic Studies as a social, political, and educational pathway for self-exploration, healing, community building, and solidarity. Prior to starting the doctoral program, she received her B.A. in History and Chicana/o Studies, and her M.Ed. and teaching credential from UCLA, specializing in Social Studies and Ethnic Studies. She also has a Master of Arts in Education from the Harvard Graduate School of Education.   

Brein Y. Mosely  

Brein Y. Mosely is a third-year doctoral student in the Education Policy and Program Evaluation concentration at HGSE. She is interested in how quantitative educational researchers use race-based deficit narratives and perpetuate injustice in academic language. She is both a PIER and Stone Inequality fellow. She is also a research assistant for Harvard’s Hutchins Center for African & African American Research Institute on Policing, Incarceration & Public Safety. Prior to their doctoral studies, Brein pursued both a MS and BS in Statistics from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.   

Catherine E. Pitcher  

Development Editor 2024-2025 Editor 2023-2025 [email protected]  

Catherine E. Pitcher is a third-year doctoral student at Harvard Graduate School of Education in the Culture, Institutions, and Society program. She has over 10 years of experience in US education in roles that range from special education teacher to instructional coach to department head to educational game designer. She started working in Palestine in 2017, first teaching and then designing and implementing educational programming. Currently, she is working on research to understand how Palestinian youth think about and build their futures. She holds an Ed.M. from Harvard in International Education Policy.  

Anakaren Quintero Davalos  

Anakaren Quintero Davalos is a 3rd year PhD student at the Harvard Graduate School of Education in the Culture, Institutions, and Society concentration. Her research interests include exploring the manner in which undocumented and immigrant origin students create counterspaces in response and in spite of oppressive institutions, and their advocacy for institutional supports in higher education contexts. Advocating for immigrant rights and working toward collective liberation is the forefront of all the work that she does. She has dedicated many years to serving undocumented students in higher education institutions. She holds a BA from UC Santa Cruz and is a product of the wealth of the community college system.  

Elizabeth Salinas  

Elizabeth Salinas is a doctoral student in the Education Policy and Program Evaluation concentration at HGSE. She is interested in the intersection of higher education and the social safety net and hopes to examine policies that address basic needs insecurity among college students. Before her doctoral studies, Liz was a research director at a public policy consulting firm. There, she supported government, education, and philanthropy leaders by conducting and translating research into clear and actionable information. Previously, Liz served as a high school physics teacher in her hometown in Texas and as a STEM outreach program director at her alma mater. She currently sits on the Board of Directors at Leadership Enterprise for a Diverse America, a nonprofit organization working to diversify the leadership pipeline in the United States. Liz holds a bachelor’s degree in civil engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a master’s degree in higher education from the Harvard Graduate School of Education.  

Jesse Y. Tang  

Editor, 2024-2025  

Jesse Y. Tang is a second-year student in the Doctor of Education Leadership (EdLD) program at Harvard Graduate School of Education. A son of immigrants from Thailand and Hong Kong, Jesse was drawn to education for the powerful potential of schools to transform opportunities in each student’s life. He has two decades of experience working in PreK-8th Grade urban schools in Chicago, Boston, New York City, and Denver. Prior to his doctoral studies, Jesse served as Founding Principal for two schools, Central Queens Academy and Denver Online Elementary, as well as Turnaround Principal at Schmitt Elementary in Denver, CO. Jesse is passionate about increasing diversity within school leadership pipelines, as well as supporting, mentoring and sustaining new principals in their early years. Jesse holds a BS in Psychology from Carnegie Mellon University, an MAT in Teaching from Dominican University, and an EdM in School Leadership from Harvard Graduate School of Education.   

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The Impact of COVID-19 on Education: A Meta-Narrative Review

Aras bozkurt.

1 Distance Education Department, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey

2 Department of English Studies, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

3 Anadolu Üniversitesi, Açıköğretim Fakültesi, Kat:7, Oda:702, 26470, Tepebaşı, Eskişehir, Turkey

Kadir Karakaya

4 Applied Linguistics & Technology Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA USA

5 Educational Psychology, Learning Sciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK USA

Özlem Karakaya

6 Educational Technology & Human-Computer Interaction, Iowa State University, Ames, IA USA

Daniela Castellanos-Reyes

7 Curriculum and Instruction, Learning Design and Technology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN USA

Associated Data

The dataset is available from the authors upon request.

The rapid and unexpected onset of the COVID-19 global pandemic has generated a great degree of uncertainty about the future of education and has required teachers and students alike to adapt to a new normal to survive in the new educational ecology. Through this experience of the new educational ecology, educators have learned many lessons, including how to navigate through uncertainty by recognizing their strengths and vulnerabilities. In this context, the aim of this study is to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the publications covering COVID-19 and education to analyze the impact of the pandemic by applying the data mining and analytics techniques of social network analysis and text-mining. From the abstract, title, and keyword analysis of a total of 1150 publications, seven themes were identified: (1) the great reset, (2) shifting educational landscape and emerging educational roles (3) digital pedagogy, (4) emergency remote education, (5) pedagogy of care, (6) social equity, equality, and injustice, and (7) future of education. Moreover, from the citation analysis, two thematic clusters emerged: (1) educational response, emergency remote education affordances, and continuity of education, and (2) psychological impact of COVID-19. The overlap between themes and thematic clusters revealed researchers’ emphasis on guaranteeing continuity of education and supporting the socio-emotional needs of learners. From the results of the study, it is clear that there is a heightened need to develop effective strategies to ensure the continuity of education in the future, and that it is critical to proactively respond to such crises through resilience and flexibility.

Introduction

The Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has proven to be a massive challenge for the entire world, imposing a radical transformation in many areas of life, including education. It was rapid and unexpected; the world was unprepared and hit hard. The virus is highly contagious, having a pathogenic nature whose effects have not been limited to humans alone, but rather, includes every construct and domain of societies, including education. The education system, which has been affected at all levels, has been required to respond to the crisis, forced to transition into emergency modes, and adapt to the unprecedented impact of the global crisis. Although the beginning of 2021 will mark nearly a year of experience in living through the pandemic, the crisis remains a phenomenon with many unknowns. A deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the changes that have been made in response to the crisis is needed to survive in these hard times. Hence, this study aims to provide a better understanding by examining the scholarly publications on COVID-19 and education. In doing this, we can identify our weaknesses and vulnerabilities, be better prepared for the new normal, and be more fit to survive.

Related Literature

Though the COVID-19 pandemic is not the first major disruption to be experienced in the history of the world, it has been unique due to its scale and the requirements that have been imposed because of it (Guitton, 2020 ). The economies of many countries have greatly suffered from the lockdowns and other restrictive measurements, and people have had to adapt to a new lifestyle, where their primary concern is to survive by keeping themselves safe from contracting the deadly virus. The education system has not been exempt from this series of unfortunate events inflicted by COVID-19. Since brick-and-mortar schools had to be closed due to the pandemic, millions of students, from those in K-12 to those in higher education, were deprived of physical access to their classrooms, peers, and teachers (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020a , b ). This extraordinary pandemic period has posed arguably the most challenging and complex problems ever for educators, students, schools, educational institutions, parents, governments, and all other educational stakeholders. The closing of brick-and-mortar schools and campuses rendered online teaching and learning the only viable solution to the problem of access-to-education during this emergency period (Hodges et al., 2020 ). Due to the urgency of this move, teachers and instructors were rushed to shift all their face-to-face instruction and instructional materials to online spaces, such as learning management systems or electronic platforms, in order to facilitate teaching virtually at a distance. As a result of this sudden migration to learning and instruction online, the key distinctions between online education and education delivered online during such crisis and emergency circumstances have been obfuscated (Hodges et al., 2020 ).

State of the Current Relevant Literature

Although the scale of the impact of the COVID-19 global pandemic on education overshadows previously experienced nationwide or global crises or disruptions, the phenomenon of schools and higher education institutions having to shift their instruction to online spaces is not totally new to the education community and academia (Johnson et al., 2020 ). Prior literature on this subject indicates that in the past, schools and institutions resorted to online or electronic delivery of instruction in times of serious crises and uncertainties, including but not limited to natural disasters such as floods or earthquakes (e.g., Ayebi-Arthur, 2017 ; Lorenzo, 2008 ; Tull et al., 2017 ), local disruptions such as civil wars and socio-economic events such as political upheavals, social turmoils or economic recessions (e.g., Czerniewicz et al., 2019 ). Nevertheless, the past attempts to move learning and teaching online do not compare to the current efforts that have been implemented during the global COVID-19 pandemic, insofar as the past crisis situations were sporadic events in specific territories, affecting a limited population for relatively short periods of time. In contrast, the COVID-19 pandemic has continued to pose a serious threat to the continuity of education around the globe (Johnson et al., 2020 ).

Considering the scale and severity of the global pandemic, the impacts it has had on education in general and higher education in particular need to be explored and studied empirically so that necessary plans and strategies aimed at reducing its devastating effects can be developed and implemented. Due to the rapid onset and spread of the global pandemic, the current literature on the impact of COVID-19 on education is still limited, including mostly non-academic editorials or non-empirical personal reflections, anecdotes, reports, and stories (e.g., Baker, 2020 ; DePietro, 2020 ). Yet, with that said, empirical research on the impact of the global pandemic on higher education is rapidly growing. For example, Johnson et al. ( 2020 ), in their empirical study, found that faculty members who were struggling with various challenges adopted new instructional methods and strategies and adjusted certain course components to foster emergency remote education (ERE). Unger and Meiran ( 2020 ) observed that the pandemic made students in the US feel anxious about completing online learning tasks. In contrast, Suleri ( 2020 ) reported that a large majority of European higher education students were satisfied with their virtual learning experiences during the pandemic, and that most were willing to continue virtual higher education even after the pandemic (Suleri, 2020 ). The limited empirical research also points to the need for systematically planning and designing online learning experiences in advance in preparation for future outbreaks of such global pandemics and other crises (e.g., Korkmaz & Toraman, 2020 ). Despite the growing literature, the studies provide only fragmentary evidence on the impact of the pandemic on online learning and teaching. For a more thorough understanding of the serious implications the pandemic has for higher education in relation to learning and teaching online, more empirical research is needed.

Unlike previously conducted bibliometric analysis studies on this subject, which have largely involved general analysis of research on health sciences and COVID-19, Aristovnik et al. ( 2020 ) performed an in-depth bibliometric analysis of various science and social science research disciplines by examining a comprehensive database of document and source information. By the final phase of their bibliometric analysis, the authors had analyzed 16,866 documents. They utilized a mix of innovative bibliometric approaches to capture the existing research and assess the state of COVID-19 research across different research landscapes (e.g., health sciences, life sciences, physical sciences, social sciences, and humanities). Their findings showed that most COVID-19 research has been performed in the field of health sciences, followed by life sciences, physical sciences, and social sciences and humanities. Results from the keyword co-occurrence analysis revealed that health sciences research on COVID-19 tended to focus on health consequences, whereas the life sciences research on the subject tended to focus on drug efficiency. Moreover, physical sciences research tended to focus on environmental consequences, and social sciences and humanities research was largely oriented towards socio-economic consequences.

Similarly, Rodrigues et al. ( 2020 ) carried out a bibliometric analysis of COVID-19 related studies from a management perspective in order to elucidate how scientific research and education arrive at solutions to the pandemic crisis and the post-COVID-19 era. In line with Aristovnik et al.’s ( 2020 ) findings, Rodrigues et al. ( 2020 ) reported that most of the published research on this subject has fallen under the field of health sciences, leaving education as an under-researched area of inquiry. The content analysis they performed in their study also found a special emphasis on qualitative research. The descriptive and content analysis yielded two major strands of studies: (1) online education and (2) COVID-19 and education, business, economics, and management. The online education strand focused on the issue of technological anxiety caused by online classes, the feeling of belonging to an academic community, and feedback.

Lastly, Bond ( 2020 ) conducted a rapid review of K-12 research undertaken in the first seven months of the COVID-19 pandemic to identify successes and challenges and to offer recommendations for the future. From a search of K-12 research on the Web of Science, Scopus, EBSCOHost, the Microsoft Academic, and the COVID-19 living systematic map, 90 studies were identified and analyzed. The findings revealed that the reviewed research has focused predominantly on the challenges to shifting to ERE, teacher digital competencies and digital infrastructure, teacher ICT skills, parent engagement in learning, and students’ health and well-being. The review highlighted the need for straightforward communication between schools and families to inform families about learning activities and to promote interactivity between students. Teachers were also encouraged to develop their professional networks to increase motivation and support amongst themselves and to include opportunities for both synchronous and asynchronous interaction for promoting student engagement when using technology. Bond ( 2020 ) reported that the reviewed studies called for providing teachers with opportunities to further develop their digital technical competencies and their distance and online learning pedagogies. In a recent study that examines the impact of COVID-19 at higher education (Bozkurt, 2022 ), three broad themes from the body of research on this subject: (1) educational crisis and higher education in the new normal: resilience, adaptability, and sustainability, (2) psychological pressures, social uncertainty, and mental well-being of learners, and (3) the rise of online distance education and blended-hybrid modes. The findings of this study are similar to Mishra et al. ( 2021 ) who examined the COVID-19 pandemic from the lens of online distance education and noted that technologies for teaching and learning and psychosocial issues were emerging issues.

The aforementioned studies indicate that a great majority of research on COVID-19 has been produced in the field of health sciences, as expected. These studies nonetheless note that there is a noticeable shortage of studies dealing with the effects of the pandemic in the fields of social sciences, humanities, and education. Given the profound impact of the pandemic on learning and teaching, as well as on the related stakeholders in education, now more than ever, a greater amount of research on COVID-19 needs to be conducted in the field of education. The bibliometric studies discussed above have analyzed COVID-19 research across various fields, yielding a comparative snapshot of the research undertaken so far in different research spheres. However, despite being comprehensive, these studies did not appear to have examined a specific discipline or area of research in depth. Therefore, this bibliometric study aims to provide a focused, in-depth analysis of the COVID-19-related research in the field of education. In this regard, the main purpose of this study is to identify research patterns and trends in the field of education by examining COVID-19-related research papers. The study sought to answer the following research questions:

• What are the thematic patterns in the title, abstract, and keywords of the publications on COVID-19 and education?
• What are the citation trends in the references of the sampled publications on COVID-19 and education?

Methodology

This study used data mining and analytic approaches (Fayyad et al., 2002 ) to examine bibliometric patterns and trends. More specifically, social network analysis (SNA) (Hansen et al., 2020 ) was applied to examine the keywords and references, while text-mining was applied (Aggarwal & Zhai, 2012 ) to examine the titles and abstracts of the research corpus. Keywords represent the essence of an article at a micro level and for the analysis of the keywords, SNA was used. SNA “provides powerful ways to summarize networks and identify key people, [entities], or other objects that occupy strategic locations and positions within a matrix of links” (Hansen et al., 2020 , p. 6). In this regard, the keywords were analyzed based on their co-occurrences and visualized on a network graph by identifying the significant keywords which were demonstrated as nodes and their relationships were demonstrated with ties. For text-mining of the titles and abstracts, the researchers performed a lexical analysis that employs “two stages of co-occurrence information extraction—semantic and relational—using a different algorithm for each stage” (Smith & Humphreys, 2006 , p. 262). Thus, text-mining analysis enabled researchers to identify the hidden patterns and visualize them on a thematic concept map. For the analysis of the references, the researchers further used SNA based on the arguments that “citing articles and cited articles are linked to each other through invisible ties, and they collaboratively and collectively build an intellectual community that can be referred to as a living network, structure, or an ecology” (Bozkurt, 2019 , p. 498). The analysis of the references enabled the researchers to identify pivotal scholarly contributions that guided and shaped the intellectual landscape. The use of multiple approaches enables the study to present a broader view, or a meta-narrative.

Sample and Inclusion Criteria

The publications included in this research met the following inclusion criteria: (1) indexed by the Scopus database, (2) written in English, and (3) had the search queries on their title (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). The search query reflects the focus on the impact of COVID-19 on education by including common words in the field like learn , teach , or student . Truncation was also used in the search to capture all relevant literature. Narrowing down the search allowed us to exclude publications that were not education related. Scopus was selected because it is one of the largest scholarly databases, and only publications in English were selected to facilitate identification of meaningful lexical patterns through text-mining and provide a condensed view of the research. The search yielded a total of 1150 papers (articles = 887, editorials = 66, notes = 58, conference papers = 56, letters = 40, review studies = 30, book chapters = 9, short surveys = 3, books = 1).

Search strings used to create research corpus

Data Analysis and Research Procedures

This study has two phases of analysis. In the first phase, text mining was used to analyze titles and abstracts, and SNA was applied to analyze keywords. By using two different analytical approaches, the authors were able to triangulate the research findings (Thurmond, 2001 ). In this phase, using lexical algorithms, text mining analysis enabled visualizing the textual data on a thematic concept map according to semantic relationships and co-occurrences of the words (Fig.  1 ). Text mining generated a machine-based concept map by analyzing the co-occurrences and lexical relationships of textual data. Then, based on the co-occurrences and centrality metrics, SNA enabled visualizing keywords on a network graphic called sociogram (Fig.  2 ). SNA allowed researchers to visually identify the key terms on a connected network graph where keywords are represented as nodes and their relationships are represented as edges. In the first phase of the study, by synthesizing outputs of the data mining and analytic approaches, meaningful patterns of textual data were presented as seven main research themes.

Thematic concept mapping of COVID-19 and education-related papers

Social networks analysis of the keywords in COVID-19 and education-related papers

In the second phase of the study, through the examination of the references and citation patterns (e.g., citing and being cited) of the articles in the research corpus, the citation patterns were visualized on a network graphic by clusters (See Fig.  3 ) showing also chronical relationships which enabled to identify pivotal COVID-19 studies. In the second phase of the study, two new themes were identified which were in line with the themes that emerged in the first phase of the study.

Social networks analysis of the references in COVID-19 and education-related papers 2019–2020 (Only the first authors were labeled – See Appendix Fig. ​ Fig.4 4 for SNA of references covering pre-COVID-19 period)

Strengths and Limitations

This study is one of the first attempts to use bibliometric approaches benefiting from data mining and analysis techniques to better understand COVID-19 and its consequences on published educational research. By applying such an approach, a large volume of data is able to be visualized and reported. However, besides these strengths, the study also has certain limitations. First, the study uses the Scopus database, which, though being one of the largest databases, does not include all types of publications. Therefore, the publications selected for this study offer only a partial view, as there are many significant publications in gray literature (e.g., reports, briefs, blogs). Second, the study includes only publications written in English, however, with COVID-19 being a global crisis, publications in different languages would provide a complementary view and be helpful in understanding local reflections in the field of education.

Findings and Discussion

Sna and text-mining: thematic patterns in the title, abstract, and keywords of the publications.

This section reports the findings based on a thematic concept map and network graphic that were developed through text mining (Fig.  1 —Textual data composed of 186.234 words visualized according to lexical relationships and co-occurrences) and sociograms created using SNA (Fig.  2 —The top 200 keywords with highest betweenness centrality and 1577 connections among them mapped on a network graph) to visualize the data. Accordingly, seven major themes were identified by analyzing the data through text-mining and SNA: (1) the great reset, (2) digital pedagogy, (3) shifting educational landscape and emerging educational roles, (4) emergency remote education, (5) pedagogy of care, (6) social equity, equality, and injustice, and (7) future of education.

• Theme 1: The Great Reset (See path Fig.  1 : lockdown  +  emergency  +  community  +  challenges  +  during  >  pandemic and impact  >  outbreak  >  coronavirus  >  pandemic and global  >  crisis  >  pandemic  >  world; See nodes on Fig.  2 : Covid19, pandemic, Coronavirus, lockdown, crisis ). The first theme in the thematic concept map and network graphic is the Great Reset. It has been relatively a short time since the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 a pandemic. Although vaccination had already started, the pandemic continued to have an adverse impact on the world. Ever since the start of the pandemic, people were discussing when there would be a return to normal (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020a , b ; Xiao, 2021 ); however, as time goes by, this hope has faded, and returning to normal appears to be far into the future (Schwab & Malleret, 2020 ). The pandemic is seen as a major milestone, in the sense that a macro reset in economic, social, geopolitical, environmental, and technological fields will produce multi-faceted changes affecting almost all aspects of life (Schwab & Malleret, 2020 ). The cover of an issue of the international edition of Time Magazine reflected this idea of a great reset and presented the COVID-19 pandemic as an opportunity to transform the way we live and work (Time, 2020 ). It has been argued that the pandemic will generate the emergence of a new era, and that we will have to adapt to the changes it produces (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020 ). For example, the industrial sector quickly embraced remote work despite its challenges, and it is possible that most industrial companies will not return to the on-site working model even after the pandemic ends (Hern, 2020 ). We can expect a high rate of similar responses in other fields, including education, where COVID-19 has already reshaped our educational systems, the way we deliver education, and pedagogical approaches.
• Theme 2: Digital pedagogy (See path on Fig.  1 : distance learning  >  research  >  teacher  >  development  >  need  >  training  +  technology  +  virtual  >  digital  >  communication  >  support  >  process  >  teaching  >  online  >  learning  >  online learning  +  course  >  faculty  >  students  >  experience ; See nodes on Fig.  2 : online learning, distance learning, computer-based learning, elearning, online education, distance education, online teaching, multimedia-based learning, technology, blended learning, online, digital transformation, ICT, online classes, flexible learning, technology-enhanced learning, digitalization ). Owing to the rapid transition to online education as a result of COVID-19, digital pedagogy and teachers’ competencies in information and communication technology (ICT) integration have gained greater prominence with the unprecedented challenges teachers have faced to adapt to remote teaching and learning. The COVID-19 pandemic has unquestionably manifested the need to prepare teachers to teach online, as most of them have been forced to assume ERE roles with inadequate preparation. Studies involving the use of SNA indicate a correspondence between adapting to a digital pedagogy and the need to equip teachers with greater competency in technology and online teaching (e.g., Blume, 2020 ; König et al., 2020 ). König et al. ( 2020 ) conducted a survey-based study investigating how early career teachers have adapted to online teaching during COVID-19 school closures. Their study found that while all the teachers maintained communication with students and their parents, introduced new learning content, and provided feedback, they lacked the ability to respond to challenges requiring ICT integration, such as those related to providing quality online teaching and to conducting assessments. Likewise, Blume ( 2020 ) noted that most teachers need to acquire digital skills to implement digitally-mediated pedagogy and communication more effectively. Both study findings point to the need for building ICT-related teaching and learning competencies in initial teacher education and teacher professional development. The findings from the SNA conducted in the present study are in line with the aforementioned findings in terms of keyword analysis and overlapping themes and nodes.
• Theme 3: Shifting educational landscape and emerging educational roles (See path on Fig.  1 : future > education > role > Covid19; See nodes on Fig.  2 : higher education, education, student, curriculum, university, teachers, learning, professional development, teacher education, knowledge, readiness ). The role of technology in education and human learning has been essential during the COVID-19 pandemic. Technology has become a prerequisite for learning and teaching during the pandemic and will likely continue to be so after it. In the rapid shift to an unprecedented mode of learning and teaching, stakeholders have had to assume different roles in the educational landscape of the new normal. For example, in a comprehensive study involving the participation of over 30 K higher education students from 62 countries conducted by Aristovnik et al. ( 2020 ), it was found that students with certain socio-demographic characteristics (male, lower living standard, from Africa or Asia) were significantly less satisfied with the changes to work/life balance created by the COVID-19 pandemic, and that female students who were facing financial problems were generally more affected by COVID-19 in their emotional life and personal circumstances. Despite the challenges posed by the pandemic, there is likely to be carry over in the post-pandemic era of some of the educational changes made during the COVID-19 times. For example, traditional lecture-based teacher-centered classes may be replaced by more student-centered online collaborative classes (Zhu & Liu, 2020 ). This may require the development and proliferation of open educational platforms that allow access to high-quality educational materials (Bozkurt et al., 2020 ) and the adoption of new roles to survive in the learning ecologies informed by digital learning pedagogies. In common with the present study, the aforementioned studies (e.g., Aristovnik et al., 2020 ; König et al., 2020 ) call for more deliberate actions to improve teacher education programs by offering training on various teaching approaches, such as blended, hybrid, flexible, and online learning, to better prepare educators for emerging roles in the post-pandemic era.
• Theme 4: Emergency remote education (see path Fig.  1 : higher education  >  university  >  student  >  experience  >  remote; See nodes on Fig.  2 : Covid19, pandemic, Coronavirus, higher education, education, school closure, emergency remote teaching, emergency remote learning ). Educational institutions have undergone a rapid shift to ERE in the wake of COVID-19 (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020a ; Bozkurt et al., 2020 ; Hodges et al., 2020 ). Although ERE is viewed as similar to distance education, they are essentially different. That is, ERE is a prompt response measure to an emergency situation or unusual circumstances, such as a global pandemic or a civil war, for a temporary period of time, whereas distance education is a planned and systematic approach to instructional design and development grounded in educational theory and practice (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020b ). Due to the urgent nature of situations requiring ERE, it may fall short in embracing the solid pedagogical learning and teaching principles represented by distance education (Hodges et al., 2020 ). The early implementations of ERE primarily involved synchronous video-conferencing sessions that sought to imitate in-person classroom instruction. It is worth noting that educators may have heavily relied on synchronous communication to overcome certain challenges, such as the lack of available materials and planned activities for asynchronous communication. Lockdowns and school closures, which turned homes into compulsory learning environments, have posed major challenges for families and students, including scheduling, device sharing, and learner engagement in a socially distanced home learning environment (Bond, 2020 ). For example, Shim and Lee ( 2020 ) conducted a qualitative study exploring university students’ ERE experiences and reported that students complained about network instability, unilateral interactions, and reduced levels of concentration. The SNA findings clearly highlight that there has been a focus on ERE due to the school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is key to adopt the best practices of ERE and to utilize them regularly in distance education (Bozkurt, 2022 ). Moreover, it is important to note that unless clear distinctions are drawn between these two different forms of distance education or virtual instruction, a series of unfortunate events in education during these COVID-19 times is very likely to take place and lead to fatal errors in instructional practices and to poor student learning outcomes.
• Theme 5: Pedagogy of care (See path Fig.  1 : r ole  >  education  >  Covid19  >  care ; See nodes on Fig.  2 : Stress, anxiety, student wellbeing, coping, care, crisis management, depression ). The thematic concept map and network graphic show the psychological and emotional impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on various stakeholders, revealing that they have experienced anxiety, expressed the need for care, and sought coping strategies. A study by Baloran ( 2020 ), conducted in the southern part of the Philippines to examine college students’ knowledge, attitudes, anxiety, and personal coping strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic, found that the majority of the students experienced anxiety during the lockdown and worried about food security, financial resources, social contact, and large gatherings. It was reported that the students coped with this anxiety by following protective measures, chatting with family members and friends, and motivating themselves to have a positive attitude. In a similar study, Islam et al. ( 2020 ) conducted an investigation to determine whether Bangladeshi college students experienced anxiety and depression and the factors responsible for these emotional responses. Their cross-sectional survey-based study found that a large percentage of the participants had suffered from anxiety and depression during the pandemic. Academic and professional uncertainty, as well as financial insecurity, have been documented as factors contributing to the anxiety and depression among college students. Both studies point to the need for support mechanisms to be established by higher education institutions in order to ensure student wellbeing, provide them with care, and help them to cope with stress, anxiety, and depression. Talidong and Toquero ( 2020 ) reported that, in addition to students’ well-being and care, teachers’ perceptions and experiences of stress and anxiety during the quarantine period need to be taken into account. The authors found that teachers were worried about the safety of their loved ones and were susceptible to anxiety but tended to follow the preventive policies. A pedagogy of care has been presented as an approach that would effectively allow educators to plan more supportive teaching practices during the pandemic by fostering clear and prompt communication with students and their families and taking into consideration learner needs in lesson planning (e.g., Karakaya, 2021 ; Robinson et al., 2020 ). Here it is important to stress that a pedagogy of care is a multifaceted concept, one that involves the concepts of social equity, equality, and injustice.
• Theme 6: Social equity, equality, and injustice (See path on Fig.  1 : Impact  >  outbreak  >  coronavirus  >  pandemic  >  social ; See nodes on Fig.  2 : Support, equity, social justice, digital divide, inequality, social support ). One of the more significant impacts of COVID-19 has been the deepening of the existing social injustices around the world (Oldekop et al., 2020 ; Williamson et al., 2020 ). Long-term school closures have deteriorated social bonds and adversely affected health issues, poverty, economy, food insecurity, and digital divide (Van Lancker & Parolin, 2020 ). Regarding the digital divide, there has been a major disparity in access to devices and data connectivity between high-income and low-income populations increasing the digital divide, social injustice, and inequality in the world (Bozkurt et al., 2020 ). In line with the SNA findings, the digital divide, manifesting itself most visibly in the inadequacy and insufficiency of digital devices and lack of high-speed Internet, can easily result in widespread inequalities. As such, the disparities between low and high socio-economic status families and school districts in terms of digital pedagogy inequality may deepen as teachers in affluent schools are more likely to offer a wide range of online learning activities and thereby secure better student engagement, participation, and interaction (Greenhow et al., 2020 ). These findings demonstrate that social inequities have been sharpened by the unfortunate disparities imposed by the COVID-19, thus requiring us to reimagine a future that mitigates such concerns.
• Theme 7: Future of education (See word path on Fig.  1 : Future  >  education  >  Covid19  >  pandemic  >  changes and pandemic  >  coronavirus, outbreak, impact  >  world ; See nodes on Fig.  2 : Sustainability, resilience, uncertainty, sdg4). Most significantly, COVID-19 the pandemic has shown the entire world that teachers and schools are invaluable resources and execute critical roles in society. Beyond that, with the compulsory changes resulting from the pandemic, it is evident that teaching and learning environments are not exclusive to brick-and-mortar classrooms. Digital technologies, being at the center of teaching and learning during the pandemic period, have been viewed as a pivotal agent in leveraging how learning takes place beyond the classroom walls (Quilter-Pinner & Ambrose, 2020 ). COVID-19 has made some concerns more visible. For example, the well-being of students, teachers, and society at large has gained more importance in these times of crisis. Furthermore, the need for educational technology and digital devices has compounded and amplified social inequities (Pelletier et al., 2021 ; West & Allen, 2020 ). Despite its global challenges, the need for technology and digital devices has highlighted some advantages that are likely to shape the future of education, particularly those related to the benefits of educational technology. For example, online learning could provide a more flexible, informal, self-paced learning environment for students (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020 ). However, it also bears the risk of minimizing social interaction, as working in shared office environments has shifted to working alone in home-office settings. In this respect, the transformation of online education must involve a particular emphasis on sustaining interactivity through technology (Dwivedi et al., 2020 ). In view of the findings of the aforementioned studies, our text-mining and SNA findings suggest that the COVID-19 impositions may strongly shape the future of education and how learning takes place.

In summary, these themes extracted from the text-mining and SNA point to a significant milestone in the history of humanity, a multi-faceted reset that will affect many fields of life, from education and economics to sociology and lifestyle. The resulting themes have revealed that our natural response to an emerging worldwide situation shifted the educational landscape. The early response of the educational system was emergency-based and emphasized the continuance of in-person instruction via synchronous learning technologies. The subsequent response foregrounded the significance of digitally mediated learning pedagogy, related teacher competencies, and professional development. As various stakeholders (e.g., students, teachers, parents) have experienced a heightened level of anxiety and stress, an emerging strand of research has highlighted the need for care-based and trauma-informed pedagogies as a response to the side effects of the pandemic. In addition, as the global pandemic has made systemic impairments, such as social injustice and inequity, more visible, an important line of research has emerged on how social justice can be ensured given the challenges caused by the pandemic. Lastly, a sizable amount of research indicates that although the COVID-19 pandemic has imposed unprecedented challenges to our personal, educational, and social lives, it has also taught us how to respond to future crises in a timely, technologically-ready, pedagogically appropriate, and inclusive manner.

SNA: Citation Trends in the References of the Sampled Publications

The trends identified through SNA in citation patterns indicate two lines of thematic clusters (see Fig.  3 -A network graph depicting the citing and being cited patterns in the research corpus. Node sizes were defined by their citation count and betweenness centrality.). These clusters align with the results of the analysis of the titles, abstracts, and keywords of the sampled publications and forge the earlier themes (Theme 4: Emergency remote education and Theme 5: Pedagogy of care).

• Thematic Cluster 1: The first cluster centers on the abilities of educational response, emergency remote education affordances, and continuity of education (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020a ; Crawford et al., 2020 ; Hodges et al., 2020 ) to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on education, especially for more vulnerable and disadvantaged groups (UNESCO, 2020 ; Viner et al., 2020 ). The thematic cluster one agrees with the theme four emergency remote education . The first trend line (See red line in Fig.  3 ) shows that the education system is vulnerable to external threats. Considering that interruption of education is not exclusive to pandemics – for example, political crises have also caused disruptions (Rapp et al., 2016 ) – it is clear that coping mechanisms are needed to ensure the continuity of education under all conditions. In this case, we need to reimagine and recalibrate education to make it resilient, flexible, and adaptive, not only to ensure the continuity of education, but also to ensure social justice, equity, and equality. Given that online education has its own limitations (e.g., it is restricted to online tools and infrastructures), we need to identify alternative entry points for those who do not have digital devices or lack access to the internet.

“What we teach in these times can have secondary importance. We have to keep in mind that students will remember not the educational content delivered, but how they felt during these hard times. With an empathetic approach, the story will not center on how to successfully deliver educational content, but it will be on how learners narrate these times” (p. iv).

Conclusion and Suggestions

The results from this study indicate that quick adaptability and flexibility have been key to surviving the substantial challenges generated by COVID-19. However, extreme demands on flexibility have taken a toll on human well-being and have exacerbated systemic issues like inequity and inequality. Using data mining that involved network analysis and text mining as analytical tools, this research provides a panoramic picture of the COVID-19-related themes educational researchers have addressed in their work. A sample of 1150 references yielded seven themes, which served to provide a comprehensive meta-narrative about COVID-19 and its impact on education.

A portion of the sampled publications focused on what we refer to as the great reset , highlighting the challenges that the emergency lockdown brought to the world. A publication pattern centered around digital pedagogy posited distance and online learning as key components and identified the need for teacher training. Given the need for adaptability, a third theme revealed the demand for professional development in higher education and a future shift in educational roles. It can be recommended that future research investigate institutional policy changes and the adaptation to these changes in renewed educational roles. The ERE theme centered on the lack of preparation in instituting the forced changes brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. The publications related to this theme revealed that the COVID-19 pandemic uncovered silent threads in educational environments, like depression, inequality, and injustice. A pedagogy of care has been developed with the aim of reducing anxiety and providing support through coping strategies. These research patterns indicate that the future of education demands sustainability and resilience in the face of uncertainty.

Results of the thematic analysis of citation patterns (Fig.  3 ) overlapped with two of the themes found in our thematic concept map (Fig.  1 ) and network graphic (Fig.  2 ). It was shown that researchers have emphasized the continuity of education and the psychological effects of the COVID-19 crisis on learners. Creating coping strategies to deal with global crises (e.g., pandemics, political upheavals, natural disasters) has been shown to be a priority for educational researchers. The pedagogy of resilience (Purdue University Innovative learning, n.d. ) provides governments, institutions, and instructors with an alternative tool to applying to their contexts in the face of hardship. Furthermore, prioritizing the psychological long-term effects of the crisis in learners could alleviate achievement gaps. We recommend that researchers support grieving learners through care (Noddings, 1984 ) and trauma-informed pedagogy (Imad, 2020 ). Our resilience and empathy will reflect our preparedness for impending crises. The thematic analysis of citation patterns (1: educational response, emergency remote education affordances, and continuity of education; 2: psychological impact of COVID-19) further indicates suggestions for future instructional/learning designers. Freire ( 1985 ) argues that to transform the world we need to humanize it. Supporting that argument, the need for human-centered pedagogical approaches (Robinson et al., 2020 ) by considering learning a multifaceted process (Hodges et al., 2021 ) for well-designed learning experiences (Moore et al., 2021 ) is a requirement and instructional/learning designers have an important responsibility not only to design courses but an entire learning ecosystem where diversity, sensitivity, and inclusivity are prioritized.

ERE is not a representative feature in the field of online education or distance education but rather, a forced reaction to extraordinary circumstances in education. The increasing confusion between the practice of ERE and online learning could have catastrophic consequences in learners' outcomes, teachers' instructional practices, and institutional policies. Researchers, educators, and policymakers must work cooperatively and be guided by sound work in the field of distance learning to design nourishing educational environments that serve students’ best interests.

In this study, text mining and social network analysis were demonstrated to be powerful tools for exploring and visualizing patterns in COVID-19-related educational research. However, a more in-depth examination is still needed to synthesize effective strategies that can be used to support us in future crises. Systematic reviews that use classical manual coding techniques may take more time but increase our understanding of a phenomenon and help us to develop specific action plans. Future systematic reviews can use the seven themes identified in this study to analyze primary studies and find strategies that counteract the survival of the fittest mindset to ensure that no student is left behind.

Acknowledgements

This paper is dedicated to all educators and instructional/learning designers who ensured the continuity of education during the tough times of the COVID-19 pandemic.

This article is produced as a part of the 2020 AECT Mentoring Program.

SNA of references covering pre-COVID-19 period (Only the first authors were labeled)

Authors’ Contributions

AB: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing, Visualization, Funding acquisition.; KK: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing.; MT: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing.; ÖK: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing.; DCR: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing.

This paper is supported by Anadolu University, Scientific Research Commission with grant no: 2106E084.

Data Availability

Declarations.

This is a systematic review study and exempt from ethical approval.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

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Kadir Karakaya, Email: ude.etatsai@ayakarak .

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Özlem Karakaya, Email: ude.etatsai@melzo .

Daniela Castellanos-Reyes, Email: ude.eudrup@dletsac .

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Education Technology: An Evidence-Based Review

In recent years, there has been widespread excitement around the potential for technology to transform learning. As investments in education technology continue to grow, students, parents, and teachers face a seemingly endless array of education technologies from which to choose—from digital personalized learning platforms to educational games to online courses. Amidst the excitement, it is important to step back and understand how technology can help—or in some cases hinder—how students learn. This review paper synthesizes and discusses experimental evidence on the effectiveness of technology-based approaches in education and outlines areas for future inquiry. In particular, we examine RCTs across the following categories of education technology: (1) access to technology, (2) computer-assisted learning, (3) technology-enabled behavioral interventions in education, and (4) online learning. While this review focuses on literature from developed countries, it also draws upon extensive research from developing countries. We hope this literature review will advance the knowledge base of how technology can be used to support education, outline key areas for new experimental research, and help drive improvements to the policies, programs, and structures that contribute to successful teaching and learning.

We are extremely grateful to Caitlin Anzelone, Rekha Balu, Peter Bergman, Brad Bernatek, Ben Castleman, Luke Crowley, Angela Duckworth, Jonathan Guryan, Alex Haslam, Andrew Ho, Ben Jones, Matthew Kraft, Kory Kroft, David Laibson, Susanna Loeb, Andrew Magliozzi, Ignacio Martinez, Susan Mayer, Steve Mintz, Piotr Mitros, Lindsay Page, Amanda Pallais, John Pane, Justin Reich, Jonah Rockoff, Sylvi Rzepka, Kirby Smith, and Oscar Sweeten-Lopez for providing helpful and detailed comments as we put together this review. We also thank Rachel Glennerster for detailed support throughout the project, Jessica Mardo and Sophie Shank for edits, and to the Spencer Foundation for financial support. Any errors or omissions are our own. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

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Education Literature Review: Education Literature Review

What does this guide cover.

Writing the literature review is a long, complex process that requires you to use many different tools, resources, and skills.

This page provides links to the guides, tutorials, and webinars that can help you with all aspects of completing your literature review.

The Basic Process

These resources provide overviews of the entire literature review process. Start here if you are new to the literature review process.

• Literature Reviews Overview : Writing Center
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• Video: Common Errors Made When Conducting a Lit Review (YouTube)  

The Role of the Literature Review

Your literature review gives your readers an understanding of the evolution of scholarly research on your topic.

In your literature review you will:

• survey the scholarly landscape
• provide a synthesis of the issues, trends, and concepts
• possibly provide some historical background

Review the literature in two ways:

• Section 1: reviews the literature for the Problem
• Section 3: reviews the literature for the Project

The literature review is NOT an annotated bibliography. Nor should it simply summarize the articles you've read. Literature reviews are organized thematically and demonstrate synthesis of the literature.

For more information, view the Library's short video on searching by themes:

Short Video: Research for the Literature Review

(4 min 10 sec) Recorded August 2019 Transcript 

Search for Literature

The iterative process of research:

• Find an article.
• Read the article and build new searches using keywords and names from the article.
• Mine the bibliography for other works.
• Use “cited by” searches to find more recent works that reference the article.
• Repeat steps 2-4 with the new articles you find.

These are the main skills and resources you will need in order to effectively search for literature on your topic:

• Subject Research: Education by Jon Allinder Last Updated Sep 2, 2024 6328 views this year
• Keyword Searching: Finding Articles on Your Topic by Oasis Content Last Updated Sep 2, 2024 33490 views this year
• Google Scholar by Jon Allinder Last Updated Sep 2, 2024 19752 views this year
• Quick Answer: How do I find books and articles that cite an article I already have?
• Quick Answer: How do I find a measurement, test, survey or instrument?

Video: Education Databases and Doctoral Research Resources

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Staying Organized

The literature review requires organizing a variety of information. The following resources will help you develop the organizational systems you'll need to be successful.

• Organize your research
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You can make your search log as simple or complex as you would like.  It can be a table in a word document or an excel spread sheet.  Here are two examples.  The word document is a basic table where you can keep track of databases, search terms, limiters, results and comments.  The Excel sheet is more complex and has additional sheets for notes, Google Scholar log; Journal Log, and Questions to ask the Librarian.  

• Search Log Example Sample search log in Excel
• Search Log Example Sample search log set up as a table in a word document.
• Literature Review Matrix with color coding Sample template for organizing and synthesizing your research

Writing the Literature Review

The following resources created by the Writing Center and the Academic Skills Center support the writing process for the dissertation/project study. 

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• Quick Answer: How do I find Walden EdD (Doctor of Education) studies?
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Beyond the Literature Review

The literature review isn't the only portion of a dissertation/project study that requires searching. The following resources can help you identify and utilize a theory, methodology, measurement instruments, or statistics.

• Education Theory by Jon Allinder Last Updated Sep 1, 2024 864 views this year
• Tests and Measures in Education by Kimberly Burton Last Updated Sep 2, 2024 65 views this year
• Education Statistics by Jon Allinder Last Updated Sep 1, 2024 86 views this year
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Books and Articles about the Lit Review

The following articles and books outline the purpose of the literature review and offer advice for successfully completing one.

• Chen, D. T. V., Wang, Y. M., & Lee, W. C. (2016). Challenges confronting beginning researchers in conducting literature reviews. Studies in Continuing Education, 38(1), 47-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037X.2015.1030335 Proposes a framework to conceptualize four types of challenges students face: linguistic, methodological, conceptual, and ontological.
• Randolph, J.J. (2009). A guide to writing the dissertation literature review. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation 14(13), 1-13. Provides advice for writing a quantitative or qualitative literature review, by a Walden faculty member.
• Torraco, R. J. (2016). Writing integrative literature reviews: Using the past and present to explore the future. Human Resource Development Review, 15(4), 404–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484316671606 This article presents the integrative review of literature as a distinctive form of research that uses existing literature to create new knowledge.
• Wee, B. V., & Banister, D. (2016). How to write a literature review paper?. Transport Reviews, 36(2), 278-288. http://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2015.1065456 Discusses how to write a literature review with a focus on adding value rather and suggests structural and contextual aspects found in outstanding literature reviews.
• Winchester, C. L., & Salji, M. (2016). Writing a literature review. Journal of Clinical Urology, 9(5), 308-312. https://doi.org/10.1177/2051415816650133 Reviews the use of different document types to add structure and enrich your literature review and the skill sets needed in writing the literature review.
• Xiao, Y., & Watson, M. (2017). Guidance on conducting a systematic literature review. Journal of Planning Education and Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X17723971 Examines different types of literature reviews and the steps necessary to produce a systematic review in educational research.

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Relationship between mental health and students’ academic performance through a literature review

• Open access
• Published: 17 September 2024
• Volume 4 , article number  119 , ( 2024 )

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You have full access to this open access article

• Cynthia Lizeth Ramos-Monsivais 1 ,
• Sonia Rodríguez-Cano 2 ,
• Estefanía Lema-Moreira   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2286-4902 3 &
• Vanesa Delgado-Benito 2  

Mindfulness has become increasingly popular to improve physical and mental health. Its implementation transcends boundaries of disciplines that study its impact. The aim of this study is to identify and analyze the benefits of mindfulness on mental health, academic performance, well-being, mindfulness and prosocial behavior of university students, as well as to identify the most effective way to achieve habituation to the practice. An analysis and systematic review of papers published in the Scopus database was conducted. It was found that publications on the implementation of mindfulness in higher education began in 2004. Their study has been developed in 22 countries, 15 are European, 3 Asians, 2 North American, one Latin American and one from Oceania. Spain is the only Spanish-speaking country. Academically, mindfulness stimulates creativity, exploratory thinking, critical thinking, attention regulation, increases concentration and improves the learning experience. In addition, immersive virtual reality experiences were found to positively influence habituation towards mindfulness practice among university students.

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1 Introduction

In recent decades, mindfulness has gained popularity as a technique for reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. As well as increasing the well-being and quality of life of people who practice it [ 1 ]. Its origin is found in the Buddhist tradition, as a way to achieve clarity of thought [ 2 ]. Although this technique has been practiced in the East for more than 25 centuries, in the West its popularity is recent [ 3 ]. However, its application is expanding more and more in different disciplines [ 4 ].

Social-emotional learning has been introduced in education. It refers to the training of attention, through meditation techniques, such as mindfulness, the most recent update of the programs that seek emotional intelligence [ 5 ]. This type of education is also known as contemplative education, which seeks to enhance the learning experience through reflection and personal perception [ 6 ].

Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn defines mindfulness as “awareness that develops by paying concrete, sustained, deliberate, and non-judgmental attention to the present moment” [ 7 , p. 13]. It facilitates maintaining mental calm and training attention [ 8 ]; in addition to increasing mental clarity and awareness [ 9 ].

In terms of operability, three qualities that people develop while practicing mindfulness and three qualities related to how the practice is carried out are recognized. The first are observation, description, and participation. While in the mode of practice, acceptance is required, in the present moment and in an effective manner [ 10 ].

Mindfulness can be practiced formally and informally. In formal practice, a specific time is set aside daily for guided meditations. Informal practice brings awareness to daily activities. That is, paying attention to sensations and perceptions while walking, driving, eating, cleaning, among other activities [ 7 ].

Mindfulness has been shown to improve physical and mental health. In terms of physical health, it favors the increase of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BNDF) [ 11 ]. While in mental health it reduces symptoms of anxiety [ 12 ], stress [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ] and depression [ 12 ]. It also facilitates coping with change and uncertainty [ 14 ] and increases well-being [ 17 ].

1.1 How might the efficacy of mindfulness be evaluated?

Blood tests can be used to measure the effectiveness of mindfulness. A reduction in the levels of cortisol, the stress hormone [ 13 ]; and of increased BNDF can be observed after two weeks of practice [ 11 ]. Increased blood BNDF levels are a potential mediator between meditation practice and brain health [ 13 ]. BNDF measured in the blood by plasma or saliva is called peripheral BNDF [ 18 ].

BNDF is a modulator that regulates neuron growth. It allows the creation of new dendrites which improves communication between neurons; in other words, it promotes greater neuronal plasticity in the central and peripheral nervous system [ 11 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Its main function is at the level of the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, structures linked to learning and memory functions [ 13 ].

BNDF is produced in the central nervous system and peripheral tissues. Over time, its production tends to decrease. Its absence is related to psychiatric and neurological disorders such as emotional burnout, anxiety, depression and Alzheimer’s disease [ 13 ] However, some activities stimulate its production. Exercising, practicing yoga, undergoing controlled stress, traveling, acquiring new experiences, learning and mindfulness stimulate its production [ 13 , 20 ].

1.2 What are the reasons for integrating mindfulness into higher education?

The increase in mental health illnesses in college students has become a recognized concern [ 16 , 21 ]; which requires innovative interventions to address this reality [ 22 , 23 ]. In this sense, mindfulness emerges as a proposed solution [ 12 ], to prevent and reduce professional burnout [ 24 ]. Thus, there is growing interest in its applications in higher education [ 25 , 26 ].

In addition to the physical and mental health benefits, mindfulness practice promotes better academic performance [ 8 , 27 , 28 ]. Such as increased attention, learning and thinking [ 29 ]; and reduced pre-test anxiety [ 29 , 30 ].

Mindfulness practice also stimulates exploratory thinking [ 4 ], creative thinking [ 4 , 31 ], and critical thinking [ 2 ]. It increases spatial and sensory awareness [ 4 ], academic self-efficacy [ 32 , 33 ], productivity and task quality [ 8 ]; in addition to increasing the feeling of personal accomplishment [ 34 ].

On the other hand, it facilitates information retention [ 35 ], improves concentration [ 22 , 26 , 36 , 37 ], attention self-regulation skills [ 32 , 37 , 38 ] and allows for a perceived improvement in the overall learning experience [ 31 , 37 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. This is because it is essentially training the brain that facilitates focusing attention. A faculty that, for William James, father of American psychology, constituted the root of judgment, character and will [ 42 ].

1.3 Technological immersion in mindfulness

Studies show that technology is increasingly present in the field of mindfulness practice. Evidence of that is the introduction of video games such as the one developed at the University of Wisconsin called tenacity. This is to improve mindfulness through breathing exercises [ 5 ]. Mobile applications such as Headspace and Calm have also been developed to promote meditation techniques [ 43 , 44 ].

In addition to the above, immersive environments incorporating Virtual Reality (VR) have been developed to stimulate mindfulness practice. Home meditation studio, tripp and maloka are some of the applications that virtual reality allows mindfulness practice in totally immersive environments.

1.4 Virtual reality and mindfulness in education

VR makes it possible to experience alternative realities perceived atmospherically [ 45 ]. It is applied in disciplines and sciences such as medicine, engineering, mathematics, dentistry and education [ 46 ]. In education it is used to improve academic performance [ 29 ], and increase attention, creativity, flow state, and habituation to practice [ 47 ].

Pascual et al. [ 48 ] state that, despite there being few studies related to the evaluation of mindfulness interventions using VR, it is considered a more effective platform than standalone mobile meditation apps for encouraging daily practice. Along those lines, results from Miller et al. [ 49 ] study indicates that VR-guided meditation practice is associated with increased positive affect compared to non-VR meditation.

In the case study by Malighetti et al. [ 50 ] it was found that techniques for the development of emotional intelligence such as increased awareness, identification of emotional states, increased resilience and self-control implemented through VR allowed greater mental regulation in terms of eating habits in patients with binge eating disorders. In that order, students with greater emotional regulation have greater self-efficacy [ 51 ].

VR mindfulness promotes mental health [ 52 ]. Studies show that it can reduce insomnia and stress [ 53 ] and improve learning [ 46 ]. Coupled with the above, Kwon et al. [ 30 ] found that incorporating virtual environments through VR is feasible for managing anxiety stemming from academic exams.

Kaplan-Rakowski et al. [ 29 ] study showed that students who meditated with VR performed better academically than those who meditated using videos. While Yang et al.’s [ 47 ] research, immersive virtual reality experiences were found to affect traits associated with students' creativity such as flow state and attention. When students were assigned creative challenges or challenges, those who participated in immersive VR produced better quality products. They also maintained a more stable attention level than the control group.

VR can impact long-term learning. According to Mohring and Brendel [ 45 ] it use in the educational context needs to be reflected upon, because it triggers human perception with far-reaching consequences and people using it hardly question the alternative reality experience it offers. Nevertheless, it can contribute significantly to students’ training through the development of enhanced digital skills and increased mindfulness.

According to Mohring and Brendel [ 45 ] VR can trace the path towards mindfulness in different educational contexts: in teaching and in transforming the relationship between society and the environment. A view that coincides with Whewell et al. [ 54 ] who argue that these immersive experiences contribute to the development of enhanced digital skills, increased student engagement, cultural competence and global mindfulness in university students. VR can foster the conditions for students to become global change agents “within the spheres of entrepreneurship and education” [ 54 , p.1].

However, mindfulness benefits require continuous practice. According to the study by Pascual et al. [ 48 ], meditation sessions are associated with a decrease in anxiety. Therefore, identifying how to introduce and implement an effective program is of the utmost relevance for updating the current educational system.

In that sense, this research aims to identify programs that have been implemented to incorporate mindfulness into higher education. From its beginnings to the present, it analyzes the scientific literature to understand the evolution of its implementation. It identifies the countries where these programs are carried out, the universities that participate, the years they have been carried out and the types of documents published.

Mindfulness's documented benefits for mental health, academic performance, well-being, and students' awareness and prosocial behavior are discussed. Finally, technology, specifically virtual reality, is addressed as a medium that facilitates mindfulness practice stimulation and habituation.

Therefore, the following research questions were defined: 1. How many publications are published per year? 2. In what language are they published? 3. What kind of documents are published? 4. Which universities are involved in the research? 5. In which countries are mindfulness and higher education being studied? 6. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students' mental health? 7. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students' academic performance? 8. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students’ well-being? 9. What is the impact of mindfulness on higher education students’ conscientiousness and prosocial behaviour? 10. Is virtual reality the most effective medium for fostering mindfulness among higher education students?

An analysis of scientific publications in the scopus database, which could be accessed through an institutional account of the University of Burgos in Spain as part of a research stay, was carried out. The information search was conducted using English keywords. The keywords used to elaborate the search string were mindfulness, meditation, university students and higher education students. This search string yielded 70 publications as of July 19, 2024.

All Scopus database publication types were considered inclusion criteria: articles, book chapters, papers, reviews, books and short surveys. In English and Spanish. All articles whose information was not available, were not aimed at higher education students, or did not address any meditation technique were excluded.

An Excel document with the articles' information was extracted for analysis. One article was not available so 69 documents were considered. It was found that 11 publications did not actually mention meditation techniques and were excluded. Also, 5 publications not directed at higher education students were not considered. This resulted in 53 selected research papers. Figure  1 illustrates the situation.

Flow diagram

To answer questions 6, 7 and 8, a subsequent analysis was carried out to identify the measurement variables used by the authors. Measurement variables were identified in the selected documents. The variables were divided into four categories. Mental health, academic achievement, well-being, and prosocial awareness and attitude.

The mental health category includes 9 variables: reduction of stress, anxiety, depression, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization burnout and negative mood. Also increased mental health, calmness and positive mood. Of the 53 items, 4 address some mental health elements and 23 also include elements from other categories.

Academic achievement is made up of 16 variables: academic performance, clinical performance, exploratory thinking, critical thinking, creative thinking, productivity, task quality, academic speed, persistence, observation skills, attention regulation skills, information retention, academic self-efficacy and concentration. Additionally, the learning experience and divergent and convergent creative writing will be improved. Of the 53 items, 5 address elements relating to academic achievement and 19 also include elements from other categories.

The well-being category consists of 13 variables: increased life satisfaction, well-being, sense of belonging, emotional self-regulation, quality of life, self-compassion, physical activity, resilience, non-judgmental acceptance, perceived social support, and sense of accomplishment. Also included are better dietary decision making and improved sleep quality. Of the 53 items, 1 addresses well-being items and 20 include items from other categories.

In the category awareness and prosocial behavior, 14 variables were integrated: increased mindfulness skills, spatial awareness, sensory awareness, self-awareness, dispositional mindfulness, empathy, benevolence, prosocial behavior, collectivism, a sense of transcendence, universalalism, mental clarity, responsibility and improved interpersonal relationships. Of the 53 items, one addresses element unique to prosocial awareness and behavior and 21 also include elements from other categories.

To answer question 8, an additional search integrating technology and virtual reality was included. Although the object of this study is directed primarily at higher education students, research that analyses mindfulness incorporation at other educational levels was considered in this question.

The results of the research are presented in this section. We start with the general findings and then answer the research questions.

3.1 General findings

Although all the investigations analysed are directed at higher education students, 27 do not specify the discipline or the educational program in which the students are enrolled. However, it was found that the educational programs where mindfulness effectiveness is most frequently studied is in medicine and nursing with six investigations, engineering with four, and then anaesthesiology, arts and design, sciences, modern dance, law midwifery, writing, pharmacy, literature, music, social work and design pedagogy with one respectively.

Regarding the duration of the programs, of the 53 studies analysed, 31 do not specify the duration of the practice in weeks, days or sessions. However, in six investigations the programs lasted 8 weeks and in five investigations, 6 weeks. The longest program consisted of 12 weeks and the shortest 1 day. About the analysis of keywords, Fig.  2 shows the identified word networks.

Visualization of keyword networks based on a VOSviewer version 1.6.20 elaboration

In this analysis, it was found that of the 418 keywords used, 30 have at least a frequency of occurrence of 5. It is highlighted that the words with a higher frequency of occurrence and greater connectivity are mindfulness and meditation. Next, the research questions are answered.

How many papers are published each year about mindfulness and higher education students?

According to Table  1 , publications on mindfulness in higher education began in 2004. In 2014, these rates began to remain constant. In the United States, the first publication was produced by the doctor Daniel Holland, associated with universities in Pennsylvania, Arkansas, Illinois, and Washington. At the University of Pennsylvania, the first program for developing resilience in children was developed. Furthermore, in the late 1990s, doctors Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, both affiliated with the same university, pioneered positive psychology [ 55 ].

As part of positive education, positive psychology was introduced to institutions. The concept of positive education succeeds the concept of emotional education. In addition to emotions, this approach incorporates other elements such as meditation in order to increase well-being [ 56 ].

What is the language in which mindfulness research is published? There are 53 documents in the collection, 50 of which are in English and three of which are in Spanish

Are there any published documents that discuss mindfulness and students in higher education? Publications were classified into five categories: articles, reviews, book chapters, presentations and books. As shown in Table  2 , each type of document has a different quantity.

There are several different types of documents published. Articles are the most frequently published. Review articles, presentations, book chapters, and books follow.

What are the publications of universities on mindfulness and higher education students?

A summary of the publications produced, the universities that participate in collaborations, and the most important findings are presented in this section according to the type of document, the language, and the year.

3.2 Spanish-language articles

There have been only three articles published in Spanish. These include one by the University of Almería in Spain in 2009, another by the University of Lisbon in Portugal in 2022 and another by the University of Granada in Spain in 2024. A study by Justo and Luque [ 57 ] demonstrated that mindfulness leads to a deepening of reflection and self-awareness, which in turn stimulates prosocial values like benevolence, collectivism, and the sense of universalism and transcendence. Sobral and Caetano [ 58 ] conducted a study in which individual and collective activities were incorporated into two courses, including mindfulness, using students' portfolios and teachers’ notes. On the other hand, in the study by García-Pérez et al. [ 23 ] mindfulness is considered as a starting point to guarantee mental health and improve the well-being of university students.

3.3 Articles in English

In 2014, two English-language publications were published. One by Nottingham Trent University in the United Kingdom and one by Duke University Medical Center in the United States. Greeson et al. [ 59 ] found that the Koru mindfulness training program improved sleep, improved mindfulness skills, increased self-compassion, and decreased stress among college students.

According to Van Gordon et al. [ 3 ], the Meditation, Awareness Training (MAT) program has been evaluated by college students. During the eighth weeks of training, the students demonstrated improved well-being and self-regulation skills in terms of thoughts, feelings, and behavior. A significant increase was also observed in dispositional mindfulness.

In 2015 only one paper was published by Newcastle University in Australia. In this study, after 7 weeks of practicing mindfulness, students showed an improvement in their well-being, sleep quality, increased concentration, mental clarity and a reduction in negative mood was observed [ 22 ].

In 2016, two articles were published, one by Chatham University in the United States, and another where two universities from two different countries participated, the National University of Ireland and Coleraine University in the United Kingdom. In the study by Noone et al. [ 2 ] it was found that dispositional mindfulness facilitates critical thinking. While in the research of Spadaro and Hunker [ 38 ] it was found that after 8 weeks of practicing mindfulness online, nursing students in the United States reduced anxiety and stress. They also increased mindfulness self-regulation skills.

There were three articles published in 2017. The first study was conducted by Ohio State University in the United States, the second by Ryerson University in Canada, and the third by the Department of Psychiatry at MoleMann Hospital for Mental Health in the Netherlands.

Using reflective writing and guided mindfulness meditations, Klatt [ 60 ] conducted research at Ohio University to increase awareness of students' life goals. According to Schwind et al. [ 37 ], mindfulness and loving-kindness meditation practice after eight weeks reduced anxiety, improved learning experience, increased sense of calm, concentration, and attention self-regulation skills among Canadian university students.

While in the research of Van D’Ijk et al. [ 61 ] it was found that after 8 weekly sessions of two hours daily using the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program, students from the Netherlands reduced anxiety and negative emotional states. Improved mental health, life satisfaction and increased mindfulness skills were also observed. However, empathy was not increased.

In 2018, three articles were published. One by the University of Seville in Spain, one by the National University of Ireland and one where an international collaboration between 5 universities took place. The University of Southampton in the UK, the Helvetiapraxis Medical Centre in Switzerland, Kings College London in the UK, the Coburg University of Applied Sciences and Arts in Germany and the Poznan University of Medical Sciences in Poland.

Research conducted by Bernárdez et al. [ 9 ] revealed that software engineering students at the University of Seville in Spain improved their academic self-efficacy after 6 weeks of practicing mindfulness.

Lynch et al. [ 25 ] evaluated mindfulness-based coping with university life (MBCUL), an adaptation of the MBSR program. College students increased their mindfulness skills, decreased stress, anxiety, and depression after eight weeks. The study by Noone and Hogan [ 62 ] found that practicing mindfulness using the headspace mobile app for 6 weeks or 30 sessions increased dispositional mindfulness, but not critical thinking. Students at the National University of Ireland participated in this study.

There were three articles published in 2019. In the United Kingdom, Birmingham City University submitted the first study, in the United States, Lousville University submitted the second, and in Iceland, the University of Rhode Island submitted the third.

A study conducted by Dutt et al. [ 84 ] from the University of Birmingham has demonstrated that mindfulness reduces stress and helps to make better dietary decisions. The University of Rhode Island conducted a study in which Lemay et al. [ 63 ] found that after 6 weeks of practicing viyansa yoga, pharmacy students were able to increase their mindfulness skills and reduce their levels of stress and anxiety. Weingartner et al. [ 39 ] found that mindfulness and compassion training increased mindfulness skills, dispositional mindfulness, and empathy in medical students at Lousville University. As a result, interpersonal relationships, resilience, nonjudgmental acceptance, observational skills, and learning experiences were also improved.

In 2020, four papers were published. In the United States, there are four, one from the University of North Carolina, one from the University of Florida, one from Juiz de Fora in Brazil, and one from the Department of Psychological and Behavioral Sciences at the London School of Economics and Political Science.

At the University of North Carolina, a slow sensory experience linked to meditation techniques is introduced in the modern dance program to improve concentration [ 64 ]. According to the study by Bóo et al. [ 27 ], mindfulness increases academic performance, emotional self-regulation, and self-awareness in the UK. However, Damião et al. [ 65 ] found no significant increase in mindfulness skills of medical students at the Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Brazil, following a 6-week mindfulness training program. Stress, anxiety, or depression did not decrease. Quality of life and mental health also showed no change.

A study by Williams et al. [ 40 ] concluded that medical students at the University of Florida improved their mindfulness skills, perceived social support, empathy, and prosocial behavior after 11 weeks participating in the Promoting Resilience in Medicine (PRIMe) program, although they did not reduce stress. Behaviors characterized by empathy and prosociality. As a result, the general well-being and learning experience have also improved.

There were three articles published in 2021. First, the University of Manitoba in Canada, second, Bilkent University in Turkey, and third, Johns Hopkins University in the United States. Altay and Porter [ 4 ] found that mindfulness practice among design psychology students in Turkey increased non-judgmental acceptance, exploratory thinking, creative thinking, spatial awareness, sensory awareness, and empathy.

An evaluation of the effectiveness of the Headspace mobile application was conducted by Carullo et al. [ 33 ]. Over the course of four months, anesthesiology and medical students from the United States practiced mindfulness. Depression levels were reduced and personal accomplishments were increased. The level of emotional exhaustion nor the level of depersonalization burnout, however, did not improve. Based on research conducted by Litwiller et al. [ 21 ] among college students in Canada, mindfulness, meditation, Tai Chi, yoga, exercise, and animal therapy have been found to be effective in reducing stress, anxiety, depression, and negative mood.

The year 2022 saw the publication of nine papers. The first was completed by the Aix-Marseille University in France, the second by the Department of Anthropology at the University of Missouri in the United States, and the third by the University of Central Arkansas in the United States in collaboration with the University of Missouri. It was also submitted by the University of Illinois in the United States, Kirikkale University in Turkey, Arizona State University in the United States, the University of Seville in Spain, Brock University in Canada, and the University of Lisbon in Portugal.

Researchers in Turkey found that mindfulness practice increases life satisfaction among nursing students. According to Bernárdez et al. [ 8 ], mindfulness enhanced academic performance, productivity, task quality, and academic speed in Spanish students. Devillers-Réolon et al. [ 66 ] found that stress, anxiety, and depression were reduced in their research. The ability of French university students to regulate their attention did not improve, despite improvements in their well-being.

Researchers at Arizona State University found that mindfulness practice increased concentration, non-judgmental acceptance, and resilience among arts and design students. An opinion survey conducted by Klonoff-Cohen [ 67 ] revealed that college students in Illinois believe meditation and mindfulness exercises are effective coping mechanisms. The study by Sensiper [ 26 ] from the Anthropology Department concluded that after 10 weeks of structured in-class meditations, mindfulness exercises, contemporary text readings, and reflective writing, college students exhibited reduced anxiety, improved well-being, increased emotional self-regulation, concentration, and dispositional mindfulness.

As part of the research conducted by Sobral and Caetano [ 58 ], the University of Lisbon conducted a self-study on emotional education. Teachers evaluated the students’ portfolios in order to identify recurrent problems, and students evaluated mindfulness practices, collective and individual projects.

Strickland et al. [ 68 ] reported that mindfulness combined with a modified version of Dr. Robert Boice’s blocked writers program increased positive mood and resilience to stress and anxiety in students and teachers in higher education.

According to Woloshyn et al. [ 31 ], mindful writing stimulates creative thinking, increases empathy and prosocial behavior in higher education students and teachers in Canada. A positive emotional state can also be achieved through non-judgmental acceptance, increased self-awareness, self-compassion, and non-judgmental acceptance. In addition, it enhances well-being and the learning experience.

Six papers have been published in 2023. One by the University of Rome in Italy, one by Griffith University in Australia, another is the result of a collaboration between the University of South Carolina and Winthrop University both in the United States; and another due to collaboration between the Institute of Psychology of Lorand University in Hungary, the University of Vienna and the University of Artois in France.

One paper is the result of a collaboration between the University of the West of England in United Kingdom, and Dongguk University in South Korea. And another article was the result of a collaboration between University of Limoges, University of Montpellier and University of Paris Cité in France and University of Brussels in Belgium.

In the research by Fagioli et al. [ 32 ] University students in Italy practice mindfulness online for 28 days. An improved sense of belonging increased academic self-efficacy and self-regulation of attention skills were observed. In the study by García et al. [ 69 ], mindfulness was practiced for 1 week, 5 min daily. This exercise reduced anxiety, increased physical activity and improved sleep in United States students. Nagy et al. [ 70 ] found that mindfulness practice can increase persistence in those with a strong disposition toward a growth mindset or mindfulness.

In the research of Hagège et al. [ 71 ] it was found that the Meditation-Based Ethics of Responsibility (MBER) program had a positive impact on sense of responsibility and convergent and divergent creative writing tasks in undergraduate science students. In undergraduate music therapy students, it was found that eight weeks of practicing mindfulness can reduce stress and improve mindfulness and well-being [ 72 ]. While Pearson’s [ 73 ] looks for strategies on how mindfulness can be introduced into law education programs in Australia.

So far in 2024, three papers have been published. One by the Virginia Tech College of engineering. Another by the collaboration of Idaho State University and the University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, in the United States. Another by Kaohsiung Medical University and Meiho University, both from Taiwan.

In the research of Giesler et al. [ 74 ] the Caring Action Leadership Mindfulness model is proposed to increase mental health and sense of belonging in undergraduate social work students. In the study by Liu et al. [ 75 ] it was found that practicing mindfulness for 50 min a week for 8 weeks reduced stress and increased mindfulness skills in nursing students. On the other hand, Martini et al. [ 76 ] found that although most engineering students after practicing mindfulness experienced a reduction in perceived stress, a sense of calm, increased energy, and greater concentration, other students who expressed feeling more tired and distressed after meditation practice.

3.4 Book chapters

Book chapters are rare. One by Queen Margaret University in 2015 and one by the University of Surrey in 2020, both UK universities. In the Oberski et al. [ 35 ] study, it was documented that mindfulness in college students allows for increased information retention and a positive emotional state. In Kilner-Johnson and Udofia’s [ 77 ] research, techniques for incorporating mindfulness in the humanities in higher education are proposed.

On the other hand, only one book was published by the University of Groningen in the Netherlands in 2021. This work addresses the benefits of incorporating mindfulness into higher education courses. It documents the results of the Munich model named mindfulness and meditation in the university context. It also includes practical exercises with instructions for implementation in educational institutions.

3.6 Conferences

Three conferences have been published from the United States. One in 2006 by the University of Arkansas, another by the University of Denver Colorado in 2021, and another by Northeastern University in 2023. Holland [ 6 ] presents a course developed and implemented in some universities in the United States through his personal experience, while Wu [ 41 ] states that sonic meditation for higher education students improves the learning experience. In the study by Grahame et al. [ 78 ] it was found that daily mindfulness practice enables engineering undergraduates to reduce stress.

3.7 Reviews

Six reviews have been published. One was in 2004 by Southeastern Illinois University in the United States. In 2017 there were 2 publications. One by the University of Portland in the United States and one by LaTrobe University in Australia. In 2019 the Medical Department of the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands also published a review. In 2021, a collaboration between three UK universities—Queens University, the University of Suffolk and the University of York was published. In 2024 another was published by Padjadjaran University in Indonesia.

Holland [ 79 ] outlines how mindfulness can be incorporated into higher education and the benefits this can bring for students with disabilities and promote health. McConville et al. [ 33 ] found that mindfulness reduces stress, anxiety, and depression. It also increases mindfulness skills, empathy, a positive emotional state, and academic self-efficacy. Stillwell et al. [ 80 ] found that both the MBSR program, yoga, breath work, meditation, and mindfulness in nursing students reduced stress.

Breedvelt et al. [ 81 ] evaluated the effectiveness of meditation, yoga, and mindfulness on symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress in college students. They concluded that most publications regarding mindfulness have a high risk of bias, are of poor quality, and do not specify which technique provides the benefits. For it is unclear whether it is mindfulness, yoga or another meditation technique that is effective. McVeigh et al. [ 28 ] found that mindfulness practice in nursing students reduces stress, increases clinical academic performance and self-awareness. In the research of Yosep et al. [ 82 ] it was found that digital mindfulness through audios and videos is effective in improving the mental health of university students.

What are the countries where mindfulness and higher education students are most widely published?

Based on the description of the universities in question three, Fig.  3 illustrates the countries and locations where publications on mindfulness and higher education students have been published.

Geographical location of countries where mindfulness research has been conducted. Font: Own elaboration in the Mapchart application [ 83 ]

As can be seen, the United States leads in mindfulness research and higher education students. It is followed by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Spain. Spain is the only Spanish-speaking country on the list.

On the other hand, although the research is carried out in 22 countries, the collaboration networks include 14 countries. Figure  4 shows the collaboration networks detected.

Cross-country collaboration networks based on a VOSviewer version 1.6.20 elaboration

Figure  4 shows a collaborative network of 14 countries composed of four nodes. One is formed by Austria, Belgium, Canada, France and Hungary in red. In green by the United Kingdom, Turkey, South Korea and Ireland. In blue, Germany, Switzerland and Poland and in yellow, Australia and the Netherlands.

What are the benefits of mindfulness practice for higher education students’ mental health?

Mindfulness practice reduces stress [ 21 , 25 , 28 , 33 , 38 , 59 , 63 , 66 , 80 , 84 ] anxiety [ 21 , 25 , 26 , 33 , 37 , 38 , 61 , 63 , 66 , 69 ] and depression [ 21 , 25 , 33 , 34 , 66 ].

Mindfulness reduces negative mood [ 21 , 22 , 61 ]. As well as increasing positive mood [ 31 , 33 , 35 , 68 ]. In research by Bernárdez et al. [ 9 ], mindfulness was found to reduce emotional exhaustion and depersonalization burnout. While Van D’Ijk et al. [ 61 ], that it improves mental health. Schwind et al. [ 37 ] found that it increases the feeling of calm.

3.8 Stress reduction

In the case of Devillers-Réolon et al. [ 66 ] and Spadaro & Hunker [ 38 ] the mindfulness practice was conducted online and lasted for 17 days and 8 weeks respectively. Greeson et al. [ 59 ] study was also practiced online using the Koru program. Although the duration of this is not specified.

In Lynch et al. [ 25 ] research, the MBSR program was used for 8 weeks. While Stiwell et al. [ 80 ] the same program was used, although the duration of time is not specified. Of the five studies in which mindfulness is practiced traditionally through guided meditations, only one, that of Lemay et al. [ 63 ] indicates that the program lasted 6 weeks in 60-min sessions. The other investigations do not indicate weeks or practice sessions.

According to Yogeswaran and Morr [ 16 ] online mindfulness practice can be effective in addressing stress. However, at least for medical students, the evidence was not sufficient to prove its efficacy in decreasing symptoms of depression and anxiety. In contrast, the study by Ahmad et al. [ 12 ] found that, among university students in Toronto, Canada, internet-based Cognitive Behavioral Mindfulness Therapy interventions could reduce symptoms of anxiety, depression and stress after 8 weeks.

What are the benefits of mindfulness practice on higher education students’ academic performance?

Mindfulness increases clinical performance [ 28 ] and academic performance [ 8 , 27 , 28 ]. Stimulates exploratory thinking [ 4 ], creative thinking [ 4 , 31 ] and critical thinking [ 2 ].

It increases productivity, task quality and academic speed [ 8 ]. As well, it also increases academic self-efficacy [ 9 , 32 , 33 ], improves the learning experience [ 31 , 37 , 39 , 40 , 41 ], and improves observation skills [ 39 ].

Coupled with the above, it improves information retention [ 35 ], increases concentration [ 22 , 26 , 36 , 37 ], and attention self-regulation skills [ 32 , 37 , 38 ]. Another finding in relation to academic performance is that mindfulness can increase persistence in people with a strong disposition toward mindfulness or a growth mindset [ 70 ].

3.9 What benefits does mindfulness practice have on higher education students?

Mindfulness practice increased perceived social support [ 31 , 40 ], improves well-being [ 3 , 22 , 26 , 31 , 40 , 66 ] and improve dietary decision-making [ 84 ]. It also increases sense of belonging [ 32 ], life satisfaction [ 61 , 85 ], physical activity [ 69 ]; and improves sleep quality [ 22 , 59 , 69 ]. Damião´s et al. [ 65 ] research showed no improvements in quality of life after the intervention.

Mindfulness allows increasing self-compassion [ 31 , 59 ], sense of personal achievement [ 34 ], self-regulation of thoughts, feelings and behaviors [ 3 , 26 , 27 ]. It stimulates the development of resilience for stress and anxiety management [ 36 , 39 , 68 ]; and it helps to manage the judgmental voice. That is, it facilitates non-judgmental acceptance [ 4 , 31 , 36 , 39 ].

What are the benefits of mindfulness practice on mindfulness and prosocial behavior in higher education students?

Mindfulness allows for increases in self-awareness [ 27 , 28 , 31 ], sensory and spatial awareness [ 4 ], mindfulness skills [ 25 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 59 , 61 , 63 ] and disposition toward mindfulness [ 3 , 26 , 39 , 68 ].

It also stimulates prosocial behavior [ 40 ], collectivism [ 31 , 57 ]. It increases empathy [ 4 , 31 , 33 , 39 , 40 ] and benevolence [ 57 ]. It improves interpersonal relationships [ 31 , 39 , 40 ], clarity of thought [ 22 ]; and increases the sense of universalism and transcendence [ 57 ].

Is virtual reality the most effective way to promote mindfulness among higher education students?

Virtual reality could facilitate mindfulness habituation. In the study by Navarrete et al. [ 86 ] conducted with university medical students in Valencia, Spain, it was found that those who participated in the virtual reality program meditated twice as long as those who only practiced through regular guided meditation. Along these lines, Pascual et al. [ 48 ] found that health professionals who practiced meditation completed more sessions than those who did not use VR.

Likewise, in the study by Modrego-Alarcón et al. [ 15 ] and Miller et al. [ 49 ] it was found that VR students acquired greater immersion and mindfulness practice. Therefore, immersive virtual reality environments favor habituation toward mindfulness practice.

4 Discussion

The benefits of mindfulness in higher education students at the psychoemotional level have been widely documented [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 87 ]. One of the most frequently highlighted benefits of mindfulness in higher education students is the positive effect on self-esteem, as evidenced by the findings of several studies [ 88 , 89 ]. Additionally, mindfulness has been shown to reduce stress levels [ 25 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 59 , 61 , 63 , 90 ]. These types of benefits have also been observed in other demographic groups. For example, a study conducted by Chandna et al. [ 91 ] with an adult population demonstrated that mindfulness practice was associated with significant improvements in self-esteem and self-efficacy.

As previously stated, mindfulness practice has been identified as a potential solution to the emotional difficulties experienced by higher education students in the current context [ 12 ]. The positive effects of mindfulness on students’ psychoemotional well-being have been demonstrated in numerous studies [ 66 , 67 , 85 ]. It can thus be inferred that these benefits will also affect other areas of students’ lives, reducing their difficulties both psychoemotionally and academically, for example.

In terms of academic performance, the findings of Bóo et al. [ 27 ], Bernárdez et al. [ 8 ] and McVeigh et al. [ 28 ] are worthy of note. This is not exclusive to students in higher education. A study by Artika et al. [ 92 ] with a sample of 469 secondary school students indicates that mindfulness is a significant predictor of student participation in the school context, with an associated increase in participation through improved self-esteem. In contrast, Cordeiro et al. [ 93 ] conducted an experimental study with a control group of third-grade students and found that mindfulness significantly enhanced cognitive flexibility and handwriting fluency.

Prosocial behaviour has been identified as another key area of interest by a number of studies [ 4 , 22 , 31 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 57 ]. A study by Akhavan et al. [ 90 ] demonstrates the efficacy of mindfulness practice in a sample of teachers, including enhanced relationships with students and reduced stress.

With regard to the manner in which these mindfulness programmes can be supported, the utilisation of VR has been found to confer considerable benefits [ 15 , 48 , 49 , 86 ]. This is primarily attributable to the degree of adherence to the programme. In their seminal work, Friedlander et al. [ 94 ] introduced the concept of the ‘therapeutic alliance’ to describe this phenomenon of patient adherence in a therapeutic context. They posited that it represents a crucial factor in the efficacy of any therapeutic intervention. In this case, although it is an educational context, the effects of such adherence are similar; therefore, it is worthwhile to explore the potential of the VR format as a key factor for the success of mindfulness.

5 Conclusions

In response to the research questions initially posed, it can be stated that they have been addressed, resulting in comprehensive data pertaining to the volume, language and year of publication of the various research projects. It is notable that there has been a significant increase in publications over the past four years, as well as the prevalence of the article format. As is to be expected, the majority of publications have been in English. It is also evident that universities in countries with an Anglo-Saxon tradition have published the most research on this topic, with the USA being the country with the highest volume of studies.

In answer to questions 6, 7, 8 and 9, it might be stated that mindfulness practice has been shown to promote mental health, academic performance, awareness, prosocial behaviour and well-being in student populations. Mindfulness practice might promote mental health, and well-being in the student population. The positive impact of this practice is not limited to how it is performed. That is, whether it is through traditional guided meditations, mobile applications, videos, online exercises or virtual reality.

However, according to the available literature, habituation is easier to acquire. Therefore, additional benefits can be obtained by increasing the number of sessions completed or minutes of practice. In answer to question 10, in studies where VR was effective for mindfulness practice, students practiced longer than those in the control group. Therefore, VR could be a more effective way to introduce contemplative science by introducing meditation techniques in higher education.

The objective has been fulfilled by analysing the benefits of mindfulness on mental health, academic performance, well-being, mindfulness and prosocial behaviour of university students, as well as identifying the most effective way to achieve habituation to the practice. It is also noteworthy that these benefits are highly relevant, and it would be beneficial to introduce mindfulness practice in the context of higher education.

6 Limitation and implication

One of the issues highlighted is the lack of comprehensive data that would allow for a more thorough comparison. For example, aspects such as the geographical location of the study subjects or the duration of the mindfulness programme applied mean that there are a large number of studies whose effectiveness is not entirely clear. At the same time, this is a topic that is becoming increasingly relevant, but there is still no consensus among researchers.

With regard to prospective implications, it is evident that the implementation of mindfulness in educational settings offers substantial advantages. Consequently, higher education institutions should facilitate the availability of structured mindfulness programmes for students. Undoubtedly, this would prove to be a valuable addition to their psycho-emotional and academic development.

Data availability

The author confirms that all data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Ramos-Monsivais, C.L., Rodríguez-Cano, S., Lema-Moreira, E. et al. Relationship between mental health and students’ academic performance through a literature review. Discov Psychol 4 , 119 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44202-024-00240-4

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