essay on renaissance art

Renaissance Art

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The art of the Renaissance period in Europe (1400-1600 CE) includes some of the most recognisable and best-loved paintings and sculptures in the world. Masters were often skilled in both painting and sculpture , and by studying the art of antiquity and adding their theoretical knowledge of mathematical perspective and new painting techniques, they produced truly unique works of art. Realism, detail, drama, and subtle layers of meaning became features of religious and secular art. Now, artists finally broke free from their old craftworker status and achieved a new position as vital contributors to the culture and prestige of the societies in which they lived.

Defining features of Renaissance art include:

• an interest in capturing the essential elements of classical art, particularly the form and proportions of the human body.
• an interest in the history of contemporary art and forging a continuous path of development.
• a blending of pagan and religious iconography but with humanity as its focus.
• a tendency towards monumentality and dramatic postures.
• an interest in creating an emotional response from the viewer.
• the development of precise mathematical perspective.
• an interest in hyperrealistic and detailed portraits, scenes, and landscapes.
• an interest in the use of bright colours, shade, and capturing the effects of light.
• the development in use of oil paints and fine prints.
• the use of subtle shapes and everyday objects to give extra meaning.
• an increase in the prestige of artists as superior craftworkers who combined intellectual studies with practical skills.

Medieval Origins

It used to be thought that Renaissance art sprang out of nowhere in a miraculous rebirth of ideas and talent but investigation by modern historians has revealed that many elements of Renaissance art were being experimented with in the 14th century CE. Artists like Giotto (d. 1337 CE) were keen to make their paintings more realistic and so they used foreshortening to give a sense of depth to a scene. Giotto's use of foreshortening, light and shadows, emotion, and dynamic choice of scenes can be best seen in his religious frescos in the Scrovegni Chapel, Padua (c. 1315 CE). These techniques, and the artist's success at making characters come alive, would be hugely influential on later artists. For this reason, Giotto is often referred to as the 'first Renaissance painter' even if he lived before the Renaissance proper.

Wealthy patrons were the driving force behind Renaissance art in a period when the vast majority of artistic works were made on commission. Churches were the usual beneficiaries of this system in the first part of the Renaissance. Painted panels for altarpieces and frescos were the most common form of artistic decoration, often showing the sacra conversazione , that is the Virgin and Child surrounded by saints and well-wishers. Monumental altarpieces several metres high were often elaborately framed to mimic contemporary developments in architecture . The most famous altarpiece of all is the 1432 CE Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck (c. 1390-1441 CE). Early Renaissance subjects, then, are very similar to those popular through the Middle Ages.

Private patrons such as Popes, Holy Roman Emperors, kings, and dukes all saw the benefit of beautifying their cities and palaces, but they were also very interested in gaining a reputation for piety and a knowledge of the arts and history. Once a patron found an artist they liked, they often employed them long-term as their official court artist, setting them all kinds of tasks from portraits to livery design. Patrons were paying and so they often made specific requests on the details of a piece of art. Further, although an artist could use their skills and imagination, they did have to remain within the bounds of convention in that figures in their work had to be recognised for who they were. It was, for example, no good making a fresco of a saint's life if nobody recognised who that saint was. For this reason, the evolution in art was relatively slow, but as some artists gained great fame, so they could develop new ideas in art and make it distinct from what had gone before.

The Classical Revival

A defining feature of the Renaissance period was the re-interest in the ancient world of Greece and Rome . As part of what we now call Renaissance humanism , classical literature , architecture, and art were all consulted to extract ideas that could be transformed for the contemporary world. Lorenzo de Medici (1449-1492 CE), head of the great Florentine family, was a notable patron, and his collection of ancient artworks was a point of study for many artists. Young artists, training in the workshops of established masters, also had access to ancient art there or at least reproduction drawings.

Artists directly imitated classical artworks or parts of them within their own works. In 1496 CE, for example, Michelangelo (1475-1564 CE) sculpted the Sleeping Cupid (now lost) which he purposely aged to make it appear an authentic ancient work. Another recreation of antiquity, this time an entirely imaginary one, is The School of Athens fresco by Raphael (1483-1520 CE). Completed in 1511 CE and located in the Vatican, this fresco shows all the major thinkers from the ancient world. Common images from classical mythology were especially popular. These were again reimagined and, in some cases, they have even overtaken ancient art in our minds when we think of certain subjects. The Birth of Venus (c. 1484 CE, Uffizi Gallery, Florence) by Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510 CE), is a case in point. Finally, the depiction of ancient architecture and ruins was a particular favourite of many Renaissance artists to give background atmosphere to both their mythological and religious works.

The Increased Status of Artists

Another new development was the interest in reconstructing the history of art and cataloguing who exactly were the great artists and why. The most famous scholar to compile such a history was Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574 CE) in his The Lives of the Most Excellent Italian Architects, Painters, and Sculptors (1550 CE, revised 1568 CE). The history is a monumental record of Renaissance artists, their works, and the anecdotal stories associated with them, and so Vasari is considered one of the pioneers of art history. Artists also benefited from having specific biographies written about their lives and works, even when they were still alive such as the 1553 CE Life of Michelangelo , written by Ascanio Condivi (1525-1574 CE). Artists also wrote texts on techniques for the benefit of others, the earliest being the Commentaries by Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455 CE), written about 1450 CE. As the Commentaries includes details of Ghiberti's own life and works, it is also the first autobiography by a European artist.

This interest in Renaissance artists, their private lives, and how they came to create masterpieces reflects the elevated status they now enjoyed. Artists were still seen as craftsmen like cobblers and carpenters, and they were compelled to join a trade guild. This began to change during the Renaissance. Artists were obviously different from other artisans because they could acquire widespread fame for their works and create a sense of civic pride from their fellow citizens. However, it was the intellectual endeavours of painters like Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519 CE) and Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528 CE) that finally elevated painters to the status of 'artists', a term previously restricted to those who studied the traditional liberal arts such as Latin and rhetoric. Artists took a keen interest in studying the history of art, what was going on in the art world elsewhere, wrote treatises on their craft, and made experiments in mathematical perspective. All of these things elevated art to a science .

Another defining feature of Renaissance artists, especially those belonging to the High Renaissance (1490-1527 CE) is their extraordinary ability in a variety of media . Figures like Michelangelo and Leonardo were as accomplished painters as they were sculptors, and both, like many other masters, turned their hand to architecture, too. Such successful masters ran large workshops and these were training grounds for the next generation of artists.

A greater confidence in their skills, knowledge, and contribution to culture in general can be seen in the increasing number of artists who painted self-portraits. Another symptom was the frequent signing of artworks, sometimes in very prominent parts of the picture (even if the assistants in a master's workshop frequently finished off works).

A Gallery of 50 Renaissance Paintings

Painting & new techniques.

Renaissance painters were versatile and often experimented but, generally, as the Renaissance wore one, they used the fresco technique for walls, tempera for panels, and oil for panels or canvas. Fresco - painting on a wet plaster background - and tempera - using pigments mixed with egg yolk - were both techniques employed long before the Renaissance period. Experiments were, however, made using oil paints (pigments mixed with linseed or walnut oil) which gave richer colours, a wider range of tones, and more depth than traditional colours. Oils permitted more details to be shown in the painting and allowed brush strokes to become a visual effect. By the end of the 15th century CE, then, most major artists were using oils when working at an easel, not tempera. The disadvantage of oils was that they quickly deteriorated if used on walls instead of true fresco.

There were different painting styles and techniques depending on location. For example, the colore (or colorito ) technique was prevalent in Venice (where contrasting colours were used to effect and define a harmonious composition) while disegno was preferred in Florence (where line drawing of form took precedence). Other techniques perfected by Renaissance artists include chiaroscuro (the contrasting use of light and shade) and sfumato (the transition of lighter into darker colours).

The painting's subject was another opportunity for experimentation. Painting figures with dramatic poses became a Renaissance fashion, best seen in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling in Rome (1512 CE). A tremendous sense of movement is created by the artist's use of contrapposto , that is the asymmetry between the upper and lower body of the figures, a technique used by Leonardo and many others. Another idea was to create shapes in a scene, especially triangles. The aim of this was to create a harmonious composition and give extra depth, as can be seen in Leonardo's Last Supper mural in Milan's Santa Maria delle Grazie (c. 1498 CE) or the Galatea by Raphael (c. 1513 CE, Villa Farnesina, Rome).

Artists strove for an ever-greater sense of reality in their paintings, and this could be done by reproducing the perspective one would expect to see in a three-dimensional view. Andrea Mantegna (c. 1431-1506 CE) used techniques of foreshortening just as Giotto had done. See his The Agony in the Garden (c. 1460 CE, National Gallery, London). Mantegna was also keen on painting his scenes as if one were looking at them from below, another trick which gave his work depth. Sometimes depth was achieved in the middle ground of the painting while figures dominated the foreground, bringing them closer to the viewer. It was a technique innovated by Pietro Perugino (c. 1450-1523 CE) and can be best seen in the Marriage of the Virgin (c. 1504 CE, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan) by Raphael, once a pupil of Perugino.

Meanwhile, painters like Piero della Francesca (c. 1420-1492 CE) went further and used precise mathematical principles of perspective, as can be seen in his Flagellation of Christ , (c. 1455 CE, National Gallery of Marche, Urbino). Some critics felt that some artists went too far in their use of perspective and so the original sense of their painting was lost; Paolo Uccello (1397-1475 CE) was a particular victim of this claim. Uccello's The Hunt (c. 1460 CE, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford) is certainly an audacious painting with its panoramic view of a symmetrical forest receding into an ever-darker background while the foreground is dominated by the hunters and their hounds, all converging towards a distant central point.

Another step towards a greater reality was to ensure the scene had a single light source which provides matching areas of shadow in all elements of the painting. See, for example, the 1480 CE Ecstasy of Saint Francis (Frick Collection, New York) by Giovanni Bellini (c. 1430-1516 CE). Artists even began to play tricks on the viewer such as the mirror in Jan van Eyck's The Arnolfini Wedding portrait (1434 CE, National Gallery, London) which shows reflections of figures who must be standing next to the viewer. All of these techniques had the additional advantage of creating a 'wow factor' from viewers not used to seeing such innovations.

Renaissance painters wanted to add another level of meaning to their work than just the visual first impression. Mythological scenes were often packed with symbolism, meant to sort out the well-educated viewer from the less so. Titian (c. 1487-1576 CE) even described his mythological paintings as a form of poetry, what he called poesia , such was the density of classical references within them. See, for example, his Bacchus and Ariadne (c. 1523 CE, National Gallery, London).

Portraiture was yet another area where Renaissance artists excelled. The most famous example is Leonardo's Mona Lisa (c. 1506 CE, Louvre, Paris ), which shows an unidentified woman. Leonardo has not only painted a likeness but also captured the mood of the sitter. Contours, perspective, and gradations in colour are all combined to give the image life. Further, the casual posture and three-quarter view of the lady are another hint at movement. This painting was hugely influential on portraits thereafter. Another development was the use of everyday objects in portraits to hint at the sitter's character, beliefs, and interests. The Netherlandish painters were particular masters at realistic portraits, and their ideas spread to Italy where they can be seen in the work of, for example, Piero della Francesca, notably his painting of Federico da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino (c. 1470 CE, Uffizi, Florence).

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Sculpture & Breaking the Classical Mould

While many religious subjects remained popular in sculpture like the Pietà - the Virgin Mary mourning over the body of Jesus Christ - conventional iconography soon gave way to more innovative treatments. Donatello (c. 1386-1466 CE), for example, experimented with sacrificing technique and finish to capture the emotion of a figure, a strategy best seen in his wooden Mary Magdalene (c. 1446 CE, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence).

The classical revival saw sculptors create their own versions of ancient figures in wood, stone, and bronze . Most famous of all is Michelangelo's David (1504 CE, Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence). Representing the biblical king who, in his youth, famously killed the giant Goliath, the marble figure is much larger than life-size, around 5.20 metres (17 feet) tall. It reminds of colossal statues of Hercules from antiquity, but the tension of the figure and his thoroughly determined face are Renaissance inventions.

Donatello produced his version of David in bronze (1420s or 1440s CE, Bargello, Florence) and this work was another dramatic departure from ancient sculpture. The posture creates a sensuous figure that could not have been produced in antiquity. Both Michelangelo's and Donatello's David remind of the close link between art and function during the Renaissance. David appeared on the official seal of Florence, and as the slayer of Goliath, it was a timely reminder of the Florentines' struggles against the rival city of Milan.

A related art to sculpture was engraving. Donatello was again involved here, producing superb low relief bronze panels for the baptistery of Sienna and several Florentine churches. The technique of carving a scene with a shallow depth yet still achieving a sense of perspective was known as 'flattened relief' or rilievo schiacciat o. A very different technique was to create metal panels with figures so high in relief they are almost in the round. The most famous example of this technique is Lorenzo Ghiberti's 'Gates of Paradise', the doors for Florence's Baptistery of San Giovanni (completed in 1452 CE). The gilded panels attached to the doors show biblical scenes and even a bust of Ghiberti himself.

From 1420 CE, prints made from woodcuts were popular, but it was the development of engraving copper plates from the 1470s CE that really saw prints become a true art form. Copper plates gave a much greater precision and detail. Mantegna and Dürer were two notable experts at this, and their engravings became highly collectible. The most successful printer was Marcantonio Raimondi (1480-1534 CE), and his prints of fine art helped spread ideas to northern Europe and vice-versa.

The Legacy of Renaissance Art

Collecting art became a hobby of the wealthy, but as the middle classes became richer, so, too, they could acquire art, albeit not quite so great. Workshops like the ones run by Ghiberti began not exactly to mass-produce art but to at least employ standardised elements taken from an existing catalogue. In short, art was no longer restricted to the wealthy, and for those still unable to afford originals, they could always buy prints. Prints also spread artists' reputations far and wide. Thanks to the expansion of the art market, masters were now free to produce art as they thought it should be, not as a patron thought.

Renaissance art was continuously evolving. Mannerism, for example, is a vague term which initially referred to the oddly different art which came after the High Renaissance. Mannerism then acquired a more positive meaning - stylishness, ambiguity of message, contrast, and generally playing with the techniques and standardisations earlier Renaissance artists had set. See, for example, the 1548 CE Miracle of Saint Mark Rescuing a Slave by Tintoretto (c. 1518-1594 CE, Academia, Venice). From Mannerism would come the next major style in European art, the highly decorative Baroque, which took the rich colours, fine details, and energetic poses of Renaissance art to a new extreme of overwhelming drama and decoration.

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Bibliography

• Campbell, Gordon. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Renaissance. Oxford University Press, 2019.
• Hale, J.R. (ed). The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of the Italian Renaissance. Thames & Hudson, 2020.
• Nash, Susie. Northern Renaissance Art. Oxford University Press, 2009.
• Paoletti, John T. & Radke, Gary M. Art in Renaissance Italy. Pearson, 2011.
• Rundle, David. The Hutchinson Encyclopedia of the Renaissance. Hodder Arnold, 2000.
• Woods, Kim W. Making Renaissance Art. Yale University Press, 2007.
• Wyatt, Michael. The Cambridge Companion to the Italian Renaissance. Cambridge University Press, 2014.

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Renaissance

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 11, 2023 | Original: April 4, 2018

The Renaissance was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic “rebirth” following the Middle Ages. Generally described as taking place from the 14th century to the 17th century, the Renaissance promoted the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art.

Some of the greatest thinkers, authors, statesmen, scientists and artists in human history thrived during this era, while global exploration opened up new lands and cultures to European commerce. The Renaissance is credited with bridging the gap between the Middle Ages and modern-day civilization.

From Darkness to Light: The Renaissance Begins

During the Middle Ages , a period that took place between the fall of ancient Rome in 476 A.D. and the beginning of the 14th century, Europeans made few advances in science and art.

Also known as the “Dark Ages,” the era is often branded as a time of war, ignorance, famine and pandemics such as the Black Death .

Some historians, however, believe that such grim depictions of the Middle Ages were greatly exaggerated, though many agree that there was relatively little regard for ancient Greek and Roman philosophies and learning at the time.

During the 14th century, a cultural movement called humanism began to gain momentum in Italy. Among its many principles, humanism promoted the idea that man was the center of his own universe, and people should embrace human achievements in education, classical arts, literature and science.

In 1450, the invention of the Gutenberg printing press allowed for improved communication throughout Europe and for ideas to spread more quickly.

As a result of this advance in communication, little-known texts from early humanist authors such as those by Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio, which promoted the renewal of traditional Greek and Roman culture and values, were printed and distributed to the masses.

Additionally, many scholars believe advances in international finance and trade impacted culture in Europe and set the stage for the Renaissance.

How the Renaissance Challenged the Church and Influenced the Reformation

As interest in cultural, intellectual and scientific exploration flourished, support for an all‑powerful church diminished.

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Medici Family

The Renaissance started in Florence, Italy, a place with a rich cultural history where wealthy citizens could afford to support budding artists.

Members of the powerful Medici family , which ruled Florence for more than 60 years, were famous backers of the movement.

Great Italian writers, artists, politicians and others declared that they were participating in an intellectual and artistic revolution that would be much different from what they experienced during the Dark Ages.

The movement first expanded to other Italian city-states, such as Venice, Milan, Bologna, Ferrara and Rome. Then, during the 15th century, Renaissance ideas spread from Italy to France and then throughout western and northern Europe.

Although other European countries experienced their Renaissance later than Italy, the impacts were still revolutionary.

Renaissance Geniuses

Some of the most famous and groundbreaking Renaissance intellectuals, artists, scientists and writers include the likes of:

• Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519): Italian painter, architect, inventor and “Renaissance man” responsible for painting “The Mona Lisa” and “The Last Supper.
• Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536): Scholar from Holland who defined the humanist movement in Northern Europe. Translator of the New Testament into Greek. 
• Rene Descartes (1596–1650): French philosopher and mathematician regarded as the father of modern philosophy. Famous for stating, “I think; therefore I am.”
• Galileo (1564-1642): Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer whose pioneering work with telescopes enabled him to describes the moons of Jupiter and rings of Saturn. Placed under house arrest for his views of a heliocentric universe.
• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543): Mathematician and astronomer who made first modern scientific argument for the concept of a heliocentric solar system.
• Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): English philosopher and author of “Leviathan.”
• Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400): English poet and author of “The Canterbury Tales.”
• Giotto (1266-1337): Italian painter and architect whose more realistic depictions of human emotions influenced generations of artists. Best known for his frescoes in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.
• Dante (1265–1321): Italian philosopher, poet, writer and political thinker who authored “The Divine Comedy.”
• Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527): Italian diplomat and philosopher famous for writing “The Prince” and “The Discourses on Livy.”
• Titian (1488–1576): Italian painter celebrated for his portraits of Pope Paul III and Charles I and his later religious and mythical paintings like “Venus and Adonis” and "Metamorphoses."
• William Tyndale (1494–1536): English biblical translator, humanist and scholar burned at the stake for translating the Bible into English.
• William Byrd (1539/40–1623): English composer known for his development of the English madrigal and his religious organ music.
• John Milton (1608–1674): English poet and historian who wrote the epic poem “Paradise Lost.”
• William Shakespeare (1564–1616): England’s “national poet” and the most famous playwright of all time, celebrated for his sonnets and plays like “Romeo and Juliet."
• Donatello (1386–1466): Italian sculptor celebrated for lifelike sculptures like “David,” commissioned by the Medici family.
• Sandro Botticelli (1445–1510): Italian painter of “Birth of Venus.”
• Raphael (1483–1520): Italian painter who learned from da Vinci and Michelangelo. Best known for his paintings of the Madonna and “The School of Athens.”
• Michelangelo (1475–1564): Italian sculptor, painter and architect who carved “David” and painted The Sistine Chapel in Rome.

Renaissance Impact on Art, Architecture and Science

Art, architecture and science were closely linked during the Renaissance. In fact, it was a unique time when these fields of study fused together seamlessly.

For instance, artists like da Vinci incorporated scientific principles, such as anatomy into their work, so they could recreate the human body with extraordinary precision.

Architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi studied mathematics to accurately engineer and design immense buildings with expansive domes.

Scientific discoveries led to major shifts in thinking: Galileo and Descartes presented a new view of astronomy and mathematics, while Copernicus proposed that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the solar system.

Renaissance art was characterized by realism and naturalism. Artists strived to depict people and objects in a true-to-life way.

They used techniques, such as perspective, shadows and light to add depth to their work. Emotion was another quality that artists tried to infuse into their pieces.

Some of the most famous artistic works that were produced during the Renaissance include:

• The Mona Lisa (Da Vinci)
• The Last Supper (Da Vinci)
• Statue of David (Michelangelo)
• The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)
• The Creation of Adam (Michelangelo)

Renaissance Exploration

While many artists and thinkers used their talents to express new ideas, some Europeans took to the seas to learn more about the world around them. In a period known as the Age of Discovery, several important explorations were made.

Voyagers launched expeditions to travel the entire globe. They discovered new shipping routes to the Americas, India and the Far East and explorers trekked across areas that weren’t fully mapped.

Famous journeys were taken by Ferdinand Magellan , Christopher Columbus , Amerigo Vespucci (after whom America is named), Marco Polo , Ponce de Leon , Vasco Núñez de Balboa , Hernando De Soto and other explorers.

Renaissance Religion

Humanism encouraged Europeans to question the role of the Roman Catholic church during the Renaissance.

As more people learned how to read, write and interpret ideas, they began to closely examine and critique religion as they knew it. Also, the printing press allowed for texts, including the Bible, to be easily reproduced and widely read by the people, themselves, for the first time.

In the 16th century, Martin Luther , a German monk, led the Protestant Reformation – a revolutionary movement that caused a split in the Catholic church. Luther questioned many of the practices of the church and whether they aligned with the teachings of the Bible.

As a result, a new form of Christianity , known as Protestantism, was created.

End of the Renaissance

Scholars believe the demise of the Renaissance was the result of several compounding factors.

By the end of the 15th century, numerous wars had plagued the Italian peninsula. Spanish, French and German invaders battling for Italian territories caused disruption and instability in the region.

Also, changing trade routes led to a period of economic decline and limited the amount of money that wealthy contributors could spend on the arts.

Later, in a movement known as the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic church censored artists and writers in response to the Protestant Reformation. Many Renaissance thinkers feared being too bold, which stifled creativity.

Furthermore, in 1545, the Council of Trent established the Roman Inquisition , which made humanism and any views that challenged the Catholic church an act of heresy punishable by death.

By the early 17th century, the Renaissance movement had died out, giving way to the Age of Enlightenment .

Debate Over the Renaissance

While many scholars view the Renaissance as a unique and exciting time in European history, others argue that the period wasn’t much different from the Middle Ages and that both eras overlapped more than traditional accounts suggest.

Also, some modern historians believe that the Middle Ages had a cultural identity that’s been downplayed throughout history and overshadowed by the Renaissance era.

While the exact timing and overall impact of the Renaissance is sometimes debated, there’s little dispute that the events of the period ultimately led to advances that changed the way people understood and interpreted the world around them.

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The Renaissance, History World International . The Renaissance – Why it Changed the World, The Telegraph . Facts About the Renaissance, Biography Online . Facts About the Renaissance Period, Interestingfacts.org . What is Humanism? International Humanist and Ethical Union . Why Did the Italian Renaissance End? Dailyhistory.org . The Myth of the Renaissance in Europe, BBC .

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Origins and rise of humanism

Artistic developments and the emergence of florence.

• The High Renaissance
• Competition from Mannerism

What does the word “Renaissance” mean?

When did the renaissance happen, who are some important people of the renaissance, what is renaissance art, what does “renaissance man” mean.

Renaissance

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• Table Of Contents

Renaissance is a French word meaning “rebirth.” It refers to a period in European civilization that was marked by a revival of Classical learning and wisdom. The Renaissance saw many contributions to different fields, including new scientific laws, new forms of art and architecture, and new religious and political ideas.

There is some debate over when exactly the Renaissance began. However, it is generally believed to have begun in Italy during the 14th century, after the end of the Middle Ages , and it reached its height there between the 1490s and the 1520s, a period referred to as the High Renaissance. Renaissance ideas and ways of thinking also began spreading to the rest of Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. The Renaissance as a unified historical period ended in Italy with the fall of Rome in 1527 , and it was eclipsed by the Reformation and Counter-Reformation elsewhere in Europe by the end of the 16th century. 

Prominent figures of the Renaissance, understood as a broadly European era, include philosopher and statesman Niccolò Machiavelli , known for the political treatise The Prince ; Francis Bacon , a statesman and philosopher considered the master of the English tongue; the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus , who developed the theory that the solar system was centred on the Sun; the poets Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio , who laid the foundations for humanism , the mode of thought at the core of the Renaissance; William Shakespeare , considered the greatest English dramatist of all time; astronomer and mathematician Galileo , who helped disprove much medieval-era thinking in science; and the explorers Christopher Columbus , Ferdinand Magellan , and Hernán Cortés .

One of the fields that embodied the Renaissance was fine art, especially painting and sculpture . Renaissance art was inspired by Classical Greek and Roman art, and it is known for its grace, harmony, and beauty. Artists worked from the living model and perfected techniques such as the use of perspective. In addition, the Renaissance saw the refinement of mediums, notably oils . Leonardo da Vinci , Michelangelo , and Raphael are widely considered the leading artists of the period.

The idea of a Renaissance man developed in Italy and derived from Leon Battista Alberti ’s notion that “a man can do all things if he will.” The ideal embodied the basic tenets of Renaissance humanism , which considered humankind the centre of the universe and led to the belief that people should try to embrace all knowledge and develop their own abilities as fully as possible. Leonardo da Vinci is a leading example of a Renaissance man, noted for his achievements in art , science , music , invention, and writing.

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Renaissance , period in European civilization immediately following the Middle Ages and conventionally held to have been characterized by a surge of interest in Classical scholarship and values. The Renaissance also witnessed the discovery and exploration of new continents, the substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy , the decline of the feudal system and the growth of commerce, and the invention or application of such potentially powerful innovations as paper , printing , the mariner’s compass , and gunpowder . To the scholars and thinkers of the day, however, it was primarily a time of the revival of Classical learning and wisdom after a long period of cultural decline and stagnation.

A brief treatment of the Renaissance follows. For full treatment, see history of Europe: The Renaissance .

The term Middle Ages was coined by scholars in the 15th century to designate the interval between the downfall of the Classical world of Greece and Rome and its rediscovery at the beginning of their own century, a revival in which they felt they were participating. Indeed, the notion of a long period of cultural darkness had been expressed by Petrarch even earlier. Events at the end of the Middle Ages, particularly beginning in the 12th century, set in motion a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations that culminated in the Renaissance. These included the increasing failure of the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire to provide a stable and unifying framework for the organization of spiritual and material life, the rise in importance of city-states and national monarchies , the development of national languages, and the breakup of the old feudal structures.

While the spirit of the Renaissance ultimately took many forms, it was expressed earliest by the intellectual movement called humanism . Humanism was initiated by secular men of letters rather than by the scholar-clerics who had dominated medieval intellectual life and had developed the Scholastic philosophy . Humanism began and achieved fruition first in Italy . Its predecessors were men like Dante and Petrarch , and its chief protagonists included Giannozzo Manetti, Leonardo Bruni , Marsilio Ficino , Giovanni Pico della Mirandola , Lorenzo Valla , and Coluccio Salutati . The fall of Constantinople in 1453 provided humanism with a major boost, for many eastern scholars fled to Italy, bringing with them important books and manuscripts and a tradition of Greek scholarship.

Humanism had several significant features. First, it took human nature in all of its various manifestations and achievements as its subject. Second, it stressed the unity and compatibility of the truth found in all philosophical and theological schools and systems, a doctrine known as syncretism . Third, it emphasized the dignity of humankind. In place of the medieval ideal of a life of penance as the highest and noblest form of human activity, the humanists looked to the struggle of creation and the attempt to exert mastery over nature. Finally, humanism looked forward to a rebirth of a lost human spirit and wisdom. In the course of striving to recover it, however, the humanists assisted in the consolidation of a new spiritual and intellectual outlook and in the development of a new body of knowledge. The effect of humanism was to help men break free from the mental strictures imposed by religious orthodoxy, to inspire free inquiry and criticism , and to inspire a new confidence in the possibilities of human thought and creations.

From Italy the new humanist spirit and the Renaissance it engendered spread north to all parts of Europe, aided by the invention of the mechanized printing press , which allowed literacy and the availability of Classical texts to grow explosively. Foremost among northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus , whose Praise of Folly (1509) epitomized the moral essence of humanism in its insistence on heartfelt goodness as opposed to formalistic piety. The intellectual stimulation provided by humanists helped spark the Reformation , from which, however, many humanists, including Erasmus, recoiled. By the end of the 16th century the battle of Reformation and Counter-Reformation had commanded much of Europe ’s energy and attention, while the intellectual life was poised on the brink of the Enlightenment .

It was in art that the spirit of the Renaissance achieved its sharpest formulation. Art came to be seen as a branch of knowledge, valuable in its own right and capable of providing people with images of God and his creations as well as with insights into humankind’s position in the universe. In the hands of men such as Leonardo da Vinci it was even a science , a means for exploring nature and a record of discoveries. Art was to be based on the observation of the visible world and practiced according to mathematical principles of balance, harmony, and perspective , which were developed at this time. In the works of painters such as Masaccio , the brothers Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti , Fra Angelico , Sandro Botticelli , Perugino , Piero della Francesca , Raphael , and Titian ; sculptors such as Giovanni Pisano , Donatello , Andrea del Verrocchio , Lorenzo Ghiberti , and Michelangelo ; and architects such as Leon Battista Alberti , Filippo Brunelleschi , Andrea Palladio , Michelozzo , and Filarete , the dignity of humanity found expression in the arts.

In Italy the Renaissance proper was preceded by an important “proto-renaissance” in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, which drew inspiration from Franciscan radicalism. St. Francis of Assisi had rejected the formal Scholasticism of the prevailing Christian theology and gone out among the poor praising the beauties and spiritual value of nature. His example inspired Italian artists and poets to take pleasure in the world around them. The work of the most famous artist of the proto-renaissance period, Giotto (1266/67 or 1276–1337), reveals a new pictorial style that depends on clear, simple structure and great psychological penetration rather than on the flat, linear decorativeness and hierarchical compositions of his predecessors and contemporaries, such as the Florentine painter Cimabue and the Siennese painters Duccio and Simone Martini . The great poet Dante lived at about the same time as Giotto, and his poetry shows a similar concern with inward experience and the subtle shades and variations of human nature . Although his Divine Comedy belongs to the Middle Ages in its plan and ideas, its subjective spirit and power of expression look forward to the Renaissance. Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio also belong to this proto-renaissance period, both through their extensive studies of Latin literature and through their writings in the vernacular . Unfortunately, the terrible plague of 1348 (known as the Black Death ) and subsequent civil wars submerged both the revival of humanistic studies and the growing interest in individualism and naturalism revealed in the works of Giotto and Dante. The spirit of the Renaissance did not surface again until the 15th century.

In 1401−02 the goldsmith and painter Lorenzo Ghiberti won a competition held at Florence and was awarded the commission for bronze doors to be placed on the baptistery of San Giovanni . According to traditional accounts, Filippo Brunelleschi , who was among Ghiberti’s competitors, and his friend Donatello left for Rome soon after; there they immersed themselves in the study of ancient architecture and sculpture . When they returned to Florence and began to put their knowledge into practice, the rationalized art of the ancient world was reborn. The founder of Renaissance painting was Masaccio (1401–28). The intellectuality of his conceptions , the monumentality of his compositions, and the high degree of naturalism in his works mark Masaccio as a pivotal figure in Renaissance painting. The succeeding generation of artists— Piero della Francesca , the Pollaiuolo brothers , and Andrea del Verrocchio —pressed forward with researches into linear and aerial perspective and anatomy , developing a style of scientific naturalism.

The situation in Florence was uniquely favourable to the arts. The civic pride of Florentines found expression in statues of the patron saints commissioned from Ghiberti and Donatello for niches in the grain-market guildhall known as Or San Michele, and in the largest dome built since antiquity, placed by Brunelleschi on the Duomo . The cost of construction and decoration of palaces, churches, and monasteries was underwritten by wealthy merchant families, chief among whom were the Medici family .

The Medici traded in all of the major cities in Europe, and one of the most famous masterpieces of Northern Renaissance art, The Portinari Altarpiece , by Hugo van der Goes ( c. 1476; Uffizi , Florence), was commissioned by their agent, Tommaso Portinari. Instead of being painted with the customary tempera of the period, the work is painted with translucent oil glazes that produce brilliant jewel-like colour and a glossy surface. Early Northern Renaissance painters were more concerned with the detailed reproduction of objects and their symbolic meaning than with the study of scientific perspective and anatomy even after these achievements became widely known. On the other hand, central Italian painters began to adopt the oil medium soon after The Portinari Altarpiece was brought to Florence in 1476.

High Renaissance Art Essay

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Introduction

Role of art in high renaissance, leonardo da vinci – the lady with an ermine, michelangelo buonarotti – the creation of adam, comparative and contrastive analysis, works cited.

The historical period of the High Renaissance spanned between 1490 and 1527 and characterizes the culmination of the art of Renaissance, which combined the ideas inherent to classical humanism and the linear artistic perspective inherent to realism. The period of the Early Renaissance was predominantly focused in Florence and was significantly funded by the Medici family; however, Rome was the center for High Renaissance art, which was funded by the Popes. In fact, the lavish founding of the High Renaissance made the city almost bankrupt.

In the course of the development of the High Renaissance, Rome exceeded Florence due to the ambition of the clergy’s ambitions to reinforce the glory of Rome through art. Pope Julius II and Pope Leo X paid a significant amount of money for the services of the greatest Renaissance artist like da Vinci and Michelangelo to paint various images on religious topics. Thus, the majority of paintings or sculptures inherent to the High Renaissance were not intended for an average citizen, on the contrary, they diminished their value through uplifting the role of the Church (“High Renaissance Art” par. 5).

The realistic depiction of the main objects in the paintings was not entirely intended to present the material world, rather, it aspired to show the beauty and harmony of nature. Despite the fact that High Renaissance artists based their works on nature, they studied the classical works of Greeks and Romans to find the perfect balance, which became the heart of their aesthetics.

While Leonardo da Vinci was paid a lot to paint images related to religious themes, he was also appointed to paint some representatives of the upper class, like, for example, his painting of Cecilia Gallerani (Figure 1), the mistress of Ludovico, Duke of Milan. She was a daughter of a rich courtier and was described to be “as beautiful as a flower” (Wilson par. 2).

The painting possesses a number of hidden clues that were characteristic of Leonardo’s style. Since he was obsessed with the dynamics of movement, he introduced a new way of painting movement to the style of portraiture. In the painting, Cecilia is depicted in a half-turn, holding an ermine in her arms.

Ermine was regarded as a symbol of childbirth in art; thus, many historians believe that Cecilia was pregnant with Ludovico’s child when Leonardo painted her. Another reference Leonardo made was in the expensive Jet jewels Cecilia wore on the portrait. Ludovico was known under the nickname of ‘the Moor’ for his quite dark complexion. Thus, the black jewels make a subtle allusion to Cecilia’s lover.

When it comes to the specific artistic attributes, da Vinci used an innovative technique of adding dots of white paint to the irises of Cecilia’s eyes, creating ‘catch-lights’. This technique made Cecilia’s eyes alive as if they were reflecting the light from a candle or an open window. In addition, Cecilia has disproportionately large hands for a woman of her age and size. However, this can be explained by the fact that Leonardo practiced drawing hands separate from people’s bodies – he had numerous sketchbooks with hands drawn in different poses. Most likely, Leonardo lifted previously drawn hands from his sketchbook and completed Cecilia’s portrait.

Furthermore, Leonardo used a new method of shading, which was called smokiness. The smokiness can be seen on Cecilia’s chest and neck as subtle gradations of tone, which are typical for the technique. The Lady with an Ermine was painted with a unique medium of oil medium which came from the Netherlands to Italy in the 1470’s. The new medium can be regarded as revolutionary for the country that was captured by the classical method of mural paintings, in which paints were made from egg whites and crushed pigments.

In addition to the new technique, Leonardo used a precious pigment of ultramarine to paint the blue mantle Cecilia had on. The bright blue color was achieved by grinding the semi-precious stone ‘lapis lazull’, mined in Afghanistan, and the shipped to Europe.

The Lady with an Ermine is a painting, which showed Leonardo’s obsession with the art of drawing and the study of nature, evidenced by the detailed depiction of the ermine (Cork par. 6). Cecilia Gallerani came alive in paint, with her sparkling eyes and the folds of her dress, in the moving pose of the animal and the soft shading on her neck.

In contrast to da Vinci’s portrait, the second painting chosen for analysis, is Michelangelo’s The Creation of Adam, the most known fresco in the Sistine Chapel. Again, the fresco is different from the usual scenes that depict the Creation. God, on the right, is depicted inside a nebula that is made up of many figures of people. Furthermore, God is shown as an elderly man with a gray beard. The image of God is quite remote from the traditional images in which he wears royal garments – in the painting he only wears a light tunic that exposes his legs (Figure 2). Thus, it can be argued that Michelangelo’s depiction of the Creator is much more intimate as he is not unreachable and untouchable to a simple man, but a God that is accessible (“Michelangelo’s Creation of Adam” par. 2).

On the other hand, Adam on the left is shown as a figure that responds to the touch of God. This touch can be regarded as a symbol of life which God first gave to Adam and then to the mankind overall. The shape of Adam’s body is reflective of God’s shape, which implies an idea that Man was created as an image of God – an idea which, supposedly, was supported by Michelangelo.

The Creation of Adam is instrumental in showing the main principles inherent to Michelangelo’s style of painting: the depiction of muscular bodies that twist in the movement, the juxtaposition of the images of the divine and the man, the painting of the bodies that look like live sculptures because Michelangelo was initially specializing in sculpture and had profound knowledge on the structure of the human body.

Due to the fact that Michelangelo was indeed a sculptor, there is an interesting allusion to the science of Anatomy. The nebula which surrounds God is reminiscent of a human skull and the nervous system. Through tracing imaginary lines of a frontal and temporal lobe of a human brain onto the nebula, it can be shown that the nebula is an anatomically correct representation of a human skull (Meshberger 3).

The chosen artistic works of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo Buonarotti are different in their techniques, themes, and ideas. While Leonardo’s the Lady with an Ermine is a portrait of a mistress of the Duke of Milan, Michelangelo’s theme is connected with the Creation of Man by God. While Lady with an Ermine was painted with an innovative medium of paint, the Creation of Adam reserved to a traditional fresco method.

However, both works of art included hidden messages that were to be disclosed. Leonardo presented his knowledge of hidden symbols as evidenced by the image of the ermine that suggested Cecilia’s pregnancy. Michelangelo also followed his aesthetic as a sculptor and connoisseur of the human anatomy, hiding an outline of a human skull in the composition of the fresco.

Thus, the ways in which the paintings are perceived by the viewer are polarly different. The Creation of Adam is seen as a scene of interaction between the divine deity and a man, reinforcing the creationist beliefs inherent to the majority of religions. In addition, the fact that the fresco is located on the high ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the observer may have a feeling of being small and powerless compared to God.

Lady with an Ermine, on the other hand, presents a much more realistic theme of a higher class. It brilliantly serves a time capsule for the modern society that is able to see the contrast between the way the members of the high class looked in the fifteenth century and the way they look today.

Cork, Richard. Leonardo da Vinci’s Masterpiece ‘The Lady With the Ermine’ . 2013. Web.

High Renaissance Art . n.d. Web.

“ Leonardo da Vinci – The Lady with an Ermine ” n.d. Web.

Meshberger, Frank. An Interpretation Of Michelangelo’s Creation Of Adam Based On Neuroanatomy. 2011. Web.

Michelangelo’s Creation of Adam . 2012. Web.

“ Michelangelo’s Creation of Adam ” n.d. Web.

Wilson, Andrew. Decoding a da Vinci masterpiece: Behind the Secret Symbols of The Lady With An Ermine . 2011. Web.

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Renaissance Essay | Essay on Renaissance for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Renaissance Essay:  The word renaissance means rebirth. The Renaissance that took place in the periods of 15th and 16th centuries in is probably one of the most celebrated periods of European history. Even though two different periods of history do not have any form of demarcation, but the Renaissance worked to mark the transition from the Medieval Age to the Modern Age.

The Renaissance period is celebrated all around the globe. It has been an important period to pave culture and art in Europe, which eventually spread all around the globe due to colonization.

You can also find more  Essay Writing  articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long and Short Essays on Renaissance for Students and Kids in English

We are providing students with essay samples on a long essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the topic “Renaissance” for reference.

Long Essay on Renaissance 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Renaissance is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

The meaning of the word renaissance means rebirth. The period was named so as the period was almost sort of a rebirth of human thinking capabilities, art, culture, morals, etc. in Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries (the period is debated over at times). The Renaissance has been associated with the great social change which followed the later medieval period (a period of crisis).

It is said that the period of the Renaissance was a break from the middle ages, but some argue that it was an extension of the Middle Ages. Humanism is what defined the earliest ages of the Renaissance which came into being and formation because of the events of the later Middle Ages, such as the fall of the Roman Catholic Church and intellectual reawakening.

Humanism developed earliest in Italy by secular men like Leonardo Bruni, Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola, etc. instead of scholar clerics who had dominated intellectual awakening in the Middle Ages. Dante was one of the predecessors of Humanism.

The concept of Humanism was derived from the concept of Roman Humanitas and the rediscovery that was done regarding Greek philosophy, one of them being the Protagoras. The fall of Constantinople worked as a boost for Humanism and many scholars arrived in Italy with books and manuscripts from Greece. Humanism emphasized took all forms of human manifestation as a subject emphasized the dignity of man and highlighted about the compatibility and unity of all truth in syncretism.

Art and architecture, science, culture, geography, religion, political establishments and human thinking, all went through massive changes in the period of Renaissance. In art, during the Renaissance, the ‘point perspective’ was established, and artists like Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael flourished. Even though Michelangelo and Raphael were contemporaries and both had their unique styles with the touch of Renaissance Art and hence were both celebrated for their differences and similarities. Da Vinci’s work on human anatomy is something that the world will be ever grateful for. Thus, intermingling art and science also led to scientific and medical changes and improvements during the Renaissance.

Europeans set out into the world and found out about the various other continents and established trade connections (which later led to colonization) with them. Christopher Columbus is one big name during this period because he was responsible for the finding of the ‘New World’ (even though Columbus intended to find a different route to India, hence when he landed on the ‘New World’ he thought it was India).In the scientific fieldworks of Copernicus, Vesalius, Galileo, Kepler, etc. are celebrated. Copernicus’ book ‘On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres’ (translated in English) and Vesalius’ book on ‘The Workings of the Human Body’ paved ways for several other scientific innovations and discoveries, which, many historians argue paved the way for the Modern Age to set in. The Renaissance period, to be defined in a single sentence was the period of light, discoveries, rebirth and reawakening.

Short Essay on Renaissance 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Renaissance is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

The time between the Medieval Age and Modern Age in Europe is called the Renaissance French word), which means rebirth. It took place around 14th to 16th centuries which at times are also argued by historians.

Some prefer to segregate the Renaissance as a separate period. In contrast, some say that it was the extension of the later Medieval Age, regardless it worked as a marking period between the medieval age and modern age. Art, architecture, science, literature, geography, human thinking and philosophy, religion and political and social structures, all by mingling with each other, went through a reawakening or rebirth, hence living up to the name of the period in history.

Humanism, beginning in Italy, was one of the earliest characteristic features of the Renaissance which was inspired by the Roman ‘Humanitas’ and was ignited by the fall of Constantinople which led scholars to come into Italy with Greek books and manuscripts. Historians believe that the later developments in science and medicine are what led to the setting in of the Modern Age.

10 Lines on Renaissance in English

• The word Renaissance means ‘rebirth’.
• The Renaissance took place in Europe between the Middle and Modern Ages.
• The time of the Renaissance starts from the 14th century and continues onto the 16th century.
• One main and earliest aspect of the Renaissance was Humanism.
• The fall of Constantinople in 1453 ignited the path for Humanism.
• New continents were discovered during this time, which led to trade and later colonization.
• Ptolemaic astronomy replaced Copernican astronomy.
• Leonardo Da Vinci’s works on the human body and anatomy through his art paved the way for development in science.
• There was an increased interest in Classical Scholarship values.
• The Renaissance is one of the most celebrated historical times.

FAQ’s on Huck Finn Essay

Question 1.  What does the word Renaissance Mean?

Answer:  The French word Renaissance means rebirth.

Question 2.  When did the Renaissance take place?

Answer:  The Renaissance took place between the 14th and 16th centuries.

Question 3.  What is the Renaissance?

Answer: Renaissance is a period in history when in Europe science, art, medicine, astronomy, art, literature, human values flourished and had an awakening, leaving an impact all over the world. It worked as a demarcation point between the middle and modern age.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Renaissance — Comparing and Contrasting Renaissance and Baroque Artistic Styles

Comparing and Contrasting Renaissance and Baroque Artistic Styles

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Published: Feb 7, 2024

Words: 690 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, historical and cultural context, characteristics of renaissance art, characteristics of baroque art, comparison of renaissance and baroque art.

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A comparison between early and high renaissance, popular essay topics.

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Music in the renaissance.

ex "Kurtz" Violin

Andrea Amati

Double Virginal

Hans Ruckers the Elder

Cornetto in A

possibly Georg Voll

Sixtus Rauchwolff

Claviorganum

Lorenz Hauslaib

Tenor Recorder

Rectangular Octave Virginal

Rebecca Arkenberg Department of Education, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2002

Music was an essential part of civic, religious, and courtly life in the Renaissance. The rich interchange of ideas in Europe, as well as political, economic, and religious events in the period 1400–1600 led to major changes in styles of composing, methods of disseminating music, new musical genres, and the development of musical instruments. The most important music of the early Renaissance was composed for use by the church—polyphonic (made up of several simultaneous melodies) masses and motets in Latin for important churches and court chapels. By the end of the sixteenth century, however, patronage had broadened to include the Catholic Church, Protestant churches and courts, wealthy amateurs, and music printing—all were sources of income for composers.

The early fifteenth century was dominated initially by English and then Northern European composers. The Burgundian court was especially influential, and it attracted composers and musicians from all over Europe. The most important of these was Guillaume Du Fay (1397–1474), whose varied musical offerings included motets and masses for church and chapel services, many of whose large musical structures were based on existing Gregorian chant. His many small settings of French poetry display a sweet melodic lyricism unknown until his era. With his command of large-scale musical form, as well as his attention to secular text-setting, Du Fay set the stage for the next generations of Renaissance composers.

By about 1500, European art music was dominated by Franco-Flemish composers, the most prominent of whom was Josquin des Prez (ca. 1450–1521). Like many leading composers of his era, Josquin traveled widely throughout Europe, working for patrons in Aix-en-Provence, Paris, Milan, Rome, Ferrara, and Condé-sur-L’Escaut. The exchange of musical ideas among the Low Countries, France, and Italy led to what could be considered an international European style. On the one hand, polyphony or multivoiced music, with its horizontal contrapuntal style, continued to develop in complexity. At the same time, harmony based on a vertical arrangement of intervals, including thirds and sixths, was explored for its full textures and suitability for accompanying a vocal line. Josquin’s music epitomized these trends, with Northern-style intricate polyphony using canons, preexisting melodies, and other compositional structures smoothly amalgamated with the Italian bent for artfully setting words with melodies that highlight the poetry rather than masking it with complexity. Josquin, like Du Fay, composed primarily Latin masses and motets, but in a seemingly endless variety of styles. His secular output included settings of courtly French poetry, like Du Fay, but also arrangements of French popular songs, instrumental music, and Italian frottole.

With the beginning of the sixteenth century, European music saw a number of momentous changes. In 1501, a Venetian printer named Ottaviano Petrucci published the first significant collection of polyphonic music, the Harmonice Musices Odhecaton A . Petrucci’s success led eventually to music printing in France, Germany, England, and elsewhere. Prior to 1501, all music had to be copied by hand or learned by ear; music books were owned exclusively by religious establishments or extremely wealthy courts and households. After Petrucci, while these books were not inexpensive, it became possible for far greater numbers of people to own them and to learn to read music.

At about the same period, musical instrument technology led to the development of the viola da gamba , a fretted, bowed string instrument. Amateur European musicians of means eagerly took up the viol, as well as the lute , the recorder , the harpsichord (in various guises, including the spinet and virginal), the organ , and other instruments. The viola da gamba and recorder were played together in consorts or ensembles and often were produced in families or sets, with different sizes playing the different lines. Publications by Petrucci and others supplied these players for the first time with notated music (as opposed to the improvised music performed by professional instrumentalists). The sixteenth century saw the development of instrumental music such as the canzona, ricercare, fantasia, variations, and contrapuntal dance-inspired compositions, for both soloists and ensembles, as a truly distinct and independent genre with its own idioms separate from vocal forms and practical dance accompaniment.

The musical instruments depicted in the studiolo of Duke Federigo da Montefeltro of Urbino (ca. 1479–82; 39.153 ) represent both his personal interest in music and the role of music in the intellectual life of an educated Renaissance man. The musical instruments are placed alongside various scientific instruments, books, and weapons, and they include a portative organ, lutes, fiddle, and cornetti; a hunting horn; a pipe and tabor; a harp and jingle ring; a rebec; and a cittern .

From about 1520 through the end of the sixteenth century, composers throughout Europe employed the polyphonic language of Josquin’s generation in exploring musical expression through the French chanson, the Italian madrigal, the German tenorlieder, the Spanish villancico, and the English song, as well as in sacred music. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation directly affected the sacred polyphony of these countries. The Protestant revolutions (mainly in Northern Europe) varied in their attitudes toward sacred music, bringing such musical changes as the introduction of relatively simple German-language hymns (or chorales) sung by the congregation in Lutheran services. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525/26–1594), maestro di cappella at the Cappella Giulia at Saint Peter’s in Rome, is seen by many as the iconic High Renaissance composer of Counter-Reformation sacred music, which features clear lines, a variety of textures, and a musically expressive reverence for its sacred texts. The English (and Catholic) composer William Byrd (1540–1623) straddled both worlds, composing Latin-texted works for the Catholic Church, as well as English-texted service music for use at Elizabeth I ‘s Chapel Royal.

Sixteenth-century humanists studied ancient Greek treatises on music , which discussed the close relationship between music and poetry and how music could stir the listener’s emotions. Inspired by the classical world, Renaissance composers fit words and music together in an increasingly dramatic fashion, as seen in the development of the Italian madrigal and later the operatic works of Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643). The Renaissance adaptation of a musician singing and accompanying himself on a stringed instrument, a variation on the theme of Orpheus, appears in Renaissance artworks like Caravaggio’s Musicians ( 52.81 ) and Titian ‘s Venus and the Lute Player ( 36.29 ).

Arkenberg, Rebecca. “Music in the Renaissance.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renm/hd_renm.htm (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Rebecca Arkenberg

• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Violins .” (October 2002)
• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Keyboards .” (October 2002)
• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Organs .” (October 2002)

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• Musical Instrument
• Northern Renaissance
• Percussion Instrument
• Plucked String Instrument
• Renaissance Art
• String Instrument
• Wind Instrument

Artist or Maker

• Amati, Andrea
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