qualitative research interview examples

Top 20 Qualitative Research Interview Questions & Answers

Master your responses to Qualitative Research related interview questions with our example questions and answers. Boost your chances of landing the job by learning how to effectively communicate your Qualitative Research capabilities.

Diving into the intricacies of human behavior, thoughts, and experiences is the lifeblood of qualitative research. As a professional in this nuanced field, you are well-versed in the art of gathering rich, descriptive data that can provide deep insights into complex issues. Now, as you prepare to take on new challenges in your career, it’s time to demonstrate not only your expertise in qualitative methodologies but also your ability to think critically and adapt to various research contexts.

Whether you’re interviewing for an academic position, a role within a market research firm, or any other setting where qualitative skills are prized, being prepared with thoughtful responses to potential interview questions can set you apart from other candidates. In this article, we will discuss some of the most common questions asked during interviews for qualitative research roles, offering guidance on how best to articulate your experience and approach to prospective employers.

Common Qualitative Research Interview Questions

1. how do you ensure the credibility of your data in qualitative research.

Ensuring credibility in qualitative research is crucial for the trustworthiness of the findings. By asking about methodological rigor, the interviewer is assessing a candidate’s understanding of strategies such as triangulation, member checking, and maintaining a detailed audit trail, which are essential for substantiating the integrity of qualitative data.

When responding to this question, you should articulate a multi-faceted approach to establishing credibility. Begin by highlighting your understanding of the importance of a well-defined research design and data collection strategy. Explain how you incorporate methods like triangulation, using multiple data sources or perspectives to confirm the consistency of the information obtained. Discuss your process for member checking—obtaining feedback on your findings from the participants themselves—to add another layer of validation. Mention your dedication to keeping a comprehensive audit trail, documenting all stages of the research process, which enables peer scrutiny and adds to the transparency of the study. Emphasize your ongoing commitment to reflexivity, where you continually examine your biases and influence on the research. Through this detailed explanation, you demonstrate a conscientious and systematic approach to safeguarding the credibility of your qualitative research.

Example: “ To ensure the credibility of data in qualitative research, I employ a rigorous research design that is both systematic and reflective. Initially, I establish clear protocols for data collection, which includes in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observations, ensuring that each method is well-suited to the research questions. To enhance the validity of the findings, I apply triangulation, drawing on various data sources, theoretical frameworks, and methodologies to cross-verify the information and interpretations.

During the analysis phase, member checking is a critical step, where I return to participants with a summary of the findings to validate the accuracy and resonance of the interpreted data with their experiences. This not only strengthens the credibility of the results but also enriches the data by incorporating participant insights. Furthermore, I maintain a comprehensive audit trail, meticulously documenting the research process, decisions made, and data transformations. This transparency allows for peer review and ensures that the research can be followed and critiqued by others in the field.

Lastly, reflexivity is integral to my practice. I continuously engage in self-reflection to understand and articulate my biases and assumptions and how they may influence the research process. By doing so, I can mitigate potential impacts on the data and interpretations, ensuring that the findings are a credible representation of the phenomenon under investigation.”

2. Describe a situation where you had to adapt your research methodology due to unforeseen challenges.

When unexpected variables arise, adaptability in research design is vital to maintain the integrity and validity of the study. This question seeks to assess a candidate’s problem-solving skills, flexibility, and resilience in the face of research challenges.

When responding, share a specific instance where you encountered a challenge that impacted your research methodology. Detail the nature of the challenge, the thought process behind your decision to adapt, the steps you took to revise your approach, and the outcome of those changes. Emphasize your critical thinking, your ability to consult relevant literature or peers if necessary, and how your adaptability contributed to the overall success or learning experience of the research project.

Example: “ In a recent qualitative study on community health practices, I encountered a significant challenge when the planned in-person interviews became unfeasible due to a sudden public health concern. The initial methodology was designed around face-to-face interactions to capture rich, detailed narratives. However, with participant safety as a priority, I quickly pivoted to remote data collection methods. After reviewing relevant literature on virtual qualitative research, I adapted the protocol to include video conferencing and phone interviews, ensuring I could still engage deeply with participants. This adaptation required a reevaluation of our ethical considerations, particularly around confidentiality and informed consent in digital formats.

The shift to remote interviews introduced concerns about potential biases, as the change might exclude individuals without access to the necessary technology. To mitigate this, I also offered the option of asynchronous voice recordings or email responses as a means to participate. This inclusive approach not only preserved the integrity of the study but also revealed an unexpected layer of data regarding digital literacy and access in the community. The study’s findings were robust, and the methodology adaptation was reflected upon in the final report, contributing to the discourse on the flexibility and resilience of qualitative research in dynamic contexts.”

3. What strategies do you employ for effective participant observation?

For effective participant observation, a balance between immersion and detachment is necessary to gather in-depth understanding without influencing the natural setting. This method allows the researcher to collect rich, contextual data that surveys or structured interviews might miss.

When responding to this question, highlight your ability to blend in with the participant group to minimize your impact on their behavior. Discuss your skills in active listening, detailed note-taking, and ethical considerations such as informed consent and maintaining confidentiality. Mention any techniques you use to reflect on your observations critically and how you ensure that your presence does not alter the dynamics of the group you are studying. It’s also effective to provide examples from past research where your participant observation led to valuable insights that informed your study’s findings.

Example: “ In participant observation, my primary strategy is to achieve a balance between immersion and detachment. I immerse myself in the environment to gain a deep understanding of the context and participants’ perspectives, while remaining sufficiently detached to observe and analyze behaviors and interactions objectively. To blend in, I adapt to the cultural norms and social cues of the group, which often involves a period of learning and adjustment to minimize my impact on their behavior.

Active listening is central to my approach, allowing me to capture the subtleties of communication beyond verbal exchanges. I complement this with meticulous note-taking, often employing a system of shorthand that enables me to record details without disrupting the flow of interaction. Ethically, I prioritize informed consent and confidentiality, ensuring participants are aware of my role and the study’s purpose. After observations, I engage in reflexive practice, critically examining my own biases and influence on the research setting. This reflexivity was instrumental in a past project where my awareness of my impact on group dynamics led to the discovery of underlying power structures that were not immediately apparent, significantly enriching the study’s findings.”

4. In what ways do you maintain ethical standards while conducting in-depth interviews?

Maintaining ethical standards during in-depth interviews involves respecting participant confidentiality, ensuring informed consent, and being sensitive to power dynamics. Ethical practice in this context is not only about adhering to institutional guidelines but also about fostering an environment where interviewees feel respected and understood.

When responding to this question, it’s vital to articulate a clear understanding of ethical frameworks such as confidentiality and informed consent. Describe specific strategies you employ, such as anonymizing data, obtaining consent through clear communication about the study’s purpose and the participant’s role, and ensuring the interviewee’s comfort and safety during the conversation. Highlight any training or certifications you’ve received in ethical research practices and give examples from past research experiences where you navigated ethical dilemmas successfully. This approach demonstrates your commitment to integrity in the research process and your ability to protect the well-being of your subjects.

Example: “ Maintaining ethical standards during in-depth interviews is paramount to the integrity of the research process. I ensure that all participants are fully aware of the study’s purpose, their role within it, and the ways in which their data will be used. This is achieved through a clear and comprehensive informed consent process. I always provide participants with the option to withdraw from the study at any point without penalty.

To safeguard confidentiality, I employ strategies such as anonymizing data and using secure storage methods. I am also attentive to the comfort and safety of interviewees, creating a respectful and non-threatening interview environment. In situations where sensitive topics may arise, I am trained to handle these with the necessary care and professionalism. For instance, in a past study involving vulnerable populations, I implemented additional privacy measures and worked closely with an ethics review board to navigate the complexities of the research context. My approach is always to prioritize the dignity and rights of the participants, adhering to ethical guidelines and best practices established in the field.”

5. How do you approach coding textual data without personal biases influencing outcomes?

When an interviewer poses a question about coding textual data free from personal biases, they are probing your ability to maintain objectivity and adhere to methodological rigor. This question tests your understanding of qualitative analysis techniques and your awareness of the researcher’s potential to skew data interpretation.

When responding, it’s essential to articulate your familiarity with established coding procedures such as open, axial, or thematic coding. Emphasize your systematic approach to data analysis, which might include multiple rounds of coding, peer debriefing, and maintaining a reflexive journal. Discuss the importance of bracketing your preconceptions during data analysis and how you would seek to validate your coding through methods such as triangulation or member checking. Your answer should convey a balance between a structured approach to coding and an openness to the data’s nuances, demonstrating your commitment to producing unbiased and trustworthy qualitative research findings.

Example: “ In approaching textual data coding, I adhere to a structured yet flexible methodology that mitigates personal bias. Initially, I engage in open coding to categorize data based on its manifest content, allowing patterns to emerge organically. This is followed by axial coding, where I explore connections between categories, and if applicable, thematic coding to identify overarching themes. Throughout this process, I maintain a reflexive journal to document my thought process and potential biases, ensuring transparency and self-awareness.

To ensure the reliability of my coding, I employ peer debriefing sessions, where colleagues scrutinize my coding decisions, challenging assumptions and offering alternative interpretations. This collaborative scrutiny helps to counteract any personal biases that might have crept into the analysis. Additionally, I utilize methods such as triangulation, comparing data across different sources, and member checking, soliciting feedback from participants on the accuracy of the coded data. These strategies collectively serve to validate the coding process and ensure that the findings are a credible representation of the data, rather than a reflection of my preconceptions.”

6. What is your experience with utilizing grounded theory in qualitative studies?

Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that operates almost in a reverse fashion from traditional research. Employers ask about your experience with grounded theory to assess your ability to conduct research that is flexible and adaptable to the data.

When responding, you should outline specific studies or projects where you’ve applied grounded theory. Discuss the nature of the data you worked with, the process of iterative data collection and analysis, and how you developed a theoretical framework as a result. Highlight any challenges you faced and how you overcame them, as well as the outcomes of your research. This will show your practical experience and your ability to engage deeply with qualitative data to extract meaningful theories and conclusions.

Example: “ In applying grounded theory to my qualitative studies, I have embraced its iterative approach to develop a theoretical framework grounded in empirical data. For instance, in a project exploring the coping mechanisms of individuals with chronic illnesses, I conducted in-depth interviews and focus groups, allowing the data to guide the research process. Through constant comparative analysis, I coded the data, identifying core categories and the relationships between them. This emergent coding process was central to refining and saturating the categories, ensuring the development of a robust theory that encapsulated the lived experiences of the participants.

Challenges such as data saturation and ensuring theoretical sensitivity were navigated by maintaining a balance between openness to the data and guiding research questions. The iterative nature of grounded theory facilitated the identification of nuanced coping strategies that were not initially apparent, leading to a theory that emphasized the dynamic interplay between personal agency and social support. The outcome was a substantive theory that not only provided a deeper understanding of the participants’ experiences but also had practical implications for designing support systems for individuals with chronic conditions.”

7. Outline the steps you take when conducting a thematic analysis.

Thematic analysis is a method used to identify, analyze, and report patterns within data, and it requires a systematic approach to ensure validity and reliability. This question assesses whether a candidate can articulate a clear, methodical process that will yield insightful findings from qualitative data.

When responding, you should outline a step-by-step process that begins with familiarization with the data, whereby you immerse yourself in the details, taking notes and highlighting initial ideas. Proceed to generating initial codes across the entire dataset, which involves organizing data into meaningful groups. Then, search for themes by collating codes into potential themes and gathering all data relevant to each potential theme. Review these themes to ensure they work in relation to the coded extracts and the entire dataset, refining them as necessary. Define and name themes, which entails developing a detailed analysis of each theme and determining the essence of what each theme is about. Finally, report the findings, weaving the analytic narrative with vivid examples, within the context of existing literature and the research questions. This methodical response not only showcases your technical knowledge but also demonstrates an organized thought process and the ability to communicate complex procedures clearly.

Example: “ In conducting a thematic analysis, I begin by thoroughly immersing myself in the data, which involves meticulously reading and re-reading the content to gain a deep understanding of its breadth and depth. During this stage, I make extensive notes and begin to mark initial ideas that strike me as potentially significant.

Following familiarization, I generate initial codes systematically across the entire dataset. This coding process is both reflective and interpretative, as it requires me to identify and categorize data segments that are pertinent to the research questions. These codes are then used to organize the data into meaningful groups.

Next, I search for themes by examining the codes and considering how they may combine to form overarching themes. This involves collating all the coded data relevant to each potential theme and considering the interrelationships between codes, themes, and different levels of themes, which may include sub-themes.

The subsequent step is to review these themes, checking them against the dataset to ensure they accurately represent the data. This may involve collapsing some themes into each other, splitting others, and refining the specifics of each theme. The essence of this iterative process is to refine the themes so that they tell a coherent story about the data.

Once the themes are satisfactorily developed, I define and name them. This involves a detailed analysis of each theme and determining what aspect of the data each theme captures. I aim to articulate the nuances within each theme, identifying the story that each tells about the data, and considering how this relates to the broader research questions and literature.

Lastly, I report the findings, weaving together the thematic analysis narrative. This includes selecting vivid examples that compellingly illustrate each theme, discussing how the themes interconnect, and situating them within the context of existing literature and the research questions. This final write-up is not merely about summarizing the data but about telling a story that provides insights into the research topic.”

8. When is it appropriate to use focus groups rather than individual interviews, and why?

Choosing between focus groups and individual interviews depends on the research goals and the nature of the information sought. Focus groups excel in exploring complex behaviors, attitudes, and experiences through the dynamic interaction of participants.

When responding to this question, articulate the strengths of both methods, matching them to specific research scenarios. For focus groups, emphasize your ability to facilitate lively, guided discussions that leverage group dynamics to elicit a breadth of perspectives. For individual interviews, highlight your skill in creating a safe, confidential space where participants can share detailed, personal experiences. Demonstrate strategic thinking by discussing how you would decide on the most suitable method based on the research question, participant characteristics, and the type of data needed to achieve your research objectives.

Example: “ Focus groups are particularly apt when the research question benefits from the interaction among participants, as the group dynamics can stimulate memories, ideas, and experiences that might not surface in one-on-one interviews. They are valuable for exploring the range of opinions or feelings about a topic, allowing researchers to observe consensus formation, the diversity of perspectives, and the reasoning behind attitudes. This method is also efficient for gathering a breadth of data in a limited timeframe. However, it’s crucial to ensure that the topic is suitable for discussion in a group setting and that participants are comfortable speaking in front of others.

Conversely, individual interviews are more appropriate when the subject matter is sensitive or requires deep exploration of personal experiences. They provide a private space for participants to share detailed and nuanced insights without the influence of others, which can be particularly important when discussing topics that may not be openly talked about in a group. The method allows for a tailored approach, where the interviewer can adapt questions based on the participant’s responses, facilitating a depth of understanding that is harder to achieve in a group setting. The decision between the two methods ultimately hinges on the specific needs of the research, the nature of the topic, and the goals of the study.”

9. Detail how you would validate findings from a case study research design.

In case study research, validation is paramount to ensure that interpretations and conclusions are credible. A well-validated case study reinforces the rigor of the research method and bolsters the transferability of its findings to other contexts.

When responding to this question, detail your process, which might include triangulation, where you corroborate findings with multiple data sources or perspectives; member checking, which involves sharing your interpretations with participants for their input; and seeking peer debriefing, where colleagues critique the process and findings. Explain how these methods contribute to the dependability and confirmability of your research, showing that you are not just collecting data but actively engaging with it to construct a solid, defensible narrative.

Example: “ In validating findings from a case study research design, I employ a multi-faceted approach to ensure the dependability and confirmability of the research. Triangulation is a cornerstone of my validation process, where I corroborate evidence from various data sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents. This method allows for cross-validation and helps in constructing a robust narrative by revealing consistencies and discrepancies in the data.

Member checking is another essential step in my process. By sharing my interpretations with participants, I not only honor their perspectives but also enhance the credibility of the findings. This iterative process ensures that the conclusions drawn are reflective of the participants’ experiences and not solely based on my own interpretations.

Lastly, peer debriefing serves as a critical checkpoint. By engaging colleagues who critique the research process and findings, I open the study to external scrutiny, which helps in mitigating any potential biases and enhances the study’s rigor. These colleagues act as devil’s advocates, challenging assumptions and conclusions, thereby strengthening the study’s validity. Collectively, these strategies form a comprehensive approach to validating case study research, ensuring that the findings are well-substantiated and trustworthy.”

10. What measures do you take to ensure the transferability of your qualitative research findings?

When asked about ensuring transferability, the interviewer is assessing your ability to articulate the relevance of your findings beyond the specific context of your study. They want to know if you can critically appraise your research design and methodology.

To respond effectively, you should discuss the thoroughness of your data collection methods, such as purposive sampling, to gather diverse perspectives that enhance the depth of the data. Explain your engagement with participants and the setting to ensure a rich understanding of the phenomenon under study. Highlight your detailed documentation of the research process, including your reflexivity, to allow others to follow your footsteps analytically. Finally, speak about how you communicate the boundaries of your research applicability and how you encourage readers to consider the transferability of findings to their contexts through clear and comprehensive descriptions of your study’s context, participants, and assumptions.

Example: “ In ensuring the transferability of my qualitative research findings, I prioritize a robust and purposive sampling strategy that captures a wide range of perspectives relevant to the research question. This approach not only enriches the data but also provides a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon across varied contexts. By doing so, I lay a foundation for the findings to resonate with similar situations, allowing others to judge the applicability of the results to their own contexts.

I meticulously document the research process, including the setting, participant interactions, and my own reflexivity, to provide a transparent and detailed account of how conclusions were reached. This level of documentation serves as a roadmap for other researchers or practitioners to understand the intricacies of the study and evaluate the potential for transferability. Furthermore, I ensure that my findings are presented with a clear delineation of the context, including any cultural, temporal, or geographic nuances, and discuss the assumptions underpinning the study. By offering this rich, contextualized description, I invite readers to engage critically with the findings and assess their relevance to other settings, thus facilitating a responsible and informed application of the research outcomes.”

11. How do you determine when data saturation has been reached in your study?

Determining data saturation is crucial because it signals when additional data does not yield new insights, ensuring efficient use of resources without compromising the depth of understanding. This question is posed to assess a candidate’s experience and judgment in qualitative research.

When responding to this question, one should highlight their systematic approach to data collection and analysis. Discuss the iterative process of engaging with the data, constantly comparing new information with existing codes and themes. Explain how you monitor for emerging patterns and at what point these patterns become consistent and repeatable, indicating saturation. Mention any specific techniques or criteria you employ, such as the use of thematic analysis or constant comparison methods, and how you document the decision-making process to ensure transparency and validity in your research findings.

Example: “ In determining data saturation, I employ a rigorous and iterative approach to data collection and analysis. As I engage with the data, I continuously compare new information against existing codes and themes, carefully monitoring for the emergence of new patterns or insights. Saturation is approached when the data begins to yield redundant information, and no new themes or codes are emerging from the analysis.

I utilize techniques such as thematic analysis and constant comparison methods to ensure a systematic examination of the data. I document each step of the decision-making process, noting when additional data does not lead to new theme identification or when existing themes are fully fleshed out. This documentation not only serves as a checkpoint for determining saturation but also enhances the transparency and validity of the research findings. Through this meticulous process, I can confidently assert that data saturation has been achieved when the collected data offers a comprehensive understanding of the research phenomenon, with a rich and well-developed thematic structure that accurately reflects the research scope.”

12. Relate an instance where member checking significantly altered your research conclusions.

Member checking serves as a vital checkpoint to ensure accuracy, credibility, and resonance of the data with those it represents. It can reveal misunderstandings or even introduce new insights that substantially shift the study’s trajectory or outcomes.

When responding, candidates should recount a specific project where member checking made a pivotal difference in their findings. They should detail the initial conclusions, how the process of member checking was integrated, what feedback was received, and how it led to a re-evaluation or refinement of the research outcomes. This response showcases the candidate’s methodological rigor, flexibility in incorporating feedback, and dedication to producing research that authentically reflects the voices and experiences of the study’s participants.

Example: “ In a recent qualitative study on community responses to urban redevelopment, initial findings suggested broad support for the initiatives among residents. However, during the member checking phase, when participants reviewed and commented on the findings, a nuanced perspective emerged. Several participants highlighted that their apparent support was, in fact, resignation due to a lack of viable alternatives, rather than genuine enthusiasm for the redevelopment plans.

This feedback prompted a deeper dive into the data, revealing a pattern of resigned acceptance across a significant portion of the interviews. The conclusion was substantially revised to reflect this sentiment, emphasizing the complexity of community responses to redevelopment, which included both cautious optimism and skeptical resignation. This critical insight not only enriched the study’s validity but also had profound implications for policymakers interested in understanding the true sentiment of the affected communities.”

13. What are the key considerations when selecting a sample for phenomenological research?

The selection of a sample in phenomenological research is not about quantity but about the richness and relevance of the data that participants can provide. It requires an intimate knowledge of the research question and a deliberate choice to include participants who have experienced the phenomenon in question.

When responding to this question, it’s essential to emphasize the need for a purposeful sampling strategy that aims to capture a broad spectrum of perspectives on the phenomenon under study. Discuss the importance of sample diversity to ensure the findings are robust and reflect varied experiences. Mention the necessity of establishing clear criteria for participant selection and the willingness to adapt as the research progresses. Highlighting your commitment to ethical considerations, such as informed consent and the respectful treatment of participants’ information, will also demonstrate your thorough understanding of the nuances in qualitative sampling.

Example: “ In phenomenological research, the primary goal is to understand the essence of experiences concerning a particular phenomenon. Therefore, the key considerations for sample selection revolve around identifying individuals who have experienced the phenomenon of interest and can articulate their lived experiences. Purposeful sampling is essential to ensure that the participants chosen can provide rich, detailed accounts that contribute to a deep understanding of the phenomenon.

The diversity of the sample is also crucial. It is important to select participants who represent a range of perspectives within the phenomenon, not just a homogenous group. This might involve considering factors such as age, gender, socio-economic status, or other relevant characteristics that could influence their experiences. While the sample size in phenomenological studies is often small to allow for in-depth analysis, it is vital to ensure that the sample is varied enough to uncover a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon.

Lastly, ethical considerations are paramount. Participants must give informed consent, understanding the nature of the study and their role in it. The researcher must also be prepared to handle sensitive information with confidentiality and respect, ensuring the participants’ well-being is prioritized throughout the study. Adapting the sample selection criteria as the study progresses is also important, as initial interviews may reveal additional nuances that require the inclusion of further varied perspectives to fully grasp the phenomenon.”

14. Which software tools do you prefer for qualitative data analysis, and for what reasons?

The choice of software tools for qualitative data analysis reflects a researcher’s approach to data synthesis and interpretation. It also indicates their proficiency with technology and their ability to leverage sophisticated features to deepen insights.

When responding, it’s essential to discuss specific features of the software tools you prefer, such as coding capabilities, ease of data management, collaborative features, or the ability to handle large datasets. Explain how these features have enhanced your research outcomes in the past. For example, you might highlight the use of NVivo for its robust coding structure that helped you organize complex data efficiently or Atlas.ti for its intuitive interface and visualization tools that made it easier to detect emerging patterns. Your response should demonstrate your analytical thought process and your commitment to rigorous qualitative analysis.

Example: “ In my qualitative research endeavors, I have found NVivo to be an invaluable tool, primarily due to its advanced coding capabilities and its ability to manage large and complex datasets effectively. The node structure in NVivo facilitates a hierarchical organization of themes, which streamlines the coding process and enhances the reliability of the data analysis. This feature was particularly beneficial in a recent project where the depth and volume of textual data required a robust system to ensure consistency and comprehensiveness in theme development.

Another tool I frequently utilize is Atlas.ti, which stands out for its user-friendly interface and powerful visualization tools. These features are instrumental in identifying and illustrating relationships between themes, thereby enriching the interpretive depth of the analysis. The network views in Atlas.ti have enabled me to construct clear visual representations of the data interconnections, which not only supported my analytical narrative but also facilitated stakeholder understanding and engagement. The combination of these tools, leveraging their respective strengths, has consistently augmented the quality and impact of my qualitative research outcomes.”

15. How do you handle discrepancies between participants’ words and actions in ethnographic research?

Ethnographic research hinges on the researcher’s ability to interpret both verbal and non-verbal data to draw meaningful conclusions. This question allows the interviewer to assess a candidate’s methodological rigor and analytical skills.

When responding, it’s essential to emphasize your systematic approach to reconciling such discrepancies. Discuss the importance of context, the use of triangulation to corroborate findings through multiple data sources, and the strategies you employ to interpret and integrate conflicting information. Highlight your commitment to ethical research practices, the ways you ensure participant understanding and consent, and your experience with reflective practice to mitigate researcher bias. Showcasing your ability to remain flexible and responsive to the data, while maintaining a clear analytical framework, will demonstrate your proficiency in qualitative research.

Example: “ In ethnographic research, discrepancies between participants’ words and actions are not only common but also a valuable source of insight. When I encounter such discrepancies, I first consider the context in which they occur, as it often holds the key to understanding the divergence. Cultural norms, social pressures, or even the presence of the researcher can influence participants’ behaviors and self-reporting. I employ triangulation, utilizing multiple data sources such as interviews, observations, and relevant documents to construct a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomena at hand.

I also engage in reflective practice to examine my own biases and assumptions that might influence data interpretation. By maintaining a stance of cultural humility and being open to the participants’ perspectives, I can better understand the reasons behind their actions and words. When integrating conflicting information, I look for patterns and themes that can reconcile the differences, often finding that they reveal deeper complexities within the social context being studied. Ethical research practices, including ensuring participant understanding and consent, are paramount throughout this process, as they help maintain the integrity of both the data and the relationships with participants.”

16. What role does reflexivity play in your research process?

Reflexivity is an ongoing self-assessment that ensures research findings are not merely a reflection of the researcher’s preconceptions, thereby increasing the credibility and authenticity of the work.

When responding, illustrate your understanding of reflexivity with examples from past research experiences. Discuss how you have actively engaged in reflexivity by questioning your assumptions, how this shaped your research design, and the methods you employed to ensure that your findings were informed by the data rather than your personal beliefs. Demonstrate your commitment to ethical research practice by highlighting how you’ve maintained an open dialogue with your participants and peers to challenge and refine your interpretations.

Example: “ Reflexivity is a cornerstone of my qualitative research methodology, as it allows me to critically examine my own influence on the research process and outcomes. In practice, I maintain a reflexive journal throughout the research process, documenting my preconceptions, emotional responses, and decision-making rationales. This ongoing self-analysis ensures that I remain aware of my potential biases and the ways in which my background and perspectives might shape the data collection and analysis.

For instance, in a recent ethnographic study, I recognized my own cultural assumptions could affect participant interactions. To mitigate this, I incorporated member checking and peer debriefing as integral parts of the research cycle. By actively seeking feedback on my interpretations from both participants and fellow researchers, I was able to challenge my initial readings of the data and uncover deeper, more nuanced insights. This reflexive approach not only enriched the research findings but also upheld the integrity and credibility of the study, fostering a more authentic and ethical representation of the participants’ experiences.”

17. Describe a complex qualitative dataset you’ve managed and how you navigated its challenges.

Managing a complex qualitative dataset requires meticulous organization, a strong grasp of research methods, and the ability to discern patterns and themes amidst a sea of words and narratives. This question evaluates the candidate’s analytical and critical thinking skills.

When responding to this question, you should focus on a specific project that exemplifies your experience with complex qualitative data. Outline the scope of the data, the methods you used for organization and analysis, and the challenges you encountered—such as data coding, thematic saturation, or ensuring reliability and validity. Discuss the strategies you implemented to address these challenges, such as iterative coding, member checking, or triangulation. By providing concrete examples, you demonstrate not only your technical ability but also your methodological rigor and dedication to producing insightful, credible research findings.

Example: “ In a recent project, I managed a complex qualitative dataset that comprised over 50 in-depth interviews, several focus groups, and field notes from participant observation. The data was rich with nuanced perspectives on community health practices, but it presented challenges in ensuring thematic saturation and maintaining a systematic approach to coding across multiple researchers.

To navigate these challenges, I employed a rigorous iterative coding process, utilizing NVivo software to facilitate organization and analysis. Initially, I conducted a round of open coding to identify preliminary themes, followed by axial coding to explore the relationships between these themes. As the dataset was extensive, I also implemented a strategy of constant comparison to refine and merge codes, ensuring thematic saturation was achieved. To enhance the reliability and validity of our findings, I organized regular peer debriefing sessions, where the research team could discuss and resolve discrepancies in coding and interpretation. Additionally, I conducted member checks with a subset of participants, which not only enriched the data but also validated our thematic constructs. This meticulous approach enabled us to develop a robust thematic framework that accurately reflected the complexity of the community’s health practices and informed subsequent policy recommendations.”

18. How do you integrate quantitative data to enhance the richness of a primarily qualitative study?

Integrating quantitative data with qualitative research can add a layer of objectivity, enhance validity, and offer a scalable dimension to the findings. This mixed-methods approach can help in identifying outliers or anomalies in qualitative data.

When responding to this question, a candidate should articulate their understanding of both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. They should discuss specific techniques such as triangulation, where quantitative data serves as a corroborative tool for qualitative findings, or embedded analysis, where quantitative data provides a backdrop for deep qualitative exploration. The response should also include practical examples of past research scenarios where the candidate successfully merged both data types to strengthen their study, highlighting their ability to create a symbiotic relationship between numbers and narratives for richer, more robust research outcomes.

Example: “ Integrating quantitative data into a qualitative study can significantly enhance the depth and credibility of the research findings. In my experience, I employ triangulation to ensure that themes emerging from qualitative data are not only rich in context but also empirically grounded. For instance, in a study exploring patient satisfaction, while qualitative interviews might reveal nuanced patient experiences, quantitative satisfaction scores can be used to validate and quantify the prevalence of these experiences across a larger population.

Furthermore, I often use quantitative data as a formative tool to guide the qualitative inquiry. By initially analyzing patterns in quantitative data, I can identify areas that require a deeper understanding through qualitative methods. For example, if a survey indicates a trend in consumer behavior, follow-up interviews or focus groups can explore the motivations behind that trend. This embedded analysis approach ensures that qualitative findings are not only contextually informed but also quantitatively relevant, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of the research question.”

19. What is your rationale for choosing narrative inquiry over other qualitative methods in storytelling contexts?

Narrative inquiry delves into individual stories to find broader truths and patterns. This method captures the richness of how people perceive and make sense of their lives, revealing the interplay of various factors in shaping narratives.

When responding, articulate your understanding of narrative inquiry, emphasizing its strengths in capturing lived experiences and its ability to provide a detailed, insider’s view of a phenomenon. Highlight your knowledge of how narrative inquiry can uncover the nuances of storytelling, such as the role of language, emotions, and context, which are essential for a deep understanding of the subject matter. Demonstrate your ability to choose an appropriate research method based on the research question, objectives, and the nature of the data you aim to collect.

Example: “ Narrative inquiry is a powerful qualitative method that aligns exceptionally well with the exploration of storytelling contexts due to its focus on the richness of personal experience and the construction of meaning. By delving into individuals’ stories, narrative inquiry allows researchers to capture the complexities of lived experiences, which are often embedded with emotions, cultural values, and temporal elements that other methods may not fully grasp. The longitudinal nature of narrative inquiry, where stories can be collected and analyzed over time, also offers a dynamic perspective on how narratives evolve, intersect, and influence the storyteller’s identity and worldview.

In choosing narrative inquiry, one is committing to a methodological approach that honors the subjectivity and co-construction of knowledge between the researcher and participants. This approach is particularly adept at uncovering the layers of language use, symbolism, and the interplay of narratives with broader societal discourses. It is this depth and nuance that makes narrative inquiry the method of choice when the research aim is not just to catalog events but to understand the profound implications of storytelling on individual and collective levels. The method’s flexibility in accommodating different narrative forms – be it oral, written, or visual – further underscores its suitability for research that seeks to holistically capture the essence of storytelling within its natural context.”

20. How do you address potential power dynamics that may influence a participant’s responses during interviews?

Recognizing and mitigating the influence of power dynamics is essential to maintain the integrity of the data collected in qualitative research, ensuring that findings reflect the participants’ genuine perspectives.

When responding to this question, one should emphasize their awareness of such dynamics and articulate strategies to minimize their impact. This could include techniques like establishing rapport, using neutral language, ensuring confidentiality, and employing reflexivity—being mindful of one’s own influence on the conversation. Furthermore, demonstrating an understanding of how to create a safe space for open dialogue and acknowledging the importance of participant empowerment can convey a commitment to ethical and effective qualitative research practices.

Example: “ In addressing potential power dynamics, my approach begins with the conscious effort to create an environment of trust and safety. I employ active listening and empathetic engagement to establish rapport, which helps to level the conversational field. I am meticulous in using neutral, non-leading language to avoid inadvertently imposing my own assumptions or perspectives on participants. This is complemented by an emphasis on the voluntary nature of participation and the assurance of confidentiality, which together foster a space where participants feel secure in sharing their authentic experiences.

Reflexivity is a cornerstone of my practice; I continuously self-assess and acknowledge my positionality and its potential influence on the research process. By engaging in this critical self-reflection, I am better equipped to recognize and mitigate any power imbalances that may arise. Moreover, I strive to empower participants by validating their narratives and ensuring that the interview process is not just extractive but also offers them a platform to be heard and to contribute meaningfully to the research. This balanced approach not only enriches the data quality but also adheres to the ethical standards that underpin responsible qualitative research.”

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How to conduct qualitative interviews (tips and best practices)

Last updated

18 May 2023

Reviewed by

Miroslav Damyanov

However, conducting qualitative interviews can be challenging, even for seasoned researchers. Poorly conducted interviews can lead to inaccurate or incomplete data, significantly compromising the validity and reliability of your research findings.

When planning to conduct qualitative interviews, you must adequately prepare yourself to get the most out of your data. Fortunately, there are specific tips and best practices that can help you conduct qualitative interviews effectively.

• What is a qualitative interview?

A qualitative interview is a research technique used to gather in-depth information about people's experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions. Unlike a structured questionnaire or survey, a qualitative interview is a flexible, conversational approach that allows the interviewer to delve into the interviewee's responses and explore their insights and experiences.

In a qualitative interview, the researcher typically develops a set of open-ended questions that provide a framework for the conversation. However, the interviewer can also adapt to the interviewee's responses and ask follow-up questions to understand their experiences and views better.

• How to conduct interviews in qualitative research

Conducting interviews involves a well-planned and deliberate process to collect accurate and valid data. 

Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to conduct interviews in qualitative research, broken down into three stages:

1. Before the interview

The first step in conducting a qualitative interview is determining your research question . This will help you identify the type of participants you need to recruit . Once you have your research question, you can start recruiting participants by identifying potential candidates and contacting them to gauge their interest in participating in the study. 

After that, it's time to develop your interview questions. These should be open-ended questions that will elicit detailed responses from participants. You'll also need to get consent from the participants, ideally in writing, to ensure that they understand the purpose of the study and their rights as participants. Finally, choose a comfortable and private location to conduct the interview and prepare the interview guide.

2. During the interview

Start by introducing yourself and explaining the purpose of the study. Establish a rapport by putting the participants at ease and making them feel comfortable. Use the interview guide to ask the questions, but be flexible and ask follow-up questions to gain more insight into the participants' responses. 

Take notes during the interview, and ask permission to record the interview for transcription purposes. Be mindful of the time, and cover all the questions in the interview guide.

3. After the interview

Once the interview is over, transcribe the interview if you recorded it. If you took notes, review and organize them to make sure you capture all the important information. Then, analyze the data you collected by identifying common themes and patterns. Use the findings to answer your research question. 

Finally, debrief with the participants to thank them for their time, provide feedback on the study, and answer any questions they may have.

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• What kinds of questions should you ask in a qualitative interview?

Qualitative interviews involve asking questions that encourage participants to share their experiences, opinions, and perspectives on a particular topic. These questions are designed to elicit detailed and nuanced responses rather than simple yes or no answers.

Effective questions in a qualitative interview are generally open-ended and non-leading. They avoid presuppositions or assumptions about the participant's experience and allow them to share their views in their own words. 

In customer research , you might ask questions such as:

What motivated you to choose our product/service over our competitors?

How did you first learn about our product/service?

Can you walk me through your experience with our product/service?

What improvements or changes would you suggest for our product/service?

Have you recommended our product/service to others, and if so, why?

The key is to ask questions relevant to the research topic and allow participants to share their experiences meaningfully and informally. 

• How to determine the right qualitative interview participants

Choosing the right participants for a qualitative interview is a crucial step in ensuring the success and validity of the research . You need to consider several factors to determine the right participants for a qualitative interview. These may include:

Relevant experiences : Participants should have experiences related to the research topic that can provide valuable insights.

Diversity : Aim to include diverse participants to ensure the study's findings are representative and inclusive.

Access : Identify participants who are accessible and willing to participate in the study.

Informed consent : Participants should be fully informed about the study's purpose, methods, and potential risks and benefits and be allowed to provide informed consent.

You can use various recruitment methods, such as posting ads in relevant forums, contacting community organizations or social media groups, or using purposive sampling to identify participants who meet specific criteria.

• How to make qualitative interview subjects comfortable

Making participants comfortable during a qualitative interview is essential to obtain rich, detailed data. Participants are more likely to share their experiences openly when they feel at ease and not judged. 

Here are some ways to make interview subjects comfortable:

Explain the purpose of the study

Start the interview by explaining the research topic and its importance. The goal is to give participants a sense of what to expect.

Create a comfortable environment

Conduct the interview in a quiet, private space where the participant feels comfortable. Turn off any unnecessary electronics that can create distractions. Ensure your equipment works well ahead of time. Arrive at the interview on time. If you conduct a remote interview, turn on your camera and mute all notetakers and observers.

Build rapport

Greet the participant warmly and introduce yourself. Show interest in their responses and thank them for their time.

Use open-ended questions

Ask questions that encourage participants to elaborate on their thoughts and experiences.

Listen attentively

Resist the urge to multitask . Pay attention to the participant's responses, nod your head, or make supportive comments to show you’re interested in their answers. Avoid interrupting them.

Avoid judgment

Show respect and don't judge the participant's views or experiences. Allow the participant to speak freely without feeling judged or ridiculed.

Offer breaks

If needed, offer breaks during the interview, especially if the topic is sensitive or emotional.

Creating a comfortable environment and establishing rapport with the participant fosters an atmosphere of trust and encourages open communication. This helps participants feel at ease and willing to share their experiences.

• How to analyze a qualitative interview

Analyzing a qualitative interview involves a systematic process of examining the data collected to identify patterns, themes, and meanings that emerge from the responses. 

Here are some steps on how to analyze a qualitative interview:

1. Transcription

The first step is transcribing the interview into text format to have a written record of the conversation. This step is essential to ensure that you can refer back to the interview data and identify the important aspects of the interview.

2. Data reduction

Once you’ve transcribed the interview, read through it to identify key themes, patterns, and phrases emerging from the data. This process involves reducing the data into more manageable pieces you can easily analyze.

The next step is to code the data by labeling sections of the text with descriptive words or phrases that reflect the data's content. Coding helps identify key themes and patterns from the interview data.

4. Categorization

After coding, you should group the codes into categories based on their similarities. This process helps to identify overarching themes or sub-themes that emerge from the data.

5. Interpretation

You should then interpret the themes and sub-themes by identifying relationships, contradictions, and meanings that emerge from the data. Interpretation involves analyzing the themes in the context of the research question .

6. Comparison

The next step is comparing the data across participants or groups to identify similarities and differences. This step helps to ensure that the findings aren’t just specific to one participant but can be generalized to the wider population.

7. Triangulation

To ensure the findings are valid and reliable, you should use triangulation by comparing the findings with other sources, such as observations or interview data.

8. Synthesis

The final step is synthesizing the findings by summarizing the key themes and presenting them clearly and concisely. This step involves writing a report that presents the findings in a way that is easy to understand, using quotes and examples from the interview data to illustrate the themes.

• Tips for transcribing a qualitative interview

Transcribing a qualitative interview is a crucial step in the research process. It involves converting the audio or video recording of the interview into written text. 

Here are some tips for transcribing a qualitative interview:

Use transcription software

Transcription software can save time and increase accuracy by automatically transcribing audio or video recordings.

Listen carefully

When manually transcribing, listen carefully to the recording to ensure clarity. Pause and rewind the recording as necessary.

Use appropriate formatting

Use a consistent format for transcribing, such as marking pauses, overlaps, and interruptions. Indicate non-verbal cues such as laughter, sighs, or changes in tone.

Edit for clarity

Edit the transcription to ensure clarity and readability. Use standard grammar and punctuation, correct misspellings, and remove filler words like "um" and "ah."

Proofread and edit

Verify the accuracy of the transcription by listening to the recording again and reviewing the notes taken during the interview.

Use timestamps

Add timestamps to the transcription to reference specific interview sections.

Transcribing a qualitative interview can be time-consuming, but it’s essential to ensure the accuracy of the data collected. Following these tips can produce high-quality transcriptions useful for analysis and reporting.

• Why are interview techniques in qualitative research effective?

Unlike quantitative research methods, which rely on numerical data, qualitative research seeks to understand the richness and complexity of human experiences and perspectives. 

Interview techniques involve asking open-ended questions that allow participants to express their views and share their stories in their own words. This approach can help researchers to uncover unexpected or surprising insights that may not have been discovered through other research methods.

Interview techniques also allow researchers to establish rapport with participants, creating a comfortable and safe space for them to share their experiences. This can lead to a deeper level of trust and candor, leading to more honest and authentic responses.

• What are the weaknesses of qualitative interviews?

Qualitative interviews are an excellent research approach when used properly, but they have their drawbacks. 

The weaknesses of qualitative interviews include the following:

Subjectivity and personal biases

Qualitative interviews rely on the researcher's interpretation of the interviewee's responses. The researcher's biases or preconceptions can affect how the questions are framed and how the responses are interpreted, which can influence results.

Small sample size

The sample size in qualitative interviews is often small, which can limit the generalizability of the results to the larger population.

Data quality

The quality of data collected during interviews can be affected by various factors, such as the interviewee's mood, the setting of the interview, and the interviewer's skills and experience.

Socially desirable responses

Interviewees may provide responses that they believe are socially acceptable rather than truthful or genuine.

Conducting qualitative interviews can be expensive, especially if the researcher must travel to different locations to conduct the interviews.

Time-consuming

The data analysis process can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, as researchers need to transcribe and analyze the data manually.

Despite these weaknesses, qualitative interviews remain a valuable research tool . You can take steps to mitigate the impact of these weaknesses by incorporating the perspectives of other researchers or participants in the analysis process, using multiple data sources , and critically analyzing your biases and assumptions.

Mastering the art of qualitative interviews is an essential skill for businesses looking to gain deep insights into their customers' needs , preferences, and behaviors. By following the tips and best practices outlined in this article, you can conduct interviews that provide you with rich data that you can use to make informed decisions about your products, services, and marketing strategies. 

Remember that effective communication, active listening, and proper analysis are critical components of successful qualitative interviews. By incorporating these practices into your customer research, you can gain a competitive edge and build stronger customer relationships.

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How to carry out great interviews in qualitative research.

11 min read An interview is one of the most versatile methods used in qualitative research. Here’s what you need to know about conducting great qualitative interviews.

What is a qualitative research interview?

Qualitative research interviews are a mainstay among q ualitative research techniques, and have been in use for decades either as a primary data collection method or as an adjunct to a wider research process. A qualitative research interview is a one-to-one data collection session between a researcher and a participant. Interviews may be carried out face-to-face, over the phone or via video call using a service like Skype or Zoom.

There are three main types of qualitative research interview – structured, unstructured or semi-structured.

• Structured interviews Structured interviews are based around a schedule of predetermined questions and talking points that the researcher has developed. At their most rigid, structured interviews may have a precise wording and question order, meaning that they can be replicated across many different interviewers and participants with relatively consistent results.
• Unstructured interviews Unstructured interviews have no predetermined format, although that doesn’t mean they’re ad hoc or unplanned. An unstructured interview may outwardly resemble a normal conversation, but the interviewer will in fact be working carefully to make sure the right topics are addressed during the interaction while putting the participant at ease with a natural manner.
• Semi-structured interviews Semi-structured interviews are the most common type of qualitative research interview, combining the informality and rapport of an unstructured interview with the consistency and replicability of a structured interview. The researcher will come prepared with questions and topics, but will not need to stick to precise wording. This blended approach can work well for in-depth interviews.

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What are the pros and cons of interviews in qualitative research?

As a qualitative research method interviewing is hard to beat, with applications in social research, market research, and even basic and clinical pharmacy. But like any aspect of the research process, it’s not without its limitations. Before choosing qualitative interviewing as your research method, it’s worth weighing up the pros and cons.

Pros of qualitative interviews:

• provide in-depth information and context
• can be used effectively when their are low numbers of participants
• provide an opportunity to discuss and explain questions
• useful for complex topics
• rich in data – in the case of in-person or video interviews , the researcher can observe body language and facial expression as well as the answers to questions

Cons of qualitative interviews:

• can be time-consuming to carry out
• costly when compared to some other research methods
• because of time and cost constraints, they often limit you to a small number of participants
• difficult to standardize your data across different researchers and participants unless the interviews are very tightly structured
• As the Open University of Hong Kong notes, qualitative interviews may take an emotional toll on interviewers

Qualitative interview guides

Semi-structured interviews are based on a qualitative interview guide, which acts as a road map for the researcher. While conducting interviews, the researcher can use the interview guide to help them stay focused on their research questions and make sure they cover all the topics they intend to.

An interview guide may include a list of questions written out in full, or it may be a set of bullet points grouped around particular topics. It can prompt the interviewer to dig deeper and ask probing questions during the interview if appropriate.

Consider writing out the project’s research question at the top of your interview guide, ahead of the interview questions. This may help you steer the interview in the right direction if it threatens to head off on a tangent.

Avoid bias in qualitative research interviews

According to Duke University , bias can create significant problems in your qualitative interview.

• Acquiescence bias is common to many qualitative methods, including focus groups. It occurs when the participant feels obliged to say what they think the researcher wants to hear. This can be especially problematic when there is a perceived power imbalance between participant and interviewer. To counteract this, Duke University’s experts recommend emphasizing the participant’s expertise in the subject being discussed, and the value of their contributions.
• Interviewer bias is when the interviewer’s own feelings about the topic come to light through hand gestures, facial expressions or turns of phrase. Duke’s recommendation is to stick to scripted phrases where this is an issue, and to make sure researchers become very familiar with the interview guide or script before conducting interviews, so that they can hone their delivery.

What kinds of questions should you ask in a qualitative interview?

The interview questions you ask need to be carefully considered both before and during the data collection process. As well as considering the topics you’ll cover, you will need to think carefully about the way you ask questions.

Open-ended interview questions – which cannot be answered with a ‘yes’ ‘no’ or ‘maybe’ – are recommended by many researchers as a way to pursue in depth information.

An example of an open-ended question is “What made you want to move to the East Coast?” This will prompt the participant to consider different factors and select at least one. Having thought about it carefully, they may give you more detailed information about their reasoning.

A closed-ended question , such as “Would you recommend your neighborhood to a friend?” can be answered without too much deliberation, and without giving much information about personal thoughts, opinions and feelings.

Follow-up questions can be used to delve deeper into the research topic and to get more detail from open-ended questions. Examples of follow-up questions include:

• What makes you say that?
• What do you mean by that?
• Can you tell me more about X?
• What did/does that mean to you?

As well as avoiding closed-ended questions, be wary of leading questions. As with other qualitative research techniques such as surveys or focus groups, these can introduce bias in your data. Leading questions presume a certain point of view shared by the interviewer and participant, and may even suggest a foregone conclusion.

An example of a leading question might be: “You moved to New York in 1990, didn’t you?” In answering the question, the participant is much more likely to agree than disagree. This may be down to acquiescence bias or a belief that the interviewer has checked the information and already knows the correct answer.

Other leading questions involve adjectival phrases or other wording that introduces negative or positive connotations about a particular topic. An example of this kind of leading question is: “Many employees dislike wearing masks to work. How do you feel about this?” It presumes a positive opinion and the participant may be swayed by it, or not want to contradict the interviewer.

Harvard University’s guidelines for qualitative interview research add that you shouldn’t be afraid to ask embarrassing questions – “if you don’t ask, they won’t tell.” Bear in mind though that too much probing around sensitive topics may cause the interview participant to withdraw. The Harvard guidelines recommend leaving sensitive questions til the later stages of the interview when a rapport has been established.

More tips for conducting qualitative interviews

Observing a participant’s body language can give you important data about their thoughts and feelings. It can also help you decide when to broach a topic, and whether to use a follow-up question or return to the subject later in the interview.

Be conscious that the participant may regard you as the expert, not themselves. In order to make sure they express their opinions openly, use active listening skills like verbal encouragement and paraphrasing and clarifying their meaning to show how much you value what they are saying.

Remember that part of the goal is to leave the interview participant feeling good about volunteering their time and their thought process to your research. Aim to make them feel empowered , respected and heard.

Unstructured interviews can demand a lot of a researcher, both cognitively and emotionally. Be sure to leave time in between in-depth interviews when scheduling your data collection to make sure you maintain the quality of your data, as well as your own well-being .

Recording and transcribing interviews

Historically, recording qualitative research interviews and then transcribing the conversation manually would have represented a significant part of the cost and time involved in research projects that collect qualitative data.

Fortunately, researchers now have access to digital recording tools, and even speech-to-text technology that can automatically transcribe interview data using AI and machine learning. This type of tool can also be used to capture qualitative data from qualitative research (focus groups,ect.) making this kind of social research or market research much less time consuming.

Data analysis

Qualitative interview data is unstructured, rich in content and difficult to analyze without the appropriate tools. Fortunately, machine learning and AI can once again make things faster and easier when you use qualitative methods like the research interview.

Text analysis tools and natural language processing software can ‘read’ your transcripts and voice data and identify patterns and trends across large volumes of text or speech. They can also perform khttps://www.qualtrics.com/experience-management/research/sentiment-analysis/

which assesses overall trends in opinion and provides an unbiased overall summary of how participants are feeling.

Another feature of text analysis tools is their ability to categorize information by topic, sorting it into groupings that help you organize your data according to the topic discussed.

All in all, interviews are a valuable technique for qualitative research in business, yielding rich and detailed unstructured data. Historically, they have only been limited by the human capacity to interpret and communicate results and conclusions, which demands considerable time and skill.

When you combine this data with AI tools that can interpret it quickly and automatically, it becomes easy to analyze and structure, dovetailing perfectly with your other business data. An additional benefit of natural language analysis tools is that they are free of subjective biases, and can replicate the same approach across as much data as you choose. By combining human research skills with machine analysis, qualitative research methods such as interviews are more valuable than ever to your business.

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Qualitative Research 101: Interviewing

5 Common Mistakes To Avoid When Undertaking Interviews

By: David Phair (PhD) and Kerryn Warren (PhD) | March 2022

Undertaking interviews is potentially the most important step in the qualitative research process. If you don’t collect useful, useable data in your interviews, you’ll struggle through the rest of your dissertation or thesis.  Having helped numerous students with their research over the years, we’ve noticed some common interviewing mistakes that first-time researchers make. In this post, we’ll discuss five costly interview-related mistakes and outline useful strategies to avoid making these.

Overview: 5 Interviewing Mistakes

• Not having a clear interview strategy /plan
• Not having good interview techniques /skills
• Not securing a suitable location and equipment
• Not having a basic risk management plan
• Not keeping your “ golden thread ” front of mind

1. Not having a clear interview strategy

The first common mistake that we’ll look at is that of starting the interviewing process without having first come up with a clear interview strategy or plan of action. While it’s natural to be keen to get started engaging with your interviewees, a lack of planning can result in a mess of data and inconsistency between interviews.

There are several design choices to decide on and plan for before you start interviewing anyone. Some of the most important questions you need to ask yourself before conducting interviews include:

• What are the guiding research aims and research questions of my study?
• Will I use a structured, semi-structured or unstructured interview approach?
• How will I record the interviews (audio or video)?
• Who will be interviewed and by whom ?
• What ethics and data law considerations do I need to adhere to?
• How will I analyze my data? 

Let’s take a quick look at some of these.

The core objective of the interviewing process is to generate useful data that will help you address your overall research aims. Therefore, your interviews need to be conducted in a way that directly links to your research aims, objectives and research questions (i.e. your “golden thread”). This means that you need to carefully consider the questions you’ll ask to ensure that they align with and feed into your golden thread. If any question doesn’t align with this, you may want to consider scrapping it.

Another important design choice is whether you’ll use an unstructured, semi-structured or structured interview approach . For semi-structured interviews, you will have a list of questions that you plan to ask and these questions will be open-ended in nature. You’ll also allow the discussion to digress from the core question set if something interesting comes up. This means that the type of information generated might differ a fair amount between interviews.

Contrasted to this, a structured approach to interviews is more rigid, where a specific set of closed questions is developed and asked for each interviewee in exactly the same order. Closed questions have a limited set of answers, that are often single-word answers. Therefore, you need to think about what you’re trying to achieve with your research project (i.e. your research aims) and decided on which approach would be best suited in your case.

It is also important to plan ahead with regards to who will be interviewed and how. You need to think about how you will approach the possible interviewees to get their cooperation, who will conduct the interviews, when to conduct the interviews and how to record the interviews. For each of these decisions, it’s also essential to make sure that all ethical considerations and data protection laws are taken into account.

Finally, you should think through how you plan to analyze the data (i.e., your qualitative analysis method) generated by the interviews. Different types of analysis rely on different types of data, so you need to ensure you’re asking the right types of questions and correctly guiding your respondents.

Simply put, you need to have a plan of action regarding the specifics of your interview approach before you start collecting data. If not, you’ll end up drifting in your approach from interview to interview, which will result in inconsistent, unusable data.

2. Not having good interview technique

While you’re generally not expected to become you to be an expert interviewer for a dissertation or thesis, it is important to practice good interview technique and develop basic interviewing skills .

Let’s go through some basics that will help the process along.

Firstly, before the interview , make sure you know your interview questions well and have a clear idea of what you want from the interview. Naturally, the specificity of your questions will depend on whether you’re taking a structured, semi-structured or unstructured approach, but you still need a consistent starting point . Ideally, you should develop an interview guide beforehand (more on this later) that details your core question and links these to the research aims, objectives and research questions.

Before you undertake any interviews, it’s a good idea to do a few mock interviews with friends or family members. This will help you get comfortable with the interviewer role, prepare for potentially unexpected answers and give you a good idea of how long the interview will take to conduct. In the interviewing process, you’re likely to encounter two kinds of challenging interviewees ; the two-word respondent and the respondent who meanders and babbles. Therefore, you should prepare yourself for both and come up with a plan to respond to each in a way that will allow the interview to continue productively.

To begin the formal interview , provide the person you are interviewing with an overview of your research. This will help to calm their nerves (and yours) and contextualize the interaction. Ultimately, you want the interviewee to feel comfortable and be willing to be open and honest with you, so it’s useful to start in a more casual, relaxed fashion and allow them to ask any questions they may have. From there, you can ease them into the rest of the questions.

As the interview progresses , avoid asking leading questions (i.e., questions that assume something about the interviewee or their response). Make sure that you speak clearly and slowly , using plain language and being ready to paraphrase questions if the person you are interviewing misunderstands. Be particularly careful with interviewing English second language speakers to ensure that you’re both on the same page.

Engage with the interviewee by listening to them carefully and acknowledging that you are listening to them by smiling or nodding. Show them that you’re interested in what they’re saying and thank them for their openness as appropriate. This will also encourage your interviewee to respond openly.

Need a helping hand?

3. Not securing a suitable location and quality equipment

Where you conduct your interviews and the equipment you use to record them both play an important role in how the process unfolds. Therefore, you need to think carefully about each of these variables before you start interviewing.

Poor location: A bad location can result in the quality of your interviews being compromised, interrupted, or cancelled. If you are conducting physical interviews, you’ll need a location that is quiet, safe, and welcoming . It’s very important that your location of choice is not prone to interruptions (the workplace office is generally problematic, for example) and has suitable facilities (such as water, a bathroom, and snacks).

If you are conducting online interviews , you need to consider a few other factors. Importantly, you need to make sure that both you and your respondent have access to a good, stable internet connection and electricity. Always check before the time that both of you know how to use the relevant software and it’s accessible (sometimes meeting platforms are blocked by workplace policies or firewalls). It’s also good to have alternatives in place (such as WhatsApp, Zoom, or Teams) to cater for these types of issues.

Poor equipment: Using poor-quality recording equipment or using equipment incorrectly means that you will have trouble transcribing, coding, and analyzing your interviews. This can be a major issue , as some of your interview data may go completely to waste if not recorded well. So, make sure that you use good-quality recording equipment and that you know how to use it correctly.

To avoid issues, you should always conduct test recordings before every interview to ensure that you can use the relevant equipment properly. It’s also a good idea to spot check each recording afterwards, just to make sure it was recorded as planned. If your equipment uses batteries, be sure to always carry a spare set.

4. Not having a basic risk management plan

Many possible issues can arise during the interview process. Not planning for these issues can mean that you are left with compromised data that might not be useful to you. Therefore, it’s important to map out some sort of risk management plan ahead of time, considering the potential risks, how you’ll minimize their probability and how you’ll manage them if they materialize.

Common potential issues related to the actual interview include cancellations (people pulling out), delays (such as getting stuck in traffic), language and accent differences (especially in the case of poor internet connections), issues with internet connections and power supply. Other issues can also occur in the interview itself. For example, the interviewee could drift off-topic, or you might encounter an interviewee who does not say much at all.

You can prepare for these potential issues by considering possible worst-case scenarios and preparing a response for each scenario. For instance, it is important to plan a backup date just in case your interviewee cannot make it to the first meeting you scheduled with them. It’s also a good idea to factor in a 30-minute gap between your interviews for the instances where someone might be late, or an interview runs overtime for other reasons. Make sure that you also plan backup questions that could be used to bring a respondent back on topic if they start rambling, or questions to encourage those who are saying too little.

In general, it’s best practice to plan to conduct more interviews than you think you need (this is called oversampling ). Doing so will allow you some room for error if there are interviews that don’t go as planned, or if some interviewees withdraw. If you need 10 interviews, it is a good idea to plan for 15. Likely, a few will cancel , delay, or not produce useful data.

5. Not keeping your golden thread front of mind

We touched on this a little earlier, but it is a key point that should be central to your entire research process. You don’t want to end up with pages and pages of data after conducting your interviews and realize that it is not useful to your research aims . Your research aims, objectives and research questions – i.e., your golden thread – should influence every design decision and should guide the interview process at all times. 

A useful way to avoid this mistake is by developing an interview guide before you begin interviewing your respondents. An interview guide is a document that contains all of your questions with notes on how each of the interview questions is linked to the research question(s) of your study. You can also include your research aims and objectives here for a more comprehensive linkage. 

You can easily create an interview guide by drawing up a table with one column containing your core interview questions . Then add another column with your research questions , another with expectations that you may have in light of the relevant literature and another with backup or follow-up questions . As mentioned, you can also bring in your research aims and objectives to help you connect them all together. If you’d like, you can download a copy of our free interview guide here .

Recap: Qualitative Interview Mistakes

In this post, we’ve discussed 5 common costly mistakes that are easy to make in the process of planning and conducting qualitative interviews.

To recap, these include:

If you have any questions about these interviewing mistakes, drop a comment below. Alternatively, if you’re interested in getting 1-on-1 help with your thesis or dissertation , check out our dissertation coaching service or book a free initial consultation with one of our friendly Grad Coaches.

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Chapter 11. Interviewing

Introduction.

Interviewing people is at the heart of qualitative research. It is not merely a way to collect data but an intrinsically rewarding activity—an interaction between two people that holds the potential for greater understanding and interpersonal development. Unlike many of our daily interactions with others that are fairly shallow and mundane, sitting down with a person for an hour or two and really listening to what they have to say is a profound and deep enterprise, one that can provide not only “data” for you, the interviewer, but also self-understanding and a feeling of being heard for the interviewee. I always approach interviewing with a deep appreciation for the opportunity it gives me to understand how other people experience the world. That said, there is not one kind of interview but many, and some of these are shallower than others. This chapter will provide you with an overview of interview techniques but with a special focus on the in-depth semistructured interview guide approach, which is the approach most widely used in social science research.

An interview can be variously defined as “a conversation with a purpose” ( Lune and Berg 2018 ) and an attempt to understand the world from the point of view of the person being interviewed: “to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations” ( Kvale 2007 ). It is a form of active listening in which the interviewer steers the conversation to subjects and topics of interest to their research but also manages to leave enough space for those interviewed to say surprising things. Achieving that balance is a tricky thing, which is why most practitioners believe interviewing is both an art and a science. In my experience as a teacher, there are some students who are “natural” interviewers (often they are introverts), but anyone can learn to conduct interviews, and everyone, even those of us who have been doing this for years, can improve their interviewing skills. This might be a good time to highlight the fact that the interview is a product between interviewer and interviewee and that this product is only as good as the rapport established between the two participants. Active listening is the key to establishing this necessary rapport.

Patton ( 2002 ) makes the argument that we use interviews because there are certain things that are not observable. In particular, “we cannot observe feelings, thoughts, and intentions. We cannot observe behaviors that took place at some previous point in time. We cannot observe situations that preclude the presence of an observer. We cannot observe how people have organized the world and the meanings they attach to what goes on in the world. We have to ask people questions about those things” ( 341 ).

Types of Interviews

There are several distinct types of interviews. Imagine a continuum (figure 11.1). On one side are unstructured conversations—the kind you have with your friends. No one is in control of those conversations, and what you talk about is often random—whatever pops into your head. There is no secret, underlying purpose to your talking—if anything, the purpose is to talk to and engage with each other, and the words you use and the things you talk about are a little beside the point. An unstructured interview is a little like this informal conversation, except that one of the parties to the conversation (you, the researcher) does have an underlying purpose, and that is to understand the other person. You are not friends speaking for no purpose, but it might feel just as unstructured to the “interviewee” in this scenario. That is one side of the continuum. On the other side are fully structured and standardized survey-type questions asked face-to-face. Here it is very clear who is asking the questions and who is answering them. This doesn’t feel like a conversation at all! A lot of people new to interviewing have this ( erroneously !) in mind when they think about interviews as data collection. Somewhere in the middle of these two extreme cases is the “ semistructured” interview , in which the researcher uses an “interview guide” to gently move the conversation to certain topics and issues. This is the primary form of interviewing for qualitative social scientists and will be what I refer to as interviewing for the rest of this chapter, unless otherwise specified.

Informal (unstructured conversations). This is the most “open-ended” approach to interviewing. It is particularly useful in conjunction with observational methods (see chapters 13 and 14). There are no predetermined questions. Each interview will be different. Imagine you are researching the Oregon Country Fair, an annual event in Veneta, Oregon, that includes live music, artisan craft booths, face painting, and a lot of people walking through forest paths. It’s unlikely that you will be able to get a person to sit down with you and talk intensely about a set of questions for an hour and a half. But you might be able to sidle up to several people and engage with them about their experiences at the fair. You might have a general interest in what attracts people to these events, so you could start a conversation by asking strangers why they are here or why they come back every year. That’s it. Then you have a conversation that may lead you anywhere. Maybe one person tells a long story about how their parents brought them here when they were a kid. A second person talks about how this is better than Burning Man. A third person shares their favorite traveling band. And yet another enthuses about the public library in the woods. During your conversations, you also talk about a lot of other things—the weather, the utilikilts for sale, the fact that a favorite food booth has disappeared. It’s all good. You may not be able to record these conversations. Instead, you might jot down notes on the spot and then, when you have the time, write down as much as you can remember about the conversations in long fieldnotes. Later, you will have to sit down with these fieldnotes and try to make sense of all the information (see chapters 18 and 19).

Interview guide ( semistructured interview ). This is the primary type employed by social science qualitative researchers. The researcher creates an “interview guide” in advance, which she uses in every interview. In theory, every person interviewed is asked the same questions. In practice, every person interviewed is asked mostly the same topics but not always the same questions, as the whole point of a “guide” is that it guides the direction of the conversation but does not command it. The guide is typically between five and ten questions or question areas, sometimes with suggested follow-ups or prompts . For example, one question might be “What was it like growing up in Eastern Oregon?” with prompts such as “Did you live in a rural area? What kind of high school did you attend?” to help the conversation develop. These interviews generally take place in a quiet place (not a busy walkway during a festival) and are recorded. The recordings are transcribed, and those transcriptions then become the “data” that is analyzed (see chapters 18 and 19). The conventional length of one of these types of interviews is between one hour and two hours, optimally ninety minutes. Less than one hour doesn’t allow for much development of questions and thoughts, and two hours (or more) is a lot of time to ask someone to sit still and answer questions. If you have a lot of ground to cover, and the person is willing, I highly recommend two separate interview sessions, with the second session being slightly shorter than the first (e.g., ninety minutes the first day, sixty minutes the second). There are lots of good reasons for this, but the most compelling one is that this allows you to listen to the first day’s recording and catch anything interesting you might have missed in the moment and so develop follow-up questions that can probe further. This also allows the person being interviewed to have some time to think about the issues raised in the interview and go a little deeper with their answers.

Standardized questionnaire with open responses ( structured interview ). This is the type of interview a lot of people have in mind when they hear “interview”: a researcher comes to your door with a clipboard and proceeds to ask you a series of questions. These questions are all the same whoever answers the door; they are “standardized.” Both the wording and the exact order are important, as people’s responses may vary depending on how and when a question is asked. These are qualitative only in that the questions allow for “open-ended responses”: people can say whatever they want rather than select from a predetermined menu of responses. For example, a survey I collaborated on included this open-ended response question: “How does class affect one’s career success in sociology?” Some of the answers were simply one word long (e.g., “debt”), and others were long statements with stories and personal anecdotes. It is possible to be surprised by the responses. Although it’s a stretch to call this kind of questioning a conversation, it does allow the person answering the question some degree of freedom in how they answer.

Survey questionnaire with closed responses (not an interview!). Standardized survey questions with specific answer options (e.g., closed responses) are not really interviews at all, and they do not generate qualitative data. For example, if we included five options for the question “How does class affect one’s career success in sociology?”—(1) debt, (2) social networks, (3) alienation, (4) family doesn’t understand, (5) type of grad program—we leave no room for surprises at all. Instead, we would most likely look at patterns around these responses, thinking quantitatively rather than qualitatively (e.g., using regression analysis techniques, we might find that working-class sociologists were twice as likely to bring up alienation). It can sometimes be confusing for new students because the very same survey can include both closed-ended and open-ended questions. The key is to think about how these will be analyzed and to what level surprises are possible. If your plan is to turn all responses into a number and make predictions about correlations and relationships, you are no longer conducting qualitative research. This is true even if you are conducting this survey face-to-face with a real live human. Closed-response questions are not conversations of any kind, purposeful or not.

In summary, the semistructured interview guide approach is the predominant form of interviewing for social science qualitative researchers because it allows a high degree of freedom of responses from those interviewed (thus allowing for novel discoveries) while still maintaining some connection to a research question area or topic of interest. The rest of the chapter assumes the employment of this form.

Creating an Interview Guide

Your interview guide is the instrument used to bridge your research question(s) and what the people you are interviewing want to tell you. Unlike a standardized questionnaire, the questions actually asked do not need to be exactly what you have written down in your guide. The guide is meant to create space for those you are interviewing to talk about the phenomenon of interest, but sometimes you are not even sure what that phenomenon is until you start asking questions. A priority in creating an interview guide is to ensure it offers space. One of the worst mistakes is to create questions that are so specific that the person answering them will not stray. Relatedly, questions that sound “academic” will shut down a lot of respondents. A good interview guide invites respondents to talk about what is important to them, not feel like they are performing or being evaluated by you.

Good interview questions should not sound like your “research question” at all. For example, let’s say your research question is “How do patriarchal assumptions influence men’s understanding of climate change and responses to climate change?” It would be worse than unhelpful to ask a respondent, “How do your assumptions about the role of men affect your understanding of climate change?” You need to unpack this into manageable nuggets that pull your respondent into the area of interest without leading him anywhere. You could start by asking him what he thinks about climate change in general. Or, even better, whether he has any concerns about heatwaves or increased tornadoes or polar icecaps melting. Once he starts talking about that, you can ask follow-up questions that bring in issues around gendered roles, perhaps asking if he is married (to a woman) and whether his wife shares his thoughts and, if not, how they negotiate that difference. The fact is, you won’t really know the right questions to ask until he starts talking.

There are several distinct types of questions that can be used in your interview guide, either as main questions or as follow-up probes. If you remember that the point is to leave space for the respondent, you will craft a much more effective interview guide! You will also want to think about the place of time in both the questions themselves (past, present, future orientations) and the sequencing of the questions.

Researcher Note

Suggestion : As you read the next three sections (types of questions, temporality, question sequence), have in mind a particular research question, and try to draft questions and sequence them in a way that opens space for a discussion that helps you answer your research question.

Type of Questions

Experience and behavior questions ask about what a respondent does regularly (their behavior) or has done (their experience). These are relatively easy questions for people to answer because they appear more “factual” and less subjective. This makes them good opening questions. For the study on climate change above, you might ask, “Have you ever experienced an unusual weather event? What happened?” Or “You said you work outside? What is a typical summer workday like for you? How do you protect yourself from the heat?”

Opinion and values questions , in contrast, ask questions that get inside the minds of those you are interviewing. “Do you think climate change is real? Who or what is responsible for it?” are two such questions. Note that you don’t have to literally ask, “What is your opinion of X?” but you can find a way to ask the specific question relevant to the conversation you are having. These questions are a bit trickier to ask because the answers you get may depend in part on how your respondent perceives you and whether they want to please you or not. We’ve talked a fair amount about being reflective. Here is another place where this comes into play. You need to be aware of the effect your presence might have on the answers you are receiving and adjust accordingly. If you are a woman who is perceived as liberal asking a man who identifies as conservative about climate change, there is a lot of subtext that can be going on in the interview. There is no one right way to resolve this, but you must at least be aware of it.

Feeling questions are questions that ask respondents to draw on their emotional responses. It’s pretty common for academic researchers to forget that we have bodies and emotions, but people’s understandings of the world often operate at this affective level, sometimes unconsciously or barely consciously. It is a good idea to include questions that leave space for respondents to remember, imagine, or relive emotional responses to particular phenomena. “What was it like when you heard your cousin’s house burned down in that wildfire?” doesn’t explicitly use any emotion words, but it allows your respondent to remember what was probably a pretty emotional day. And if they respond emotionally neutral, that is pretty interesting data too. Note that asking someone “How do you feel about X” is not always going to evoke an emotional response, as they might simply turn around and respond with “I think that…” It is better to craft a question that actually pushes the respondent into the affective category. This might be a specific follow-up to an experience and behavior question —for example, “You just told me about your daily routine during the summer heat. Do you worry it is going to get worse?” or “Have you ever been afraid it will be too hot to get your work accomplished?”

Knowledge questions ask respondents what they actually know about something factual. We have to be careful when we ask these types of questions so that respondents do not feel like we are evaluating them (which would shut them down), but, for example, it is helpful to know when you are having a conversation about climate change that your respondent does in fact know that unusual weather events have increased and that these have been attributed to climate change! Asking these questions can set the stage for deeper questions and can ensure that the conversation makes the same kind of sense to both participants. For example, a conversation about political polarization can be put back on track once you realize that the respondent doesn’t really have a clear understanding that there are two parties in the US. Instead of asking a series of questions about Republicans and Democrats, you might shift your questions to talk more generally about political disagreements (e.g., “people against abortion”). And sometimes what you do want to know is the level of knowledge about a particular program or event (e.g., “Are you aware you can discharge your student loans through the Public Service Loan Forgiveness program?”).

Sensory questions call on all senses of the respondent to capture deeper responses. These are particularly helpful in sparking memory. “Think back to your childhood in Eastern Oregon. Describe the smells, the sounds…” Or you could use these questions to help a person access the full experience of a setting they customarily inhabit: “When you walk through the doors to your office building, what do you see? Hear? Smell?” As with feeling questions , these questions often supplement experience and behavior questions . They are another way of allowing your respondent to report fully and deeply rather than remain on the surface.

Creative questions employ illustrative examples, suggested scenarios, or simulations to get respondents to think more deeply about an issue, topic, or experience. There are many options here. In The Trouble with Passion , Erin Cech ( 2021 ) provides a scenario in which “Joe” is trying to decide whether to stay at his decent but boring computer job or follow his passion by opening a restaurant. She asks respondents, “What should Joe do?” Their answers illuminate the attraction of “passion” in job selection. In my own work, I have used a news story about an upwardly mobile young man who no longer has time to see his mother and sisters to probe respondents’ feelings about the costs of social mobility. Jessi Streib and Betsy Leondar-Wright have used single-page cartoon “scenes” to elicit evaluations of potential racial discrimination, sexual harassment, and classism. Barbara Sutton ( 2010 ) has employed lists of words (“strong,” “mother,” “victim”) on notecards she fans out and asks her female respondents to select and discuss.

Background/Demographic Questions

You most definitely will want to know more about the person you are interviewing in terms of conventional demographic information, such as age, race, gender identity, occupation, and educational attainment. These are not questions that normally open up inquiry. [1] For this reason, my practice has been to include a separate “demographic questionnaire” sheet that I ask each respondent to fill out at the conclusion of the interview. Only include those aspects that are relevant to your study. For example, if you are not exploring religion or religious affiliation, do not include questions about a person’s religion on the demographic sheet. See the example provided at the end of this chapter.

Temporality

Any type of question can have a past, present, or future orientation. For example, if you are asking a behavior question about workplace routine, you might ask the respondent to talk about past work, present work, and ideal (future) work. Similarly, if you want to understand how people cope with natural disasters, you might ask your respondent how they felt then during the wildfire and now in retrospect and whether and to what extent they have concerns for future wildfire disasters. It’s a relatively simple suggestion—don’t forget to ask about past, present, and future—but it can have a big impact on the quality of the responses you receive.

Question Sequence

Having a list of good questions or good question areas is not enough to make a good interview guide. You will want to pay attention to the order in which you ask your questions. Even though any one respondent can derail this order (perhaps by jumping to answer a question you haven’t yet asked), a good advance plan is always helpful. When thinking about sequence, remember that your goal is to get your respondent to open up to you and to say things that might surprise you. To establish rapport, it is best to start with nonthreatening questions. Asking about the present is often the safest place to begin, followed by the past (they have to know you a little bit to get there), and lastly, the future (talking about hopes and fears requires the most rapport). To allow for surprises, it is best to move from very general questions to more particular questions only later in the interview. This ensures that respondents have the freedom to bring up the topics that are relevant to them rather than feel like they are constrained to answer you narrowly. For example, refrain from asking about particular emotions until these have come up previously—don’t lead with them. Often, your more particular questions will emerge only during the course of the interview, tailored to what is emerging in conversation.

Once you have a set of questions, read through them aloud and imagine you are being asked the same questions. Does the set of questions have a natural flow? Would you be willing to answer the very first question to a total stranger? Does your sequence establish facts and experiences before moving on to opinions and values? Did you include prefatory statements, where necessary; transitions; and other announcements? These can be as simple as “Hey, we talked a lot about your experiences as a barista while in college.… Now I am turning to something completely different: how you managed friendships in college.” That is an abrupt transition, but it has been softened by your acknowledgment of that.

Probes and Flexibility

Once you have the interview guide, you will also want to leave room for probes and follow-up questions. As in the sample probe included here, you can write out the obvious probes and follow-up questions in advance. You might not need them, as your respondent might anticipate them and include full responses to the original question. Or you might need to tailor them to how your respondent answered the question. Some common probes and follow-up questions include asking for more details (When did that happen? Who else was there?), asking for elaboration (Could you say more about that?), asking for clarification (Does that mean what I think it means or something else? I understand what you mean, but someone else reading the transcript might not), and asking for contrast or comparison (How did this experience compare with last year’s event?). “Probing is a skill that comes from knowing what to look for in the interview, listening carefully to what is being said and what is not said, and being sensitive to the feedback needs of the person being interviewed” ( Patton 2002:374 ). It takes work! And energy. I and many other interviewers I know report feeling emotionally and even physically drained after conducting an interview. You are tasked with active listening and rearranging your interview guide as needed on the fly. If you only ask the questions written down in your interview guide with no deviations, you are doing it wrong. [2]

The Final Question

Every interview guide should include a very open-ended final question that allows for the respondent to say whatever it is they have been dying to tell you but you’ve forgotten to ask. About half the time they are tired too and will tell you they have nothing else to say. But incredibly, some of the most honest and complete responses take place here, at the end of a long interview. You have to realize that the person being interviewed is often discovering things about themselves as they talk to you and that this process of discovery can lead to new insights for them. Making space at the end is therefore crucial. Be sure you convey that you actually do want them to tell you more, that the offer of “anything else?” is not read as an empty convention where the polite response is no. Here is where you can pull from that active listening and tailor the final question to the particular person. For example, “I’ve asked you a lot of questions about what it was like to live through that wildfire. I’m wondering if there is anything I’ve forgotten to ask, especially because I haven’t had that experience myself” is a much more inviting final question than “Great. Anything you want to add?” It’s also helpful to convey to the person that you have the time to listen to their full answer, even if the allotted time is at the end. After all, there are no more questions to ask, so the respondent knows exactly how much time is left. Do them the courtesy of listening to them!

Conducting the Interview

Once you have your interview guide, you are on your way to conducting your first interview. I always practice my interview guide with a friend or family member. I do this even when the questions don’t make perfect sense for them, as it still helps me realize which questions make no sense, are poorly worded (too academic), or don’t follow sequentially. I also practice the routine I will use for interviewing, which goes something like this:

• Introduce myself and reintroduce the study
• Provide consent form and ask them to sign and retain/return copy
• Ask if they have any questions about the study before we begin
• Ask if I can begin recording
• Ask questions (from interview guide)
• Turn off the recording device
• Ask if they are willing to fill out my demographic questionnaire
• Collect questionnaire and, without looking at the answers, place in same folder as signed consent form
• Thank them and depart

A note on remote interviewing: Interviews have traditionally been conducted face-to-face in a private or quiet public setting. You don’t want a lot of background noise, as this will make transcriptions difficult. During the recent global pandemic, many interviewers, myself included, learned the benefits of interviewing remotely. Although face-to-face is still preferable for many reasons, Zoom interviewing is not a bad alternative, and it does allow more interviews across great distances. Zoom also includes automatic transcription, which significantly cuts down on the time it normally takes to convert our conversations into “data” to be analyzed. These automatic transcriptions are not perfect, however, and you will still need to listen to the recording and clarify and clean up the transcription. Nor do automatic transcriptions include notations of body language or change of tone, which you may want to include. When interviewing remotely, you will want to collect the consent form before you meet: ask them to read, sign, and return it as an email attachment. I think it is better to ask for the demographic questionnaire after the interview, but because some respondents may never return it then, it is probably best to ask for this at the same time as the consent form, in advance of the interview.

What should you bring to the interview? I would recommend bringing two copies of the consent form (one for you and one for the respondent), a demographic questionnaire, a manila folder in which to place the signed consent form and filled-out demographic questionnaire, a printed copy of your interview guide (I print with three-inch right margins so I can jot down notes on the page next to relevant questions), a pen, a recording device, and water.

After the interview, you will want to secure the signed consent form in a locked filing cabinet (if in print) or a password-protected folder on your computer. Using Excel or a similar program that allows tables/spreadsheets, create an identifying number for your interview that links to the consent form without using the name of your respondent. For example, let’s say that I conduct interviews with US politicians, and the first person I meet with is George W. Bush. I will assign the transcription the number “INT#001” and add it to the signed consent form. [3] The signed consent form goes into a locked filing cabinet, and I never use the name “George W. Bush” again. I take the information from the demographic sheet, open my Excel spreadsheet, and add the relevant information in separate columns for the row INT#001: White, male, Republican. When I interview Bill Clinton as my second interview, I include a second row: INT#002: White, male, Democrat. And so on. The only link to the actual name of the respondent and this information is the fact that the consent form (unavailable to anyone but me) has stamped on it the interview number.

Many students get very nervous before their first interview. Actually, many of us are always nervous before the interview! But do not worry—this is normal, and it does pass. Chances are, you will be pleasantly surprised at how comfortable it begins to feel. These “purposeful conversations” are often a delight for both participants. This is not to say that sometimes things go wrong. I often have my students practice several “bad scenarios” (e.g., a respondent that you cannot get to open up; a respondent who is too talkative and dominates the conversation, steering it away from the topics you are interested in; emotions that completely take over; or shocking disclosures you are ill-prepared to handle), but most of the time, things go quite well. Be prepared for the unexpected, but know that the reason interviews are so popular as a technique of data collection is that they are usually richly rewarding for both participants.

One thing that I stress to my methods students and remind myself about is that interviews are still conversations between people. If there’s something you might feel uncomfortable asking someone about in a “normal” conversation, you will likely also feel a bit of discomfort asking it in an interview. Maybe more importantly, your respondent may feel uncomfortable. Social research—especially about inequality—can be uncomfortable. And it’s easy to slip into an abstract, intellectualized, or removed perspective as an interviewer. This is one reason trying out interview questions is important. Another is that sometimes the question sounds good in your head but doesn’t work as well out loud in practice. I learned this the hard way when a respondent asked me how I would answer the question I had just posed, and I realized that not only did I not really know how I would answer it, but I also wasn’t quite as sure I knew what I was asking as I had thought.

—Elizabeth M. Lee, Associate Professor of Sociology at Saint Joseph’s University, author of Class and Campus Life , and co-author of Geographies of Campus Inequality

How Many Interviews?

Your research design has included a targeted number of interviews and a recruitment plan (see chapter 5). Follow your plan, but remember that “ saturation ” is your goal. You interview as many people as you can until you reach a point at which you are no longer surprised by what they tell you. This means not that no one after your first twenty interviews will have surprising, interesting stories to tell you but rather that the picture you are forming about the phenomenon of interest to you from a research perspective has come into focus, and none of the interviews are substantially refocusing that picture. That is when you should stop collecting interviews. Note that to know when you have reached this, you will need to read your transcripts as you go. More about this in chapters 18 and 19.

Your Final Product: The Ideal Interview Transcript

A good interview transcript will demonstrate a subtly controlled conversation by the skillful interviewer. In general, you want to see replies that are about one paragraph long, not short sentences and not running on for several pages. Although it is sometimes necessary to follow respondents down tangents, it is also often necessary to pull them back to the questions that form the basis of your research study. This is not really a free conversation, although it may feel like that to the person you are interviewing.

Final Tips from an Interview Master

Annette Lareau is arguably one of the masters of the trade. In Listening to People , she provides several guidelines for good interviews and then offers a detailed example of an interview gone wrong and how it could be addressed (please see the “Further Readings” at the end of this chapter). Here is an abbreviated version of her set of guidelines: (1) interview respondents who are experts on the subjects of most interest to you (as a corollary, don’t ask people about things they don’t know); (2) listen carefully and talk as little as possible; (3) keep in mind what you want to know and why you want to know it; (4) be a proactive interviewer (subtly guide the conversation); (5) assure respondents that there aren’t any right or wrong answers; (6) use the respondent’s own words to probe further (this both allows you to accurately identify what you heard and pushes the respondent to explain further); (7) reuse effective probes (don’t reinvent the wheel as you go—if repeating the words back works, do it again and again); (8) focus on learning the subjective meanings that events or experiences have for a respondent; (9) don’t be afraid to ask a question that draws on your own knowledge (unlike trial lawyers who are trained never to ask a question for which they don’t already know the answer, sometimes it’s worth it to ask risky questions based on your hypotheses or just plain hunches); (10) keep thinking while you are listening (so difficult…and important); (11) return to a theme raised by a respondent if you want further information; (12) be mindful of power inequalities (and never ever coerce a respondent to continue the interview if they want out); (13) take control with overly talkative respondents; (14) expect overly succinct responses, and develop strategies for probing further; (15) balance digging deep and moving on; (16) develop a plan to deflect questions (e.g., let them know you are happy to answer any questions at the end of the interview, but you don’t want to take time away from them now); and at the end, (17) check to see whether you have asked all your questions. You don’t always have to ask everyone the same set of questions, but if there is a big area you have forgotten to cover, now is the time to recover ( Lareau 2021:93–103 ).

Sample: Demographic Questionnaire

ASA Taskforce on First-Generation and Working-Class Persons in Sociology – Class Effects on Career Success

Supplementary Demographic Questionnaire

Thank you for your participation in this interview project. We would like to collect a few pieces of key demographic information from you to supplement our analyses. Your answers to these questions will be kept confidential and stored by ID number. All of your responses here are entirely voluntary!

What best captures your race/ethnicity? (please check any/all that apply)

• White (Non Hispanic/Latina/o/x)
• Black or African American
• Hispanic, Latino/a/x of Spanish
• Asian or Asian American
• American Indian or Alaska Native
• Middle Eastern or North African
• Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
• Other : (Please write in: ________________)

What is your current position?

• Grad Student
• Full Professor

Please check any and all of the following that apply to you:

• I identify as a working-class academic
• I was the first in my family to graduate from college
• I grew up poor

What best reflects your gender?

• Transgender female/Transgender woman
• Transgender male/Transgender man
• Gender queer/ Gender nonconforming

Anything else you would like us to know about you?

Example: Interview Guide

In this example, follow-up prompts are italicized.  Note the sequence of questions.  That second question often elicits an entire life history , answering several later questions in advance.

Introduction Script/Question

Thank you for participating in our survey of ASA members who identify as first-generation or working-class.  As you may have heard, ASA has sponsored a taskforce on first-generation and working-class persons in sociology and we are interested in hearing from those who so identify.  Your participation in this interview will help advance our knowledge in this area.

• The first thing we would like to as you is why you have volunteered to be part of this study? What does it mean to you be first-gen or working class?  Why were you willing to be interviewed?
• How did you decide to become a sociologist?
• Can you tell me a little bit about where you grew up? ( prompts: what did your parent(s) do for a living?  What kind of high school did you attend?)
• Has this identity been salient to your experience? (how? How much?)
• How welcoming was your grad program? Your first academic employer?
• Why did you decide to pursue sociology at the graduate level?
• Did you experience culture shock in college? In graduate school?
• Has your FGWC status shaped how you’ve thought about where you went to school? debt? etc?
• Were you mentored? How did this work (not work)?  How might it?
• What did you consider when deciding where to go to grad school? Where to apply for your first position?
• What, to you, is a mark of career success? Have you achieved that success?  What has helped or hindered your pursuit of success?
• Do you think sociology, as a field, cares about prestige?
• Let’s talk a little bit about intersectionality. How does being first-gen/working class work alongside other identities that are important to you?
• What do your friends and family think about your career? Have you had any difficulty relating to family members or past friends since becoming highly educated?
• Do you have any debt from college/grad school? Are you concerned about this?  Could you explain more about how you paid for college/grad school?  (here, include assistance from family, fellowships, scholarships, etc.)
• (You’ve mentioned issues or obstacles you had because of your background.) What could have helped?  Or, who or what did? Can you think of fortuitous moments in your career?
• Do you have any regrets about the path you took?
• Is there anything else you would like to add? Anything that the Taskforce should take note of, that we did not ask you about here?

Further Readings

Britten, Nicky. 1995. “Qualitative Interviews in Medical Research.” BMJ: British Medical Journal 31(6999):251–253. A good basic overview of interviewing particularly useful for students of public health and medical research generally.

Corbin, Juliet, and Janice M. Morse. 2003. “The Unstructured Interactive Interview: Issues of Reciprocity and Risks When Dealing with Sensitive Topics.” Qualitative Inquiry 9(3):335–354. Weighs the potential benefits and harms of conducting interviews on topics that may cause emotional distress. Argues that the researcher’s skills and code of ethics should ensure that the interviewing process provides more of a benefit to both participant and researcher than a harm to the former.

Gerson, Kathleen, and Sarah Damaske. 2020. The Science and Art of Interviewing . New York: Oxford University Press. A useful guidebook/textbook for both undergraduates and graduate students, written by sociologists.

Kvale, Steiner. 2007. Doing Interviews . London: SAGE. An easy-to-follow guide to conducting and analyzing interviews by psychologists.

Lamont, Michèle, and Ann Swidler. 2014. “Methodological Pluralism and the Possibilities and Limits of Interviewing.” Qualitative Sociology 37(2):153–171. Written as a response to various debates surrounding the relative value of interview-based studies and ethnographic studies defending the particular strengths of interviewing. This is a must-read article for anyone seriously engaging in qualitative research!

Pugh, Allison J. 2013. “What Good Are Interviews for Thinking about Culture? Demystifying Interpretive Analysis.” American Journal of Cultural Sociology 1(1):42–68. Another defense of interviewing written against those who champion ethnographic methods as superior, particularly in the area of studying culture. A classic.

Rapley, Timothy John. 2001. “The ‘Artfulness’ of Open-Ended Interviewing: Some considerations in analyzing interviews.” Qualitative Research 1(3):303–323. Argues for the importance of “local context” of data production (the relationship built between interviewer and interviewee, for example) in properly analyzing interview data.

Weiss, Robert S. 1995. Learning from Strangers: The Art and Method of Qualitative Interview Studies . New York: Simon and Schuster. A classic and well-regarded textbook on interviewing. Because Weiss has extensive experience conducting surveys, he contrasts the qualitative interview with the survey questionnaire well; particularly useful for those trained in the latter.

• I say “normally” because how people understand their various identities can itself be an expansive topic of inquiry. Here, I am merely talking about collecting otherwise unexamined demographic data, similar to how we ask people to check boxes on surveys. ↵
• Again, this applies to “semistructured in-depth interviewing.” When conducting standardized questionnaires, you will want to ask each question exactly as written, without deviations! ↵
• I always include “INT” in the number because I sometimes have other kinds of data with their own numbering: FG#001 would mean the first focus group, for example. I also always include three-digit spaces, as this allows for up to 999 interviews (or, more realistically, allows for me to interview up to one hundred persons without having to reset my numbering system). ↵

A method of data collection in which the researcher asks the participant questions; the answers to these questions are often recorded and transcribed verbatim. There are many different kinds of interviews - see also semistructured interview , structured interview , and unstructured interview .

A document listing key questions and question areas for use during an interview.  It is used most often for semi-structured interviews.  A good interview guide may have no more than ten primary questions for two hours of interviewing, but these ten questions will be supplemented by probes and relevant follow-ups throughout the interview.  Most IRBs require the inclusion of the interview guide in applications for review.  See also interview and  semi-structured interview .

A data-collection method that relies on casual, conversational, and informal interviewing.  Despite its apparent conversational nature, the researcher usually has a set of particular questions or question areas in mind but allows the interview to unfold spontaneously.  This is a common data-collection technique among ethnographers.  Compare to the semi-structured or in-depth interview .

A form of interview that follows a standard guide of questions asked, although the order of the questions may change to match the particular needs of each individual interview subject, and probing “follow-up” questions are often added during the course of the interview.  The semi-structured interview is the primary form of interviewing used by qualitative researchers in the social sciences.  It is sometimes referred to as an “in-depth” interview.  See also interview and  interview guide .

The cluster of data-collection tools and techniques that involve observing interactions between people, the behaviors, and practices of individuals (sometimes in contrast to what they say about how they act and behave), and cultures in context.  Observational methods are the key tools employed by ethnographers and Grounded Theory .

Follow-up questions used in a semi-structured interview  to elicit further elaboration.  Suggested prompts can be included in the interview guide  to be used/deployed depending on how the initial question was answered or if the topic of the prompt does not emerge spontaneously.

A form of interview that follows a strict set of questions, asked in a particular order, for all interview subjects.  The questions are also the kind that elicits short answers, and the data is more “informative” than probing.  This is often used in mixed-methods studies, accompanying a survey instrument.  Because there is no room for nuance or the exploration of meaning in structured interviews, qualitative researchers tend to employ semi-structured interviews instead.  See also interview.

The point at which you can conclude data collection because every person you are interviewing, the interaction you are observing, or content you are analyzing merely confirms what you have already noted.  Achieving saturation is often used as the justification for the final sample size.

An interview variant in which a person’s life story is elicited in a narrative form.  Turning points and key themes are established by the researcher and used as data points for further analysis.

Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods Copyright © 2023 by Allison Hurst is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Qualitative Interview: What it is & How to conduct one

A qualitative interview is commonly used in research projects involving new products, brand positioning, purchase dynamics, market research, social research, behavioral analysis, exploring market segments, etc. Recent data also suggests that it is highly effective when used in employee engagement initiatives.

It has also proven to be extremely helpful when it comes to problem definition as well as developing an approach to a particular problem.

What is a Qualitative Interview?

A qualitative Interview is a research approach used in a qualitative study where more personal interaction is required and detailed in depth information is gathered from the participant. Qualitative interviews usually involve follow-up questions and are conducted in a conversation or discussion format.

A qualitative interview is a more personal form of research agenda compared to general questionnaires or focused group studies. Such formats often include open-ended and follow-up questions .

LEARN ABOUT: Behavioral Research

How to conduct a Qualitative Interview?

Conducting a qualitative interview requires careful planning and implementation to ensure that you gather meaningful and rich data. Here are some steps to consider when conducting a qualitative research interview:

Clearly define the purpose of your qualitative interview and the specific research method questions you want to address. It will help you design appropriate research interview questions and interview guides for your data analysis.

Identify the target population or specific individuals who can provide valuable insights related to your research questions. Consider criteria such as demographics, expertise, or experiences that align with your research methods and objectives. Use appropriate methods, such as purposive sampling of data collection, to recruit participants who can offer diverse perspectives.

Before conducting the interview, ensure that participants understand the purpose, procedures, and potential risks or benefits of their involvement. Obtain their informed consent, clearly explaining their rights as participants, including confidentiality and their ability to withdraw from the study at any time.

Prepare a flexible in depth interviews guide that includes a set of open-ended interview questions for an interview participant. The guide should be designed to elicit participants’ perspectives, experiences, and insights related to your research objectives for conducting interviews. Consider using probing techniques to encourage participants to elaborate on their responses and explore different dimensions of the topic.

Select a suitable location for the in depth interviews that is comfortable, private, and free from distractions for an interview participant. Create a relaxed and welcoming atmosphere to help participants feel at ease and encourage open communication for qualitative interviewing. Establish rapport and build trust with participants by introducing yourself, explaining the purpose of conducting interviews, and actively listening to their responses.

Start by asking introductory questions to establish a rapport with the participant. Follow the qualitative interview guide, but remain flexible and responsive to participants’ responses. Allow participants to speak freely and provide detailed answers, using probing techniques to delve deeper into their experiences, emotions, and perspectives. Take notes or record the interview (with participants’ consent) to capture accurate and detailed information.

Show respect for their experiences and perspectives, even if they differ from yours. Avoid making judgments or imposing your own beliefs during the interview. Create a non-judgmental and inclusive environment that encourages participants to share their thoughts and feelings honestly.

Transcribe the interview recordings or review your notes promptly after each interview while the details remain fresh. Analyze the qualitative data using appropriate methods, such as thematic data analysis, to identify patterns, themes, and insights. Ensure that the data is anonymized and handled following ethical guidelines.

By following these steps, you can conduct a qualitative research interview that facilitates rich and meaningful discussions, resulting in valuable data analysis for your research process.

LEARN ABOUT:   Research Process Steps

Types of Qualitative Interviews

The interview itself can be conducted over multiple formats. Qualitative researchers can employ several types of qualitative interviews based on their research objectives and the nature of the study. Here are some popular types of qualitative interviews:

Structured interviews involve a predetermined set of questions that are asked in the same order and manner to each participant. The questions of structured interviews are typically closed-ended or have limited response options. This type of interview is proper when researchers aim to collect specific information in a standardized way, allowing for easier comparison and analysis of responses across participants.

Semi-structured interviews combine predetermined questions with flexibility for additional probing and follow-up questions. Researchers have a set of core questions to guide the interview but can adapt the interview data collection process based on participants’ responses. This type of approach allows for a deeper exploration of participants’ experiences, thoughts, and perspectives while maintaining some standardization level.

Unstructured interviews involve open-ended questions and a free-flowing conversation between the interviewer and the participant. The interviewer may have a general topic or area of interest but allows the conversation to evolve naturally. Unstructured interviews provide a high degree of flexibility and allow participants to express themselves more freely, often leading to rich and nuanced data.

Each qualitative interview type has its strengths and is suited for different research purposes. Researchers or a research team should carefully select the appropriate type of research interview that aligns with their research objectives, the nature of the phenomenon under investigation, and the population being studied.

LEARN ABOUT:   Structured Question

Advantages of Using Qualitative Interviews

Qualitative interview techniques offer several advantages as a research method. Here are some of the key advantages:

A qualitative interview allows researchers to delve deeply into participants’ experiences, perspectives, and opinions. Using open-ended questions and probing techniques, researchers can uncover rich and detailed information beyond mere surface-level responses. This in-depth exploration provides a comprehensive understanding of the research topic.

Qualitative interviews offer flexibility in adapting the interview data collection process to the specific needs of each participant. Researchers can tailor their questions, follow-up probes, and overall approach based on the participant’s responses, allowing for a more personalized and engaging research experience. This flexibility enhances the quality and richness of the data collection.

Qualitative interview prioritizes the voices and perspectives of participants. Through interactive and conversational exchanges, participants can express their thoughts, emotions, and beliefs in their own words. This approach ensures that the research captures individuals’ nuanced and diverse experiences, offering insights that may not be obtained through other methods.

A qualitative research interview provides a holistic understanding of the social and cultural context surrounding participants’ experiences. Researchers can explore the factors influencing participants’ perspectives, such as cultural norms, societal expectations, or personal histories. This contextual understanding enhances the interpretation and analysis of the data, providing a comprehensive view of the research topic.

Qualitative interviews are particularly effective when studying sensitive or complex topics. It allows participants to share their experiences and emotions in a safe and confidential environment, facilitating a deeper exploration of potentially challenging subjects. This method also enables researchers to capture these topics’ nuances, contradictions, and subtleties, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding.

Qualitative research interviews can empower participants by giving them a voice and acknowledging the value of their experiences. By actively listening and engaging in meaningful dialogue, researchers validate participants’ contributions and foster a sense of ownership over their narratives. This empowerment can positively affect participants’ self-esteem, self-reflection, and personal growth.

Overall, qualitative interview provides researchers with a powerful tool to explore complex phenomena, gain in-depth insights, and understand the subjective experiences of individuals. By capitalizing on the advantages of this method, researchers can generate valuable and nuanced data that contributes to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields.

Learn more by reading our guide: Types of Interviews .

Disadvantages of a Qualitative Interview

While a qualitative interview has many advantages, it is essential to acknowledge their potential limitations. Here are some of the disadvantages associated with qualitative interviews:

Qualitative interviews involve interaction between the researcher and participants, which introduces the possibility of subjective interpretations and biases. Researchers may unintentionally influence participants’ responses through questioning techniques, non-verbal cues, or personal beliefs. Researchers must be aware of their biases and take steps to minimize their impact on data collection and analysis.

The findings from qualitative research interviews are typically based on small sample size and specific context, making it difficult to generalize the results to a larger population. While qualitative research aims to provide an in-depth understanding, it may need more statistical representativeness than quantitative research methods offer. Therefore, when applying qualitative interview findings to broader populations or contexts, caution must be exercised.

Qualitative interviews can be time-consuming and require substantial resources. Conducting in depth interviews, transcribing data, and analyzing the qualitative data are labor-intensive tasks that require significant time and effort. Researchers must be prepared for qualitative interviews of a detailed and time-consuming nature, especially when working with large or diverse participant samples.

Ensuring the validity and reliability of qualitative research interviews can be challenging. Validity refers to the extent to which the interview data accurately represent participants’ experiences and perspectives, while reliability relates to the consistency and replicability of the findings. Factors such as interviewer bias, participant recall, and social desirability may compromise the validity and reliability of the data. Researchers must employ rigorous methodologies, triangulate data from multiple sources, and establish trustworthiness to enhance the credibility of their findings.

Qualitative interviews capture participants’ experiences and perspectives at a specific time and within a particular context. However, these experiences may evolve or change over time or in different contexts. Researchers must be mindful of the limitations of capturing participants’ experiences, recognizing that their findings may only partially represent the dynamic nature of human behavior and perceptions.

Despite these disadvantages, qualitative interviews remain a valuable research method that offers unique insights into individuals’ experiences and perspectives.

Learn About: Steps in qualitative Research

Qualitative interviews are valuable for gaining in-depth insights into individuals’ experiences, perspectives, and behaviors. They offer a unique opportunity to explore complex phenomena, uncover rich narratives, and understand the underlying meanings and interpretations that individuals assign to their experiences.

To summarize, Qualitative Research can either be a valuable tool to discover problems or help elevate any research programs with subjective data or leave researchers with amorphous and contradictory data. The key is to use the approach in combination with other qualitative and quantitative research techniques to enhance the depth of the data gathered.

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Chapter 13: Interviews

Danielle Berkovic

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Understand when to use interviews in qualitative research.
• Develop interview questions for an interview guide.
• Understand how to conduct an interview.

What are interviews?

An interviewing method is the most commonly used data collection technique in qualitative research. 1 The purpose of an interview is to explore the experiences, understandings, opinions and motivations of research participants. 2 Interviews are conducted one-on-one with the researcher and the participant. Interviews are most appropriate when seeking to understand a participant’s subjective view of an experience and are also considered suitable for the exploration of sensitive topics.

What are the different types of interviews?

There are four main types of interviews:

• Key stakeholder: A key stakeholder interview aims to explore one issue in detail with a person of interest or importance concerning the research topic. 3 Key stakeholder interviews seek the views of experts on some cultural, political or health aspects of the community, beyond their personal beliefs or actions. An example of a key stakeholder is the Chief Health Officer of Victoria (Australia’s second-most populous state) who oversaw the world’s longest lockdowns in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Dyad: A dyad interview aims to explore one issue in a level of detail with a dyad (two people). This form of interviewing is used when one participant of the dyad may need some support or is not wholly able to articulate themselves (e.g. people with cognitive impairment, or children). Independence is acknowledged and the interview is analysed as a unit. 4
• Narrative: A narrative interview helps individuals tell their stories, and prioritises their own perspectives and experiences using the language that they prefer. 5 This type of interview has been widely used in social research but is gaining prominence in health research to better understand person-centred care, for example, negotiating exercise and food abstinence whilst living with Type 2 diabetes. 6,7
• Life history: A life history interview allows the researcher to explore a person’s individual and subjective experiences within a history of the time framework. 8 Life history interviews challenge the researcher to understand how people’s current attitudes, behaviours and choices are influenced by previous experiences or trauma. Life history interviews have been conducted with Holocaust survivors 9 and youth who have been forcibly recruited to war. 10

Table 13.4 provides a summary of four studies, each adopting one of these types of interviews.

Interviewing techniques

There are two main interview techniques:

• Semi-structured: Semi-structured interviewing aims to explore a few issues in moderate detail, to expand the researcher’s knowledge at some level. 11 Semi-structured interviews give the researcher the advantage of remaining reasonably objective while enabling participants to share their perspectives and opinions. The researcher should create an interview guide with targeted open questions to direct the interview. As examples, semi-structured interviews have been used to extend knowledge of why women might gain excess weight during pregnancy, 12 and to update guidelines for statin uptake. 13
• In-depth: In-depth interviewing aims to explore a person’s subjective experiences and feelings about a particular topic. 14 In-depth interviews are often used to explore emotive (e.g. end-of-life care) 15 and complex (e.g. adolescent pregnancy) topics. 16 The researcher should create an interview guide with selected open questions to ask of the participant, but the participant should guide the direction of the interview more than in a semi-structured setting. In-depth interviews value participants’ lived experiences and are frequently used in phenomenology studies (as described in Chapter 6) .

When to use the different types of interview s

The type of interview a researcher uses should be determined by the study design, the research aims and objectives, and participant demographics. For example, if conducting a descriptive study, semi-structured interviews may be the best method of data collection. As explained in Chapter 5 , descriptive studies seek to describe phenomena, rather than to explain or interpret the data. A semi-structured interview, which seeks to expand upon some level of existing knowledge, will likely best facilitate this.

Similarly, if conducting a phenomenological study, in-depth interviews may be the best method of data collection. As described in Chapter 6 , the key concept of phenomenology is the individual. The emphasis is on the lived experience of that individual and the person’s sense-making of those experiences. Therefore, an in-depth interview is likely best placed to elicit that rich data.

While some interview types are better suited to certain study designs, there are no restrictions on the type of interview that may be used. For example, semi-structured interviews provide an excellent accompaniment to trial participation (see Chapter 11 about mixed methods), and key stakeholder interviews, as part of an action research study, can be used to define priorities, barriers and enablers to implementation.

How do I write my interview questions?

An interview aims to explore the experiences, understandings, opinions and motivations of research participants. The general rule is that the interviewee should speak for 80 per cent of the interview, and the interviewer should only be asking questions and clarifying responses, for about 20 per cent of the interview. This percentage may differ depending on the interview type; for example, a semi-structured interview involves the researcher asking more questions than in an in-depth interview. Still, to facilitate free-flowing responses, it is important to use open-ended language to encourage participants to be expansive in their responses. Examples of open-ended terms include questions that start with ‘who’, ‘how’ and ‘where’.

The researcher should avoid closed-ended questions that can be answered with yes or no, and limit conversation. For example, asking a participant ‘Did you have this experience?’ can elicit a simple ‘yes’, whereas asking them to ‘Describe your experience’, will likely encourage a narrative response. Table 13.1 provides examples of terminology to include and avoid in developing interview questions.

Table 13.1. Interview question formats to use and avoid

How long should my interview be?

There is no rule about how long an interview should take. Different types of interviews will likely run for different periods of time, but this also depends on the research question/s and the type of participant. For example, given that a semi-structured interview is seeking to expand on some previous knowledge, the interview may need no longer than 30 minutes, or up to one hour. An in-depth interview seeks to explore a topic in a greater level of detail and therefore, at a minimum, would be expected to last an hour. A dyad interview may be as short as 15 minutes (e.g. if the dyad is a person with dementia and a family member or caregiver) or longer, depending on the pairing.

Designing your interview guide

To figure out what questions to ask in an interview guide, the researcher may consult the literature, speak to experts (including people with lived experience) about the research and draw on their current knowledge. The topics and questions should be mapped to the research question/s, and the interview guide should be developed well in advance of commencing data collection. This enables time and opportunity to pilot-test the interview guide. The pilot interview provides an opportunity to explore the language and clarity of questions, the order and flow of the guide and to determine whether the instructions are clear to participants both before and after the interview. It can be beneficial to pilot-test the interview guide with someone who is not familiar with the research topic, to make sure that the language used is easily understood (and will be by participants, too). The study design should be used to determine the number of questions asked and the duration of the interview should guide the extent of the interview guide. The participant type may also determine the extent of the interview guide; for example, clinicians tend to be time-poor and therefore shorter, focused interviews are optimal. An interview guide is also likely to be shorter for a descriptive study than a phenomenological or ethnographic study, given the level of detail required. Chapter 5 outlined a descriptive study in which participants who had undergone percutaneous coronary intervention were interviewed. The interview guide consisted of four main questions and subsequent probing questions, linked to the research questions (see Table 13.2). 17

Table 13.2. Interview guide for a descriptive study

Table 13.3 is an example of a larger and more detailed interview guide, designed for the qualitative component of a mixed-methods study aiming to examine the work and financial effects of living with arthritis as a younger person. The questions are mapped to the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health, which measures health and disability at individual and population levels. 18

Table 13.3. Detailed interview guide

It is important to create an interview guide, for the following reasons:

• The researcher should be familiar with their research questions.
• Using an interview guide will enable the incorporation of feedback from the piloting process.
• It is difficult to predict how participants will respond to interview questions. They may answer in a way that is anticipated or they may provide unanticipated insights that warrant follow-up. An interview guide (a physical or digital copy) enables the researcher to note these answers and follow-up with appropriate inquiry.
• Participants will likely have provided heterogeneous answers to certain questions. The interview guide enables the researcher to note similarities and differences across various interviews, which may be important in data analysis.
• Even experienced qualitative researchers get nervous before an interview! The interview guide provides a safety net if the researcher forgets their questions or needs to anticipate the next question.

Setting up the interview

In the past, most interviews were conducted in person or by telephone. Emerging technologies promote easier access to research participation (e.g. by people living in rural or remote communities, or for people with mobility limitations). Even in metropolitan settings, many interviews are now conducted electronically (e.g. using videoconferencing platforms). Regardless of your interview setting, it is essential that the interview environment is comfortable for the participant. This process can begin as soon as potential participants express interest in your research. Following are some tips from the literature and our own experiences of leading interviews:

• Answer questions and set clear expectations . Participating in research is not an everyday task. People do not necessarily know what to expect during a research interview, and this can be daunting. Give people as much information as possible, answer their questions about the research and set clear expectations about what the interview will entail and how long it is expected to last. Let them know that the interview will be recorded for transcription and analysis purposes. Consider sending the interview questions a few days before the interview. This gives people time and space to reflect on their experiences, consider their responses to questions and to provide informed consent for their participation.
• Consider your setting . If conducting the interview in person, consider the location and room in which the interview will be held. For example, if in a participant’s home, be mindful of their private space. Ask if you should remove your shoes before entering their home. If they offer refreshments (which in our experience many participants do), accept it with gratitude if possible. These considerations apply beyond the participant’s home; if using a room in an office setting, consider privacy and confidentiality, accessibility and potential for disruption. Consider the temperature as well as the furniture in the room, who may be able to overhear conversations and who may walk past. Similarly, if interviewing by phone or online, take time to assess the space, and if in a house or office that is not quiet or private, use headphones as needed.
• Build rapport. The research topic may be important to participants from a professional perspective, or they may have deep emotional connections to the topic of interest. Regardless of the nature of the interview, it is important to remember that participants are being asked to open up to an interviewer who is likely to be a stranger. Spend some time with participants before the interview, to make sure that they are comfortable. Engage in some general conversation, and ask if they have any questions before you start. Remember that it is not a normal part of someone’s day to participate in research. Make it an enjoyable and/or meaningful experience for them, and it will enhance the data that you collect.
• Let participants guide you. Oftentimes, the ways in which researchers and participants describe the same phenomena are different. In the interview, reflect the participant’s language. Make sure they feel heard and that they are willing and comfortable to speak openly about their experiences. For example, our research involves talking to older adults about their experience of falls. We noticed early in this research that participants did not use the word ‘fall’ but would rather use terms such as ‘trip’, ‘went over’ and ‘stumbled’. As interviewers we adopted the participant’s language into our questions.
• Listen consistently and express interest. An interview is more complex than a simple question-and-answer format. The best interview data comes from participants feeling comfortable and confident to share their stories. By the time you are completing the 20th interview, it can be difficult to maintain the same level of concentration as with the first interview. Try to stay engaged: nod along with your participants, maintain eye contact, murmur in agreement and sympathise where warranted.
• The interviewer is both the data collector and the data collection instrument. The data received is only as good as the questions asked. In qualitative research, the researcher influences how participants answer questions. It is important to remain reflexive and aware of how your language, body language and attitude might influence the interview. Being rested and prepared will enhance the quality of the questions asked and hence the data collected.
• Avoid excessive use of ‘why’. It can be challenging for participants to recall why they felt a certain way or acted in a particular manner. Try to avoid asking ‘why’ questions too often, and instead adopt some of the open language described earlier in the chapter.

After your interview

When you have completed your interview, thank the participant and let them know they can contact you if they have any questions or follow-up information they would like to provide. If the interview has covered sensitive topics or the participant has become distressed throughout the interview, make sure that appropriate referrals and follow-up are provided (see section 6).

Download the recording from your device and make sure it is saved in a secure location that can only be accessed by people on the approved research team (see Chapters 35 and 36).

It is important to know what to do immediately after each interview is completed. Interviews should be transcribed – that is, reproduced verbatim for data analysis. Transcribing data is an important step in the process of analysis, but it is very time-consuming; transcribing a 60-minute interview can take up to 8 hours. Data analysis is discussed in Section 4.

Table 13.4. Examples of the four types of interviews

Interviews are the most common data collection technique in qualitative research. There are four main types of interviews; the one you choose will depend on your research question, aims and objectives. It is important to formulate open-ended interview questions that are understandable and easy for participants to answer. Key considerations in setting up the interview will enhance the quality of the data obtained and the experience of the interview for the participant and the researcher.

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Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Danielle Berkovic is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to use and assess qualitative research methods

Loraine busetto.

1 Department of Neurology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany

Wolfgang Wick

2 Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuro-Oncology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany

Christoph Gumbinger

Associated data.

Not applicable.

This paper aims to provide an overview of the use and assessment of qualitative research methods in the health sciences. Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions, and focussing on intervention improvement. The most common methods of data collection are document study, (non-) participant observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups. For data analysis, field-notes and audio-recordings are transcribed into protocols and transcripts, and coded using qualitative data management software. Criteria such as checklists, reflexivity, sampling strategies, piloting, co-coding, member-checking and stakeholder involvement can be used to enhance and assess the quality of the research conducted. Using qualitative in addition to quantitative designs will equip us with better tools to address a greater range of research problems, and to fill in blind spots in current neurological research and practice.

The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of qualitative research methods, including hands-on information on how they can be used, reported and assessed. This article is intended for beginning qualitative researchers in the health sciences as well as experienced quantitative researchers who wish to broaden their understanding of qualitative research.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is defined as “the study of the nature of phenomena”, including “their quality, different manifestations, the context in which they appear or the perspectives from which they can be perceived” , but excluding “their range, frequency and place in an objectively determined chain of cause and effect” [ 1 ]. This formal definition can be complemented with a more pragmatic rule of thumb: qualitative research generally includes data in form of words rather than numbers [ 2 ].

Why conduct qualitative research?

Because some research questions cannot be answered using (only) quantitative methods. For example, one Australian study addressed the issue of why patients from Aboriginal communities often present late or not at all to specialist services offered by tertiary care hospitals. Using qualitative interviews with patients and staff, it found one of the most significant access barriers to be transportation problems, including some towns and communities simply not having a bus service to the hospital [ 3 ]. A quantitative study could have measured the number of patients over time or even looked at possible explanatory factors – but only those previously known or suspected to be of relevance. To discover reasons for observed patterns, especially the invisible or surprising ones, qualitative designs are needed.

While qualitative research is common in other fields, it is still relatively underrepresented in health services research. The latter field is more traditionally rooted in the evidence-based-medicine paradigm, as seen in " research that involves testing the effectiveness of various strategies to achieve changes in clinical practice, preferably applying randomised controlled trial study designs (...) " [ 4 ]. This focus on quantitative research and specifically randomised controlled trials (RCT) is visible in the idea of a hierarchy of research evidence which assumes that some research designs are objectively better than others, and that choosing a "lesser" design is only acceptable when the better ones are not practically or ethically feasible [ 5 , 6 ]. Others, however, argue that an objective hierarchy does not exist, and that, instead, the research design and methods should be chosen to fit the specific research question at hand – "questions before methods" [ 2 , 7 – 9 ]. This means that even when an RCT is possible, some research problems require a different design that is better suited to addressing them. Arguing in JAMA, Berwick uses the example of rapid response teams in hospitals, which he describes as " a complex, multicomponent intervention – essentially a process of social change" susceptible to a range of different context factors including leadership or organisation history. According to him, "[in] such complex terrain, the RCT is an impoverished way to learn. Critics who use it as a truth standard in this context are incorrect" [ 8 ] . Instead of limiting oneself to RCTs, Berwick recommends embracing a wider range of methods , including qualitative ones, which for "these specific applications, (...) are not compromises in learning how to improve; they are superior" [ 8 ].

Research problems that can be approached particularly well using qualitative methods include assessing complex multi-component interventions or systems (of change), addressing questions beyond “what works”, towards “what works for whom when, how and why”, and focussing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation [ 7 , 9 – 12 ]. Using qualitative methods can also help shed light on the “softer” side of medical treatment. For example, while quantitative trials can measure the costs and benefits of neuro-oncological treatment in terms of survival rates or adverse effects, qualitative research can help provide a better understanding of patient or caregiver stress, visibility of illness or out-of-pocket expenses.

How to conduct qualitative research?

Given that qualitative research is characterised by flexibility, openness and responsivity to context, the steps of data collection and analysis are not as separate and consecutive as they tend to be in quantitative research [ 13 , 14 ]. As Fossey puts it : “sampling, data collection, analysis and interpretation are related to each other in a cyclical (iterative) manner, rather than following one after another in a stepwise approach” [ 15 ]. The researcher can make educated decisions with regard to the choice of method, how they are implemented, and to which and how many units they are applied [ 13 ]. As shown in Fig.  1 , this can involve several back-and-forth steps between data collection and analysis where new insights and experiences can lead to adaption and expansion of the original plan. Some insights may also necessitate a revision of the research question and/or the research design as a whole. The process ends when saturation is achieved, i.e. when no relevant new information can be found (see also below: sampling and saturation). For reasons of transparency, it is essential for all decisions as well as the underlying reasoning to be well-documented.

Iterative research process

While it is not always explicitly addressed, qualitative methods reflect a different underlying research paradigm than quantitative research (e.g. constructivism or interpretivism as opposed to positivism). The choice of methods can be based on the respective underlying substantive theory or theoretical framework used by the researcher [ 2 ].

Data collection

The methods of qualitative data collection most commonly used in health research are document study, observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups [ 1 , 14 , 16 , 17 ].

Document study

Document study (also called document analysis) refers to the review by the researcher of written materials [ 14 ]. These can include personal and non-personal documents such as archives, annual reports, guidelines, policy documents, diaries or letters.

Observations

Observations are particularly useful to gain insights into a certain setting and actual behaviour – as opposed to reported behaviour or opinions [ 13 ]. Qualitative observations can be either participant or non-participant in nature. In participant observations, the observer is part of the observed setting, for example a nurse working in an intensive care unit [ 18 ]. In non-participant observations, the observer is “on the outside looking in”, i.e. present in but not part of the situation, trying not to influence the setting by their presence. Observations can be planned (e.g. for 3 h during the day or night shift) or ad hoc (e.g. as soon as a stroke patient arrives at the emergency room). During the observation, the observer takes notes on everything or certain pre-determined parts of what is happening around them, for example focusing on physician-patient interactions or communication between different professional groups. Written notes can be taken during or after the observations, depending on feasibility (which is usually lower during participant observations) and acceptability (e.g. when the observer is perceived to be judging the observed). Afterwards, these field notes are transcribed into observation protocols. If more than one observer was involved, field notes are taken independently, but notes can be consolidated into one protocol after discussions. Advantages of conducting observations include minimising the distance between the researcher and the researched, the potential discovery of topics that the researcher did not realise were relevant and gaining deeper insights into the real-world dimensions of the research problem at hand [ 18 ].

Semi-structured interviews

Hijmans & Kuyper describe qualitative interviews as “an exchange with an informal character, a conversation with a goal” [ 19 ]. Interviews are used to gain insights into a person’s subjective experiences, opinions and motivations – as opposed to facts or behaviours [ 13 ]. Interviews can be distinguished by the degree to which they are structured (i.e. a questionnaire), open (e.g. free conversation or autobiographical interviews) or semi-structured [ 2 , 13 ]. Semi-structured interviews are characterized by open-ended questions and the use of an interview guide (or topic guide/list) in which the broad areas of interest, sometimes including sub-questions, are defined [ 19 ]. The pre-defined topics in the interview guide can be derived from the literature, previous research or a preliminary method of data collection, e.g. document study or observations. The topic list is usually adapted and improved at the start of the data collection process as the interviewer learns more about the field [ 20 ]. Across interviews the focus on the different (blocks of) questions may differ and some questions may be skipped altogether (e.g. if the interviewee is not able or willing to answer the questions or for concerns about the total length of the interview) [ 20 ]. Qualitative interviews are usually not conducted in written format as it impedes on the interactive component of the method [ 20 ]. In comparison to written surveys, qualitative interviews have the advantage of being interactive and allowing for unexpected topics to emerge and to be taken up by the researcher. This can also help overcome a provider or researcher-centred bias often found in written surveys, which by nature, can only measure what is already known or expected to be of relevance to the researcher. Interviews can be audio- or video-taped; but sometimes it is only feasible or acceptable for the interviewer to take written notes [ 14 , 16 , 20 ].

Focus groups

Focus groups are group interviews to explore participants’ expertise and experiences, including explorations of how and why people behave in certain ways [ 1 ]. Focus groups usually consist of 6–8 people and are led by an experienced moderator following a topic guide or “script” [ 21 ]. They can involve an observer who takes note of the non-verbal aspects of the situation, possibly using an observation guide [ 21 ]. Depending on researchers’ and participants’ preferences, the discussions can be audio- or video-taped and transcribed afterwards [ 21 ]. Focus groups are useful for bringing together homogeneous (to a lesser extent heterogeneous) groups of participants with relevant expertise and experience on a given topic on which they can share detailed information [ 21 ]. Focus groups are a relatively easy, fast and inexpensive method to gain access to information on interactions in a given group, i.e. “the sharing and comparing” among participants [ 21 ]. Disadvantages include less control over the process and a lesser extent to which each individual may participate. Moreover, focus group moderators need experience, as do those tasked with the analysis of the resulting data. Focus groups can be less appropriate for discussing sensitive topics that participants might be reluctant to disclose in a group setting [ 13 ]. Moreover, attention must be paid to the emergence of “groupthink” as well as possible power dynamics within the group, e.g. when patients are awed or intimidated by health professionals.

Choosing the “right” method

As explained above, the school of thought underlying qualitative research assumes no objective hierarchy of evidence and methods. This means that each choice of single or combined methods has to be based on the research question that needs to be answered and a critical assessment with regard to whether or to what extent the chosen method can accomplish this – i.e. the “fit” between question and method [ 14 ]. It is necessary for these decisions to be documented when they are being made, and to be critically discussed when reporting methods and results.

Let us assume that our research aim is to examine the (clinical) processes around acute endovascular treatment (EVT), from the patient’s arrival at the emergency room to recanalization, with the aim to identify possible causes for delay and/or other causes for sub-optimal treatment outcome. As a first step, we could conduct a document study of the relevant standard operating procedures (SOPs) for this phase of care – are they up-to-date and in line with current guidelines? Do they contain any mistakes, irregularities or uncertainties that could cause delays or other problems? Regardless of the answers to these questions, the results have to be interpreted based on what they are: a written outline of what care processes in this hospital should look like. If we want to know what they actually look like in practice, we can conduct observations of the processes described in the SOPs. These results can (and should) be analysed in themselves, but also in comparison to the results of the document analysis, especially as regards relevant discrepancies. Do the SOPs outline specific tests for which no equipment can be observed or tasks to be performed by specialized nurses who are not present during the observation? It might also be possible that the written SOP is outdated, but the actual care provided is in line with current best practice. In order to find out why these discrepancies exist, it can be useful to conduct interviews. Are the physicians simply not aware of the SOPs (because their existence is limited to the hospital’s intranet) or do they actively disagree with them or does the infrastructure make it impossible to provide the care as described? Another rationale for adding interviews is that some situations (or all of their possible variations for different patient groups or the day, night or weekend shift) cannot practically or ethically be observed. In this case, it is possible to ask those involved to report on their actions – being aware that this is not the same as the actual observation. A senior physician’s or hospital manager’s description of certain situations might differ from a nurse’s or junior physician’s one, maybe because they intentionally misrepresent facts or maybe because different aspects of the process are visible or important to them. In some cases, it can also be relevant to consider to whom the interviewee is disclosing this information – someone they trust, someone they are otherwise not connected to, or someone they suspect or are aware of being in a potentially “dangerous” power relationship to them. Lastly, a focus group could be conducted with representatives of the relevant professional groups to explore how and why exactly they provide care around EVT. The discussion might reveal discrepancies (between SOPs and actual care or between different physicians) and motivations to the researchers as well as to the focus group members that they might not have been aware of themselves. For the focus group to deliver relevant information, attention has to be paid to its composition and conduct, for example, to make sure that all participants feel safe to disclose sensitive or potentially problematic information or that the discussion is not dominated by (senior) physicians only. The resulting combination of data collection methods is shown in Fig.  2 .

Possible combination of data collection methods

Attributions for icons: “Book” by Serhii Smirnov, “Interview” by Adrien Coquet, FR, “Magnifying Glass” by anggun, ID, “Business communication” by Vectors Market; all from the Noun Project

The combination of multiple data source as described for this example can be referred to as “triangulation”, in which multiple measurements are carried out from different angles to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study [ 22 , 23 ].

Data analysis

To analyse the data collected through observations, interviews and focus groups these need to be transcribed into protocols and transcripts (see Fig.  3 ). Interviews and focus groups can be transcribed verbatim , with or without annotations for behaviour (e.g. laughing, crying, pausing) and with or without phonetic transcription of dialects and filler words, depending on what is expected or known to be relevant for the analysis. In the next step, the protocols and transcripts are coded , that is, marked (or tagged, labelled) with one or more short descriptors of the content of a sentence or paragraph [ 2 , 15 , 23 ]. Jansen describes coding as “connecting the raw data with “theoretical” terms” [ 20 ]. In a more practical sense, coding makes raw data sortable. This makes it possible to extract and examine all segments describing, say, a tele-neurology consultation from multiple data sources (e.g. SOPs, emergency room observations, staff and patient interview). In a process of synthesis and abstraction, the codes are then grouped, summarised and/or categorised [ 15 , 20 ]. The end product of the coding or analysis process is a descriptive theory of the behavioural pattern under investigation [ 20 ]. The coding process is performed using qualitative data management software, the most common ones being InVivo, MaxQDA and Atlas.ti. It should be noted that these are data management tools which support the analysis performed by the researcher(s) [ 14 ].

From data collection to data analysis

Attributions for icons: see Fig. ​ Fig.2, 2 , also “Speech to text” by Trevor Dsouza, “Field Notes” by Mike O’Brien, US, “Voice Record” by ProSymbols, US, “Inspection” by Made, AU, and “Cloud” by Graphic Tigers; all from the Noun Project

How to report qualitative research?

Protocols of qualitative research can be published separately and in advance of the study results. However, the aim is not the same as in RCT protocols, i.e. to pre-define and set in stone the research questions and primary or secondary endpoints. Rather, it is a way to describe the research methods in detail, which might not be possible in the results paper given journals’ word limits. Qualitative research papers are usually longer than their quantitative counterparts to allow for deep understanding and so-called “thick description”. In the methods section, the focus is on transparency of the methods used, including why, how and by whom they were implemented in the specific study setting, so as to enable a discussion of whether and how this may have influenced data collection, analysis and interpretation. The results section usually starts with a paragraph outlining the main findings, followed by more detailed descriptions of, for example, the commonalities, discrepancies or exceptions per category [ 20 ]. Here it is important to support main findings by relevant quotations, which may add information, context, emphasis or real-life examples [ 20 , 23 ]. It is subject to debate in the field whether it is relevant to state the exact number or percentage of respondents supporting a certain statement (e.g. “Five interviewees expressed negative feelings towards XYZ”) [ 21 ].

How to combine qualitative with quantitative research?

Qualitative methods can be combined with other methods in multi- or mixed methods designs, which “[employ] two or more different methods [ …] within the same study or research program rather than confining the research to one single method” [ 24 ]. Reasons for combining methods can be diverse, including triangulation for corroboration of findings, complementarity for illustration and clarification of results, expansion to extend the breadth and range of the study, explanation of (unexpected) results generated with one method with the help of another, or offsetting the weakness of one method with the strength of another [ 1 , 17 , 24 – 26 ]. The resulting designs can be classified according to when, why and how the different quantitative and/or qualitative data strands are combined. The three most common types of mixed method designs are the convergent parallel design , the explanatory sequential design and the exploratory sequential design. The designs with examples are shown in Fig.  4 .

Three common mixed methods designs

In the convergent parallel design, a qualitative study is conducted in parallel to and independently of a quantitative study, and the results of both studies are compared and combined at the stage of interpretation of results. Using the above example of EVT provision, this could entail setting up a quantitative EVT registry to measure process times and patient outcomes in parallel to conducting the qualitative research outlined above, and then comparing results. Amongst other things, this would make it possible to assess whether interview respondents’ subjective impressions of patients receiving good care match modified Rankin Scores at follow-up, or whether observed delays in care provision are exceptions or the rule when compared to door-to-needle times as documented in the registry. In the explanatory sequential design, a quantitative study is carried out first, followed by a qualitative study to help explain the results from the quantitative study. This would be an appropriate design if the registry alone had revealed relevant delays in door-to-needle times and the qualitative study would be used to understand where and why these occurred, and how they could be improved. In the exploratory design, the qualitative study is carried out first and its results help informing and building the quantitative study in the next step [ 26 ]. If the qualitative study around EVT provision had shown a high level of dissatisfaction among the staff members involved, a quantitative questionnaire investigating staff satisfaction could be set up in the next step, informed by the qualitative study on which topics dissatisfaction had been expressed. Amongst other things, the questionnaire design would make it possible to widen the reach of the research to more respondents from different (types of) hospitals, regions, countries or settings, and to conduct sub-group analyses for different professional groups.

How to assess qualitative research?

A variety of assessment criteria and lists have been developed for qualitative research, ranging in their focus and comprehensiveness [ 14 , 17 , 27 ]. However, none of these has been elevated to the “gold standard” in the field. In the following, we therefore focus on a set of commonly used assessment criteria that, from a practical standpoint, a researcher can look for when assessing a qualitative research report or paper.

Assessors should check the authors’ use of and adherence to the relevant reporting checklists (e.g. Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR)) to make sure all items that are relevant for this type of research are addressed [ 23 , 28 ]. Discussions of quantitative measures in addition to or instead of these qualitative measures can be a sign of lower quality of the research (paper). Providing and adhering to a checklist for qualitative research contributes to an important quality criterion for qualitative research, namely transparency [ 15 , 17 , 23 ].

Reflexivity

While methodological transparency and complete reporting is relevant for all types of research, some additional criteria must be taken into account for qualitative research. This includes what is called reflexivity, i.e. sensitivity to the relationship between the researcher and the researched, including how contact was established and maintained, or the background and experience of the researcher(s) involved in data collection and analysis. Depending on the research question and population to be researched this can be limited to professional experience, but it may also include gender, age or ethnicity [ 17 , 27 ]. These details are relevant because in qualitative research, as opposed to quantitative research, the researcher as a person cannot be isolated from the research process [ 23 ]. It may influence the conversation when an interviewed patient speaks to an interviewer who is a physician, or when an interviewee is asked to discuss a gynaecological procedure with a male interviewer, and therefore the reader must be made aware of these details [ 19 ].

Sampling and saturation

The aim of qualitative sampling is for all variants of the objects of observation that are deemed relevant for the study to be present in the sample “ to see the issue and its meanings from as many angles as possible” [ 1 , 16 , 19 , 20 , 27 ] , and to ensure “information-richness [ 15 ]. An iterative sampling approach is advised, in which data collection (e.g. five interviews) is followed by data analysis, followed by more data collection to find variants that are lacking in the current sample. This process continues until no new (relevant) information can be found and further sampling becomes redundant – which is called saturation [ 1 , 15 ] . In other words: qualitative data collection finds its end point not a priori , but when the research team determines that saturation has been reached [ 29 , 30 ].

This is also the reason why most qualitative studies use deliberate instead of random sampling strategies. This is generally referred to as “ purposive sampling” , in which researchers pre-define which types of participants or cases they need to include so as to cover all variations that are expected to be of relevance, based on the literature, previous experience or theory (i.e. theoretical sampling) [ 14 , 20 ]. Other types of purposive sampling include (but are not limited to) maximum variation sampling, critical case sampling or extreme or deviant case sampling [ 2 ]. In the above EVT example, a purposive sample could include all relevant professional groups and/or all relevant stakeholders (patients, relatives) and/or all relevant times of observation (day, night and weekend shift).

Assessors of qualitative research should check whether the considerations underlying the sampling strategy were sound and whether or how researchers tried to adapt and improve their strategies in stepwise or cyclical approaches between data collection and analysis to achieve saturation [ 14 ].

Good qualitative research is iterative in nature, i.e. it goes back and forth between data collection and analysis, revising and improving the approach where necessary. One example of this are pilot interviews, where different aspects of the interview (especially the interview guide, but also, for example, the site of the interview or whether the interview can be audio-recorded) are tested with a small number of respondents, evaluated and revised [ 19 ]. In doing so, the interviewer learns which wording or types of questions work best, or which is the best length of an interview with patients who have trouble concentrating for an extended time. Of course, the same reasoning applies to observations or focus groups which can also be piloted.

Ideally, coding should be performed by at least two researchers, especially at the beginning of the coding process when a common approach must be defined, including the establishment of a useful coding list (or tree), and when a common meaning of individual codes must be established [ 23 ]. An initial sub-set or all transcripts can be coded independently by the coders and then compared and consolidated after regular discussions in the research team. This is to make sure that codes are applied consistently to the research data.

Member checking

Member checking, also called respondent validation , refers to the practice of checking back with study respondents to see if the research is in line with their views [ 14 , 27 ]. This can happen after data collection or analysis or when first results are available [ 23 ]. For example, interviewees can be provided with (summaries of) their transcripts and asked whether they believe this to be a complete representation of their views or whether they would like to clarify or elaborate on their responses [ 17 ]. Respondents’ feedback on these issues then becomes part of the data collection and analysis [ 27 ].

Stakeholder involvement

In those niches where qualitative approaches have been able to evolve and grow, a new trend has seen the inclusion of patients and their representatives not only as study participants (i.e. “members”, see above) but as consultants to and active participants in the broader research process [ 31 – 33 ]. The underlying assumption is that patients and other stakeholders hold unique perspectives and experiences that add value beyond their own single story, making the research more relevant and beneficial to researchers, study participants and (future) patients alike [ 34 , 35 ]. Using the example of patients on or nearing dialysis, a recent scoping review found that 80% of clinical research did not address the top 10 research priorities identified by patients and caregivers [ 32 , 36 ]. In this sense, the involvement of the relevant stakeholders, especially patients and relatives, is increasingly being seen as a quality indicator in and of itself.

How not to assess qualitative research

The above overview does not include certain items that are routine in assessments of quantitative research. What follows is a non-exhaustive, non-representative, experience-based list of the quantitative criteria often applied to the assessment of qualitative research, as well as an explanation of the limited usefulness of these endeavours.

Protocol adherence

Given the openness and flexibility of qualitative research, it should not be assessed by how well it adheres to pre-determined and fixed strategies – in other words: its rigidity. Instead, the assessor should look for signs of adaptation and refinement based on lessons learned from earlier steps in the research process.

Sample size

For the reasons explained above, qualitative research does not require specific sample sizes, nor does it require that the sample size be determined a priori [ 1 , 14 , 27 , 37 – 39 ]. Sample size can only be a useful quality indicator when related to the research purpose, the chosen methodology and the composition of the sample, i.e. who was included and why.

Randomisation

While some authors argue that randomisation can be used in qualitative research, this is not commonly the case, as neither its feasibility nor its necessity or usefulness has been convincingly established for qualitative research [ 13 , 27 ]. Relevant disadvantages include the negative impact of a too large sample size as well as the possibility (or probability) of selecting “ quiet, uncooperative or inarticulate individuals ” [ 17 ]. Qualitative studies do not use control groups, either.

Interrater reliability, variability and other “objectivity checks”

The concept of “interrater reliability” is sometimes used in qualitative research to assess to which extent the coding approach overlaps between the two co-coders. However, it is not clear what this measure tells us about the quality of the analysis [ 23 ]. This means that these scores can be included in qualitative research reports, preferably with some additional information on what the score means for the analysis, but it is not a requirement. Relatedly, it is not relevant for the quality or “objectivity” of qualitative research to separate those who recruited the study participants and collected and analysed the data. Experiences even show that it might be better to have the same person or team perform all of these tasks [ 20 ]. First, when researchers introduce themselves during recruitment this can enhance trust when the interview takes place days or weeks later with the same researcher. Second, when the audio-recording is transcribed for analysis, the researcher conducting the interviews will usually remember the interviewee and the specific interview situation during data analysis. This might be helpful in providing additional context information for interpretation of data, e.g. on whether something might have been meant as a joke [ 18 ].

Not being quantitative research

Being qualitative research instead of quantitative research should not be used as an assessment criterion if it is used irrespectively of the research problem at hand. Similarly, qualitative research should not be required to be combined with quantitative research per se – unless mixed methods research is judged as inherently better than single-method research. In this case, the same criterion should be applied for quantitative studies without a qualitative component.

The main take-away points of this paper are summarised in Table ​ Table1. 1 . We aimed to show that, if conducted well, qualitative research can answer specific research questions that cannot to be adequately answered using (only) quantitative designs. Seeing qualitative and quantitative methods as equal will help us become more aware and critical of the “fit” between the research problem and our chosen methods: I can conduct an RCT to determine the reasons for transportation delays of acute stroke patients – but should I? It also provides us with a greater range of tools to tackle a greater range of research problems more appropriately and successfully, filling in the blind spots on one half of the methodological spectrum to better address the whole complexity of neurological research and practice.

Take-away-points

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations.

Authors’ contributions

LB drafted the manuscript; WW and CG revised the manuscript; all authors approved the final versions.

no external funding.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Introduction to Research Methods

6 qualitative research and interviews.

So we’ve described doing a survey and collecting quantitative data. But not all questions can best be answered by a survey. A survey is great for understanding what people think (for example), but not why they think what they do. If your research is intending to understand the underlying motivations or reasons behind peoples actions, or to build a deeper understanding on the background of a subject, an interview may be the more appropriate data collection method.

Interviews are a method of data collection that consist of two or more people exchanging information through a structured process of questions and answers. Questions are designed by the researcher to thoughtfully collect in-depth information on a topic or set of topics as related to the central research question. Interviews typically occur in-person, although good interviews can also be conducted remotely via the phone or video conferencing. Unlike surveys, interviews give the opportunity to ask follow-up questions and thoughtfully engage with participants on the spot (rather than the anonymous and impartial format of survey research).

And surveys can be used in qualitative or quantitative research – though they’re more typically a qualitative technique. In-depth interviews , containing open-ended questions and structured by an interview guide . One can also do a standardized interview with closed-ended questions (i.e. answer options) that are structured by an interview schedule as part of quantitative research. While these are called interviews they’re far closer to surveys, so we wont cover them again in this chapter. The terms used for in-depth interviews we’ll cover in the next section.

6.1 Interviews

In-depth interviews allow participants to describe experiences in their own words (a primary strength of the interview format). Strong in-depth interviews will include many open-ended questions that allow participants to respond in their own words, share new ideas, and lead the conversation in different directions. The purpose of open-ended questions and in-depth interviews is to hear as much as possible in the person’s own voice, to collect new information and ideas, and to achieve a level of depth not possible in surveys or most other forms of data collection.

Typically, an interview guide is used to create a soft structure for the conversation and is an important preparation tool for the researcher. You can not go into an interview unprepared and just “wing it”; what the interview guide allows you to do is map out a framework, order of topics, and may include specific questions to use during the interview. Generally, the interview guide is thought of as just that — a guide to use in order to keep the interview focused. It is not set in stone and a skilled researcher can change the order of questions or topics in an interviews based on the organic conversation flow.

Depending on the experience and skill level of the researcher, an interview guide can be as simple as a list of topics to cover. However, for consistency and quality of research, the interviewer may want to take the time to at least practice writing out questions in advance to ensure that phrasing and word choices are as clear, objective, and focused as possible. It’s worth remembering that working out the wording of questions in advance allows researchers to ensure more consistency across interview. The interview guide below, taken from the wonderful and free textbook Principles of Sociological Inquiry , shows an interview guide that just has topics.

Alternatively, you can use a more detailed guide that lists out possible questions, as shown below. A more detailed guide is probably better for an interviewer that has less experience, or is just beginning to work on a given topic.

The purpose of an interview guide is to help ask effective questions and to support the process of acquiring the best possible data for your research. Topics and questions should be organized thematically, and in a natural progression that will allow the conversation to flow and deepen throughout the course of the interview. Often, researchers will attempt to memorize or partially memorize the interview guide, in order to be more fully present with the participant during the conversation.

6.2 Asking good Questions

Remember, the purposes of interviews is to go more in-depth with an individual than is possible with a generalized survey. For this reason, it is important to use the guide as a starting point but not to be overly tethered to it during the actual interview process. You may get stuck when respondents give you shorter answers than you expect, or don’t provide the type of depth that you need for your research. Often, you may want to probe for more specifics. Think about using follow up questions like “How does/did that affect you?” or “How does X make you feel?” and “Tell me about a time where X…”

For example, if I was researching the relationship between pets and mental health, some strong open-ended questions might be: * How does your pet typically make you feel when you wake up in the morning? * How does your pet generally affect your mood when you arrive home in the evening? * Tell me about a time when your pet had a significant impact on your emotional state.

Questions framed in this manner leave plenty of room for the respondent to answer in their own words, as opposed to leading and/or truncated questions, such as: * Does being with your pet make you happy? * After a bad day, how much does seeing your pet improve your mood? * Tell me about how important your pet is to your mental health.

These questions assume outcomes and will not result in high quality research. Researchers should always avoid asking leading questions that give away an expected answer or suggest particular responses. For instance, if I ask “we need to spend more on public schools, don’t you think?” the respondent is more likely to agree regardless of their own thoughts. Some wont, but humans generally have a strong natural desire to be agreeable. That’s why leaving your questions neutral and open so that respondents can speak to their experiences and views is critical.

6.3 Analyzing Interview Data

Writing good questions and interviewing respondents are just the first steps of the interview process. After these stages, the researcher still has a lot of work to do to collect usable data from the interview. The researcher must spend time coding and analyzing the interview to retrieve this data. Just doing an interview wont produce data. Think about how many conversations you have everyday, and none of those are leaving you swimming in data.

Hopefully you can record your interviews. Recording your interviews will allow you the opportunity to transcribe them word for word later. If you can’t record the interview you’ll need to take detailed notes so that you can reconstruct what you heard later. Do not trust yourself to “just remember” the conversation. You’re collecting data, precious data that you’re spending time and energy to collect. Treat it as important and valuable. Remember our description of the methodology section from Chapter 2, you need to maintain a chain of custody on your data. If you just remembered the interview, you could be accused of making up the results. Your interview notes and the recording become part of that chain of custody to prove to others that your interviews were real and that your results are accurate.

Assuming you recorded your interview, the first step in the analysis process is transcribing the interview. A transcription is a written record of every word in an interview. Transcriptions can either be completed by the researcher or by a hired worker, though it is good practice for the researcher to transcribe the interview him or herself. Researchers should keep the following points in mind regarding transcriptions: * The interview should take place in a quiet location with minimal background noise to produce a clear recording; * Transcribing interviews is a time-consuming process and may take two to three times longer than the actual interview; * Transcriptions provide a more precise record of the interview than hand written notes and allow the interviewer to focus during the interview.

After transcribing the interview, the next step is to analyze the responses. Coding is the main form of analysis used for interviews and involves studying a transcription to identify important themes. These themes are categorized into codes, which are words or phrases that denote an idea.

You’ll typically being with several codes in mind that are generated by key ideas you week seeking in the questions, but you can also being by using open coding to understand the results. An open coding process involves reading through the transcript multiple times and paying close attention to each line of the text to discover noteworthy concepts. During the open coding process, the researcher keeps an open mind to find any codes that may be relevant to the research topic.

After the open coding process is complete, focused coding can begin. Focused coding takes a closer look at the notes compiled during the open coding stage to merge common codes and define what the codes mean in the context of the research project.

Imagine a researcher is conducting interviews to learn about various people’s experiences of childhood in New Orleans. The following example shows several codes that this researcher extrapolated from an interview with one of their subjects.

6.4 Using interview data

The next chapter will address ways to identify people to interview, but most of the remainder of the book will address how to analyze quantitative data. That shouldn’t be taken as a sign that quantitative data is better, or that it’s easier to use interview data. Because in an interview the researcher must interpret the words of others it is often more challenging to identify your findings and clearly answer your research question. However, quantitative data is more common, and there are more different things you can do with it, so we spend a lot of the textbook focusing on it.

I’ll work through one more example of using interview data though. It takes a lot of practice to be a good and skilled interviewer. What I show below is a brief excerpt of an interview I did, and how that data was used in a resulting paper I wrote. These aren’t the only way you can use interview data, but it’s an example of what the intermediary and final product might look like.

The overall project these are drawn from was concerned with minor league baseball stadiums, but the specific part I’m pulling from here was studying the decline and rejuvenation of downtown around those stadiums in several cities. You’ll see that I’m using the words of the respondent fairly directly, because that’s my data. But I’m not just relying on one respondent and trusting them, I did a few dozen interviews in order to understand the commonalities in people’s perspectives to build a narrative around my research question.

Excerpt from Notes

Excerpt from Resulting Paper

How many interviews are necessary? It actually doesn’t take many. What you want to observe in your interviews is theoretical saturation , where the codes you use in the transcript begin to appear across conversations and groups. If different people disagree that’s fine, but what you want to understand is the commonalities across peoples perspectives. Most research on the subject says that with 8 interviews you’ll typically start to see a decline in new information gathered. That doesn’t mean you won’t get new words , but you’ll stop hearing completely unique perspectives or gain novel insights. At that point, where you’ve ‘heard it all before’ you can stop, because you’ve probably identified the answer to the questions you were trying to research.

6.5 Ensuring Anonymity

One significant ethical concern with interviews, that also applies to surveys, is making sure that respondents maintain anonymity. In either form of data collection you may be asking respondents deeply personal questions, that if exposed may cause legal, personal, or professional harm. Notice that in the excerpt of the paper above the respondents are only identified by an id I assigned (Louisville D) and their career, rather than their name. I can only include the excerpt of the interview notes above because there are no details that might lead to them being identified.

You may want to report details about a person to contextualize the data you gathered, but you should always ensure that no one can be identified from your research. For instance, if you were doing research on racism at large companies, you may want to preface people’s comments by their race, as there is a good chance that white and minority employees would feel differently about the issues. However, if you preface someones comments by saying they’re a minority manager, that may violate their anonymity. Even if you don’t state what company you did interviews with, that may be enough detail for their co-workers to identify them if there are few minority managers at the company. As such, always think long and hard about whether there is any way that the participation of respondents may be exposed.

6.6 Why not both?

We’ve discussed surveys and interviews as different methods the last two chapters, but they can also complement each other.

For instance, let’s say you’re curious to study people who change opinions on abortion, either going from support to opposition or vice versa. You could use a survey to understand the prevalence of changing opinions, i.e. what percentage of people in your city have changed their views. That would help to establish whether this is a prominent issue, or whether it’s a rare phenomenon. But it would be difficult to understand from the survey what makes people change their views. You could add an open ended question for anyone that said they changed their opinion, but many people won’t respond and few will provide the level of detail necessary to understand their motivations. Interviews with people that have changed their opinions would give you an opportunity to explore how their experiences and beliefs have changed in combination with their views towards abortion.

6.7 Summary

In the last two chapters we’ve discussed the two most prominent methods of data collection in the social sciences: surveys and interviews. What we haven’t discussed though is how to identify the people you’ll collect data from; that’s called a sampling strategy. In the next chapter

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Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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A Step-by-Step Guide for a Successful Qualitative Interview

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Key Takeaways: 

• Qualitative interviews provide in-depth insights from individual respondents, and are useful when follow-up or clarification is needed
• Clarity of objectives and audience is essential to gathering actionable insights from your qualitative research project
• Build a strong researcher-respondent relationship to elicit honest and engaged responses

Qualitative research uses in-depth interviews to gain rich non-numerical data from individuals. This data helps researchers understand concepts, opinions, and personal experiences. Interviews are an excellent method to discover the “why” behind people’s preferences or behaviors, but they require a thoughtful approach.

Continue reading as we explore use cases and define the steps to follow for a successful qualitative interview.

In this Article:

When Should I Use Qualitative Interviews? Conducting a Successful Qualitative Interview – Step by Step Guide

1. Determine Your Objective 2. Understand Your Audience 3. Design Appropriate Questions 4. Organize and Prepare for the Interview 5. Conduct the Interview 6. Transcribe and Analyze Responses 7. Learn, Adapt, and Evolve Your Interviews

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When Should I Use Qualitative Interviews?

Qualitative research is used to obtain context and describe underlying factors. It describes “how” and “why.”

Perhaps a business wants to understand what product features are most or least important to each target segment. They could ask:

“Between product A and product B, how would the features in each product influence your buying decision?”

This creates an opportunity for the respondent to reveal what features are personally important and unimportant for them. In an interview setting, researchers can go deeper into why these features are important, and how important each feature is in comparison to others.

Qualitative interviews are best when:

• You need in-depth insights
• You want answers to a range of follow-up questions, building on prior responses
• Your questions require significant explanation and reasoning
• You explore complex and confusing topics with respondents
• You want to understand what drives consumer decisions
• You want to hear the unique voice of your audience first-hand

Conducting a Successful Qualitative Interview – Step by Step Guide

Knowing when to use a qualitative interview is a great first step, but now you need to understand how best to conduct one. Our experts share a range of steps to follow as you embark on a qualitative interview and best practices for each.

1. Determine Your Objective

What are you trying to understand? The answer to this is critical in guiding your qualitative research process.

Some common examples:

• Understand consumer perceptions of products, services, or brand
• Reveal strengths and weaknesses in product or service portfolios
• Understand consumer buying behaviors
• Test the usability of a website or digital service
• Emotional reactions to packaging design and marketing assets

2. Understand Your Audience

Who is your target audience for this project? Have a clear understanding of who you need to hear from to meet your research objective.

Here are some examples of objectives, and the sample that is most suited to each:

• If you want to understand how existing customers perceive the quality of your products, you need a sample of existing customers.
• If you want to understand why consumers choose competitor products over yours, you need a sample of non-customers who buy products from your primary competitor.
• If you want to understand how the average person perceives your brand, you need a combination of existing customers, non-customers with awareness of your brand, and unaware non-customers.

3. Design Appropriate Questions

The questions you ask must align with the objectives of your research without being leading or introducing bias.

Here are some best practices when designing research questions:

• Keep questions open-ended. This increases the depth of insight obtained.
• Follow a structure. For instance, a tree diagram where every question has pre-determined follow-up questions based on anticipated answers. A planned structure increases the quality and validity of responses and reduces distractions.
• Design questions that simplify data collection and analysis. Format the responses collected to be compatible with your tools during data ingestion.
• Keep it simple. Focus on clarity when designing research questions to improve respondent understanding and engagement.

4. Organize and Prepare for the Interview

Relationships are essential to the interview process. Preparation beforehand helps build the respondent-researcher relationship. This relationship creates trust and elicits more honest and in-depth answers from participants. Here are some ways to prepare for an interview:

• Give respondents as much information as possible—such as question lists and question intent. Put this into an interview handbook to improve engagement and effectiveness.
• Conduct the interview in a suitable environment with minimal distractions and stressors.
• Have the necessary materials to record information.
• Interview yourself to identify and fix problems before you start interviewing others.

5. Conduct the Interview

With a structure in place, researchers have a clear plan of action throughout the interview.

During the interview, stay attuned to emotional reactions and body language with the following techniques:

• Create a relaxed atmosphere. Ask respondents about their lives, work, and passions to establish a connection.
• Give respondents your full attention. An engaged researcher encourages an engaged respondent. Plus, they gave up their personal time to help you out.
• Read body language. Is the respondent crossing their arms, looking down to the floor, or not making eye contact? These reactions may signal discomfort or anxiety, offering an opportunity to build rapport.
• Follow the questions but be flexible when listening. Deviations from the script may lead to unexpected and valuable insights.

6. Transcribe and Analyze Responses

Convert recorded audio responses to text. Decide early which tool or solution will work best for your needs.

Similarly, researchers may need to annotate video responses to describe behaviors and surrounding context before analysis; e.g., this person gritted their teeth during that response, that person’s vocal tone was anxious and uncertain, etc.

Transcribe responses into a format ready for analysis upon ingestion into your business intelligence tools.

7. Learn, Adapt, and Evolve Your Interviews

Each interview is an opportunity to improve the process. Take time after a project to evaluate how it went.

What did you learn about the process? Was it easy or confusing? Was the respondent comfortable or on edge? Did you get the responses you needed?

Scrutinize your interview approach. Look for ways to improve and innovate the process for better outcomes next time.

Now, you should have a good idea of when to use and how to approach qualitative interviews.

Sago has decades of experience across both quantitative and qualitative research. Our experts find interviews ideal for in-depth qualitative insights that guide new product and service development or improve market positioning for existing offerings. We offer both in-person facilities and online spaces to conduct qualitative interviews.

If you still have questions, get in touch with Sago for help with your next research project.

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BEFORE YOU GO

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• Harvard Library
• Research Guides
• Faculty of Arts & Sciences Libraries

Library Support for Qualitative Research

• Interview Research

General Handbooks and Overviews

Qualitative research communities.

• Types of Interviews
• Recruiting & Engaging Participants
• Interview Questions
• Conducting Interviews
• Transcription
• Data Analysis
• Managing Interview Data
• Finding Interview Data
• Past Workshops on Interview Research
• Methodological Resources
• Remote & Virtual Fieldwork
• Data Management & Repositories
• Campus Access
• Interviews as a Method for Qualitative Research (video) This short video summarizes why interviews can serve as useful data in qualitative research.  
• InterViews by Steinar Kvale  Interviewing is an essential tool in qualitative research and this introduction to interviewing outlines both the theoretical underpinnings and the practical aspects of the process. After examining the role of the interview in the research process, Steinar Kvale considers some of the key philosophical issues relating to interviewing: the interview as conversation, hermeneutics, phenomenology, concerns about ethics as well as validity, and postmodernism. Having established this framework, the author then analyzes the seven stages of the interview process - from designing a study to writing it up.  
• Practical Evaluation by Michael Quinn Patton  Surveys different interviewing strategies, from, a) informal/conversational, to b) interview guide approach, to c) standardized and open-ended, to d) closed/quantitative. Also discusses strategies for wording questions that are open-ended, clear, sensitive, and neutral, while supporting the speaker. Provides suggestions for probing and maintaining control of the interview process, as well as suggestions for recording and transcription.  
• The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research by Amir B. Marvasti (Editor); James A. Holstein (Editor); Jaber F. Gubrium (Editor); Karyn D. McKinney (Editor)  The new edition of this landmark volume emphasizes the dynamic, interactional, and reflexive dimensions of the research interview. Contributors highlight the myriad dimensions of complexity that are emerging as researchers increasingly frame the interview as a communicative opportunity as much as a data-gathering format. The book begins with the history and conceptual transformations of the interview, which is followed by chapters that discuss the main components of interview practice. Taken together, the contributions to The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research: The Complexity of the Craft encourage readers simultaneously to learn the frameworks and technologies of interviewing and to reflect on the epistemological foundations of the interview craft.
• International Congress of Qualitative Inquiry They host an annual confrerence at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, which aims to facilitate the development of qualitative research methods across a wide variety of academic disciplines, among other initiatives.
• METHODSPACE An online home of the research methods community, where practicing researchers share how to make research easier.
• Social Research Association, UK The SRA is the membership organisation for social researchers in the UK and beyond. It supports researchers via training, guidance, publications, research ethics, events, branches, and careers.
• Social Science Research Council The SSRC administers fellowships and research grants that support the innovation and evaluation of new policy solutions. They convene researchers and stakeholders to share evidence-based policy solutions and incubate new research agendas, produce online knowledge platforms and technical reports that catalog research-based policy solutions, and support mentoring programs that broaden problem-solving research opportunities.
• << Previous: Taguette
• Next: Types of Interviews >>

Except where otherwise noted, this work is subject to a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , which allows anyone to share and adapt our material as long as proper attribution is given. For details and exceptions, see the Harvard Library Copyright Policy ©2021 Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College.

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9.2 Qualitative interviews

Learning objectives.

• Define interviews from the social scientific perspective
• Identify when it is appropriate to employ interviews as a data-collection strategy
• Identify the primary aim of in-depth interviews
• Describe what makes qualitative interview techniques unique
• Define the term interview guide and describe how to construct an interview guide
• Outline the guidelines for constructing good qualitative interview questions
• Describe how writing field notes and journaling function in qualitative research
• Identify the strengths and weaknesses of interviews

Knowing how to create and conduct a good interview is an essential skill. Interviews are used by market researchers to learn how to sell their products, and journalists use interviews to get information from a whole host of people from VIPs to random people on the street. Police use interviews to investigate crimes.

In social science,  interviews are a method of data collection that involves two or more people exchanging information through a series of questions and answers. The questions are designed by the researcher to elicit information from interview participants on a specific topic or set of topics. These topics are informed by the research questions. Typically, interviews involve an in-person meeting between two people—an interviewer and an interviewee — but interviews need not be limited to two people, nor must they occur in-person.

The question of when to conduct an interview might be on your mind. Interviews are an excellent way to gather detailed information. They also have an advantage over surveys—they can change as you learn more information. In a survey, you cannot change what questions you ask if a participant’s response sparks some follow-up question in your mind. All participants must get the same questions. The questions you decided to put on your survey during the design stage determine what data you get. In an interview, however, you can follow up on new and unexpected topics that emerge during the conversation. Trusting in emergence and learning from participants are hallmarks of qualitative research. In this way, interviews are a useful method to use when you want to know the story behind the responses you might receive in a written survey.

Interviews are also useful when the topic you are studying is rather complex, requires lengthy explanation, or needs a dialogue between two people to thoroughly investigate. Also, if people will describe the process by which a phenomenon occurs, like how a person makes a decision, then interviews may be the best method for you. For example, you could use interviews to gather data about how people reach the decision not to have children and how others in their lives have responded to that decision. To understand these “how’s” you would need to have some back-and-forth dialogue with respondents. When they begin to tell you their story, inevitably new questions that hadn’t occurred to you from prior interviews would come up because each person’s story is unique. Also, because the process of choosing not to have children is complex for many people, describing that process by responding to closed-ended questions on a survey wouldn’t work particularly well.

Interview research is especially useful when:

• You wish to gather very detailed information
• You anticipate wanting to ask respondents follow-up questions based on their responses
• You plan to ask questions that require lengthy explanation
• You are studying a complex or potentially confusing topic to respondents
• You are studying processes, such as how people make decisions

Qualitative interviews are sometimes called intensive or in-depth interviews. These interviews are semi-structured ; the researcher has a particular topic about which she would like to hear from the respondent, but questions are open-ended and may not be asked in exactly the same way or in exactly the same order to each and every respondent. For in-depth interviews , the primary aim is to hear from respondents about what they think is important about the topic at hand and to hear it in their own words. In this section, we’ll take a look at how to conduct qualitative interviews, analyze interview data, and identify some of the strengths and weaknesses of this method.

Constructing an interview guide

Qualitative interviews might feel more like a conversation than an interview to respondents, but the researcher is in fact usually guiding the conversation with the goal in mind of gathering specific information from a respondent. Qualitative interviews use open-ended questions, which are questions that a researcher poses but does not provide answer options for. Open-ended questions are more demanding of participants than closed-ended questions because they require participants to come up with their own words, phrases, or sentences to respond.

In a qualitative interview, the researcher usually develops an interview guide in advance to refer to during the interview (or memorizes in advance of the interview). An interview guide is a list of questions or topics that the interviewer hopes to cover during the course of an interview. It is called a guide because it is simply that—it is used to guide the interviewer, but it is not set in stone. Think of an interview guide like an agenda for the day or a to-do list—both probably contain all the items you hope to check off or accomplish, though it probably won’t be the end of the world if you don’t accomplish everything on the list or if you don’t accomplish it in the exact order that you have it written down. Perhaps new events will come up that cause you to rearrange your schedule just a bit, or perhaps you simply won’t get to everything on the list.

Interview guides should outline issues that a researcher feels are likely to be important. Because participants are asked to provide answers in their own words and to raise points they believe are important, each interview is likely to flow a little differently. While the opening question in an in-depth interview may be the same across all interviews, from that point on, what the participant says will shape how the interview proceeds. Sometimes participants answer a question on the interview guide before it is asked. When the interviewer comes to that question later on in the interview, it’s a good idea to acknowledge that they already addressed part of this question and ask them if they have anything to add to their response.  All of this uncertainty can make in-depth interviewing exciting and rather challenging. It takes a skilled interviewer to be able to ask questions; listen to respondents; and pick up on cues about when to follow up, when to move on, and when to simply let the participant speak without guidance or interruption.

As we’ve discussed, interview guides can list topics or questions. The specific format of an interview guide might depend on your style, experience, and comfort level as an interviewer or with your topic. Figure 9.1 provides an example of an interview guide for a study of how young people experience workplace sexual harassment. The guide is topic-based, rather than a list of specific questions. The ordering of the topics is important, though how each comes up during the interview may vary.

For interview guides that use questions, there can also be specific words or phrases for follow-up in case the participant does not mention those topics in their responses. These probes , as well as the questions are written out in the interview guide, but may not always be used. Figure 9.2 provides an example of an interview guide that uses questions rather than topics.

As you might have guessed, interview guides do not appear out of thin air. They are the result of thoughtful and careful work on the part of a researcher. As you can see in both of the preceding guides, the topics and questions have been organized thematically and in the order in which they are likely to proceed (though keep in mind that the flow of a qualitative interview is in part determined by what a respondent has to say). Sometimes qualitative interviewers may create two versions of the interview guide: one version contains a very brief outline of the interview, perhaps with just topic headings, and another version contains detailed questions underneath each topic heading. In this case, the researcher might use the very detailed guide to prepare and practice in advance of actually conducting interviews and then just bring the brief outline to the interview. Bringing an outline, as opposed to a very long list of detailed questions, to an interview encourages the researcher to actually listen to what a participant is saying. An overly detailed interview guide can be difficult to navigate during an interview and could give respondents the mis-impression the interviewer is more interested in the questions than in the participant’s answers.

Constructing an interview guide often begins with brainstorming. There are no rules at the brainstorming stage—simply list all the topics and questions that come to mind when you think about your research question. Once you’ve got a pretty good list, you can begin to pare it down by cutting questions and topics that seem redundant and group similar questions and topics together. If you haven’t done so yet, you may also want to come up with question and topic headings for your grouped categories. You should also consult the scholarly literature to find out what kinds of questions other interviewers have asked in studies of similar topics and what theory indicates might be important. As with quantitative survey research, it is best not to place very sensitive or potentially controversial questions at the very beginning of your qualitative interview guide. You need to give participants the opportunity to warm up to the interview and to feel comfortable talking with you. Finally, get some feedback on your interview guide. Ask your friends, other researchers, and your professors for some guidance and suggestions once you’ve come up with what you think is a strong guide. Chances are they’ll catch a few things you hadn’t noticed. Once you begin your interviews, your participants may also suggest revisions or improvements.

In terms of the specific questions you include in your guide, there are a few guidelines worth noting. First, avoid questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no. Try to rephrase your questions in a way that invites longer responses from your interviewees. If you choose to include yes or no questions, be sure to include follow-up questions. Remember, one of the benefits of qualitative interviews is that you can ask participants for more information—be sure to do so. While it is a good idea to ask follow-up questions, try to avoid asking “why” as your follow-up question, as this particular question can come off as confrontational, even if that is not your intent. Often people won’t know how to respond to “why,” perhaps because they don’t even know why themselves. Instead of asking “why,” you say something like, “Could you tell me a little more about that?” This allows participants to explain themselves further without feeling that they’re being doubted or questioned in a hostile way.

Also, try to avoid phrasing your questions in a leading way. For example, rather than asking, “Don’t you think most people who don’t want to have children are selfish?” you could ask, “What comes to mind for you when you hear someone doesn’t want to have children?” Finally, remember to keep most, if not all, of your questions open-ended. The key to a successful qualitative interview is giving participants the opportunity to share information in their own words and in their own way. Documenting the decisions made along the way regarding which questions are used, thrown out, or revised can help a researcher remember the thought process behind the interview guide when she is analyzing the data. Additionally, it promotes the rigor of the qualitative project as a whole, ensuring the researcher is proceeding in a reflective and deliberate manner that can be checked by others reviewing her study.

Recording qualitative data

Even after the interview guide is constructed, the interviewer is not yet ready to begin conducting interviews. The researcher has to decide how to collect and maintain the information that is provided by participants. Researchers keep field notes or written recordings produced by the researcher during the data collection process.  Field notes can be taken before, during, or after interviews. Field notes help researchers document what they observe, and in so doing, they form the first step of data analysis. Field notes may contain many things—observations of body language or environment, reflections on whether interview questions are working well, and connections between ideas that participants share.

Unfortunately, even the most diligent researcher cannot write down everything that is seen or heard during an interview. In particular, it is difficult for a researcher to be truly present and observant if she is also writing down everything the participant is saying. For this reason, it is quite common for interviewers to create audio recordings of the interviews they conduct. Recording interviews allows the researcher to focus on the interaction with the interview participant.

Of course, not all participants will feel comfortable being recorded and sometimes even the interviewer may feel that the subject is so sensitive that recording would be inappropriate. If this is the case, it is up to the researcher to balance excellent note-taking with exceptional question-asking and even better listening.

Whether you will be recording your interviews or not (and especially if not), practicing the interview in advance is crucial. Ideally, you’ll find a friend or two willing to participate in a couple of trial runs with you. Even better, find a friend or two who are similar in at least some ways to your sample. They can give you the best feedback on your questions and your interview demeanor.

Another issue interviewers face is documenting the decisions made during the data collection process. Qualitative research is open to new ideas that emerge through the data collection process. For example, a participant might suggest a new concept you hadn’t thought of before or define a concept in a new way. This may lead you to create new questions or ask questions in a different way to future participants. These processes should be documented in a process called journaling or memoing. Journal entries are notes to yourself about reflections or methodological decisions that emerge during the data collection process. Documenting these are important, as you’d be surprised how quickly you can forget what happened. Journaling makes sure that when it comes time to analyze your data, you remember how, when, and why certain changes were made. The discipline of journaling in qualitative research helps to ensure the rigor of the research process—that is its trustworthiness and authenticity which we will discuss later in this chapter.

Strengths and weaknesses of qualitative interviews

As we’ve mentioned in this section, qualitative interviews are an excellent way to gather detailed information. Any topic can be explored in much more depth with interviews than with almost any other method. Not only are participants given the opportunity to elaborate in a way that is not possible with other methods such as survey research, but they also are able share information with researchers in their own words and from their own perspectives. Whereas, quantitative research asks participants to fit their perspectives into the limited response options provided by the researcher. And because qualitative interviews are designed to elicit detailed information, they are especially useful when a researcher’s aim is to study social processes or the “how” of various phenomena. Yet another, and sometimes overlooked, benefit of in-person qualitative interviews is that researchers can make observations beyond those that a respondent is orally reporting. A respondent’s body language, and even their choice of time and location for the interview, might provide a researcher with useful data.

Of course, all these benefits come with some drawbacks. As with quantitative survey research, qualitative interviews rely on respondents’ ability to accurately and honestly recall specific details about their lives, circumstances, thoughts, opinions, or behaviors. Further, as you may have already guessed, qualitative interviewing is time-intensive and can be quite expensive. Creating an interview guide, identifying a sample, and conducting interviews are just the beginning. Writing out what was said in interviews and analyzing the qualitative interview data are time consuming processes. Keep in mind you are also asking for more of participants’ time than if you’d simply mailed them a questionnaire containing closed-ended questions. Conducting qualitative interviews is not only labor-intensive but can also be emotionally taxing. Seeing and hearing the impact that social problems have on respondents is difficult. Researchers embarking on a qualitative interview project should keep in mind their own abilities to receive stories that may be difficult to hear.

Key Takeaways

• Understanding how to design and conduct interview research is a useful skill to have.
• In a social scientific interview, two or more people exchange information through a series of questions and answers.
• Interview research is often used when detailed information is required and when a researcher wishes to examine processes.
• In-depth interviews are semi-structured interviews where the researcher has topics and questions in mind to ask, but questions are open-ended and flow according to how the participant responds to each.
• Interview guides can vary in format but should contain some outline of the topics you hope to cover during the course of an interview.
• Qualitative interviews allow respondents to share information in their own words and are useful for gathering detailed information and understanding social processes.
• Field notes and journaling are ways to document thoughts and decisions about the research process
• Drawbacks of qualitative interviews include reliance on respondents’ accuracy and their intensity in terms of time, expense, and possible emotional strain.
• Field notes- written notes produced by the researcher during the data collection process
• In-depth interviews- interviews in which researchers hear from respondents about what they think is important about the topic at hand in the respondent’s own words
• Interviews- a method of data collection that involves two or more people exchanging information through a series of questions and answers
• Interview guide- a list of questions or topics that the interviewer hopes to cover during the course of an interview
• Journaling- making notes of emerging issues and changes during the research process
• Semi-structured interviews- questions are open ended and may not be asked in exactly the same way or in exactly the same order to each and every respondent

Image attributions

interview restaurant a pair by alda2 CC-0

questions by geralt CC-0

Figure 9.1 is copied from Blackstone, A. (2012) Principles of sociological inquiry: Qualitative and quantitative methods. Saylor Foundation. Retrieved from: https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_principles-of-sociological-inquiry-qualitative-and-quantitative-methods/ Shared under CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0 License

writing by StockSnap CC-0

Foundations of Social Work Research Copyright © 2020 by Rebecca L. Mauldin is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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83 Qualitative Research Questions & Examples

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Qualitative research questions help you understand consumer sentiment. They’re strategically designed to show organizations how and why people feel the way they do about a brand, product, or service. It looks beyond the numbers and is one of the most telling types of market research a company can do.

The UK Data Service describes this perfectly, saying, “The value of qualitative research is that it gives a voice to the lived experience .”

Read on to see seven use cases and 83 qualitative research questions, with the added bonus of examples that show how to get similar insights faster with Similarweb Research Intelligence.

What is a qualitative research question?

A qualitative research question explores a topic in-depth, aiming to better understand the subject through interviews, observations, and other non-numerical data. Qualitative research questions are open-ended, helping to uncover a target audience’s opinions, beliefs, and motivations.

How to choose qualitative research questions?

Choosing the right qualitative research questions can be incremental to the success of your research and the findings you uncover. Here’s my six-step process for choosing the best qualitative research questions.

• Start by understanding the purpose of your research. What do you want to learn? What outcome are you hoping to achieve?
• Consider who you are researching. What are their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs? How can you best capture these in your research questions ?
• Keep your questions open-ended . Qualitative research questions should not be too narrow or too broad. Aim to ask specific questions to provide meaningful answers but broad enough to allow for exploration.
• Balance your research questions. You don’t want all of your questions to be the same type. Aim to mix up your questions to get a variety of answers.
• Ensure your research questions are ethical and free from bias. Always have a second (and third) person check for unconscious bias.
• Consider the language you use. Your questions should be written in a way that is clear and easy to understand. Avoid using jargon , acronyms, or overly technical language.

Types of qualitative research questions

For a question to be considered qualitative, it usually needs to be open-ended. However, as I’ll explain, there can sometimes be a slight cross-over between quantitative and qualitative research questions.

Open-ended questions

These allow for a wide range of responses and can be formatted with multiple-choice answers or a free-text box to collect additional details. The next two types of qualitative questions are considered open questions, but each has its own style and purpose.

• Probing questions are used to delve deeper into a respondent’s thoughts, such as “Can you tell me more about why you feel that way?”
• Comparative questions ask people to compare two or more items, such as “Which product do you prefer and why?” These qualitative questions are highly useful for understanding brand awareness , competitive analysis , and more.

Closed-ended questions

These ask respondents to choose from a predetermined set of responses, such as “On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with the new product?” While they’re traditionally quantitative, adding a free text box that asks for extra comments into why a specific rating was chosen will provide qualitative insights alongside their respective quantitative research question responses.

• Ranking questions get people to rank items in order of preference, such as “Please rank these products in terms of quality.” They’re advantageous in many scenarios, like product development, competitive analysis, and brand awareness.
• Likert scale questions ask people to rate items on a scale, such as “On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with the new product?” Ideal for placement on websites and emails to gather quick, snappy feedback.

Qualitative research question examples

There are many applications of qualitative research and lots of ways you can put your findings to work for the success of your business. Here’s a summary of the most common use cases for qualitative questions and examples to ask.

Qualitative questions for identifying customer needs and motivations

These types of questions help you find out why customers choose products or services and what they are looking for when making a purchase.

• What factors do you consider when deciding to buy a product?
• What would make you choose one product or service over another?
• What are the most important elements of a product that you would buy?
• What features do you look for when purchasing a product?
• What qualities do you look for in a company’s products?
• Do you prefer localized or global brands when making a purchase?
• How do you determine the value of a product?
• What do you think is the most important factor when choosing a product?
• How do you decide if a product or service is worth the money?
• Do you have any specific expectations when purchasing a product?
• Do you prefer to purchase products or services online or in person?
• What kind of customer service do you expect when buying a product?
• How do you decide when it is time to switch to a different product?
• Where do you research products before you decide to buy?
• What do you think is the most important customer value when making a purchase?

Qualitative research questions to enhance customer experience

Use these questions to reveal insights into how customers interact with a company’s products or services and how those experiences can be improved.

• What aspects of our product or service do customers find most valuable?
• How do customers perceive our customer service?
• What factors are most important to customers when purchasing?
• What do customers think of our brand?
• What do customers think of our current marketing efforts?
• How do customers feel about the features and benefits of our product?
• How do customers feel about the price of our product or service?
• How could we improve the customer experience?
• What do customers think of our website or app?
• What do customers think of our customer support?
• What could we do to make our product or service easier to use?
• What do customers think of our competitors?
• What is your preferred way to access our site?
• How do customers feel about our delivery/shipping times?
• What do customers think of our loyalty programs?

Qualitative research question example for customer experience

• ‍♀️ Question: What is your preferred way to access our site?
• Insight sought: How mobile-dominant are consumers? Should you invest more in mobile optimization or mobile marketing?
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: While using this type of question is ideal if you have a large database to survey when placed on a site or sent to a limited customer list, it only gives you a point-in-time perspective from a limited group of people.
• A new approach: You can get better, broader insights quicker with Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence. To fully inform your research, you need to know preferences at the industry or market level.
• ⏰ Time to insight: 30 seconds
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb offers multiple ways to answer this question without going through a lengthy qualitative research process. 

First, I’m going to do a website market analysis of the banking credit and lending market in the finance sector to get a clearer picture of industry benchmarks.

Here, I can view device preferences across any industry or market instantly. It shows me the device distribution for any country across any period. This clearly answers the question of how mobile dominate my target audience is , with 59.79% opting to access site via a desktop vs. 40.21% via mobile

I then use the trends section to show me the exact split between mobile and web traffic for each key player in my space. Let’s say I’m about to embark on a competitive campaign that targets customers of Chase and Bank of America ; I can see both their audiences are highly desktop dominant compared with others in their space .

Qualitative question examples for developing new products or services

Research questions like this can help you understand customer pain points and give you insights to develop products that meet those needs.

• What is the primary reason you would choose to purchase a product from our company?
• How do you currently use products or services that are similar to ours?
• Is there anything that could be improved with products currently on the market?
• What features would you like to see added to our products?
• How do you prefer to contact a customer service team?
• What do you think sets our company apart from our competitors?
• What other product or service offerings would like to see us offer?
• What type of information would help you make decisions about buying a product?
• What type of advertising methods are most effective in getting your attention?
• What is the biggest deterrent to purchasing products from us?

Qualitative research question example for service development

• ‍♀️ Question: What type of advertising methods are most effective in getting your attention?
• Insight sought: The marketing channels and/or content that performs best with a target audience .
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: When using qualitative research surveys to answer questions like this, the sample size is limited, and bias could be at play.
• A better approach: The most authentic insights come from viewing real actions and results that take place in the digital world. No questions or answers are needed to uncover this intel, and the information you seek is readily available in less than a minute.
• ⏰ Time to insight: 5 minutes
• ✅ How it’s done: There are a few ways to approach this. You can either take an industry-wide perspective or hone in on specific competitors to unpack their individual successes. Here, I’ll quickly show a snapshot with a whole market perspective.

Using the market analysis element of Similarweb Digital Intelligence, I select my industry or market, which I’ve kept as banking and credit. A quick click into marketing channels shows me which channels drive the highest traffic in my market. Taking direct traffic out of the equation, for now, I can see that referrals and organic traffic are the two highest-performing channels in this market.

Similarweb allows me to view the specific referral partners and pages across these channels. 

Looking closely at referrals in this market, I’ve chosen chase.com and its five closest rivals . I select referrals in the channel traffic element of marketing channels. I see that Capital One is a clear winner, gaining almost 25 million visits due to referral partnerships.

Next, I get to see exactly who is referring traffic to Capital One and the total traffic share for each referrer. I can see the growth as a percentage and how that has changed, along with an engagement score that rates the average engagement level of that audience segment. This is particularly useful when deciding on which new referral partnerships to pursue.  

Once I’ve identified the channels and campaigns that yield the best results, I can then use Similarweb to dive into the various ad creatives and content that have the greatest impact.

These ads are just a few of those listed in the creatives section from my competitive website analysis of Capital One. You can filter this list by the specific campaign, publishers, and ad networks to view those that matter to you most. You can also discover video ad creatives in the same place too.

In just five minutes ⏰ 

• I’ve captured audience loyalty statistics across my market
• Spotted the most competitive players
• Identified the marketing channels my audience is most responsive to
• I know which content and campaigns are driving the highest traffic volume
• I’ve created a target list for new referral partners and have been able to prioritize this based on results and engagement figures from my rivals
• I can see the types of creatives that my target audience is responding to, giving me ideas for ways to generate effective copy for future campaigns

Qualitative questions to determine pricing strategies

Companies need to make sure pricing stays relevant and competitive. Use these questions to determine customer perceptions on pricing and develop pricing strategies to maximize profits and reduce churn.

• How do you feel about our pricing structure?
• How does our pricing compare to other similar products?
• What value do you feel you get from our pricing?
• How could we make our pricing more attractive?
• What would be an ideal price for our product?
• Which features of our product that you would like to see priced differently?
• What discounts or deals would you like to see us offer?
• How do you feel about the amount you have to pay for our product?

Get Faster Answers to Qualitative Research Questions with Similarweb Today

Qualitative research question example for determining pricing strategies

• ‍♀️ Question: What discounts or deals would you like to see us offer?
• Insight sought: The promotions or campaigns that resonate with your target audience.
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: Consumers don’t always recall the types of ads or campaigns they respond to. Over time, their needs and habits change. Your sample size is limited to those you ask, leaving a huge pool of unknowns at play.
• A better approach: While qualitative insights are good to know, you get the most accurate picture of the highest-performing promotion and campaigns by looking at data collected directly from the web. These analytics are real-world, real-time, and based on the collective actions of many, instead of the limited survey group you approach. By getting a complete picture across an entire market, your decisions are better informed and more aligned with current market trends and behaviors.
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb’s Popular Pages feature shows the content, products, campaigns, and pages with the highest growth for any website. So, if you’re trying to unpack the successes of others in your space and find out what content resonates with a target audience, there’s a far quicker way to get answers to these questions with Similarweb.

Here, I’m using Capital One as an example site. I can see trending pages on their site showing the largest increase in page views. Other filters include campaign, best-performing, and new–each of which shows you page URLs, share of traffic, and growth as a percentage. This page is particularly useful for staying on top of trending topics , campaigns, and new content being pushed out in a market by key competitors.

Qualitative research questions for product development teams

It’s vital to stay in touch with changing consumer needs. These questions can also be used for new product or service development, but this time, it’s from the perspective of a product manager or development team. 

• What are customers’ primary needs and wants for this product?
• What do customers think of our current product offerings?
• What is the most important feature or benefit of our product?
• How can we improve our product to meet customers’ needs better?
• What do customers like or dislike about our competitors’ products?
• What do customers look for when deciding between our product and a competitor’s?
• How have customer needs and wants for this product changed over time?
• What motivates customers to purchase this product?
• What is the most important thing customers want from this product?
• What features or benefits are most important when selecting a product?
• What do customers perceive to be our product’s pros and cons?
• What would make customers switch from a competitor’s product to ours?
• How do customers perceive our product in comparison to similar products?
• What do customers think of our pricing and value proposition?
• What do customers think of our product’s design, usability, and aesthetics?

Qualitative questions examples to understand customer segments

Market segmentation seeks to create groups of consumers with shared characteristics. Use these questions to learn more about different customer segments and how to target them with tailored messaging.

• What motivates customers to make a purchase?
• How do customers perceive our brand in comparison to our competitors?
• How do customers feel about our product quality?
• How do customers define quality in our products?
• What factors influence customers’ purchasing decisions ?
• What are the most important aspects of customer service?
• What do customers think of our customer service?
• What do customers think of our pricing?
• How do customers rate our product offerings?
• How do customers prefer to make purchases (online, in-store, etc.)?

Qualitative research question example for understanding customer segments

• ‍♀️ Question: Which social media channels are you most active on?
• Insight sought: Formulate a social media strategy . Specifically, the social media channels most likely to succeed with a target audience.
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: Qualitative research question responses are limited to those you ask, giving you a limited sample size. Questions like this are usually at risk of some bias, and this may not be reflective of real-world actions.
• A better approach: Get a complete picture of social media preferences for an entire market or specific audience belonging to rival firms. Insights are available in real-time, and are based on the actions of many, not a select group of participants. Data is readily available, easy to understand, and expandable at a moment’s notice.
• ✅ How it’s done: Using Similarweb’s website analysis feature, you can get a clear breakdown of social media stats for your audience using the marketing channels element. It shows the percentage of visits from each channel to your site, respective growth, and specific referral pages by each platform. All data is expandable, meaning you can select any platform, period, and region to drill down and get more accurate intel, instantly.

This example shows me Bank of America’s social media distribution, with YouTube , Linkedin , and Facebook taking the top three spots, and accounting for almost 80% of traffic being driven from social media.

When doing any type of market research, it’s important to benchmark performance against industry averages and perform a social media competitive analysis to verify rival performance across the same channels.

Qualitative questions to inform competitive analysis

Organizations must assess market sentiment toward other players to compete and beat rival firms. Whether you want to increase market share , challenge industry leaders , or reduce churn, understanding how people view you vs. the competition is key.

• What is the overall perception of our competitors’ product offerings in the market?
• What attributes do our competitors prioritize in their customer experience?
• What strategies do our competitors use to differentiate their products from ours?
• How do our competitors position their products in relation to ours?
• How do our competitors’ pricing models compare to ours?
• What do consumers think of our competitors’ product quality?
• What do consumers think of our competitors’ customer service?
• What are the key drivers of purchase decisions in our market?
• What is the impact of our competitors’ marketing campaigns on our market share ? 10. How do our competitors leverage social media to promote their products?

Qualitative research question example for competitive analysis

• ‍♀️ Question: What other companies do you shop with for x?
• Insight sought: W ho are your competitors? Which of your rival’s sites do your customers visit? How loyal are consumers in your market?
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods:  Sample size is limited, and customers could be unwilling to reveal which competitors they shop with, or how often they around. Where finances are involved, people can act with reluctance or bias, and be unwilling to reveal other suppliers they do business with.
• A better approach: Get a complete picture of your audience’s loyalty, see who else they shop with, and how many other sites they visit in your competitive group. Find out the size of the untapped opportunity and which players are doing a better job at attracting unique visitors – without having to ask people to reveal their preferences.
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb website analysis shows you the competitive sites your audience visits, giving you access to data that shows cross-visitation habits, audience loyalty, and untapped potential in a matter of minutes.

Using the audience interests element of Similarweb website analysis, you can view the cross-browsing behaviors of a website’s audience instantly. You can see a matrix that shows the percentage of visitors on a target site and any rival site they may have visited.

With the Similarweb audience overlap feature, view the cross-visitation habits of an audience across specific websites. In this example, I chose chase.com and its four closest competitors to review. For each intersection, you see the number of unique visitors and the overall proportion of each site’s audience it represents. It also shows the volume of unreached potential visitors.

Here, you can see a direct comparison of the audience loyalty represented in a bar graph. It shows a breakdown of each site’s audience based on how many other sites they have visited. Those sites with the highest loyalty show fewer additional sites visited.

From the perspective of chase.com, I can see 47% of their visitors do not visit rival sites. 33% of their audience visited 1 or more sites in this group, 14% visited 2 or more sites, 4% visited 3 or more sites, and just 0.8% viewed all sites in this comparison. 

How to answer qualitative research questions with Similarweb

Similarweb Research Intelligence drastically improves market research efficiency and time to insight. Both of these can impact the bottom line and the pace at which organizations can adapt and flex when markets shift, and rivals change tactics.

Outdated practices, while still useful, take time . And with a quicker, more efficient way to garner similar insights, opting for the fast lane puts you at a competitive advantage.

With a birds-eye view of the actions and behaviors of companies and consumers across a market , you can answer certain research questions without the need to plan, do, and review extensive qualitative market research .

Wrapping up

Qualitative research methods have been around for centuries. From designing the questions to finding the best distribution channels, collecting and analyzing findings takes time to get the insights you need. Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence drastically improves efficiency and time to insight. Both of which impact the bottom line and the pace at which organizations can adapt and flex when markets shift.

Similarweb’s suite of digital intelligence solutions offers unbiased, accurate, honest insights you can trust for analyzing any industry, market, or audience.

• Methodologies used for data collection are robust, transparent, and trustworthy.
• Clear presentation of data via an easy-to-use, intuitive platform.
• It updates dynamically–giving you the freshest data about an industry or market.
• Data is available via an API – so you can plug into platforms like Tableau or PowerBI to streamline your analyses.
• Filter and refine results according to your needs.

Are quantitative or qualitative research questions best?

Both have their place and purpose in market research. Qualitative research questions seek to provide details, whereas quantitative market research gives you numerical statistics that are easier and quicker to analyze. You get more flexibility with qualitative questions, and they’re non-directional.

What are the advantages of qualitative research?

Qualitative research is advantageous because it allows researchers to better understand their subject matter by exploring people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations in a particular context. It also allows researchers to uncover new insights that may not have been discovered with quantitative research methods.

What are some of the challenges of qualitative research?

Qualitative research can be time-consuming and costly, typically involving in-depth interviews and focus groups. Additionally, there are challenges associated with the reliability and validity of the collected data, as there is no universal standard for interpreting the results.

by Liz March

Digital Research Specialist

Liz March has 15 years of experience in content creation. She enjoys the outdoors, F1, and reading, and is pursuing a BSc in Environmental Science.

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• Published: 05 October 2018

Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research: an update for the digital age

• P. Gill 1 &
• J. Baillie 2  

British Dental Journal volume  225 ,  pages 668–672 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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Highlights that qualitative research is used increasingly in dentistry. Interviews and focus groups remain the most common qualitative methods of data collection.

Suggests the advent of digital technologies has transformed how qualitative research can now be undertaken.

Suggests interviews and focus groups can offer significant, meaningful insight into participants' experiences, beliefs and perspectives, which can help to inform developments in dental practice.

Qualitative research is used increasingly in dentistry, due to its potential to provide meaningful, in-depth insights into participants' experiences, perspectives, beliefs and behaviours. These insights can subsequently help to inform developments in dental practice and further related research. The most common methods of data collection used in qualitative research are interviews and focus groups. While these are primarily conducted face-to-face, the ongoing evolution of digital technologies, such as video chat and online forums, has further transformed these methods of data collection. This paper therefore discusses interviews and focus groups in detail, outlines how they can be used in practice, how digital technologies can further inform the data collection process, and what these methods can offer dentistry.

You have full access to this article via your institution.

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Interviews in the social sciences

Professionalism in dentistry: deconstructing common terminology

A review of technical and quality assessment considerations of audio-visual and web-conferencing focus groups in qualitative health research, introduction.

Traditionally, research in dentistry has primarily been quantitative in nature. 1 However, in recent years, there has been a growing interest in qualitative research within the profession, due to its potential to further inform developments in practice, policy, education and training. Consequently, in 2008, the British Dental Journal (BDJ) published a four paper qualitative research series, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 to help increase awareness and understanding of this particular methodological approach.

Since the papers were originally published, two scoping reviews have demonstrated the ongoing proliferation in the use of qualitative research within the field of oral healthcare. 1 , 6 To date, the original four paper series continue to be well cited and two of the main papers remain widely accessed among the BDJ readership. 2 , 3 The potential value of well-conducted qualitative research to evidence-based practice is now also widely recognised by service providers, policy makers, funding bodies and those who commission, support and use healthcare research.

Besides increasing standalone use, qualitative methods are now also routinely incorporated into larger mixed method study designs, such as clinical trials, as they can offer additional, meaningful insights into complex problems that simply could not be provided by quantitative methods alone. Qualitative methods can also be used to further facilitate in-depth understanding of important aspects of clinical trial processes, such as recruitment. For example, Ellis et al . investigated why edentulous older patients, dissatisfied with conventional dentures, decline implant treatment, despite its established efficacy, and frequently refuse to participate in related randomised clinical trials, even when financial constraints are removed. 7 Through the use of focus groups in Canada and the UK, the authors found that fears of pain and potential complications, along with perceived embarrassment, exacerbated by age, are common reasons why older patients typically refuse dental implants. 7

The last decade has also seen further developments in qualitative research, due to the ongoing evolution of digital technologies. These developments have transformed how researchers can access and share information, communicate and collaborate, recruit and engage participants, collect and analyse data and disseminate and translate research findings. 8 Where appropriate, such technologies are therefore capable of extending and enhancing how qualitative research is undertaken. 9 For example, it is now possible to collect qualitative data via instant messaging, email or online/video chat, using appropriate online platforms.

These innovative approaches to research are therefore cost-effective, convenient, reduce geographical constraints and are often useful for accessing 'hard to reach' participants (for example, those who are immobile or socially isolated). 8 , 9 However, digital technologies are still relatively new and constantly evolving and therefore present a variety of pragmatic and methodological challenges. Furthermore, given their very nature, their use in many qualitative studies and/or with certain participant groups may be inappropriate and should therefore always be carefully considered. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a detailed explication regarding the use of digital technologies in qualitative research, insight is provided into how such technologies can be used to facilitate the data collection process in interviews and focus groups.

In light of such developments, it is perhaps therefore timely to update the main paper 3 of the original BDJ series. As with the previous publications, this paper has been purposely written in an accessible style, to enhance readability, particularly for those who are new to qualitative research. While the focus remains on the most common qualitative methods of data collection – interviews and focus groups – appropriate revisions have been made to provide a novel perspective, and should therefore be helpful to those who would like to know more about qualitative research. This paper specifically focuses on undertaking qualitative research with adult participants only.

Overview of qualitative research

Qualitative research is an approach that focuses on people and their experiences, behaviours and opinions. 10 , 11 The qualitative researcher seeks to answer questions of 'how' and 'why', providing detailed insight and understanding, 11 which quantitative methods cannot reach. 12 Within qualitative research, there are distinct methodologies influencing how the researcher approaches the research question, data collection and data analysis. 13 For example, phenomenological studies focus on the lived experience of individuals, explored through their description of the phenomenon. Ethnographic studies explore the culture of a group and typically involve the use of multiple methods to uncover the issues. 14

While methodology is the 'thinking tool', the methods are the 'doing tools'; 13 the ways in which data are collected and analysed. There are multiple qualitative data collection methods, including interviews, focus groups, observations, documentary analysis, participant diaries, photography and videography. Two of the most commonly used qualitative methods are interviews and focus groups, which are explored in this article. The data generated through these methods can be analysed in one of many ways, according to the methodological approach chosen. A common approach is thematic data analysis, involving the identification of themes and subthemes across the data set. Further information on approaches to qualitative data analysis has been discussed elsewhere. 1

Qualitative research is an evolving and adaptable approach, used by different disciplines for different purposes. Traditionally, qualitative data, specifically interviews, focus groups and observations, have been collected face-to-face with participants. In more recent years, digital technologies have contributed to the ongoing evolution of qualitative research. Digital technologies offer researchers different ways of recruiting participants and collecting data, and offer participants opportunities to be involved in research that is not necessarily face-to-face.

Research interviews are a fundamental qualitative research method 15 and are utilised across methodological approaches. Interviews enable the researcher to learn in depth about the perspectives, experiences, beliefs and motivations of the participant. 3 , 16 Examples include, exploring patients' perspectives of fear/anxiety triggers in dental treatment, 17 patients' experiences of oral health and diabetes, 18 and dental students' motivations for their choice of career. 19

Interviews may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured, 3 according to the purpose of the study, with less structured interviews facilitating a more in depth and flexible interviewing approach. 20 Structured interviews are similar to verbal questionnaires and are used if the researcher requires clarification on a topic; however they produce less in-depth data about a participant's experience. 3 Unstructured interviews may be used when little is known about a topic and involves the researcher asking an opening question; 3 the participant then leads the discussion. 20 Semi-structured interviews are commonly used in healthcare research, enabling the researcher to ask predetermined questions, 20 while ensuring the participant discusses issues they feel are important.

Interviews can be undertaken face-to-face or using digital methods when the researcher and participant are in different locations. Audio-recording the interview, with the consent of the participant, is essential for all interviews regardless of the medium as it enables accurate transcription; the process of turning the audio file into a word-for-word transcript. This transcript is the data, which the researcher then analyses according to the chosen approach.

Types of interview

Qualitative studies often utilise one-to-one, face-to-face interviews with research participants. This involves arranging a mutually convenient time and place to meet the participant, signing a consent form and audio-recording the interview. However, digital technologies have expanded the potential for interviews in research, enabling individuals to participate in qualitative research regardless of location.

Telephone interviews can be a useful alternative to face-to-face interviews and are commonly used in qualitative research. They enable participants from different geographical areas to participate and may be less onerous for participants than meeting a researcher in person. 15 A qualitative study explored patients' perspectives of dental implants and utilised telephone interviews due to the quality of the data that could be yielded. 21 The researcher needs to consider how they will audio record the interview, which can be facilitated by purchasing a recorder that connects directly to the telephone. One potential disadvantage of telephone interviews is the inability of the interviewer and researcher to see each other. This is resolved using software for audio and video calls online – such as Skype – to conduct interviews with participants in qualitative studies. Advantages of this approach include being able to see the participant if video calls are used, enabling observation of non-verbal communication, and the software can be free to use. However, participants are required to have a device and internet connection, as well as being computer literate, potentially limiting who can participate in the study. One qualitative study explored the role of dental hygienists in reducing oral health disparities in Canada. 22 The researcher conducted interviews using Skype, which enabled dental hygienists from across Canada to be interviewed within the research budget, accommodating the participants' schedules. 22

A less commonly used approach to qualitative interviews is the use of social virtual worlds. A qualitative study accessed a social virtual world – Second Life – to explore the health literacy skills of individuals who use social virtual worlds to access health information. 23 The researcher created an avatar and interview room, and undertook interviews with participants using voice and text methods. 23 This approach to recruitment and data collection enables individuals from diverse geographical locations to participate, while remaining anonymous if they wish. Furthermore, for interviews conducted using text methods, transcription of the interview is not required as the researcher can save the written conversation with the participant, with the participant's consent. However, the researcher and participant need to be familiar with how the social virtual world works to engage in an interview this way.

Conducting an interview

Ensuring informed consent before any interview is a fundamental aspect of the research process. Participants in research must be afforded autonomy and respect; consent should be informed and voluntary. 24 Individuals should have the opportunity to read an information sheet about the study, ask questions, understand how their data will be stored and used, and know that they are free to withdraw at any point without reprisal. The qualitative researcher should take written consent before undertaking the interview. In a face-to-face interview, this is straightforward: the researcher and participant both sign copies of the consent form, keeping one each. However, this approach is less straightforward when the researcher and participant do not meet in person. A recent protocol paper outlined an approach for taking consent for telephone interviews, which involved: audio recording the participant agreeing to each point on the consent form; the researcher signing the consent form and keeping a copy; and posting a copy to the participant. 25 This process could be replicated in other interview studies using digital methods.

There are advantages and disadvantages of using face-to-face and digital methods for research interviews. Ultimately, for both approaches, the quality of the interview is determined by the researcher. 16 Appropriate training and preparation are thus required. Healthcare professionals can use their interpersonal communication skills when undertaking a research interview, particularly questioning, listening and conversing. 3 However, the purpose of an interview is to gain information about the study topic, 26 rather than offering help and advice. 3 The researcher therefore needs to listen attentively to participants, enabling them to describe their experience without interruption. 3 The use of active listening skills also help to facilitate the interview. 14 Spradley outlined elements and strategies for research interviews, 27 which are a useful guide for qualitative researchers:

Greeting and explaining the project/interview

Asking descriptive (broad), structural (explore response to descriptive) and contrast (difference between) questions

Asymmetry between the researcher and participant talking

Expressing interest and cultural ignorance

Repeating, restating and incorporating the participant's words when asking questions

Creating hypothetical situations

Asking friendly questions

Knowing when to leave.

For semi-structured interviews, a topic guide (also called an interview schedule) is used to guide the content of the interview – an example of a topic guide is outlined in Box 1 . The topic guide, usually based on the research questions, existing literature and, for healthcare professionals, their clinical experience, is developed by the research team. The topic guide should include open ended questions that elicit in-depth information, and offer participants the opportunity to talk about issues important to them. This is vital in qualitative research where the researcher is interested in exploring the experiences and perspectives of participants. It can be useful for qualitative researchers to pilot the topic guide with the first participants, 10 to ensure the questions are relevant and understandable, and amending the questions if required.

Regardless of the medium of interview, the researcher must consider the setting of the interview. For face-to-face interviews, this could be in the participant's home, in an office or another mutually convenient location. A quiet location is preferable to promote confidentiality, enable the researcher and participant to concentrate on the conversation, and to facilitate accurate audio-recording of the interview. For interviews using digital methods the same principles apply: a quiet, private space where the researcher and participant feel comfortable and confident to participate in an interview.

Box 1: Example of a topic guide

Study focus: Parents' experiences of brushing their child's (aged 0–5) teeth

1. Can you tell me about your experience of cleaning your child's teeth?

How old was your child when you started cleaning their teeth?

Why did you start cleaning their teeth at that point?

How often do you brush their teeth?

What do you use to brush their teeth and why?

2. Could you explain how you find cleaning your child's teeth?

Do you find anything difficult?

What makes cleaning their teeth easier for you?

3. How has your experience of cleaning your child's teeth changed over time?

Has it become easier or harder?

Have you changed how often and how you clean their teeth? If so, why?

4. Could you describe how your child finds having their teeth cleaned?

What do they enjoy about having their teeth cleaned?

Is there anything they find upsetting about having their teeth cleaned?

5. Where do you look for information/advice about cleaning your child's teeth?

What did your health visitor tell you about cleaning your child's teeth? (If anything)

What has the dentist told you about caring for your child's teeth? (If visited)

Have any family members given you advice about how to clean your child's teeth? If so, what did they tell you? Did you follow their advice?

6. Is there anything else you would like to discuss about this?

Focus groups

A focus group is a moderated group discussion on a pre-defined topic, for research purposes. 28 , 29 While not aligned to a particular qualitative methodology (for example, grounded theory or phenomenology) as such, focus groups are used increasingly in healthcare research, as they are useful for exploring collective perspectives, attitudes, behaviours and experiences. Consequently, they can yield rich, in-depth data and illuminate agreement and inconsistencies 28 within and, where appropriate, between groups. Examples include public perceptions of dental implants and subsequent impact on help-seeking and decision making, 30 and general dental practitioners' views on patient safety in dentistry. 31

Focus groups can be used alone or in conjunction with other methods, such as interviews or observations, and can therefore help to confirm, extend or enrich understanding and provide alternative insights. 28 The social interaction between participants often results in lively discussion and can therefore facilitate the collection of rich, meaningful data. However, they are complex to organise and manage, due to the number of participants, and may also be inappropriate for exploring particularly sensitive issues that many participants may feel uncomfortable about discussing in a group environment.

Focus groups are primarily undertaken face-to-face but can now also be undertaken online, using appropriate technologies such as email, bulletin boards, online research communities, chat rooms, discussion forums, social media and video conferencing. 32 Using such technologies, data collection can also be synchronous (for example, online discussions in 'real time') or, unlike traditional face-to-face focus groups, asynchronous (for example, online/email discussions in 'non-real time'). While many of the fundamental principles of focus group research are the same, regardless of how they are conducted, a number of subtle nuances are associated with the online medium. 32 Some of which are discussed further in the following sections.

Focus group considerations

Some key considerations associated with face-to-face focus groups are: how many participants are required; should participants within each group know each other (or not) and how many focus groups are needed within a single study? These issues are much debated and there is no definitive answer. However, the number of focus groups required will largely depend on the topic area, the depth and breadth of data needed, the desired level of participation required 29 and the necessity (or not) for data saturation.

The optimum group size is around six to eight participants (excluding researchers) but can work effectively with between three and 14 participants. 3 If the group is too small, it may limit discussion, but if it is too large, it may become disorganised and difficult to manage. It is, however, prudent to over-recruit for a focus group by approximately two to three participants, to allow for potential non-attenders. For many researchers, particularly novice researchers, group size may also be informed by pragmatic considerations, such as the type of study, resources available and moderator experience. 28 Similar size and mix considerations exist for online focus groups. Typically, synchronous online focus groups will have around three to eight participants but, as the discussion does not happen simultaneously, asynchronous groups may have as many as 10–30 participants. 33

The topic area and potential group interaction should guide group composition considerations. Pre-existing groups, where participants know each other (for example, work colleagues) may be easier to recruit, have shared experiences and may enjoy a familiarity, which facilitates discussion and/or the ability to challenge each other courteously. 3 However, if there is a potential power imbalance within the group or if existing group norms and hierarchies may adversely affect the ability of participants to speak freely, then 'stranger groups' (that is, where participants do not already know each other) may be more appropriate. 34 , 35

Focus group management

Face-to-face focus groups should normally be conducted by two researchers; a moderator and an observer. 28 The moderator facilitates group discussion, while the observer typically monitors group dynamics, behaviours, non-verbal cues, seating arrangements and speaking order, which is essential for transcription and analysis. The same principles of informed consent, as discussed in the interview section, also apply to focus groups, regardless of medium. However, the consent process for online discussions will probably be managed somewhat differently. For example, while an appropriate participant information leaflet (and consent form) would still be required, the process is likely to be managed electronically (for example, via email) and would need to specifically address issues relating to technology (for example, anonymity and use, storage and access to online data). 32

The venue in which a face to face focus group is conducted should be of a suitable size, private, quiet, free from distractions and in a collectively convenient location. It should also be conducted at a time appropriate for participants, 28 as this is likely to promote attendance. As with interviews, the same ethical considerations apply (as discussed earlier). However, online focus groups may present additional ethical challenges associated with issues such as informed consent, appropriate access and secure data storage. Further guidance can be found elsewhere. 8 , 32

Before the focus group commences, the researchers should establish rapport with participants, as this will help to put them at ease and result in a more meaningful discussion. Consequently, researchers should introduce themselves, provide further clarity about the study and how the process will work in practice and outline the 'ground rules'. Ground rules are designed to assist, not hinder, group discussion and typically include: 3 , 28 , 29

Discussions within the group are confidential to the group

Only one person can speak at a time

All participants should have sufficient opportunity to contribute

There should be no unnecessary interruptions while someone is speaking

Everyone can be expected to be listened to and their views respected

Challenging contrary opinions is appropriate, but ridiculing is not.

Moderating a focus group requires considered management and good interpersonal skills to help guide the discussion and, where appropriate, keep it sufficiently focused. Avoid, therefore, participating, leading, expressing personal opinions or correcting participants' knowledge 3 , 28 as this may bias the process. A relaxed, interested demeanour will also help participants to feel comfortable and promote candid discourse. Moderators should also prevent the discussion being dominated by any one person, ensure differences of opinions are discussed fairly and, if required, encourage reticent participants to contribute. 3 Asking open questions, reflecting on significant issues, inviting further debate, probing responses accordingly, and seeking further clarification, as and where appropriate, will help to obtain sufficient depth and insight into the topic area.

Moderating online focus groups requires comparable skills, particularly if the discussion is synchronous, as the discussion may be dominated by those who can type proficiently. 36 It is therefore important that sufficient time and respect is accorded to those who may not be able to type as quickly. Asynchronous discussions are usually less problematic in this respect, as interactions are less instant. However, moderating an asynchronous discussion presents additional challenges, particularly if participants are geographically dispersed, as they may be online at different times. Consequently, the moderator will not always be present and the discussion may therefore need to occur over several days, which can be difficult to manage and facilitate and invariably requires considerable flexibility. 32 It is also worth recognising that establishing rapport with participants via online medium is often more challenging than via face-to-face and may therefore require additional time, skills, effort and consideration.

As with research interviews, focus groups should be guided by an appropriate interview schedule, as discussed earlier in the paper. For example, the schedule will usually be informed by the review of the literature and study aims, and will merely provide a topic guide to help inform subsequent discussions. To provide a verbatim account of the discussion, focus groups must be recorded, using an audio-recorder with a good quality multi-directional microphone. While videotaping is possible, some participants may find it obtrusive, 3 which may adversely affect group dynamics. The use (or not) of a video recorder, should therefore be carefully considered.

At the end of the focus group, a few minutes should be spent rounding up and reflecting on the discussion. 28 Depending on the topic area, it is possible that some participants may have revealed deeply personal issues and may therefore require further help and support, such as a constructive debrief or possibly even referral on to a relevant third party. It is also possible that some participants may feel that the discussion did not adequately reflect their views and, consequently, may no longer wish to be associated with the study. 28 Such occurrences are likely to be uncommon, but should they arise, it is important to further discuss any concerns and, if appropriate, offer them the opportunity to withdraw (including any data relating to them) from the study. Immediately after the discussion, researchers should compile notes regarding thoughts and ideas about the focus group, which can assist with data analysis and, if appropriate, any further data collection.

Qualitative research is increasingly being utilised within dental research to explore the experiences, perspectives, motivations and beliefs of participants. The contributions of qualitative research to evidence-based practice are increasingly being recognised, both as standalone research and as part of larger mixed-method studies, including clinical trials. Interviews and focus groups remain commonly used data collection methods in qualitative research, and with the advent of digital technologies, their utilisation continues to evolve. However, digital methods of qualitative data collection present additional methodological, ethical and practical considerations, but also potentially offer considerable flexibility to participants and researchers. Consequently, regardless of format, qualitative methods have significant potential to inform important areas of dental practice, policy and further related research.

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Qualitative Research Questions: Gain Powerful Insights + 25 Examples

We review the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, how to craft them effectively, & 25 example questions.

Einstein was many things—a physicist, a philosopher, and, undoubtedly, a mastermind. He also had an incredible way with words. His quote, "Everything that can be counted does not necessarily count; everything that counts cannot necessarily be counted," is particularly poignant when it comes to research. 

Some inquiries call for a quantitative approach, for counting and measuring data in order to arrive at general conclusions. Other investigations, like qualitative research, rely on deep exploration and understanding of individual cases in order to develop a greater understanding of the whole. That’s what we’re going to focus on today.

Qualitative research questions focus on the "how" and "why" of things, rather than the "what". They ask about people's experiences and perceptions , and can be used to explore a wide range of topics.

The following article will discuss the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, and how to craft them effectively. You'll also find 25 examples of effective qualitative research questions you can use as inspiration for your own studies.

Let’s get started!

What are qualitative research questions, and when are they used?

When researchers set out to conduct a study on a certain topic, their research is chiefly directed by an overarching question . This question provides focus for the study and helps determine what kind of data will be collected.

By starting with a question, we gain parameters and objectives for our line of research. What are we studying? For what purpose? How will we know when we’ve achieved our goals?

Of course, some of these questions can be described as quantitative in nature. When a research question is quantitative, it usually seeks to measure or calculate something in a systematic way.

For example:

• How many people in our town use the library?
• What is the average income of families in our city?
• How much does the average person weigh?

Other research questions, however—and the ones we will be focusing on in this article—are qualitative in nature. Qualitative research questions are open-ended and seek to explore a given topic in-depth.

According to the Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , “Qualitative research aims to address questions concerned with developing an understanding of the meaning and experience dimensions of humans’ lives and social worlds.”

This type of research can be used to gain a better understanding of people’s thoughts, feelings and experiences by “addressing questions beyond ‘what works’, towards ‘what works for whom when, how and why, and focusing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation,” states one paper in Neurological Research and Practice .

Qualitative questions often produce rich data that can help researchers develop hypotheses for further quantitative study.

• What are people’s thoughts on the new library?
• How does it feel to be a first-generation student at our school?
• How do people feel about the changes taking place in our town?

As stated by a paper in Human Reproduction , “...‘qualitative’ methods are used to answer questions about experience, meaning, and perspective, most often from the standpoint of the participant. These data are usually not amenable to counting or measuring.”

Both quantitative and qualitative questions have their uses; in fact, they often complement each other. A well-designed research study will include a mix of both types of questions in order to gain a fuller understanding of the topic at hand.

If you would like to recruit unlimited participants for qualitative research for free and only pay for the interview you conduct, try using Respondent  today. 

Crafting qualitative research questions for powerful insights

Now that we have a basic understanding of what qualitative research questions are and when they are used, let’s take a look at how you can begin crafting your own.

According to a study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, there is a certain process researchers should follow when crafting their questions, which we’ll explore in more depth.

1. Beginning the process 

Start with a point of interest or curiosity, and pose a draft question or ‘self-question’. What do you want to know about the topic at hand? What is your specific curiosity? You may find it helpful to begin by writing several questions.

For example, if you’re interested in understanding how your customer base feels about a recent change to your product, you might ask: 

• What made you decide to try the new product?
• How do you feel about the change?
• What do you think of the new design/functionality?
• What benefits do you see in the change?

2. Create one overarching, guiding question 

At this point, narrow down the draft questions into one specific question. “Sometimes, these broader research questions are not stated as questions, but rather as goals for the study.”

As an example of this, you might narrow down these three questions: 

into the following question: 

• What are our customers’ thoughts on the recent change to our product?

3. Theoretical framing 

As you read the relevant literature and apply theory to your research, the question should be altered to achieve better outcomes. Experts agree that pursuing a qualitative line of inquiry should open up the possibility for questioning your original theories and altering the conceptual framework with which the research began.

If we continue with the current example, it’s possible you may uncover new data that informs your research and changes your question. For instance, you may discover that customers’ feelings about the change are not just a reaction to the change itself, but also to how it was implemented. In this case, your question would need to reflect this new information: 

• How did customers react to the process of the change, as well as the change itself?

4. Ethical considerations 

A study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education stresses that ethics are “a central issue when a researcher proposes to study the lives of others, especially marginalized populations.” Consider how your question or inquiry will affect the people it relates to—their lives and their safety. Shape your question to avoid physical, emotional, or mental upset for the focus group.

In analyzing your question from this perspective, if you feel that it may cause harm, you should consider changing the question or ending your research project. Perhaps you’ve discovered that your question encourages harmful or invasive questioning, in which case you should reformulate it.

5. Writing the question 

The actual process of writing the question comes only after considering the above points. The purpose of crafting your research questions is to delve into what your study is specifically about” Remember that qualitative research questions are not trying to find the cause of an effect, but rather to explore the effect itself.

Your questions should be clear, concise, and understandable to those outside of your field. In addition, they should generate rich data. The questions you choose will also depend on the type of research you are conducting: 

• If you’re doing a phenomenological study, your questions might be open-ended, in order to allow participants to share their experiences in their own words.
• If you’re doing a grounded-theory study, your questions might be focused on generating a list of categories or themes.
• If you’re doing ethnography, your questions might be about understanding the culture you’re studying.

Whenyou have well-written questions, it is much easier to develop your research design and collect data that accurately reflects your inquiry.

In writing your questions, it may help you to refer to this simple flowchart process for constructing questions:

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25 examples of expertly crafted qualitative research questions

It's easy enough to cover the theory of writing a qualitative research question, but sometimes it's best if you can see the process in practice. In this section, we'll list 25 examples of B2B and B2C-related qualitative questions.

Let's begin with five questions. We'll show you the question, explain why it's considered qualitative, and then give you an example of how it can be used in research.

1. What is the customer's perception of our company's brand?

Qualitative research questions are often open-ended and invite respondents to share their thoughts and feelings on a subject. This question is qualitative because it seeks customer feedback on the company's brand. 

This question can be used in research to understand how customers feel about the company's branding, what they like and don't like about it, and whether they would recommend it to others.

2. Why do customers buy our product?

This question is also qualitative because it seeks to understand the customer's motivations for purchasing a product. It can be used in research to identify the reasons  customers buy a certain product, what needs or desires the product fulfills for them, and how they feel about the purchase after using the product.

3. How do our customers interact with our products?

Again, this question is qualitative because it seeks to understand customer behavior. In this case, it can be used in research to see how customers use the product, how they interact with it, and what emotions or thoughts the product evokes in them.

4. What are our customers' biggest frustrations with our products?

By seeking to understand customer frustrations, this question is qualitative and can provide valuable insights. It can be used in research to help identify areas in which the company needs to make improvements with its products.

5. How do our customers feel about our customer service?

Rather than asking why customers like or dislike something, this question asks how they feel. This qualitative question can provide insights into customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a company. 

This type of question can be used in research to understand what customers think of the company's customer service and whether they feel it meets their needs.

20 more examples to refer to when writing your question

Now that you’re aware of what makes certain questions qualitative, let's move into 20 more examples of qualitative research questions:

• How do your customers react when updates are made to your app interface?
• How do customers feel when they complete their purchase through your ecommerce site?
• What are your customers' main frustrations with your service?
• How do people feel about the quality of your products compared to those of your competitors?
• What motivates customers to refer their friends and family members to your product or service?
• What are the main benefits your customers receive from using your product or service?
• How do people feel when they finish a purchase on your website?
• What are the main motivations behind customer loyalty to your brand?
• How does your app make people feel emotionally?
• For younger generations using your app, how does it make them feel about themselves?
• What reputation do people associate with your brand?
• How inclusive do people find your app?
• In what ways are your customers' experiences unique to them?
• What are the main areas of improvement your customers would like to see in your product or service?
• How do people feel about their interactions with your tech team?
• What are the top five reasons people use your online marketplace?
• How does using your app make people feel in terms of connectedness?
• What emotions do people experience when they're using your product or service?
• Aside from the features of your product, what else about it attracts customers?
• How does your company culture make people feel?

As you can see, these kinds of questions are completely open-ended. In a way, they allow the research and discoveries made along the way to direct the research. The questions are merely a starting point from which to explore.

This video offers tips on how to write good qualitative research questions, produced by Qualitative Research Expert, Kimberly Baker.

Wrap-up: crafting your own qualitative research questions.

Over the course of this article, we've explored what qualitative research questions are, why they matter, and how they should be written. Hopefully you now have a clear understanding of how to craft your own.

Remember, qualitative research questions should always be designed to explore a certain experience or phenomena in-depth, in order to generate powerful insights. As you write your questions, be sure to keep the following in mind:

• Are you being inclusive of all relevant perspectives?
• Are your questions specific enough to generate clear answers?
• Will your questions allow for an in-depth exploration of the topic at hand?
• Do the questions reflect your research goals and objectives?

If you can answer "yes" to all of the questions above, and you've followed the tips for writing qualitative research questions we shared in this article, then you're well on your way to crafting powerful queries that will yield valuable insights.

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Asking the right questions in the right way is the key to research success. That’s true for not just the discussion guide but for every step of a research project. Following are 100+ questions that will take you from defining your research objective through  screening and participant discussions.

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Kinds of data in qualitative research examples.

Home » Kinds of data in qualitative research examples

Qualitative data types play a crucial role in understanding the complexities of human behavior and perspectives. Through methods such as interviews, focus groups, and content analysis, researchers gather rich descriptive data that often reveals in-depth insights hidden from quantitative approaches. This qualitative data provides a context that facilitates a deeper understanding of social phenomena, cultural narratives, and individual experiences.

The diversity of qualitative data types encompasses various forms such as text, audio, and video. Each format has unique advantages, allowing researchers to capture nuances that often escape traditional numeric data. By engaging thoroughly with qualitative data types, researchers can illuminate patterns and themes that foster a comprehensive understanding of their subject matter, ultimately driving more informed decision-making and innovation in their respective fields.

Qualitative Data Types: Unstructured Data

Unstructured data is a core element of qualitative research, consisting of information that lacks a predefined format or structure. This type of data often arises from sources like interviews, open-ended survey responses, and social media posts. Unlike structured data, which is easily organized and analyzed, unstructured data requires more nuanced methods to derive meaningful insights.

To effectively utilize unstructured data, researchers often engage in several key processes. First, they must collect data through methods such as in-depth interviews or focus groups, where participants share thoughts and feelings freely. Second, data analysis involves thematic coding to identify patterns and trends. Finally, interpreting the findings provides a deeper understanding of participant experiences and attitudes. Understanding how to navigate unstructured data is essential, as it offers rich, contextual insights into human behavior, which are invaluable for qualitative research.

Interviews and Focus Groups: Exploring Human Experiences

Interviews and focus groups provide a rich tapestry of qualitative data types, delving into the complexities of human experiences. Through one-on-one interviews, researchers can deeply engage with individuals, unearthing their personal narratives, emotions, and perceptions. This method allows for an intimate understanding of how personal backgrounds and circumstances shape viewpoints, making it invaluable for discussing topics like leadership and organizational culture.

Focus groups, on the other hand, offer a dynamic setting where participants engage in collective discussions. This format encourages interaction and the sharing of diverse perspectives, revealing how group dynamics influence ideas and attitudes. By capturing the nuances of participant interactions, researchers can gather insights that are often overlooked in isolated interviews. Both methods enrich the data collected and highlight the intricate human experiences that underpin qualitative research.

Open-Ended Surveys: Capturing Nuanced Responses

Open-ended surveys are a valuable tool for qualitative research, providing in-depth insights and capturing nuanced responses from participants. Unlike closed-ended questions that require fixed answers, open-ended queries allow respondents to express their feelings and thoughts freely. This flexibility often leads to richer data, revealing complexities that pre-defined options may overlook.

In administering open-ended surveys, researchers can adopt several strategies. First, crafting thoughtful questions encourages detailed responses, making it essential to consider wording carefully. Secondly, offering anonymity may increase honesty, as participants feel safer sharing candid opinions. Lastly, thorough analysis of the collected data can uncover trends and themes, contributing significantly to qualitative data types. This process informs decision-making and enhances understanding of the subject matter, making open-ended surveys an indispensable method in qualitative research.

Qualitative Data Types: Structured Data

In qualitative research, structured data is a crucial element that contributes to a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena. This type of data often consists of predetermined response categories and fixed formats, making it easier to analyze and interpret. For instance, surveys with multiple-choice questions or rating scales collect structured data, allowing researchers to quantify responses and identify trends. The clarity of structured data enables researchers to draw conclusions effectively and create visually appealing reports.

Structured data types can be categorized into several forms, including quantitative surveys, checklists, and guided interviews. Each form serves a specific purpose in research. Quantitative surveys help in gathering numerical data quickly, while checklists ensure that key areas are covered during observations. Guided interviews provide a framework for discussions, promoting consistency in responses. Collectively, these structured data types enhance the richness of qualitative research, making it a valuable tool for uncovering insights in various fields.

Observational Data: Recording In-Field Behaviors

Observational data plays a crucial role in understanding in-field behaviors, serving as a direct reflection of interactions and responses in real-world settings. This method involves systematically recording behaviors as they occur, allowing researchers to capture authentic reactions and dynamics that might otherwise go unnoticed. By focusing on qualitative data types, researchers gain deep insights into participants' actions, expressions, and contextual factors influencing their behavior.

To effectively utilize observational data, researchers should consider several key aspects. First, defining the specific behaviors of interest ensures that observations remain focused and relevant. Next, utilizing a structured observation checklist can help maintain consistency and detail in the data collected. Finally, documenting the context of behaviors, such as environmental factors and participant interactions, enriches the data's qualitative depth, ultimately leading to more accurate interpretations and conclusions. Through these practices, observational data becomes a powerful tool in qualitative research, offering valuable insights into human behavior.

Document Analysis: Deriving Insights from Existing Texts

Document analysis plays a crucial role in qualitative research by extracting meaningful insights from existing texts. This method involves examining various forms of qualitative data types, such as interview transcripts, documents, and historical records. By identifying themes and patterns within these texts, researchers can derive valuable insights that contribute to understanding broader contexts or specific phenomena.

One effective approach in document analysis is to focus on keywords, recurring topics, and underlying sentiments. Through systematic coding and categorization, researchers can pinpoint significant trends and expert opinions that inform their inquiries. This analytical process not only unveils insights about risks and challenges but also highlights gaps in current knowledge. Ultimately, a rigorous document analysis provides a solid foundation for qualitative research, paving the way for more in-depth exploration and understanding of complex issues.

Conclusion: Understanding Qualitative Data Types in Research

Understanding qualitative data types is crucial for any research endeavor. These data types, including text, audio, and video, provide rich insights that quantitative data cannot. By recognizing the different forms of qualitative data, researchers can choose the best methods for analysis and draw meaningful conclusions. Each type of data serves unique purposes, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of participants and their experiences.

In conclusion, mastery of qualitative data types enhances the overall quality and impact of research. An effective approach ensures that biases are minimized and insights are maximized. Qualitative research thrives on the depth of understanding it provides, making it essential for formulating strategies that resonate with audiences. Embracing these concepts can significantly improve the effectiveness of research initiatives.

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What Are Qualitative Survey Questions? Know all Benefits with Examples

13 mins read

Manisha Khandelwal

Senior Content Marketer at SurveySensum

Want to uncover deeper insights, understand customer emotions, or explore complex issues? 

Qualitative survey questions are the way to do it!

This blog explores everything you need to know about crafting effective qualitative survey questions to gather rich, descriptive data. We’ll talk about why qualitative questions are necessary for data collection, the various types you can use, and share practical examples to get you started. Plus, we’ll compare qualitative and quantitative questions to show how using both can provide a comprehensive understanding of your audience.

So, whether you’re new to surveys or looking to enhance your approach, stay tuned. We’re here to help you create surveys that capture the full story behind the data.

Ready to unlock deeper insights? Let’s dive in!

What are Qualitative Questions?

Qualitative survey questions are open-ended questions designed to gather in-depth insights and detailed feedback from respondents. Unlike quantitative questions that seek numerical data, qualitative questions explore the underlying reasons, motivations, and opinions behind respondents’ answers. These questions typically require more detailed and elaborated responses, allowing for richer and more nuanced data collection.

→ Basically if you want to understand the ‘Why’ behind the feedback then Qualitative survey questions are for you. For instance, why did Rachel give the score of 5 or what kind of support issue did Max face – qualitative question answers these questions!

Key Characteristics of Qualitative Survey Questions:

• Open-ended : They do not have predefined response options and encourage respondents to answer more freely, in their own words.
• Exploratory: They aim to uncover underlying thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
• Detailed: They allow for comprehensive and elaborate responses, providing deeper insights into the topic.

But why make such a fuss about using them in surveys?

Why Use Qualitative Survey Questions?

Using qualitative survey questions offers several advantages, particularly when the goal is to gain a deeper understanding of respondents’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Here are some key reasons to use qualitative questions:

1. Depth of Insight

Qualitative questions allow respondents to provide detailed and nuanced answers. This depth of insight can uncover underlying motivations, emotions, and reasons behind their behaviors and attitudes, which quantitative data may not reveal.

2. Exploratory Research

When entering a new market, developing a new product, or exploring new concepts, qualitative questions help gather exploratory data. They enable businesses to understand the complexities of a topic and identify patterns, themes, and areas for further investigation.

3. Richness of Data

Qualitative responses provide rich, descriptive data that can be used to create detailed narratives, case studies, and personas . This richness helps in understanding the context and background of respondents’ experiences.

4. Flexibility

Respondents can answer in their own words, providing information that might not fit into predefined categories. This flexibility can reveal unexpected insights and highlight issues that were not initially considered.

5. Identifying Key Issues

By asking open-ended questions, researchers can identify key issues, pain points, and areas for improvement that are most important to respondents. This helps in prioritizing actions and making informed decisions.

6. Enhancing Quantitative Data

Qualitative questions can complement quantitative data by providing explanations and context for the numbers. For example, if a survey shows a low satisfaction score, qualitative questions can help understand the reasons behind this dissatisfaction.

7. Capturing Emotional and Subjective Experiences

Quantitative data often fails to capture the emotional and subjective aspects of respondents’ experiences. Qualitative questions allow for the expression of feelings, opinions, and personal stories, providing a more holistic view of the customer experience.

8. Generating Hypotheses

Qualitative data can help generate hypotheses for further testing and exploration. The insights gained from qualitative responses can guide the development of future quantitative surveys or experiments.

9. Tailored Responses

Respondents can provide answers tailored to their specific experiences and perspectives, leading to a more personalized understanding of their needs and preferences.

Examples of When to Use Qualitative Questions

• Customer Feedback: To understand the reasons behind customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
• Product Development: To gather ideas and suggestions for new features improvements or product adoption .
• Market Research: To explore consumer attitudes and behaviors in a new market.
• User Experience : To capture detailed user experiences and identify usability issues.
• Employee Feedback : To understand employee morale, job satisfaction, and workplace culture.

In summary, qualitative questions are invaluable for gaining a deeper, more comprehensive understanding of complex issues, providing rich, contextual data that can inform decision-making and drive improvements.

Ready to take your data collection to the next level? Start crafting your surveys with SurveySensum ‘s different question types and gather the rich, qualitative insights you need to make informed decisions. Try it now! S

Types Of Qualitative Survey Questions

Qualitative survey questions are open-ended and designed to elicit detailed, narrative responses that provide deeper insights into respondents’ thoughts, feelings, and experiences. Here are some common types and examples of qualitative survey questions:

1. Open-ended Questions

These questions allow respondents to express their thoughts freely without being restricted to predefined options.

• Example: “What do you think about our new product design?”

2. Experience-Based Questions

These questions ask respondents to describe specific experiences related to the topic of interest.

• Example: “Can you describe a time when you had an exceptional customer service experience with us?”

3. Opinion-Based Questions

Opinion-based questions seek to understand respondents’ viewpoints or beliefs about a subject.

• Example: “What is your opinion on the recent changes to our website?”

4. Follow-Up Questions

Follow-up questions are used to delve deeper into initial responses and can help uncover underlying reasons or motivations.

• Example: “You mentioned that you found the product useful. What specific features did you find most beneficial?”

5. Hypothetical Questions

These questions present a hypothetical scenario to understand respondents’ potential reactions or decisions.

• Example: “If we were to introduce a new feature, what would you like it to be and why?”

6. Clarification Questions

Clarification questions ensure that the respondent’s answer is fully understood by asking for more details or examples.

• Example: “Can you clarify what you mean by ‘difficult to use’?”

7. Reflective Questions

Reflective questions ask respondents to think back on their experiences and reflect on changes or impacts.

• Example: “How has your perception of our brand changed over the past year?”

8. Comparative Questions

Comparative questions ask respondents to compare two or more items, experiences, or periods.

• Example: “How does our current customer service compare to your experiences with other companies?”

9. Narrative Questions

These questions invite respondents to tell a story or describe a sequence of events.

• Example: “Can you walk me through your experience from the moment you decided to purchase our product to the point of making the purchase?”

20 Examples Of Qualitative Questions

Here are 20 examples of qualitative questions that can be used in various research contexts to gather detailed, narrative responses:

Customer Experience and Satisfaction

• Can you describe a recent experience you had with our customer service?
• What do you like most about our product/service?
• What aspects of our product/service do you find most challenging or frustrating?
• Can you tell us about a time when our product/service exceeded your expectations?
• What improvements would you suggest for our product/service?

Product Feedback and Development

• What features do you find most useful in our product?
• Can you describe a feature you think is missing from our product?
• How does our product compare to others you have used in the past?
• Can you tell us about a situation where our product helped you solve a problem?
• What changes would make our product better meet your needs?

Marketing and Branding

• What first comes to mind when you think of our brand?
• Can you describe your feelings towards our recent advertising campaign?
• What factors influenced your decision to choose our product over competitors’?
• How do you perceive our brand compared to others in the market?
• What would you tell a friend about our brand?

Employee Experience and Engagement

• What do you enjoy most about working here?
• Can you describe a time when you felt particularly motivated at work?
• What challenges do you face in your current role?
• What changes would improve your work environment?
• How do you feel about the communication and support from management?

These questions are open-ended, encouraging respondents to share their thoughts and experiences in detail, and providing rich qualitative data that can be used to gain deeper insights into their perspectives.

Transform your survey data into rich, descriptive insights by leveraging qualitative questions. SurveySensum provides the tools you need to create impactful surveys. Sign up and start exploring today!

Qualitative Vs Quantitative Questions

Here’s a table comparing qualitative and quantitative questions:

Qualitative questions gather detailed responses, offering in-depth insights into thoughts and experiences through open-ended formats. They explore complex issues and uncover new ideas. Quantitative questions collect data that can be analyzed statistically, using closed-ended formats for easy aggregation.

By using both types of questions in your surveys, you can create a more comprehensive feedback process, capturing both the stories behind the numbers and the trends that drive them.

In conclusion, qualitative survey questions are essential tools for gathering comprehensive insights. They allow you to delve deep into the emotions, motivations, and experiences of your respondents, providing rich, descriptive data that adds context and depth to your research. 

By integrating both qualitative and quantitative questions in your surveys, you can capture a holistic view of your audience, balancing detailed narratives with concrete data. This dual approach ensures that you not only understand the “what” and “how many” but also the “why” and “how.”

So, streamline your survey creation process and ensure you gather the most actionable insights using SurveySensum . SurveySensum’s intuitive platform helps you design, distribute, and analyze surveys efficiently, making it easier to combine qualitative and quantitative questions for a well-rounded research strategy.

A qualitative survey questionnaire consists of open-ended questions designed to gather detailed and descriptive responses. For example, qualitative questions examples in a survey for a restaurant might include questions like:

• “Can you describe your overall experience at our restaurant?”
• “What dishes did you enjoy the most and why?”
• “How did you feel about the ambiance and service?”

This type of questionnaire aims to uncover in-depth insights about customers’ experiences, preferences, and perceptions.

Here are five qualitative survey questions examples that can be used in a variety of contexts to gather detailed responses:

• “Can you describe a recent experience you had with our customer service?”
• “What do you find most valuable about our product/service?”
• “How has using our product/service impacted your daily life?”
• “What challenges have you encountered while using our product/service?”
• “What changes or improvements would you like to see in our product/service?”

Good qualitative research questions are open-ended, clear, and designed to elicit detailed responses that provide deep insights. They should encourage participants to share their thoughts, experiences, and feelings. Qualitative survey questions examples include:

• “How do you perceive the impact of remote work on your productivity and work-life balance?”
• “What motivates you to choose one brand over another in the marketplace?”
• “Can you describe your experience transitioning from traditional to online education?”

The qualitative survey method involves collecting detailed, narrative data through open-ended questions in surveys or interviews. This method aims to understand the underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations of respondents. It often involves smaller sample sizes compared to quantitative surveys but provides richer, more in-depth data.

Design, distribute, and analyze surveys efficiently with qualitative and quantitative questions for a well-rounded research strategy. Begin your journey to deeper insights now! Try SurveySensum for free!

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

“I do think that accessibility is a really major thing that has come [out] of [the] pandemic”: The lived experiences of resilience and health-related quality of life among a diverse sample of graduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Project administration, Visualization, Writing – original draft

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada, Department of Neurobiology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America, Center for Empathy and Social Justice in Human Health, T. Denny Sanford Institute for Empathy and Compassion, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

Roles Conceptualization, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada, School of Health Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada, Children’s Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada

Affiliations Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada, School of Health Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada

Roles Conceptualization, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

• Katie J. Shillington, 
• Shauna M. Burke, 
• Tara Mantler, 
• Jennifer D. Irwin

• Published: August 20, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309171
• Reader Comments

The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted the mental health and wellbeing of post-secondary students. Resilience has been found to serve as a protective factor against mental distress among students during the pandemic. Despite the plethora of research that exists on post-secondary students during this crisis, most studies exploring students’ health and resilience are quantitative and lack diversity. To date, the lived experiences of health-related quality of life (HRQOL) and resilience among graduate students representing diversity in age, gender, ethnicity, parental status, university, degree, and faculty during the COVID-19 pandemic remain unknown. As a part of a larger study, the purpose of this qualitative paper was to understand the lived experiences of resilience and HRQOL among a diverse sample of graduate students approximately 18 months into the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, Canada. A total of 14 students participated in semi-structured interviews exploring HRQOL domains, factors that supported/undermined participants’ resilience, challenges/barriers to being resilient, and participants’ inner strength. Thematic analysis revealed 5 themes: (1) cultural influences on resilience; (2) the role of privilege/power in shaping resilience; (3) how life stage and past experiences support resilience; (4) how the COVID-19 pandemic has undermined the resilience of equity-deserving groups; and (5) the role of disability/chronic pain. This work presents a unique dichotomy between how the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the lives of some graduate students, while simultaneously creating opportunities for others to thrive. Findings from this work underscore the importance of creating inclusive and accessible educational spaces to support graduate students’ resilience and HRQOL currently, and in times of crisis.

Citation: Shillington KJ, Burke SM, Mantler T, Irwin JD (2024) “I do think that accessibility is a really major thing that has come [out] of [the] pandemic”: The lived experiences of resilience and health-related quality of life among a diverse sample of graduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS ONE 19(8): e0309171. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309171

Editor: Mary Diane Clark, Lamar University, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Received: May 8, 2024; Accepted: August 6, 2024; Published: August 20, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Shillington et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: Data requests can be sent to Western University's Research Ethics Board ( [email protected] ). In order to maintain participant anonymity, data cannot be uploaded to the repository, in line with the study approval received from the Non-Medical Research Ethics Board at the host institution. It was stated to study participants, and agreed upon when they consented to participate, that all data would be kept strictly confidential. The qualitative data may contain sensitive participant information that cannot be shared, even in de-identified formats.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has altered the lives of individuals, including post-secondary students [ 1 – 8 ]. In March 2020, following the World Health Organization’s (WHO) declaration of a global pandemic, the Ontario provincial government implemented public health protections that significantly impacted the lives of post-secondary students, such as stay-at-home orders that resulted in the closure of academic institutions. As such, many students were required to study from home and learn remotely during this timeframe. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic [ 9 ] continues to be associated with challenges for students [ 10 ] and in January 2024, the WHO acknowledged that COVID-19 remains a major threat and urged member states not to dismantle established safety protocols [ 11 ]. It is not surprising then, that the COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted some students’ health-related quality of life (HRQOL) [ 1 – 8 ]—a measure of perceived mental, physical, and social wellbeing [ 12 ].

With respect to students’ mental wellbeing during the pandemic, Lorenzo and colleagues [ 6 ] conducted a longitudinal study (December 2020-January 2022) to assess changes in depression, anxiety, and stress scores over time among a cohort of post-secondary students ( N = 1465; 33.7% graduate; 66.1% undergraduate) from Ontario, Canada. The authors concluded that participants reported mental health problems at each time point, with 52.4% exceeding the clinical cut-off scores for depression and anxiety [ 6 ]. Additionally, Ewing and colleagues [ 4 ] conducted semi-structured interviews with Ontario post-secondary ( N = 20; first-year undergraduate) students in the Winter of 2021 to explore the psychological impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on students with and without pre-existing mental health concerns. The authors found that post-secondary students with pre-existing mental health problems reported being able to cope more effectively with the pandemic than students without pre-existing mental health problems (Ewing et al., 2022). However, all students reported new and unique stressors associated with the pandemic, including worry for the health of loved ones and themselves, the unpredictability of future waves of the virus, and concerns regarding delays in degree completion [ 4 ]. Further, King and colleagues [ 5 ] investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of three first-year undergraduate student cohorts: (1) 2018 (pre-pandemic); (2) 2019 (transitional); and (3) 2020 (during pandemic) at a university in Ontario, Canada. The authors found that all cohorts had high levels of clinically significant symptoms entering university; however, cohorts studying during the pandemic reported clinically higher levels of depression and anxiety compared to the pre-pandemic cohort [ 5 ]. Moreover, in a global meta-analysis that examined the prevalence of clinically significant depression and anxiety among post-secondary students ( N = 1,732,456) during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, the authors found that 30.6% and 28.2% of post-secondary students reported clinical levels of depression and anxiety, respectively [ 8 ].

The COVID-19 pandemic has not only impacted post-secondary students’ mental wellbeing, it has also impacted their physical and social wellbeing. Notably, in February 2021, Ahmad and Aires [ 1 ] conducted focus groups with undergraduate students ( N = 37) at a Canadian university to ascertain the impact of the pandemic on students’ daily life, stress, and coping. Participants reported changes to their daily routine that negatively impacted their physical health and wellbeing, including a decline in physical activity, disrupted sleep, and poor dietary habits [ 1 ]. Further, participants described how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted their social connectivity, noting increased feelings of social isolation and longing for in-person classes and activities [ 1 ]. The lack of social connectedness reported by participants was not a unique experience, as it has been commonly reported by authors in the literature [ 2 , 7 ]. Specifically, in July of 2020, Appleby and colleagues [ 2 ] investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the experiences and mental health of undergraduate students ( N = 3,013) at a university in Ontario, Canada and found that 56% of students reported feeling lonely, restless, and anxious as a result of social isolation. Participants described limited in-person interactions with peers, friends, and family which, in turn, negatively impacted their wellbeing [ 2 ]. Similarly, in March-April 2021, Morava and colleagues [ 7 ] conducted a series of focus groups with undergraduate students ( N = 37) at an Ontario university, with the purpose of exploring how the COVID-19 pandemic was affecting students’ communities of learning. Participants described a lack of social interaction and connection, resulting in feelings of isolation for many [ 7 ]. While it is evident that the COVID-19 pandemic has been negatively impacting the HRQOL of post-secondary students, specifically with respect to their mental, physical, and social wellbeing, less is known regarding how the pandemic has been impacting graduate students more specifically.

To date, the majority of studies that have reported on the mental health and wellbeing of post-secondary students during the pandemic either focused on undergraduate students or combined cohorts of undergraduate and graduate students [ 1 – 8 ]. While there is value in combining cohorts (e.g., increased sample size), group differences are not typically considered, which is particularly concerning given the fact that undergraduate and graduate students respond to and experience stress differently [ 13 , 14 ]. For example, in a pre-pandemic study exploring the relationship between stress and mental health, Wyatt and Oswalt [ 13 ] found that graduate students reported higher levels of stress compared to undergraduate students and were more likely to seek mental health services. Given that the COVID-19 pandemic introduced new stressors (e.g., fear of infection) [ 15 ] while exacerbating pre-existing concerns (e.g., mental health problems, social isolation, financial insecurity) [ 1 , 16 , 17 ], understanding the experiences of graduate students during the pandemic is particularly important given their problematic stress levels pre-pandemic [ 18 ].

The Student Experience in the Research University (SERU) Consortium survey was administered to graduate and professional students ( n = 15,346) from May to July 2020 with the purpose of assessing graduate students’ mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States [ 16 ]. The authors concluded that 32% of graduate and professional students screened positive for depression, while 39% screened positive for anxiety [ 16 ]. Notably, the prevalence of depression was 2 times higher, and the prevalence of anxiety was 1.5 times higher among graduate and professional students in 2020 compared to 2019 [ 16 ]. Further, to explore what graduate students found to be particularly worrisome early in the pandemic, Kee [ 15 ] conducted a qualitative study with 7 participants during Spring 2020 at a college in the United States. Students reported experiencing fear and anxiety, especially regarding the uncertainty surrounding the virus, which were compounded by personal responsibilities [ 15 ]. Additionally, graduate students described coping mechanisms including setting work-life boundaries, receiving social support from online communities, as well as maintaining hope [ 15 ]. It is worth noting that historically, when navigating stressful experiences, graduate students have been found to be more likely than undergraduate students to use active coping strategies [ 19 ]; bolstering resilience is one method that can help students cope [ 20 ].

Though resilience is difficult to define due to varied conceptualizations, it can be broadly understood as a dynamic process wherein psychosocial and environmental factors interact to enable an individual to survive, grow and even thrive despite exposure to adversity [ 21 – 23 ]. Importantly, resilience has been found to serve as a protective factor against psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 24 ]. In a longitudinal study conducted by Riehm and colleagues [ 24 ], the association between resilience and mental distress early in the COVID-19 pandemic (March-August 2020) was assessed among a sample of adults ( N = 6,008) living in the United States. The authors found that those who reported low to moderate levels of resilience were more likely to experience mental distress, in comparison to those who reported high levels of resilience [ 24 ]. The relationship between mental health and resilience has also been explored among graduate students globally during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 25 , 26 ]. Clark and colleagues [ 25 ] explored the association between resilience and psychological distress among health profession graduate students living in the United States during January-March 2021 of the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors concluded that higher resilience scores were associated with fewer burnout symptoms and improved overall wellbeing among graduate students [ 25 ]. Further, Oducado and colleagues [ 26 ] examined the impact of resilience on perceived stress, anxiety, and fear among graduate students ( N = 203) in the Philippines during the COVID-19 pandemic (Summer 2020). While participants experienced moderate to high levels of stress, anxiety, and fear, resilience had a protective influence, such that it was negatively associated with stress and fear [ 26 ]. It is clear that resilience plays an important role in helping to protect graduate students against mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic.

It is evident, based on the above review of literature, that the COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted the HRQOL (mental, physical, and social wellbeing) of post-secondary students, including graduate students, in Ontario, Canada. Additionally, resilience has been found to serve as a protective factor against psychological distress among graduate students and adults globally [ 24 ]. To date, however, the lived experiences of HRQOL and resilience among diverse samples of graduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic remains unknown. This is particularly important as the COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately impacted the health of marginalized groups [ 27 – 30 ]. Specifically, Boserup and colleagues [ 27 ] used data from the COVID-19 Tracking Project and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and concluded that COVID-19 infection, death, and hospitalization rates were higher among racial/ethnic minority groups than White people in the United States. The authors also found that older age was associated with an increase in COVID-19-related deaths [ 27 ]. Similarly, in a rapid review conducted by Lebrasseur and colleagues [ 28 ], it was reported that the COVID-19 pandemic has perpetuated ageism, negative psychological symptoms, and poor physical health among older adults. In addition to racial/ethnic minorities and older adults, the COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted sexual and gender minority groups. Notably, Moore and colleagues [ 30 ] found that during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic (March-June 2020), adults in sexual and gender minority groups who were living in the United States reported increased symptoms of depression and anxiety and lower levels of social support compared to their cisgender counterparts. Parents have also been described as an equity-deserving population and in a study conducted by Kerr and colleagues [ 29 ], they reported high levels of depression and anxiety, as well as parental burnout and negative emotions such as worry and anger during the early months of the pandemic (April-May 2020). It is thus evident that the COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately impacted equity-deserving groups including racial/ethnic and sexual and gender minorities, older adults, and parents; however, less is known about how the pandemic has impacted the HRQOL and resilience of graduate students belonging to these groups.

Of the aforementioned studies that reported on the HRQOL and/or resilience of post-secondary students in Ontario, Canada, the study populations were primarily comprised of White, cisgender students [ 2 , 5 , 6 , 25 , 26 ]. Additionally, the majority of the described studies were quantitative in nature [ 2 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 25 , 26 ]. Only three studies were qualitative [ 1 , 4 , 7 ], and of these studies, only one reported demographic characteristics of participants [ 4 ]. This is worth noting as qualitative work lends itself to a more nuanced understanding of participants’ lived experiences [ 31 ], which is particularly important when exploring groups that are historically silenced [ 32 ]. Given that the COVID-19 pandemic has had a disproportionate impact on the health of marginalized groups such as people of colour, those of low socioeconomic status [ 33 ], sexual and gender minorities [ 30 ], and parents [ 29 ], understanding the lived experiences of graduate students who belong to these groups is critical. To our knowledge, researchers have not used purposive sampling to explore the resilience and HRQOL of a diverse sample of graduate students, making this a notable gap in the literature. To this end, and as a part of a larger mixed-methods study titled, A C ross-Sectional Examination of Ontario Graduate Students’ Levels of Resilience A nd Health- R elated Quality of Lif E During the COVID-19 Pandemic (CARE) , the purpose of this qualitative study was to understand the lived experiences of resilience and HRQOL among a diverse sample of graduate students approximately 18 months into the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, Canada.

Study design and procedures

Ethics approval for the CARE study was received from the host institution’s Non-Medical Research Ethics Board (NMREB #119239). Participants were recruited for the study through the host institution’s mass emailer system and social media platforms (i.e., Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, LinkedIn). To be eligible for the study, individuals needed to be enrolled as a full-time graduate student at an Ontario university and be able to read, write, and speak English. Interested participants were asked to click the link on the study advertisements, which brought them to a Qualtrics XM survey (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) that included the letter of information, eligibility and consent process, as well as the questionnaires a more fulsome account of the quantitative methods can be found in Shillington et al. [ 34 ]. At the end of the survey, participants were redirected to a new link where they were invited to submit their name and email address if they were interested in participating in a follow-up interview.

The semi-structured interviews were intended to build from the previous findings reported in Shillington et al. [ 34 ], by capturing participants’ lived experiences of resilience and HRQOL during the COVID-19 pandemic. Given the variability in graduate student demographics, purposive sampling based on participant demographic criteria was used to obtain a diverse sample of interview participants (per the guidance of Lavrakas [ 35 ]). To achieve a diverse sample, research assistants compiled the demographics of students who expressed interest in participating in an interview. Next, a sample of graduate students were purposefully selected to represent diversity in age, gender, ethnicity, parental status, university, degree, and faculty. Additionally, students from different universities, degrees (e.g., masters, doctoral, professional), and faculties were considered. Those who were invited to participate in an interview were given the letter of information and asked to provide their availability. The number of interviews conducted was based on the work of Guest and colleagues [ 36 ], who suggested that theoretical saturation was likely to be achieved by the 12th interview. As such, 14 interviews were conducted with an additional two serving to ensure saturation had, in fact, been reached. At the beginning of each interview, participants were asked to provide verbal consent and, in an effort to diminish social desirability bias, were reminded that there were no right or wrong answers and they could refuse to answer any questions [ 37 ]. To support data credibility [ 38 ], the interviewer member checked between questions by summarizing participant responses and reflecting back. The interviews took place via Zoom ( n = 13) or the telephone ( n = 1) with a trained interviewer (KS) and ranged from 60–90 minutes in length. All interviews were transcribed verbatim by a member of the research team.

Positionality and epistemological approach

All authors share the epistemological and ontological position of post-positivism. In sharing this stance, the authors believe that researchers should serve as independent observers of the social world, such that social realities should be understood from the perspective of the participant, rather than the researcher [ 39 ]. The authors acknowledge that participants are “active subjects who are productive of their social reality, not simply the objects of social forces” [39, p. 3]. Accordingly, the authors recognize their own perspectives and biases as they interact with the social worlds they are researching and acknowledge that they impose a second level of interpretation during data collection and analysis [ 39 ]. Further, given the nature of the current study and in the spirit of self-reflexivity, it is worth noting that the authors identify as White women, who have completed post-graduate degrees. At the time the research was conducted, the lead author was a graduate student, similar to participants in the study. The authors acknowledge that they might not share the same lived experiences of graduate students of diverse backgrounds; however, all authors interact with and have a vested interest in the wellbeing of graduate students. To this end, it is possible that the authors’ positionality influenced the research process.

The COVID-19 pandemic context during data collection

Prior to data collection for the present study, which occurred March 14–29, 2022, Ontario had returned to a modified Step Two of the Roadmap to Reopen framework due to rapid spread of the COVID-19 Omicron variant [ 40 ]. This resulted in the closure of indoor dining and gyms, limits on indoor and outdoor gatherings, lower capacities at retail stores and malls, and the closure of schools and in-person learning [ 40 ]. By March 2022, schools had reopened, in-person learning resumed, and masks were no longer mandated in education settings [ 41 ].

Data collection

The interviewer (KS) followed a semi-structured interview guide ( S1 Appendix ) that asked participants to share their views, insights, and reflections about the previously collected quantitative findings from the CARE study [ 34 ]. Specifically, the interviewer shared findings from the previously validated Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10 (measuring resilience) [ 42 ] and the RAND 36-Item Health Survey 1.0 (measuring HRQOL) [ 43 ], by verbally providing the average scores and their interpretations. The interviewer then asked participants to discuss the extent to which the findings resonated or did not resonate with them by providing additional details and examples relative to their lived experiences. While the interview data were collected in March 2022, participants were asked to reflect back on the timeframe that quantitative data was collected (August-September 2021). Additionally, to expand our understanding of students’ experiences of resilience conceptualized by Rossouw and Rossouw [ 44 ], participants were asked to describe what supported and undermined their resilience with respect to: (1) vision; (2) composure; (3) tenacity; (4) reasoning; (5) collaboration; and (6) health. When prompted, the interviewer provided examples of each domain to aid in participants’ understanding. Further, participants were asked about challenges/barriers they faced to being resilient, as well as what contributed to their inner strength.

Data collection and analysis were guided by principles of credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability [ 38 ] ( Table 1 ). Additionally, to support the credibility of the data and minimize bias, the principal investigator served as a peer debriefer during data collection and analysis [ 38 ]. This involved the lead author and principal investigator meeting throughout the data collection stage and before analysis to explore the lead author’s personal values and perspectives that had the potential of biasing the interpretation of the data [ 45 ]. The principal investigator posed questions to aid the lead author in understanding her positionality in the inquiry [ 38 ]. Following analysis, the lead author and principal investigator reconvened to ensure the themes and associated quotes had minimal bias.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309171.t001

Data analysis

Interview data were analyzed by question (i.e., deductively) using an inductive content analysis approach [ 46 ], following the method for thematic analysis outlined by Braun and Clarke [ 47 ]. First, the lead author who conducted the interviews (KS) and the principal investigator (JI) met to discuss and create a preliminary codebook, based on commonalities that emerged during the interview process, as well as reflexive notes from the interviews [ 47 ]. The notes generated contributed to data triangulation, a method used to ensure credibility [ 38 , 47 ]. The initial codebook consisted of preliminary themes and associated descriptions. Next, random coding dyads were generated and consisted of the lead author (KS) and three research assistants (JC; JB; ZR), who were each initially assigned 5 transcripts (representing 10 out of 14 transcripts) to analyze using the preliminary coding structure. The use of multiple coders was to support confirmability [ 38 ]. The researchers then independently and simultaneously familiarized themselves with the data by reading and re-reading the transcripts while making notes regarding the codebook and associated themes and descriptions [ 47 ]. During this process, the researchers generated initial codes and then collated the codes into existing, modified, and/or new themes [ 47 ]. Following this process, the dyads met individually and then with the larger group to discuss inconsistencies, resolve disagreements, and bring forward any new perspectives that emerged during their read throughs [ 47 ]. This was an iterative process that involved going through the preliminary codebook (i.e., each theme and associated description) and providing space for members of the coding team to challenge the initial themes; this process continued until consensus was reached among the group [ 47 ]. As a result, refinements were made to the codebook, inclusive of the themes and working definitions [ 47 ]. Lastly, the researchers reviewed the agreed upon themes by checking to ensure that they related to the coded extracts (step 1) and then to the entire dataset (step 2) [ 47 ]. Finally, the researchers defined and named the themes to be included in the analysis [ 47 ]. Once the researchers agreed upon the coding structure, each coder was assigned 7 transcripts (i.e., two coders per transcript). The coding team then independently analyzed their assigned transcripts using the finalized codebook [ 47 ]. Upon completion, the lead author merged the analysis outputs into one report. In an effort to enable researchers to replicate the study and to support dependability [ 38 ], the methods and study procedures were documented in detail.

Of the 376 participants who completed the CARE survey, 151 expressed interest in a follow-up interview, and 14 completed a semi-structured interview. The average age of interview participants was 30.3 years ( SD = 9.4), though participants ranged in age from 23 to 58 years old. One fifth of interview participants identified as non-binary (21.4%), 28.6% identified as male, and 50.0% identified as female. The majority of participants identified as non-European origins including Asian (14.3%), other North American (14.3%), Caribbean (7.1%), Latin, Central, and South American (7.1%), African (7.1%), Middle Eastern (7.1%), and mixed origins (7.1%). All participants reported residing off-campus (100%), and the majority lived in London, Ontario (57.1%) and attended Western University (85.7%). Most participants reported being single (64.3%), while some participants reported living with parents/guardians (28.6%), a spouse/partner (37.5%), friends/roommates (21.4%), children (21.4%), and/or siblings (14.3%). Additionally, 14.3% of participants reported being the primary caregiver for an individual with a health condition/disability. The majority of participants were employed (85.7%) and pursuing a Master’s (42.9%) or Doctoral degree (50%). Full demographic details of interview participants can be found in Table 2 , while full demographic details for all participants can be found in Shillington and colleagues [ 34 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309171.t002

Five themes emerged from the data: (1) cultural influences on resilience; (2) the role of privilege/power in shaping resilience; (3) how life stage and past experiences support resilience; (4) how the COVID-19 pandemic has undermined the resilience of equity-deserving groups; and (5) the role of disability/chronic pain. In the subsequent paragraphs, themes are presented within each broader research question category (i.e., resilience and health-related quality of life) along with illustrative quotes. Although quotes may be relevant to more than one theme, they are presented in the theme in which the quote was deemed to best fit.

Cultural influences on resilience.

Some participants in the current study described how culture can influence a person’s resilience. For one participant (N05), being an international student was “proof” of their resilience, saying:

I [do] consider myself a resilient person… [I’m] going back to the fact of being an international student, but I believe that if you’re going through the entire process of moving to another country, understanding a total[ly] different culture… communicating in a different language, or things like that… That’s a really strong proof of resilience.

Another participant (N02) identified as being an Occupational Therapy student wherein their program was comprised of students with cultural similarities, saying:

Maybe another thing to add about our program is that I know… they really don’t accept international students. So pretty much everyone is from Canada and a lot of people are from Ontario… A lot of people have their own friend groups locally…as well as the friend groups within the program. And then there’s a lot of cultural similarities… We’re all around the same age, so it’s very easy to get along with each other… I know in other graduate programs there is probably a lot more international students who might feel a lot more isolated or not be able to fit in quite as easily.

Interestingly, one participant described feeling as though they were from a different culture due to their age. This participant (N09) said, “It’s almost like a cultural difference. It’s almost like age is like a… I’m being… perceived as if I’m from a different culture….” Another participant (N12) underscored how the practice of meditation and mindfulness has a cultural importance to their resilience saying, “…a dedicated meditation and mindfulness practice and yoga practice… is very important for myself in a cultural sense….” Further, one participant (N08) highlighted the intersection of culture and inclusivity to support their resilience saying, “Being around people who are like-minded is really important, and being in spaces that are community-based is really important. So be that, a queer community space or… I volunteered for a queer library for a while and that was fantastic….” Thus, even though participants’ interpretations and understanding of culture differed, they described how it influenced their resilience in various ways.

The role of privilege/power in shaping resilience.

Many participants underscored privilege as a factor that supported their resilience, especially with regard to having financial freedom. This was emphasized by one individual (N02) who said:

I am in a very lucky… more privileged position, in that my parents are supporting the cost of my degree. So, I don’t have to work during the school year, which is a big benefit for me, and which I [can] see is very draining for some of my classmates. And I’m assuming to be very draining for a lot of other grad students who aren’t as lucky or in as comfortable of a position.

Similarly, another participant (N08) described how being open to opportunities can support resilience while acknowledging that not everyone is given equal opportunity, saying:

I think as much as one door closes, another will open, and you need to just look for that opportunity. And again, I am aware that this comes with a little bit of privilege to say that. If you’re in a situation where you are living pay cheque to pay cheque, this is probably a lot less true. But for somebody who has the privilege that I do, opportunities will present themselves to you if you take them….

Additionally, one individual (N09) reflected on the increased ease to be resilient if you have financial stability saying, “I had a good childhood, good family, good income. And those things have made it so that it’s easier, I think, to carry on. If you’re not… incredibly worried about finances or… the basics, then… maybe you can be more resilient.” Another individual (N07) highlighted how the COVID-19 pandemic helped to shed light on inequities and the role that privilege plays in shaping resilience saying:

I think that I’m quite fortunate… I realize that I have a lot of privilege that comes… with my financial stability, having a supportive partner, with my ethnic background… I realize and identify that as we’ve gone through the pandemic, we’ve certainly brought a lot more awareness to racism and discrimination and how that affects our health and our position, our susceptibility to infectious disease. So, I think I’ve become more aware of the privileges that I do have because it would not be the same for me if I had a different skin colour or different economic status, right? If I didn’t have the job that I have with the support that I have… Some of which comes from hard work, investment in my education early on when others in my same life stage weren’t, but some of it is just pure luck as well, right? In the up-bringing I had, the family I was born into, the country I was born in, for example… So, I think that’s important to identify….

Thus, while many participants identified as being resilient, they also acknowledged how privilege played a role in their resilience. Conversely, some students described an unbalanced power dynamic in academia, which negatively impacted their resilience.

This was emphasized by one participant (N12) who said:

I think it just stems from norms in academia in any case, right? Which is like, you’re not to speak truth to power [chuckles], you’re not to really question how things are set up… I would argue that a lot of people our age do see that academic norms are quite harmful and they’re like, ‘[It] seems very unnecessary, why don’t we do it differently?’ But then for profs… who have made their careers in those spaces, they kind of become agents of reproducing those kind of norms, even though they’ve… been negatively affected by them [the norms] themselves.

Similarly, another participant (N03) highlighted challenges within the student-supervisor dynamic, specific to the COVID-19 pandemic, saying:

It felt like there was kind of a lack of… empathy, or just [a lack of] understanding of where we were coming from… It’s a little bit challenging to be resilient when it feels like the person on the other side doesn’t necessarily understand… like what you’re going through. Because it is a unique experience to be trying to do grad school, especially while there’s a pandemic going on. And so, I think when there’s that miscommunication or lack of understanding, it becomes a little bit more difficult to be resilient because it doesn’t feel like you’re necessarily supported the way that you want to be.

How life stage and past experiences support resilience.

Participants described factors that supported their resilience, including the stage of life they were in and learning from past experiences. Even though many participants described going through difficult times, they spoke to how those experiences helped to strengthen their resilience, making participants more equipped to deal with future hardships. This was emphasized by one participant (N04) who reflected on how age can impact resilience, by describing the difference between going through challenging life experiences when they were young compared to now, saying:

I guess having been resilient from a young age has helped me to understand now that I can deal with things a lot better than I thought I could… I have a self-awareness that we’ve established comes from resilience. I’ve been able to, again, ask for those supports… [and] identify or learn skills to put into my toolbox… So, learning new skills to self-regulate or to cope… maybe healthier or more productive ways of coping than the ways I used when I was having to be resilient from the beginning, without the help.

Another participant (N10) echoed this sentiment as they “considered [themself to be] a highly resilient person given several [life] experiences.” Many participants perceived their resilience to be high because of having gone through challenging experiences, as highlighted by one participant (N11) who said:

I feel like my perception of my own resilience is higher now because… I have the hindsight of thinking, ‘Oh, I’ve succeeded in these difficult situations and come out unscathed mostly so… Clearly, I can do it,’ which I feel like makes it easier to be optimistic moving forward about resilience.

Reflecting on previous life experiences to overcome current challenges was commonly reported by individuals, as another participant (N12) emphasized the importance of “remembering that you can go through some incredibly, incredibly difficult times… but at the end of the day… your failures are not going to be as high stakes as they feel at the time.” Additionally, one participant (N07) highlighted how their life stage played a role in their resilience saying:

I don’t know the average age of graduate students, but I think I’m probably a bit older. I’m knocking on the door of the fourth decade of my life… I had a big space between my master’s and my doctorate and so I think… learning through that probably helps me, for sure… and knowing that sometimes it takes experience, practice, and just hard work….

For this participant, being of older age and having more life experience contributed to their resilience.

How the COVID-19 pandemic has undermined the resilience of equity-deserving groups.

Participants described how the COVID-19 pandemic, inclusive of the protections implemented and the associated uncertainty, has undermined the resilience of equity-deserving groups including parents and immunocompromised and disabled people. Notably, one individual (N07) discussed the challenge of balancing evolving information, anxieties, and parenting responsibilities, saying:

Of course, at the beginning of the pandemic there was a lot of unknowns and anxiety and concerns, especially clinically with the evolving information… So… it’s just a bit challenging to balance, especially [with]…school age children who I don’t have childcare [for] because of COVID.

Other individuals underscored how the length of the pandemic has undermined their resilience, including the lack of support for immunocompromised and disabled people. For example, one participant (N03) said:

The longer things [the pandemic has gone] on… the less resilient I felt… Initially… you don’t really know how long things will be the way they are and so… the hope aspect plays into it… It’s easier to… be resilient and… buckle up and go along for the ride. But I think the longer things continue to go on, it just felt a little bit more challenging.

Another participant (N08) described the pandemic as “eye-opening” regarding a lack of support for at-risk groups saying, “It’s been really eye-opening to see how many people are not in support of immunocompromised or disabled people and are not willing to wear masks for [those] groups… It’s a little shocking….” Whether it was managing multiple roles, the length of the pandemic, or the lack of compassion for at-risk groups, it is evident that the COVID-19 pandemic has undermined the resilience of equity-deserving people in the current study.

Health-related quality of life

The role of disability/chronic pain..

Participants reflected upon how having chronic pain and/or a disability might impact an individual’s role as a graduate student. For example, one individual (N07) emphasized that ill health does not always manifest as visible symptoms saying, “It’s hard to know… other people’s personal health, especially when you just… see them in class and… that might not represent their health… you know? Maybe they have a big chronic disease, and they appear fine in class, but they struggle outside of that….” Another individual (N01), while reflecting on the challenges they experienced during a time when they had broken their foot and that “[i]f I had a longer-term disability, I could see how that would be impactful.” Other participants who identified as having a disability described how it impacted their day-to-day as a graduate student. One individual (N11) with a physical disorder described changing limitation experiences based on their medical condition, saying, “I find most of the time I don’t have any limitations, and then some of the time… I have different flare-up issues, and on those particular days… I do have issues.” Another participant described a history of knee pain, having undergone four knee surgeries. For this individual, the lockdown period of the COVID-19 pandemic has had a negative impact on their disability as they were not able to rely on certain exercises/activities at the gym, due to gym closures, to manage their pain (N06). In contrast, one participant (N08) emphasized how the COVID-19 pandemic has increased accessibility, which in turn improved their academic performance. Pre-pandemic, this individual (N08) described regularly missing class due to health issues, which meant they were “always running to catch up with everybody else” instead of being on track with the rest of the class. Thus, “having [the] opportunity to actually attend every single class [remotely]… radically changed [their] performance”, such that they were able to “perform to [their] highest capabilities as a student.” Additionally, this participant (N08) emphasized:

There’s been such a… disparate experience of the pandemic based on disability, be that mental health or a physical disability… I feel like so many of the benefits that were brought to me by the pandemic by having classes online, have extremely negatively impacted other people. Like the average take on online classes is [a] strong hatred, strong dislike [by some other students], right? And I’m over here like ‘No, this is the best class I’ve ever had!’ …I do think that accessibility is a really major thing that has come [out] of [the] pandemic and I think that the binary distinction has really increased between the two because of things like online classes. So yeah, I think… [the] disabled experience is very different sometimes.

Interestingly, another participant (N04) suggested that “…the people who, because of the pandemic, are thriving in the online learning environment or in the hybrid environment, have seen an increase in their health.” Therefore, while few participants in the current study identified as having a disability, it is important to highlight their experiences to provide adequate support, especially because the COVID-19 pandemic has improved accessibility in educational settings.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand the lived experiences of resilience and HRQOL among a diverse sample of graduate students approximately 18 months into the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, Canada. Participants described how culture, life stage, and past experiences can influence resilience, the role of privilege/power in shaping resilience, and ways in which the COVID-19 pandemic has undermined the resilience of equity-deserving groups. Additionally, participants underscored the role of disability and chronic pain as they related to daily living during the pandemic.

Though the understanding and conceptualization of culture differed among participants, many underscored the ways in which culture intersected with resilience. For one participant, being an international student was “proof” of their resilience, as they experienced unique stressors including moving to another country and learning a new culture and language. This finding aligns with work conducted by Larcombe and colleagues [ 48 ], who suggested that international students are relatively resilient and are able to cope with the unique stressors they encounter. Specifically, the authors concluded that international students in their study reported higher levels of self-compassion than domestic students, suggesting that self-compassion might buffer against the stressors that international students encounter and foster resilience [ 48 ]. This said, Larcombe and colleagues [ 48 , 49 ] also recommended enhancing environmental psychosocial resources such as social connections and belonging, as these resources have been found to predict student wellbeing. This recommendation aligns with findings from the current study, as one participant emphasized how being a part of “like-minded” community-based groups, such as queer community spaces, can support resilience. In line with this finding, Abreu and colleagues [ 50 ] explored how community and cultural values have informed the experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) people ( N = 130) during the COVID-19 pandemic (May-June 2020). The authors concluded that participants relied on intergenerational resilience passed down from their ancestors in the LGBTQ community to help them navigate the COVID-19 pandemic [ 50 ].

In addition to culture, life stage and past experiences were identified by participants as factors that can influence resilience. Specifically, some participants identified that being of older age supported their resilience. This finding is not surprising, as Hayman and colleagues [ 51 ] concluded that late life “is characterised by a unique balance between losses, associated with vulnerability and [social, psychological, and attitudinal] resource restrictions, and potential gains based upon wisdom, experience, autonomy and accumulated systems of support, providing a specific context for the expression of resilience” (p. 577). The authors also suggested that resilience may be higher in older adults compared to other ages, as a result of past life experiences [ 51 ]. This aligns with findings from the current study, as many participants perceived their resilience to be high as a result of having gone through challenging life experiences. This is not surprising, as some evidence suggests that while experiencing adverse life events can have short-term negative impacts, it can also lead to increased resilience in the long-term [ 52 ]. Specifically, in a report by Seery [ 52 ], the author concluded that individuals with some prior lifetime adversity were less likely to be negatively affected by recent adversity compared to those with no history of adversity or high lifetime adversity. Thus, it is not surprising that participants in the current study attributed their resilience to having experienced difficult life experiences.

Graduate students in the current study also identified privilege as a factor that contributed to resilience. The relationship between privilege and resilience is largely unknown in the literature; however, lay literature suggests that people tend to assume members of marginalized groups are resilient because of their identities [ 53 ]. Interestingly, some students in our study suggested that it might be easier to be resilient because of their privileges (e.g., economic status, race), providing a differing perspective than the aforementioned discourse. It is worth noting that while 64% of study participants identified as a person of colour, more research is needed to explore the relationship between resilience and privilege. Importantly, researchers argue that resilience should be revisited and redefined in light of associated inherent biases and racism, as the field is dominated by White middle-class voices [ 54 ]. In contrast to privilege, some participants in the current study discussed how the norms of academia can be harmful, including power imbalances and a lack of empathy from supervisors. These findings align with what is reported by Cho and Hayter [ 18 ] in their systematic review (2000–2018; N = 34 studies) on the impact of stress among graduate students. Specifically, these authors concluded that the academic community and environment can either positively or negatively impact student stress [ 18 ]. Common sources of stress among graduate students included academic demands, funding sources, individual circumstances, and level of support from peers and advisors [ 18 ]. Notably, Cho and Hayter [ 18 ] concluded that graduate students who experienced positive advising, mentoring, and support tended to experience less stress.

While participants described several factors that supported their resilience, they also highlighted factors that undermined their resilience; most notably, the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants underscored how the COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately impacted equity-deserving groups including parents and individuals who are immunocompromised and/or disabled. Notably, one participant underscored difficulty balancing the unknowns of the pandemic, evolving information, and parenting school-aged children without childcare. This finding aligns with previous qualitative work, as participants in a study conducted by Obeng and colleagues [ 55 ] emphasized that the early months of the pandemic were particularly stressful for parents who had to work and homeschool their children simultaneously during the week. Similarly, Petts and colleagues [ 56 ] examined whether loss of childcare and new homeschooling demands were associated with employment outcomes for parents during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic (April 2020). For parents of school-aged children, the authors concluded that homeschooling was associated with adverse employment outcomes among mothers, but not fathers [ 56 ]. This is particularly concerning given that 50% of participants in the current study identified as female and 21% reported that children were members of their households. Parents are not the only group that have been disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, as a participant in the current study also highlighted a lack of support towards immunocompromised and disabled people. This finding aligns with work conducted by Rechner and colleagues [ 57 ], who conducted a qualitative study with individuals with disabilities and their caregivers, service providers, and elected governmental representatives in Delaware, United States. Participants in this study ( N = 25) emphasized how the disability community has been overlooked in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, schools provide one-on-one support for children with disabilities similar to the support provided by day programs for adults with disabilities; however, much of this support was lost as a result of school and business closures during the early months of the pandemic [ 57 ]. This resulted in additional responsibilities for caregivers during the day and changes in daily routines, a finding that is particularly noteworthy given that 14% of participants in the current study identified as a primary caregiver for individuals with a health condition/disability.

Some participants in the current study described the role of disability/chronic pain in relation to their identity as a graduate student. Notably, participants who did not overtly identify as having a disability/chronic pain empathized with those who did, while others described varied lived experiences. Specifically, one student underscored how the pandemic created barriers for them, while another highlighted how the pandemic improved accessibility. This is one of the first studies to shed light on the lived experiences of disability/chronic pain among students during the COVID-19 pandemic; however, in a pre-pandemic study where Hamilton and colleagues [ 58 ] explored the experiences of students ( N = 77) with chronic illnesses in the United Kingdom, participants described feeling undervalued because the university did not prioritize disability-related needs and accessibility. In contrast, a participant in the current study emphasized how the COVID-19 pandemic “levelled the playing field” and improved accessibility by shifting to an online/hybrid learning format. Benson [ 59 ] argues that hybrid learning is an example of “universal design”, which has been recommended by researchers in the education sector as an inclusive approach to engage students with disabilities in the learning process [ 60 ]. Thus, while the dominate discourse in the literature highlights the disadvantages of online learning (e.g., lack of interaction, technical difficulties, increased screen time), as well as students’ desire to return in-person [ 1 ], consideration needs to be given to students with disabilities and chronic illnesses; this study is one of the first to shed light on this perspective.

Limitations

This paper is not without limitations. First, while the authors used purposive sampling to obtain a diverse sample of graduate students, they were limited to participants who completed the CARE survey and expressed interest in interview participation. Thus, while a notable strength of the study is the diverse population, it is worth noting that half of the participants identified as female and over a quarter were of European origins. In the future, researchers interested in conducting research with minority populations may wish to specifically target ethnic and gender diverse groups. Second, the interview guide was informed by the quantitative data from the larger study [ 34 ], which might have influenced participants’ responses, as students were asked the extent to which they resonated with study findings. This said, to mitigate social desirability bias, participants were reminded at the start of each interview that there were no right or wrong answers and that the research team was only interested in what was true for them. Further, given that the interview guide was informed by the quantitative results, the time between quantitative and qualitative data collection was a limitation. Specifically, quantitative data collection occurred between August and September 2021; however, to allow time for analysis and interview scheduling, qualitative data were not collected until March 2022. Thus, when asked the extent to which they resonated with study findings, participants had to reflect back to the time of quantitative data collection which, given the evolving nature of the COVID-19 pandemic, was a challenge. In the future, researchers may wish to shorten the timeframe between quantitative and qualitative data collection or develop an interview guide that is not informed by quantitative data.

The purpose of this qualitative paper was to understand the lived experiences of resilience and HRQOL among a diverse sample of graduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, Canada. Findings from this study underscore factors that support and undermine graduate students’ resilience, as well as how the pandemic impacted the health of participants. Notably, this paper shed light on the role of disability and chronic pain as they related to daily living during the pandemic. This work presents a unique dichotomy between how the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the lives of some graduate students, while simultaneously creating opportunities for others to thrive. Findings from this study underscore the importance of creating inclusive and accessible educational spaces to support graduate students’ resilience and HRQOL. Researchers may wish to build off these study findings by exploring the relationship between privilege and resilience, as well as investigating students with disabilities’ perceptions of the online learning environment, and how it might have changed throughout the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

Supporting information

S1 appendix..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309171.s001

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the participants of this study, as well as Jayme Burke, Jaclyn Cook, and Zoha Raza for their assistance on the project.

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