literature review on reflective practice in teaching

• DOI: 10.1080/00336297.1995.10484153
• Corpus ID: 4658726

Reflective Teaching: A Literature Review

• N. Tsangaridou , D. Siedentop
• Published 1 May 1995

69 Citations

Classroom teachers’ reflections on teaching physical education, reflective practice in physical education and physical education teacher education: a review of the literature since 1995.

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Science teachers’ conceptualisation of professional reflective practice: a reconstruction of the impact of pre-service interaction with lecturing staff

Exploring pre-service classroom teachers’ reflections on teaching physical education, the development of reflective skills in physical education teacher education: a systematic review, reflection as situated practice: a memory-work study of lived experience in teacher education, exploring the relationship between reflexivity and reflective practice through lesson study within initial teacher education, reflective practice in dance: a review of the literature.

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Enhancing the spaces of reflection

Physical education pre-service teachers’ understanding, application, and development of critical thinking, 83 references, preparing reflective teachers: an overview of instructional strategies which have been employed in preservice teacher education..

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Reflective teaching and teacher education

Reflecting on reflective teaching, research on teachers’ thinking: its contribution to educating student teachers to think critically.

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Critical Reflection on Teaching: insights from Freire

Learning to reflect on teaching: a case study of one preservice physical education teacher, the reflective practitioner and the curriculum of teacher education, nurturing the reflective practitioner through instructional supervision: a review of the literature., the influence of teacher education on preservice development: beyond a custodial orientation., book review : encouraging reflective practice in education: an analysis of issues and programs renée t. clift, w. robert houston, and marleen c. pugach (editors) new york: teachers college press, 1990, 239 pp. $17.95 (paper), related papers.

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Engaging in Reflective Practice: A Practical Guide

• First Online: 23 October 2020

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• Andy Curtis 5  

Part of the book series: Second Language Learning and Teaching ((SLLT))

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We begin this chapter by contemplating the question: What is Reflective Practice? and highlighting the important difference between just thinking about our teaching and systematically reflecting on our professional practices. In considering that opening question, we also recognize the multiplicity of meanings of Reflective Practice (RP), and the different ways of engaging in RP. In the same way that ‘one size does not fit all’ in teaching and learning, RP should reflect the individuality of the teacher and their different learners. Some notes on the history of RP are also given, followed by details of the practical aspects of doing RP, using different levels of self-questioning, combined with, for example, video-recording and co-teaching. In the last main part of the chapter, we consider some of the challenges of engaging in RP, and some ways of meeting those challenges.

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Curtis, A. (2020). Engaging in Reflective Practice: A Practical Guide. In: Coombe, C., Anderson, N.J., Stephenson, L. (eds) Professionalizing Your English Language Teaching. Second Language Learning and Teaching. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34762-8_20

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Reflective Practices in Education: A Primer for Practitioners

Haleigh machost.

1 Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

Marilyne Stains

Associated data.

Reflective practices in education are widely advocated for and have become important components of professional reviews. The advantages of reflective practices are many; however, the literature often focuses on the benefits to students, rather than the benefits for the educators themselves. Additionally, the extant literature concerning reflective practices in education is laden with conflicting terminology and complex studies, which can inhibit educators’ understanding of reflective practices and prevent their adoption. As such, this Essay serves as a primer for educators beginning reflective practices. It briefly describes the benefits to educators and different classifications and modalities of reflection and examines some of the challenges that educators may encounter.

INTRODUCTION

“Reflection” has become a buzzword in academia and has vast array of implications across fields, disciplines, and subdisciplines. When considering reflection about teaching practices, John Dewey, a psychologist and philosopher who was heavily influential in educational reform, provides a relevant description: reflection is ‘‘the active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” ( Dewey, 1933 , p. 9). The act of reflection in this context is meant to indicate a process , with Dewey highlighting the necessity of active thinking when encountering obstacles and problems. In less philosophical phrasing, reflection entails considering past or present experiences, learning from the outcomes observed, and planning how to better approach similar situations in the future. Consequently, Dewey suggests that educators embark on a journey of continual improvement when engaging in reflective practices. This is in stark contrast to how reflection is used in higher education. For many educators, the only time they engage in reflection is when they are asked to write documents that are used to evaluate whether they should be promoted, receive a raise, or be granted tenure. Reflection, within an evaluation framework, can be counterproductive and prevent meaningful reflections due to perceptions of judgment ( Brookfield, 2017 ).

This gap may result from the particular adaptation of reflections by some academics. The origin of reflective practices lies not in the realm of academia, but rather in professional training. It is often traced back to Donald Schön’s instrumental 1983 work The Reflective Practitioner , which, while aimed at his target audience of nonacademic professionals, has become foundational for reflective practices in teaching ( Munby and Russell, 1989 ).

In the varied topography of professional practice, there is a high, hard ground where practitioners can make effective use of research-based theory and technique, and there is a swampy lowland where situations are confusing “messes” incapable of technical solution. The difficulty is that the problems of the high ground, however great their technical interest, are often relatively unimportant to clients or to the larger society, while in the swamp are the problems of greatest human concern. ( Schön, 1983 , p. 42)

Schön’s work on the education of various professionals gained traction, as he diverged from common norms of the time. In particular, he disagreed with separating knowledge and research from practice, and methods from results ( Schön, 1983 ; Newman, 1999 ). In doing so, he advocated for practical as well as technical knowledge, enabling professionals to develop greater competency in the real-world situations they encounter. Research in the ensuing decades focused on both gaining evidence for the effectiveness of reflective practices ( Dervent, 2015 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ) and understanding the obstacles that can prevent reflective practices from being adopted ( Davis, 2003 ; Sturtevant and Wheeler, 2019 ).

This Essay is not intended to provide a comprehensive review of this work for use by education researchers; rather, the goal of this Essay is to provide a guide, grounded in this literature, to inform beginning reflective practitioners about the benefits of reflections, the different types of reflections that one can engage in, practical advice for engaging in reflective practices, and the potential challenges and corresponding solutions when engaging in reflective practices. It is also intended as a resource for professional development facilitators who are interested in infusing reflective practice within their professional development programs.

WHY SHOULD I ENGAGE IN REFLECTIVE PRACTICES?

Perhaps the best place to begin when discussing reflective practices is with the question “Why do people do it?” It is common to conceptualize reflection about teaching situations as a way to help “fix” any problems or issues that present themselves ( Brookfield, 2017 ). However, this view is counterproductive to the overarching goal of reflective practices—to continually improve one’s own efficacy and abilities as an educator. Similar to how there is always a new, more efficient invention to be made, there is always room for improvement by even the most experienced and well-loved educators. People choose to be educators for any number of personal reasons, but often the grounding desire is to help inform, mentor, or guide the next generation. With such a far-reaching aim, educators face many obstacles, and reflective practices are one tool to help mitigate them.

Classrooms are an ever-changing environment. The students change, and with that comes new generational experiences and viewpoints. Updates to technology provide new opportunities for engaging with students and exploring their understanding. New curricula and pedagogical standards from professional organizations, institutions, or departments can fundamentally alter the modes of instruction and the concepts and skills being taught. As described by Brookfield, reflection can act as a “gyroscope,” helping educators stay balanced amid a changing environment ( 2017 , p. 81). Through the process of reflection, practitioners focus on what drives them to teach and their guiding principles, which define how they interact with both their students and their peers. Furthermore, reflective practitioners are deliberately cognizant of the reasoning behind their actions, enabling them to act with more confidence when faced with a sudden or difficult situation ( Brookfield, 2017 ). In this way, reflection can help guide educators through the challenging times they may experience in their careers.

One such obstacle is imposter syndrome, which is all too familiar for many educators ( Brems et al. , 1994 ; Parkman, 2016 ; Collins et al. , 2020 ). It is a sense that, despite all efforts put in—the knowledge gained, the relationships formed, and the lives changed—what one does is never enough and one does not belong. These feelings often lead to a fear of being “discovered as a fraud or non-deserving professional, despite their demonstrated talent and achievements” ( Chrousos and Mentis, 2020 , p. 749). A part of reflective practices that is often overlooked is the consideration of everything that goes well . While it is true that reflective practitioners are aware of areas for improvement in their teaching, it is also true that they acknowledge, celebrate, and learn from good things that happen in their classrooms and in their interactions with students and peers. As such, they are more consciously aware of their victories, even if those victories happen to be small ( Brookfield, 2017 ). That is not to say that reflective practices are a cure-all for those dealing with imposter syndrome, but reflections can be a reminder that their efforts are paying off and that someone, whether it be students, peers, or even the practitioner themselves, is benefiting from their actions. Furthermore, reflecting on difficult situations has the potential for individuals to realize the extent of their influence ( Brookfield, 2017 ).

In a similar vein, reflective practices can help educators realize when certain expectations or cultural norms are out of their direct ability to address. For example, educators cannot be expected to tackle systemic issues such as racism, sexism, and ableism alone. Institutions must complement educators’ efforts through, for example, establishment of support systems for students excluded because of their ethnicity or race and the implementation of data-driven systems, which can inform the institutions’ and educators’ practices. Thus, through reflections, educators can avoid “self-laceration” ( Brookfield, 2017 , p. 86) and feelings of failure when the problems experienced are multifaceted.

In addition to alleviating “self-laceration,” developing reflective practice and reflective practitioners has been identified as one of four dominant change strategies in the literature ( Henderson et al. , 2011 ). Specifically, developing reflective practitioners is identified as a strategy that empowers individual educators to enact change ( Henderson et al. , 2011 ). One avenue for such change comes with identifying practices that are harmful to students. Reflecting on teaching experiences and student interactions can allow educators to focus on things such as whether an explanatory metaphor is accessible to different types of students in the class (e.g., domestic and international students), if any particular group of students do not work well together, and whether the curriculum is accessible for students from varied educational and cultural backgrounds. Thus, through the process of reflection, educators grow in their ability to help their students on a course level, and they are better positioned to advocate on their students’ behalf when making curricular decisions on a departmental or institutional level.

An additional part of reflection is gathering feedback to enable a holistic view of one’s teaching practices. When feedback is given by a trusted peer, this invaluable information can guide chosen teaching methods and ways of explaining new information. When feedback is given by students and that feedback is then acted upon, it demonstrates to the students that their opinions and experiences are taken seriously and fosters a more trusting environment ( Brookfield, 2017 ). Furthermore, when discrepancies arise between the intention of the teacher and the interpretation of the students, reflection also aids practitioners in verbalizing their reasoning. Through reflection, educators would need to consider past experiences, prior knowledge, and beliefs that led to their actions. As such, reflective practitioners are able to have honest and informed discussions with their students who may be confused or unhappy with a particular decision. Explaining this to students not only models the practice of continuous inquiry and of considering one’s actions, but it also allows students to understand the rationale behind decisions they may not personally agree with, fostering a more productive student–teacher relationship ( Brookfield, 2017 ).

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF REFLECTION?

This section aims to summarize and clarify the different ways reflection has been conceptualized in the literature ( Table 1 ). Specifically, reflections have been described based on their timing, depth, and content. Notably, practitioners of reflective practices must utilize multiple types of reflection in order to more effectively improve different aspects of their teaching ( Griffiths and Tann, 1992 ).

The various conceptualizations and associated types of reflections along with examples of guiding questions

Time-Dependent

To understand the time-dependent conceptualization of reflection, we return to Schön (1983 ). He defines two particular concepts—“reflection-in-action” and “reflection-on-action”—which are delineated based on the time that the reflection takes place. Reflection-in-action is characterized as practitioners reflecting while simultaneously completing the relevant action. Reflection-on-action encompasses a practitioner reflecting on a past action, analyzing the different influences, and carefully considering the observed or potential outcomes. Reflection-in-action is perceived as more difficult due to the multiple factors that teachers have to consider at once while also ensuring that the lesson carries on.

Later work built on this initial description of time-dependent reflections. In particular, Loughran renamed the original two timings to make them more intuitive and added one time point ( Loughran, 2002a ). The three categories include: “anticipatory,” “contemporaneous,” and “retrospective,” wherein actions taken, or to be taken, are contemplated before, during, and after an educating experience, respectively. It should be noted that both Loughran’s and Schön’s models are able to function in tandem with the depth- or content-based understandings of reflections, which are described in the next sections.

Depth of Reflections

Conceptualizing reflection in terms of depth has a long history in the literature (see Section 5.1 in the Supplemental Material for a historical view of the depth-based model of reflections). Thankfully, Larrivee (2008a) designed a depth-classification system that encompasses an array of terminologies and explanations pre-existing in the literature. This classification includes a progression in reflective practices across four levels: “pre-reflection,” “surface,” “pedagogical,” and “critical reflection.”

During the pre-reflection stage, educators do not engage in reflections. They are functioning in “survival mode” ( Larrivee, 2008a , p. 350; Campoy, 2010 , p. 17), reacting automatically to situations without considering alternatives and the impacts on the students ( Larrivee, 2008a ; Campoy, 2010 ). At this stage, educators may feel little agency, consider themselves the victims of coincidental circumstances, or attribute the ownership of problems to others such as their students, rather than themselves ( Larrivee, 2008a ; Campoy, 2010 ). They are unlikely to question the status quo, thereby failing to consider and adapt to the needs of the various learners in their classrooms ( Larrivee, 2008a ; Campoy, 2010 ). While the description of educators at this level is non-ideal, educators at the pre-reflection level are not ill intended. However, the pre-reflective level is present among practitioners, as evidenced in a 2015 study investigating 140 English as a Foreign Language educators and a 2010 analysis of collected student reflections ( Campoy, 2010 ; Ansarin et al. , 2015 ). The presence of pre-reflective educators is also readily apparent in the authors’ ongoing research. As such, being aware of the pre-reflection stage is necessary for beginning practitioners, and this knowledge is perhaps most useful for designers of professional development programs.

The first true level of reflection is surface reflection. At this level, educators are concerned about achieving a specific goal, such as high scores on standardized tests. However, these goals are only approached through conforming to departmental norms, evidence from their own experiences, or otherwise well-established practices ( Larrivee, 2008a ). In other words, educators at this level question whether the specific pedagogical practices will achieve their goals, but they do not consider any new or nontraditional pedagogical practices or question the current educational policies ( Campoy, 2010 ). Educators’ reflections are grounded in personal assumptions and influenced by individuals’ unexamined beliefs and unconscious biases.

At the pedagogical level, educators “reflect on educational goals, the theories underlying approaches, and the connections between theoretical principles and practice.” ( Larrivee, 2008a , p. 343). At this level, educators also consider their own belief systems and how those systems relate to their practices and explore the problem from different perspectives. A representative scenario at this level includes: teachers contemplating their various teaching methods and considering their observed outcomes in student comprehension, alternative viewpoints, and also the current evidence-based research in education. Subsequently, they alter (or maintain) their previous teaching practices to benefit the students. In doing so, more consideration is given to possible factors than in surface reflection. This category is quite broad due to the various definitions present in the literature ( Larrivee, 2008a ). However, there is a common emphasis on the theory behind teaching practices, ensuring that practice matches theory, and the student outcomes of enacted teaching practices ( Larrivee, 2008a ).

The last level of reflection categorized by Larrivee is critical reflection, wherein educators consider the ethical, moral, and political ramifications of who they are and what they are teaching to their students ( Larrivee, 2008a ). An approachable way of thinking about critical reflection is that the practitioners are challenging their assumptions about what is taught and how students learn. In doing so, educators evaluate their own views, assertions, and assumptions about teaching, with attention paid to how such beliefs impact students both as learners and as individuals ( Larrivee, 2005 , 2008b ). Through practicing critical reflection, societal issues that affect teaching can be uncovered, personal views become evidence based rather than grounded in assumptions, and educators are better able to help a diverse student population.

Larrivee used this classification to create a tool for measuring the reflectivity of teachers (see Section 4.1 of the Supplemental Material).

Content of Reflections

The third type of reflection is one in which what is being reflected on is the defining feature. One such example is Valli’s five types of reflection ( 1997 ): “technical reflection,” “reflection-in and on-action,” “deliberative reflection,” “personalistic reflection,” and “critical reflection.” Note that Valli’s conceptions of the two types of reflection—reflection-in and on-action, and critical reflection—are congruent with the descriptions provided in the Time-Dependent and Depth sections of this Essay , respectively, and will thus not be detailed in this section.

In a technical reflection, educators evaluate their instructional practices in light of the findings from the research on teaching and learning ( Valli, 1997 ). The quality of this type of reflection is based on the educators’ knowledge of this body of work and the extent to which their teaching practices adhere to it. For example, educators would consider whether they are providing enough opportunities for their students to explain their reasoning to one another during class. This type of reflection does not focus on broader topics such as the structure and content of the curriculum or issues of equity.

Deliberative reflection encompasses “a whole range of teaching concerns, including students, the curriculum, instructional strategies, the rules and organization of the classroom” ( Valli, 1997 , p. 75). In this case, “deliberative” comes from the practitioners having to debate various external viewpoints and perspectives or research that maybe be in opposition. As such, they have an internal deliberation when deciding on the best actions for their specific teaching situations. The quality of the reflection is based on the educators’ ability to evaluate the various perspectives and provide sound reasoning for their decisions.

Personalistic reflection involves educators’ personal growth as well as the individual relationships they have with their students. Educators engaged in this type of reflection thoughtfully explore the relationships between their personal and professional goals and consider the various facets of students’ lives with the overarching aim of providing the best experience. The quality of the reflection is based on an educator’s ability to empathize.

To manage the limitations of each type of reflections, Valli recommended that reflective practitioners not focus solely on a specific type of reflection, but rather engage with multiple types of reflections, as each addresses different questions. It is important to note that some types of reflections may be prerequisite to others and that some may be more important than others; for example, Valli stated that critical reflections are more valuable than technical reflections, as they address the important issues of justice. The order of Valli’s types of reflection provided in Table 1 reflects her judgment on the importance of the questions that each type of reflection addresses.

HOW CAN I ENGAGE IN REFLECTION?

Larrivee suggested that there is not a prescribed strategy to becoming a reflective practitioner but that there are three practices that are necessary: 1) carving time out for reflection, 2) constantly problem solving, and 3) questioning the status quo ( Larrivee, 2000 ). This section of the Essay provides a buffet of topics for consideration and methods of organization that support these three practices. This section is intended to assist educators in identifying their preferred mode of reflection and to provide ideas for professional development facilitators to explicitly infuse reflective practices in their programs.

For educators who are new to reflective practices, it is useful to view the methods presented as “transforming what we are already doing, first and foremost by becoming more aware of ourselves, others, and the world within which we live” ( Rodgers and Laboskey, 2016 , p. 101) rather than as a complete reformation of current methods.

Focus of the Reflection: Critical Incident

When practicing reflection, a critical incident may be identified or presented in order to ignite the initial reflection or to foster deeper thought by practitioners ( Tripp, 2011 ). Critical incidents are particular situations that become the focus of reflections. Farrell described critical incidents in education as unplanned events that hold the potential to highlight misconceptions and foster greater and newer understanding about teaching and learning ( 2008 ). These can be situations ranging from students not understanding a foundational concept from a previous course to considering how to navigate the analysis of a data set that includes cultural background and socioeconomic status.

Critical incidents are used, because meaningful reflection is often a result of educators experiencing a problem or some form of cognitive dissonance concerning teaching practices and approaches to their students ( Lee, 2005 ). Therefore, it is most effective to combine techniques, which are outlined later in this section, with a critical incident to force practitioners into a new and difficult positions relating to education. Larrivee details that a sense of “uncertainty, dissonance, dilemma, problem, or conflict” is extremely valuable to personal reflection and growth ( 2008b , p. 93). Thus, unsettling experiences encourage changes to action far more than reflecting on typical teaching/learning interactions. This is an inherently uncomfortable experience for the practitioner, as feelings of self-doubt, uncertainty, anger, and self- or peer-rejection can come to the surface ( Larrivee, 2008b ). Yet, it is when educators are in an uncomfortable position that they are best able to challenge their learned assertions about what they are teaching and how they are supporting their students’ learning. This requires a conscious effort on the part of the educator. Humans tend to function automatically based on their past experiences and ingrained beliefs. This results in certain aspects of events being ignored while others become the driving force behind reactions. In a sense, humans have a “filter system” that can unconsciously eliminate the most effective course of action; this results in humans functioning in a cycle in which current, unquestioned beliefs determine which data and experiences are given attention ( Larrivee, 2000 , p. 295).

Critical incidents highlight any dissonance present in one’s actions, enabling practitioners to tackle social, ethical, political, and pedagogical issues that may be systemic to their departments, their fields, or their cultures. Critical incidents foster critical reflection (under the depth- and content-based models) even in novice teachers ( Pultorak, 1996 ; Griffin, 2003 ). It is because of the difficulty and uncertainty posed by critical incidents that they are widely promoted as an invaluable aspect of reflective practices in education. Therefore, the analysis of critical incidents, whether they are case studies or theoretical examples, has been used in educating both pre-service ( Griffin, 2003 ; Harrison and Lee, 2011 ) and current educators ( Benoit, 2013 ).

Scaffoldings Promoting Reflections

Once a critical incident has been identified, the next step is structuring the reflection itself. Several scaffolding models exist in the literature and are described in Section 3 of the Supplemental Material. As reflections are inherently personal, educators should use the scaffolding that works best for them. Two scaffoldings that have been found to be useful in developing reflective practices are Bain’s 5R and Gibbs’s reflective cycle.

Bain et al. (2002) created the 5R framework to support the development of pre-service teachers into reflective practitioners. The framework includes the following five steps ( Bain et al. , 2002 ):

• Reporting involves considering a particular experience and the contextual factors that surround it.
• Responding is when the individual practitioners verbalize their feelings, thoughts, and other reactions that they had in response to the situation.
• Relating is defined as teachers making connections between what occurred recently and their previously obtained knowledge and skill base.
• Reasoning then encourages the practitioners to consider the foundational concepts and theories, as well as other factors that they believe to be significant, in an effort to understand why a certain outcome was achieved or observed.
• Finally, reconstructing is when the teachers take their explanations and uses them to guide future teaching methods, either to encourage a similar result or to foster a different outcome.

This framework facilitates an understanding of what is meant by and required for reflective practices. For a full explanation of Bain’s scaffolding and associated resources, see Sections 1.2 and 3.3 in the Supplemental Material.

A popular scaffolding for promoting reflective practices is the reflective learning cycle described by Gibbs (1988) . This cycle for reflection has been extensively applied in teacher preparation programs and training of health professionals ( Husebø et al. , 2015 ; Ardian et al. , 2019 ; Markkanen et al. , 2020 ). The cycle consists of six stages:

• Description: The practitioner first describes the situation to be reflected on in detail.
• Feelings: The practitioner then explores their feelings and thoughts processes during the situation.
• Evaluation: The practitioner identifies what went well and what went wrong.
• Analysis: The practitioner makes sense of the situation by exploring why certain things went well while others did not.
• Conclusions: The practitioner summarizes what they learned from their analysis of the situation.
• Personal action plans: The practitioner develops a plan for what they would do in a similar situation in the future and what other steps they need to take based on what they learn (e.g., gain some new skills or knowledge).

For a full explanation of Gibbs’s scaffolding and associated resources, see Sections 1.3 and 3.4 in the Supplemental Material.

We see these two models as complementary and have formulated a proposed scaffolding for reflection by combining the two models. In Table 2 , we provide a short description of each step and examples of reflective statements. The full scaffolding is provided in Section 3.6 of the Supplemental Material.

Proposed scaffolds for engaging in reflective practices a

a An expanded version is provided in Section 3.6 of the Supplemental Material.

Even with the many benefits of these scaffolds, educators must keep in mind the different aspects and levels of reflection that should be considered. Especially when striving for higher levels of reflection, the cultural, historical, and political contexts must be considered in conjunction with teaching practices for such complex topics to affect change ( Campoy, 2010 ). For instance, if equity and effectiveness of methods are not contemplated, there is no direct thought about how to then improve those aspects of practice.

Modalities for Reflections

The different scaffolds can be implemented in a wide variety of practices ( Table 3 ). Of all the various methods of reflection, reflective writing is perhaps the most often taught method, and evidence has shown that it is a deeply personal practice ( Greiman and Covington, 2007 ). Unfortunately, many do not continue with reflective writing after a seminar or course has concluded ( Jindal‐Snape and Holmes, 2009 ). This may be due to the concern of time required for the physical act of writing. In fact, one of the essential practices for engaging in effective reflections is creating a space and time for personal, solitary reflection ( Larrivee, 2000 ); this is partially due to the involvement of “feelings of frustration, insecurity, and rejection” as “taking solitary time helps teachers come to accept that such feelings are a natural part of the change process” while being in a safe environment ( Larrivee, 2000 , p. 297). It is important to note that reflective writing is not limited to physically writing in a journal or typing into a private document; placing such a limitation may contribute to the practice being dropped, whereas a push for different forms of reflection will keep educators in practice ( Dyment and O'Connell, 2014 ). Reflective writings can include documents such as case notes ( Jindal‐Snape and Holmes, 2009 ), reviewing detailed lesson plans ( Posthuma, 2012 ), and even blogging ( Alirio Insuasty and Zambrano Castillo, 2010 ; van Wyk, 2013 ; Garza and Smith, 2015 ).

Common methods to engage in reflective practices

The creation of a blog or other online medium can help foster reflection. In addition to fostering reflection via the act of writing on an individual level, this online form of reflective writing has several advantages. One such benefit is the readily facilitated communication and collaboration between peers, either through directly commenting on a blog post or through blog group discussions ( Alirio Insuasty and Zambrano Castillo, 2010 ; van Wyk, 2013 ; Garza and Smith, 2015 ). “The challenge and support gained through the collaborative process is important for helping clarify beliefs and in gaining the courage to pursue beliefs” ( Larrivee, 2008b , p. 95). By allowing other teachers to comment on published journal entries, a mediator role can be filled by someone who has the desired expertise but may be geographically distant. By this same logic, blogs have the great potential to aid teachers who themselves are geographically isolated.

Verbal reflections through video journaling (vlogs) follows the same general methods as writing. This method has the potential to be less time intensive ( Clarke, 2009 ), which may lower one of the barriers facing practitioners. Greiman and Covington (2007) identified verbal reflection as one of the three preferred modalities of reflection by student teachers. By recording their verbal contemplations and reflections, practitioners can review their old thoughts about different course materials, enabling them to adjust their actions based on reflections made when observations were fresh in their mind. Students learning reflective practices also noted that recorded videos convey people’s emotions and body language—reaching a complexity that is not achievable with plain text or audio ( Clarke, 2009 ).

If writing or video journaling is not appealing, another method to facilitate reflective practices is that of making video recordings of teaching experiences in vivo. This differs from vlogs, which are recorded after the teaching experiences. A small longitudinal qualitative study indicated that the video recordings allowed participants to be less self-critical and to identify effective strategies they were employing ( Jindal‐Snape and Holmes, 2009 ). Additionally, beginning teachers found the most value in videotaping their teaching as compared with electronic portfolios and online discussions ( Romano and Schwartz, 2005 ). By recording their teaching practices, practitioners can use a number of clearly outlined self- and peer-assessments, as detailed in Section 4 of the Supplemental Material. However, it should be noted that all three technology-driven methods used in the study by Romano and Schwartz (2005) were helpful for the participants, and as reflective practices are inherently personal, many methods should be considered by practitioners new to purposeful reflection.

Group efforts, such as group discussions or community meetings, can foster reflective thinking, thereby encouraging reflective practices. “The checks and balances of peers’ and critical friends’ perspectives can help developing teachers recognize when they may be devaluing information or using self-confirming reasoning, weighing evidence with a predisposition to confirm a belief or theory, rather than considering alternative theories that are equally plausible” ( Larrivee, 2008b , p. 94). These benefits are essential to help educators reach the higher levels of reflection (i.e., pedagogical reflection and critical reflection), as it can be difficult to think of completely new viewpoints on one’s own, especially when educators are considering the needs of diverse students yet only have their own experiences to draw upon. Henderson et. al . (2011) review of the literature found that successful reports of developing reflective practitioners as a strategy for change had two commonalities. One of these was the presence of either a community where experiences are shared ( Gess-Newsome et al. , 2003 ; Henderson et al. , 2011 ) or of an additional participant providing feedback to the educator ( Penny and Coe, 2004 ; McShannon and Hynes, 2005 ; Henderson et al. , 2011 ). The second commonality was the presence of support by a change agent ( Hubball et al. , 2005 ; Henderson et al. , 2011 ), which is far more context reliant.

Even in the absence of change agent support, peer observation can be implemented as a tool for establishing sound reflective practices. This can be accomplished through informal observations followed by an honest discussion. It is vital for the correct mindset to be adopted during such a mediation session, as the point of reflection is in assessing the extent to which practitioners’ methods allow them to achieve their goals for student learning. This cannot be done in an environment where constructive feedback is seen as a personal critique. For example, it was found that peers who simply accepted one another’s practices out of fear of damaging their relationships did not benefit from peer observation and feedback ( Manouchehri, 2001 ); however, an initially resistant observer was able to provide valuable feedback after being prompted by the other participant ( Manouchehri, 2001 ). One approach to ensure the feedback promotes reflections is for the observer and participant to meet beforehand and have a conversation about areas on which to focus feedback. The follow-up conversation focuses first on these areas and can be expanded afterward to other aspects of the teaching that the observer noticed. Observation protocols (provided in Section 4.2 in the Supplemental Material) can also be employed in these settings to facilitate the focus of the reflection.

For those interested in assessing their own or another’s reflection, Section 4 in the Supplemental Material will be helpful, as it highlights different tools that have been shown to be effective and are adaptable to different situations.

WHAT BARRIERS MIGHT I FACE?

It is typical for educators who are introducing new practices in their teaching to experience challenges both at the personal and contextual levels ( Sturtevant and Wheeler, 2019 ). In this section, we address the personal and contextual barriers that one may encounter when engaging in reflective practices and provide advice and recommendations to help address these barriers. We also aim to highlight that the difficulties faced are commonly shared by practitioners embarking on the complex journey of becoming reflective educators.

Personal Barriers

Professional development facilitators who are interested in supporting their participants’ growth as reflective practitioners will need to consider: 1) the misunderstandings that practitioners may have about reflections and 2) the need to clearly articulate the purpose and nature of reflective practices. Simply asking practitioners to reflect will not lead to desirable results ( Loughran, 2002b ). Even if the rationale and intent is communicated, there is also the pitfall of oversimplification. Practitioners may stop before the high levels of reflection (e.g., critical reflection) are reached due to a lack of in-depth understanding of reflective practices ( Thompson and Pascal, 2012 ). Even if the goals are understood and practitioners intend to evaluate their teaching practices on the critical level, there can still be confusion about what reflective practices require from practitioners. The theory of reflective practices may be grasped, but it is not adequately integrated into how practitioners approach teaching ( Thompson and Pascal, 2012 ). We hope that this Essay and associated Supplemental Material provide a meaningful resource to help alleviate this challenge.

A concern often raised is that the level of critical reflection is not being reached ( Ostorga, 2006 ; Larrivee, 2008a ). Considering the impacts that student–teacher interactions have on students beyond the classroom is always a crucial part of being an educator. In terms of practicality, situations being considered may not be conducive to this type of reflection. Consider an educator who, after a formative assessment, realizes that students, regardless of ethnicity, nationality, or gender, did not grasp a foundational topic that is required for the rest of the course. In such a case, it is prudent to consider how the information was taught and to change instructional methods to adhere to research-based educational practices. If the information was presented in a lecture-only setting, implementing aspects of engagement, exploration, and elaboration on the subject by the students can increase understanding ( Eisenkraft, 2003 ). If the only interactions were student–teacher based and all work was completed individually, the incorporation of student groups could result in a deeper understanding of the material by having students act as teachers or by presenting students with alternative way of approaching problems (e.g., Michaelsen et al. , 1996 ). Both of these instructional changes are examples that can result from pedagogical reflection and are likely to have a positive impact on the students. As such, educators who practice any level of reflection should be applauded. The perseverance and dedication of practitioners cannot be undervalued, even if their circumstances lead to fewer instances of critical reflection. We suggest that communities of practice such as faculty learning communities, scholarship of teaching and learning organizations, or professional development programs are excellent avenues to support educators ( Baker et al. , 2014 ; Bathgate et al. , 2019 ; Yik et al. , 2022a , b ), including in the development of knowledge and skills required to reach critical reflections. For example, facilitators of these communities and programs can intentionally develop scaffolding and exercises wherein participants consider whether the deadlines and nature of assignments are equitable to all students in their courses. Professional development facilitators are strongly encouraged to be explicit about the benefits to individual practitioners concomitantly with the benefits to students (see Section 2 in the Supplemental Material), as benefits to practitioners are too often ignored yet comprise a large portion of the reasoning behind reflective practices.

At a practitioner’s level, the time requirement for participating in reflective practices is viewed as a major obstacle, and it would be disingenuous to discount this extensive barrier ( Greiman and Covington, 2007 ). Reflective practices do take time, especially when done well and with depth. However, we argue that engagement in reflective practice early on can help educators become more effective with the limited time they do have ( Brookfield, 2017 ). As educators engage in reflective practices, they become more aware of their reasoning, their teaching practices, the effectiveness of said practices, and whether their actions are providing them with the outcomes they desire ( Thompson and Pascal, 2012 ). Therefore, they are able to quickly and effectively troubleshoot challenges they encounter, increasing the learning experiences for their students. Finally, we argue that the consistent engagement in reflective practices can significantly facilitate and expedite the writing of documents necessary for annual evaluations and promotions. These documents often require a statement in which educators must evaluate their instructional strategies and their impact on students. A reflective practitioner would have a trail of documents that can easily be leveraged to write such statement.

Contextual Factors

Environmental influences have the potential to bring reflective practices to a grinding halt. A paradigm shift that must occur to foster reflective teacher: that of changing the teacher’s role from a knowledge expert to a “pedagogic expert” ( Day, 1993 ). As with any change of this magnitude, support is necessary across all levels of implementation and practitioners to facilitate positive change. Cole (1997) made two observations that encapsulate how institutions can prevent the implementation of reflective practices: first, many educators who engage in reflective practices do so secretly. Second, reflections are not valued in academic communities despite surface-level promotions for such teaching practices; institutions promote evidence-based teaching practices, including reflection, yet instructors’ abilities as educators do not largely factor into promotions, raises, and tenure ( Brownell and Tanner, 2012 ; Johnson et al. , 2018 ). The desire for educators to focus on their teaching can become superficial, with grants and publications mattering more than the results of student–teacher interactions ( Cole, 1997 ; Michael, 2007 ).

Even when teaching itself is valued, the act of changing teaching methods can be resisted and have consequences. Larrivee’s (2000) statement exemplifies this persistent issue:

Critically reflective teachers also need to develop measures of tactical astuteness that will enable them to take a contrary stand and not have their voices dismissed. One way to keep from committing cultural suicide is to build prior alliances both within and outside the institution by taking on tasks that demonstrate school loyalty and build a reputation of commitment. Against a history of organizational contributions, a teacher is better positioned to challenge current practices and is less readily discounted. (p. 298)

The notion that damage control must be a part of practicing reflective teaching is indicative of a system that is historically opposed to the implementation of critical reflection ( Larrivee, 2000 ). We view this as disheartening, as the goal of teaching should be to best educate one’s students. Even as reflective practices in teaching are slowly becoming more mainstream, contextual and on-site influences still have a profound impact on how teachers approach their profession ( Smagorinsky, 2015 ). There must be a widespread, internal push for change within departments and institutions for reflective practices to be easily and readily adopted.

The adoption of reflective practices must be done in a way that does not negate its benefits. For example, Galea (2012) highlights the negative effects of routinizing or systematizing this extremely individual and circumstance-based method (e.g., identification of specific areas to focus on, standardized timing and frequency of reflections). In doing so, the systems that purportedly support teachers using reflection remove their ability to think of creative solutions, limit their ability to develop as teachers, and can prevent an adequate response to how the students are functioning in the learning environment ( Tan, 2008 ). Effective reflection can be stifled when reflections are part of educators’ evaluations for contract renewal, funding opportunities, and promotions and tenure. Reflective practices are inherently vulnerable, as they involve both being critical of oneself and taking responsibility for personal actions ( Larrivee, 2008b ). Being open about areas for improvement is extremely difficult when it has such potential negative impacts on one’s career. However, embarking on honest reflection privately, or with trusted peers and mentors, can be done separately from what is presented for evaluation. We argue that reflections can support the writing of documents to be considered for evaluation, as these documents often request the educators to describe the evolution of their teaching and its impact on students. Throughout course terms, reflections conducted privately can provide concreate ideas for how to frame an evaluation document. We argue that administrators, department chairs, and members of tenure committees should be explicit with their educators about the advantages of reflective practices in preparing evaluative documents focused on teaching.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

Reflective practices are widely advocated for in academic circles, and many teaching courses and seminars include information regarding different methods of reflection. This short introduction intends to provide interested educators with a platform to begin reflective practices. Common methods presented may appeal to an array of educators, and various self- and peer-assessment tools are highlighted in Section 4 in the Supplemental Material. Reflective practices are a process and a time- and energy-intensive, but extremely valuable tool for educators when implemented with fidelity. Therefore, reflection is vital for efficacy as an educator and a requirement for educators to advance their lifelong journeys as learners.

To conclude, we thought the simple metaphor provided by Thomas Farrell best encapsulates our thoughts on reflective practices within the context of teaching: Reflective practices are “a compass of sorts to guide teachers when they may be seeking direction as to what they are doing in their classrooms. The metaphor of reflection as a compass enables teachers to stop, look, and discover where they are at that moment and then decide where they want to go (professionally) in the future” ( Farrell, 2012 , p. 7).

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgments.

We would like to thank Annika Kraft, Jherian Mitchell-Jones, Emily Kable, Dr. Emily Atieh, Dr. Brandon Yik, Dr. Ying Wang, and Dr. Lu Shi for their constructive feedback on previous versions of this article. This material is based upon work supported by NSF 2142045. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS article

Conceptualizing the complexity of reflective practice in education.

• 1 Centre for Enhancement of Learning and Teaching, University of West London, London, United Kingdom
• 2 Faculty of Languages and Communication, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
• 3 Department of English Language, Literature and Translation, Zarqa University, Zarqa, Jordan

In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth. While it is now a prominent part of educators, many still find it challenging to apply the concept for it carries diverse meaning for different people in different contexts. This article attempts to (re)conceptualize the complexity of reflective practice in an educational context. Scholars in this field have taken different approaches to reflective practice, but all these approaches consist of four main components in common: (i) reflecting; (ii) planning for future action; (iii) acting; and (iv) evaluating the outcomes. We extend the existing literature by proposing a model which integrates these four components with three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation, and criticality. The novelty of this model lies within its alignment of the three key aspects with different levels of criticality in a comprehensive framework with detailed descriptors provided. The model and its descriptors are useful in guiding individuals who directly or indirectly involve in critical reflection, especially educators, in appraising their levels of criticality and consequently engage in a meaningful reflection.

Introduction

In the field of education, reflective practice has been recognized as an important aspect in continuing professional development. Through reflective practice, we can identify the factors, the consequences of and the assumptions that underlie our actions. In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process ( Ai et al., 2017 ) that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth ( McAlpine et al., 2004 ; De Geest et al., 2011 ; Davies, 2012 ; Marshall, 2019 ). It enables professional judgment ( Day, 1999 ) and fosters professional competence through planning, implementing and improving performance by rethinking about strengths, weaknesses and specific learning needs ( Huda and Teh, 2018 ; Cirocki and Widodo, 2019 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ; Seyed Abolghasem et al., 2020 ; Huynh, 2022 ). Without routinely engaging in reflective practice, it is unlikely that educators will comprehend the effects of their motivations, expectations and experiences upon their practice ( Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). Thus, reflective practice becomes an important tool that helps educators to explore and articulate lived experiences, current experience, and newly created knowledge ( Osterman and Kottkamp, 2004 ). Educators are continually recommended to apply reflective practice in getting a better understanding of what they know and do as they develop their knowledge of practice ( Loughran, 2002 ; Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). In fact, reflective practice is now a prominent part of training for trainee teachers (e.g., Shek et al., 2021 ; Childs and Hillier, 2022 ; Ruffinelli et al., 2022 ) because it can help future teachers review their own practices and develop relevant skills where necessary.

Despite the wide acceptance of the concept of reflective practice, the notion of ‘reflection’ in itself is still broad. Our review of literature reveals that reflection is a term that carries diverse meaning. For some, “it simply means thinking about something” or “just thinking” (e.g., Loughran, 2002 , p. 33), whereas for others, it is a well-defined practice with very specific purpose, meaning and action (e.g., Dewey, 1933 ; Schön, 1983 ; Grimmett and Erickson, 1988 ; Richardson, 1990 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Spalding et al., 2002 ; Paterson and Chapman, 2013 ). We found many interesting interpretations made along this continuum, but we believe the most appealing that rings true for most people is that reflection is useful and informing in the development and understanding of teaching and learning (e.g., Seitova, 2019 ; McGarr, 2021 ; Huynh, 2022 ). This, however, is not enough to signify the characteristics of reflection. Consequently, many teachers find it hard to understand the concept and engage in reflective practice for their professional development ( Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ; Kovacs and Corrie, 2022 ). For example, some teachers from higher arts education have considered reflective practice as antithetical to practical learning ( Guillaumier, 2016 ; Georgii-Hemming et al., 2020 ) as they often frame explicit reflection as assessed reflective writing, which is “disconnected from the embodied and non-verbal dimensions of making and reflecting on art” ( Treacy & Gaunt, 2021 , p. 488). The lack of understanding of the concept has created disengagement in reflection and reflective practice ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ) which resulted in poor insight and performance in practice ( Davies, 2012 ). To overcome this, educators should foster their understanding of the reflective practice, so they not only can reap its benefits for their own learning, but also facilitate and maximize reflective skills within their students.

In this paper, we aim to provide an overview of the concepts of effective reflective practice and present the value of reflective practice that can help teachers to professionally develop. First, we situate our conceptual understanding of reflective practice by discussing key issues surrounding reflection and reflective practice. Second, we present the key aspects of effective reflective practice. Finally, based on our discussion of key aspects of effective reflective practice, we introduce a revised model of reflective practice that may serve as a guide for educators to professionally develop. Although the model is but one approach, we believe it holds promise for others grappling as we are with efforts to encourage reflective practices among educators who find reflection in and on their practices a complex concept.

Key issues in reflective practice

The concepts of “reflection,” “reflective thought,” and “reflective thinking” have been discussed since 1904, when John Dewey claimed that an individual with good ethical values would treat professional actions as experimental and reflect upon their actions and consequences. Dewey defined reflection as the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” ( Dewey, 1904 , p. 10). His basic notion is that reflection is an active, deliberative cognitive process involving a sequence of interconnected ideas that include the underlying beliefs and knowledge of an individual.

Following Dewey’s original work and its subsequent interpretation, four key thought-provoking issues are worthy of discussion: reflective thinking versus reflective action; time of reflection; reflection and problem solving; and critical reflection. The first concern is whether reflection is a process limited to thinking about action or also bound up in action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). There seems to be broad agreement that reflection is a form of thought process ( Ross, 1989 ; McNamara, 1990 ; Sparks-Langer et al., 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ) even though some do not lead to action. However, Dewey’s first mention of “reflective action” suggests he was concerned with the implementation of solutions after thinking through problems. Therefore, reflective practice, in our view, is bound up with the constant, careful consideration of practice in the light of knowledge and beliefs. The complete cycle of reflection should then lead to clear, modified action and this needs to be distinguished from routine action derived from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ).

The time frames within which reflection takes place, needs to be addressed—relatively immediate and short term, or rather more extended and systematic. Schön (1983) holds that professionals should learn to frame and reframe the problems they often face and after trying out various interpretations, modify their actions as a result. He proposes “reflection-in-action,” which requires conscious thinking and modification, simultaneously reflecting and doing almost immediately. Similar to this concept is “technical reflection,” involving thinking about competencies or skills and their effectiveness and occurs almost immediately after an implementation and can then lead to changes in subsequent action ( Cruickshank, 1985 ; Killen, 1989 ). While the notion of immediacy in reflective practice seems appropriate, some argue that the process should involve conscious detachment from an activity after a distinct period of contemplation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ). This is because reflection demands contemplating rational and moral practices in order to make reasoned judgments about better ways to act. Reflective practice often involves looking back at actions from a distance, after they have taken place ( Schön, 1983 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ). While immediate and extended “versions” of reflections are both recognized, we suppose no one is better than another. However, we believe that being able to think consciously about what is happening and respond instantaneously makes for a higher level of reflective competence.

The third issue identified from our literature review is whether reflection by its very nature is problem orientated ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ). Reflection is widely agreed to be a thought process concerned with finding solutions to real problems ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, it is unclear whether solving problems is an inherent characteristic of reflection. For example, Schön’s (1983) reflection-in-action involves thought processing simultaneously with a group event taking place, and reflection-on-action refers to a debriefing process after an event. Both aims to develop insights into what took place—the aims, the difficulties during the event or experience and better ways to act. While focusing on reacting to practical events, these practices do not often intend to find solutions to specific practical problems. Instead, reflective practitioners are invited to think about a new set of actions from if not wider, at least different perspectives.

The fourth issue in the literature revolves around “critical reflection.” Very often critical reflection is concerned with how individuals consciously consider their actions from within wider historical, cultural and political beliefs when framing practical problems for which to seek solutions ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). It is a measure of a person’s acceptance of a particular ideology, its assumptions and epistemology, when critical reflection is developed within reflective practice ( McNamara, 1990 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). It implies the individual locates any analysis of personal action within her/his wider socio-historical and political-cultural contexts ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). While this makes sense, critical reflection in the literature appears to loosely refer to an individual’s constructive self-criticism of their actions to improve in future ( Calderhead, 1989 ), not a consideration of personal actions with both moral and ethical criteria ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ). Thus, we see a need to define critical reflection in line with the key characteristics of reflective practice.

Effective reflective practice

Reflecting on the issues discussed above, we conclude that for reflective practice to be effective, it requires three key aspects: problem-solving, critical reflection and action-orientation. However, these aspects of reflective practice have different levels of complexity and meaning.

Problem-solving

A problem is unlikely to be acted upon if it is not viewed as a problem. Thus, it is crucial to problematize things during reflection, to see concerns that require improvement. This is not a simple process as people’s ability to perceive things as problems is related to their previous experiences. For example, a senior teacher with years of teaching experience and a rapport with the students s/he teaches will be immediately aware of students experiencing difficulties with current teaching strategies. However, a junior teacher whose experience is restricted to a three-month placement and who has met students only a few times will be less aware. The differences in experience also influence the way people interpret problems. For example, the senior teacher may believe his/her teaching strategy is at fault if half the students cannot complete the given tasks. A junior teacher with only 2 weeks teaching experience may deduce that the students were not interested in the topic, and that is why they cannot complete the tasks given. This example illustrates the range of ways a problem can be perceived and the advantages of developing the ability to frame and reframe a problem ( Schön, 1983 ). Problems can also be perceived differently depending on one’s moral and cultural beliefs, and social, ethical and/or political values ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). This could be extended to other factors such as institutional, educational and political system ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ).

Framing and reframing a problem through reflection can influence the practice of subsequent actions ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Treacy and Gaunt, 2021 ). In the example above, the junior teacher attributes the problem to the students’ attitude, which gives her/him little to no incentive to address the situation. This is an ineffective reflective practice because it has little impact on the problem. Thus, we believe it is crucial for individuals to not only recognize problems but to examine their practices ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ) through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. This requires critical reflection.

Critical reflection

We believe it is the critical aspect of reflection that makes reflective practice effective and more complex, formulated by various scholars as different stages of reflection. Zeichner and Liston (1987) proposed three stages of reflection similar to those described by Van Manen (1977) . They suggested the first stage was “technical reflection” on how far the means to achieve certain end goals were effective, without criticism or modification. In the second stage, “practical reflection,” both the means and the ends are examined, with the assumptions compared to the actual outcomes. This level of reflection recognizes that meanings are embedded in and negotiated through language, hence are not absolute. The final stage, “critical reflection,” combined with the previous two, considers both the moral and ethical criteria of the judgments about professional activity ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ).

While the three stages above capture the complexity of reflection, individuals will only reach an effective level of reflection when they are able to be self-critical in their judgments and reasoning and can expand their thinking based on new evidence. This aligns with Ross’ (1989) five stages of reflection (see Table 1 ). In her five stages of reflection, individuals do not arrive at the level of critical reflection until they get to stages 4 and 5, which require them to contextualize their knowledge and integrate the new evidence before making any judgments or modification ( Van Gyn, 1996 ).

Table 1 . Five stages of reflections ( Ross, 1989 ).

Action-orientation

We believe it is important that any reflections should be acted upon. Looking at the types and stages of reflection discussed earlier, there is a clear indication that reflective practice is a cyclical process ( Kolb, 1984 ; Richards and Lockhart, 2005 ; Taggart and Wilson, 2005 ; Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Babaei and Abednia, 2016 ; Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ; Oo and Habók, 2020 ). Richards and Lockhart (2005) suggest this cyclical process comprises planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. This is further developed by Hulsman et al. (2009) who believe that the cyclical process not only involves action and observation, but also analysis, presentation and feedback. In the education field, reflective practice is also considered cyclical ( Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Kennedy-Clark et al., 2018 ) because educators plan, observe, evaluate, and revise their teaching practice continuously ( Pollard et al., 2014 ). This process can be done through a constant systematic self-evaluation cycle ( Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ) which involves a written analysis or an open discussion with colleagues.

From the descriptions above, it seems that cyclical reflective practice entails identifying a problem, exploring its root cause, modifying action plans based on reasoning and evidence, executing and evaluating the new action and its results. Within this cyclical process, we consider action as a deliberate change is the key to effective reflective practice, especially in the field of education. Reflection that is action-oriented is an ongoing process which refers to how educators prepare and teach and the methods they employ. Educators move from one teaching stage to the next while gaining the knowledge through experience of the importance/relevance of the chosen methods in the classroom situation ( Oo and Habók, 2020 ).

While reflection is an invisible cognitive process, it is not altogether intuitive ( Plessner et al., 2011 ). Individuals, especially those lacking experience, may lack adequate intuition ( Greenhalgh, 2002 ). To achieve a certain level of reflection, they need guidance and this can be done with others either in groups ( Gibbs, 1988 ; Grant et al., 2017 ) or through one-on-one feedback ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). The others, who can be peers or mentors, can help provide different perspectives in exploring alternative interpretations and behaviors. Having said this, reflecting with others may not always feasible as it often requires investment of time and energy from others ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). Therefore, teachers must learn how to scaffold their own underlying values, attitudes, thoughts, and emotions, and critically challenge and evaluate assumptions of everyday practice on their own. With this in mind, we have created a cyclical process of reflective practice which may help in individual reflections. It captures the three key aspects of reflective practice discussed above. This model may help teachers having a range of experience enhance their competence through different focus and levels of reflection (see Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Cyclical reflective practice model capturing problem-solving, action-oriented critical reflection.

The model illustrates the cyclical process with three stages: reflection, modification and action. At the reflection stage, a problem and the root of the problem is explored so it can be framed as it is/was and then reframed to identify a possible solution. This is followed by a modification for change based on the reasoning and evidence explored during the reflection stage. Finally, the action stage involves executing action (an event), followed by the reflection stage to begin another cycle and continue the process.

As presented earlier, it is crucial for individuals to be able to frame and reframe problems through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. Thus, the model above expands Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan’s (1994) framework by adding together the element of problematizing. The current revised framework highlights the four focuses of reflection; technical addresses the management or procedural aspects of teaching practice; situational addresses the context of teaching; sensitizing involves reflecting upon the social, moral, ethical or political concerns of teaching; and problematizing concerns the framing and reframing of the problem identified within the teaching context. Considering the different levels of critical reflection, we extend the four focuses of reflection to three different levels of critical reflection: descriptive involves reflection of the four focuses without reasoning or criticism; descriptive with rationale involves reflection of the four focuses with reasoning; and descriptive with rationale and evaluation involves reflection of the four focuses with both reasoning and criticism (see Table 2 ). Each of these levels requires different degrees of critical analysis and competence to extract information from actions and experiences. Overall, level three best captures effective critical reflection for each focus.

Table 2 . A framework of reflection.

This revised model that we proposed encompasses different levels of critical reflection and is action-oriented. There is also a clear link to problem-solving which requires framing and reframing problems to accurately identify them, which may influence the value and effectiveness of the actions that follow ( Loughran, 2002 ). Thus, this model may help people, especially those with lack experience to recognize the different aspects of reflection so they can make better assessments of and modifications to their procedures ( Ross, 1989 ; Van Gyn, 1996 ).

The meaning of reflection and reflective practice is not clear cut. However, we believe a reflective educator should cultivate a set of responses to how their teaching operates in practice. As Dewey (1933) suggested, educators must find time to reflect on their activity, knowledge, and experience so that they can develop and more effectively serve their community, nurturing each student’s learning. However, this does not always happen. Some educators do not reflect on their own practice because they find the concept of reflective practice difficult to put into practice for their professional development ( Jay and Johnson, 2002 ; Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ).

Our review of the literature indicates that reflective practice is a complex process and some scholars argue that it should involve active thinking that is more bound up with action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). Thus, the complete cycle of reflective practice needs to be distinguished from routine action which may stem from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). In addition, some also argue that reflective practice involves the conscious detachment from an activity followed by deliberation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ), and therefore reflective practice should not occur immediately after action. Although this is acceptable, we believe that instant reflection and modification for future action can be a good indicator of an individual’s level of reflective competence.

Reflective practice is an active process that requires individuals to make the tacit explicit. Thus, it is crucial to acknowledge that reflection is, by its very nature, problem-centered ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). Only with this in mind can individuals frame and reframe their actions or experiences to discover specific solutions. Reflective practice is also complex, requiring critical appraisal and consideration of various aspects of thought processes. Individuals must play close attention to what they do, evaluate what works and what does not work on a personal, practical and professional level ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, some would consider critical reflection as no more than constructive self-criticism of one’s actions with a view to improve ( Calderhead, 1989 ). Consequently, scholars have taken different approaches to reflective practice in teaching areas that include critical thinking (e.g., Ross, 1989 ; Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan, 1994 ; Loughran, 2002 ). These approaches had four components in common: reflecting (observing actions, reviewing, recollecting), planning for future action (thinking and considering), acting (practice, experience, and learning), and evaluating (interpreting and assessing outcomes). We propose a model that embraces these four sub-areas and three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation and critical reflection. We align these key aspects with level of criticality in a framework with detailed descriptors. It is hoped that these elements, combined together, demonstrate the complexities of reflection in a better, clearer way so that those struggling to adopt reflective practice will now be able to do so without much difficulty.

Author contributions

MM contributed to conception and written the first draft of the manuscript. RR contributed in the discussion of the topic. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

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Keywords: criticality, reflection, revised model, reflective practice, problematizing

Citation: Mohamed M, Rashid RA and Alqaryouti MH (2022) Conceptualizing the complexity of reflective practice in education. Front. Psychol . 13:1008234. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1008234

Received: 31 July 2022; Accepted: 28 September 2022; Published: 19 October 2022.

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Copyright © 2022 Mohamed, Rashid and Alqaryouti. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Misrah Mohamed, [email protected]

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The ‘wicked problem’ of reflective practice: a critical literature review

• Louise Platt LJMU

This paper tackles the ‘wicked problem’ of reflective practice. Reflection is encouraged by the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) through Personal Development Planning (PDP) and is at the heart of many employability agendas. Yet, it has been identified as a higher-­‐level skill which should not be forced as this can lead to inauthentic or ‘faked’ reflection. The paper questions, using recent literature, whether ‘good’ reflective practice can be embedded or indeed should be embedded. This is further complicated by differences in disciplinary contexts and generic institution-­‐wide interventions. The employability agenda pursued by universities, the policies on PDP and developing reflective graduates, and the Key Performance Indicators are here in their current form for the moment and we must work within those when developing effective practice in teaching and learning. This literature review suggests that to focus too heavily on outcomes results in poor reflection, lack of engagement from students and low-­‐confidence and apathy from staff. The review will include a brief case study of an institutional intervention relating to reflective practice and then conclude to suggest that reflective practice needs to be a process embedded within disciplines (specific to that discipline and not generic) rather than an isolated practice.

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REFLECTIVE TEACHING

Diah Wulan Hudaya

Literature Review

• Introduction

Sometimes it is common to see that what teachers expect in their classroom is different with the reality. In reality, teachers may face many issues in the teaching and learning process. For instance, a teacher may plan a lesson very well, but the practice is very different and even the result is not what is expected, or a teaching method advised by the curriculum doesn’t run well with the situation in the classroom. Then, a teacher may think and try to find what might be wrong and find the solution about the problem he/ she face in the classroom by observing his/ her classroom, asking his/ her colleagues, or getting students’ feedback directly. We can say here that the teacher is being reflective, but is it just enough to only think what the problem is and find the solution without keeping a record on what he/ she is doing? Keeping a record on what teachers do might help a teacher to know the strength and weaknesses of their teaching process. Thus, it is important that to be a reflective teacher, a teacher should be able to keep a record on what they have done in the classroom.

Correspondingly, there are six core components of teacher knowledge based on Richards (2002).

a. Practical knowledge: teacher’s knowledge on classroom techniques and strategies.

b. Content knowledge: teacher’s understanding of the subject he/ she teaches.

c. Contextual knowledge: teachers’ familiarity with the school context, norms, and knowledge of the learners’ culture and relevant information.

d. Pedagogical knowledge: teacher’s ability to restructure, plan, adapt, and improvise content knowledge.

e. Personal knowledge: teacher’s personal beliefs and principles and his/ her individual approach on teaching.

f. Reflective knowledge: teacher’s capability to reflect on and assess his/ her own practice in teaching.

Hence, it is clear that to be a good and professional teacher, one of the qualifications is that a teacher should be able to reflect on his/ her own teaching practice. Richards also suggests that teachers now need to be given opportunities to engage in self-reflection and evaluation. Nevertheless, ESL/ EFL professionals can react, examine and evaluate their teaching to make decisions on needed changes to improve attitudes, beliefs, and teaching practices through reflection (Pacheco, 2005) . In order to do this, she mentioned that teachers are forced to look back into their own teaching practices, beliefs, attitudes, goals, as well as those beliefs and attitudes of their students, of their colleagues, and of the teaching community itself. Consequently, reflective practice requires a commitment, a commitment towards change, towards understanding, and most importantly, a commitment towards continuous self-development. Furthermore, teachers have to develop long-term career goals and develop their roles and responsibilities over time if they are to continue to find teaching rewarding (Richards, 2002). He also mentions that many things can be done to design a context for good teaching, but it is teacher themselves who initially determine the success of a program.

2. What is Reflective Teaching?

Bailey (2012) defines reflective pedagogy as the idea that professionals carefully evaluate their own work, seeking to understand their motives and rationales as well as their practice, and then try to improve upon their work. She also states that reflective teaching procedures can take many forms, including saving and making notations on our lesson plans, videotaping or audiotaping our lessons, keeping a teaching journal, writing a blog about our teaching and so on. It is important for professional teachers to try to evaluate how successful an activity in terms of student engagement and learning outcomes (Harmer, 2007b). The teacher who is critical in their thinking about what happens in classroom lessons and about alternative means of achieving goals or aims is a reflective teacher (Soisangwarn & Wongwanich, 2014) .

Also, Farrel (2016) mentions that the use of reflective practice in teacher professional development is based on the belief that teachers can improve their own teaching by consciously and systematically reflecting on their teaching experiences. As we know that what teachers think they do, and what they actually do is not always the same as perceptions and reality are not always the same. He adds that teachers have many means of collecting such evidence about their practice such as surveys, questionnaires, classroom observations with or without peers discussion with other teachers groups face to face and/ or using technology (e.g. blogs, forums, or chats) so that they can better inform themselves about their and other practices.

Furthermore, Suherdi (2013) mentions that one of some ways to develop pedagogical competence to be a professional teacher is by having reflective skill. He defines reflective skill as teacher’s skill to diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of teaching process he/ she had conducted. Soisangwarn and Wongwanich (2014) also mentioned that a teacher who regularly considers their own practices is more likely to develop and improve their professional learning.

3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Reflective Teaching

When we talk about an issue, there will always be positive and negative side, pro and cons, advantages and disadvantages. Bailey (2012) suggests some advantages and disadvantages of practicing reflective teaching. The advantages of practicing reflective teaching are: (1) make teachers more aware what they actually do, (2) promote collegial sharing if the data collected in professional contexts involving other teachers, like team-teaching, (3) from the insight teachers get through reflection, they can actually improve their teaching, (4) getting insight and improving teachers’ practice may help experienced teachers overcome burnout, (5) affirm teachers’ current practice (or part of it), and (6) help teachers make connection between theory and practice. In addition, if teachers share their reflections, they can attain different perspectives about their works (Farrel, 2016). Furthermore, reflective practices seek to help novice teachers become more aware of decision-making processes to help them determine the effect their decision have in the context in which they are implemented (Pacheco, 2005) . Also, by having reflective habit, a teacher will recognize all of his/ her parts of teaching practice he/she had done (Suherdi, 2013).

Additionally, Richards (2002) mentions the usefulness of reviewing teachers’ performance regularly from another point of view: to reward teachers for good performance, to help identity needs for further training, to reinforce the need for continuous staff development, to help improve teaching, to provide basis for contract renewal and promotion, and to demonstrate an interest in teachers’ performance and development. Therefore, being a reflective teacher can give many advantages both for the teacher and the students.

Meanwhile, there are also disadvantages of practicing reflective teaching according to Bailey (2012). First, it is time consuming. Teachers who have heavy workload will not find this activity is interesting since it takes more time that what teachers usually spend. For instance, in making teacher’s journal, a teacher should spend more time in their work hour to make it as it has to be done regularly; and in doing peer observation, teachers should find the appropriate time for them. Once teachers get into a teaching routine, it is very difficult to make time to have a classroom observation and see others teachers’ (Brown, 2001) although Richards (2002) mentions that “time should be allocated for regular review of the program, problem solving, and critical reflection”. Second, teachers can discover uncomfortable information about their own work when they practice reflective teaching. Sometimes, when teachers find the weaknesses of their teaching and learning activities, it can be hard for them to accept it and change their learning style since it has been being their habits.

Nevertheless, the process of reflection is not easy. Yet, because it offers more advantages than disadvantages, teachers education program are becoming more devoted to developing reflective practices in their student teacher (Pacheco, 2005) .

4. Process and Tools of Reflective Teaching

Bartlett (1990) in Richards & Ho (1998) describes five phases in the process of reflective teaching and sees each phase as focusing on the following questions.

a. Mapping. What do I do as a teacher?

b. Informing. What is the meaning of my teaching? What did I intend?

c. Contesting. How did I become to be this way? How was it possible for my present view of teaching to have emerged?

d. Appraisal. How might I teach differently?

e. Acting. What and how shall I now teach?

Moreover, some reflection is simply a matter of thinking about what is happening in our lessons as we take the metro home from work, but there are a number of more organized ways of doing this, like keeping journals and recording ourselves (Harmer, 2007a). In Fatemipour (2013) , it was found that there are some reflective tools which were used by the teachers. The first one is teacher diary, and then followed by peer observation, students’ feedback, and audio recording.

a. Teacher diary. In keeping teacher diary, a teacher should make entries regularly, preferably daily if possible, and immediately after class (Pacheco, 2005) . Here is an example of what teachers might write in the diary.

b. Peer observation. Teachers can take turns observing each other’s classes as a basic for critical reflection and discussion about teaching approaches (Richards, 2002). He says that regular observation of teachers by other teachers or supervisors can provide positive feedback on teaching as well as help identify areas that might need attention, it also can be used to enable teachers to share approaches and teaching strategies, and a teacher can collect information the colleague is interested in obtaining. Pacheco (2005) suggests that in peer observation, teacher can collect information but not to evaluate it since the purpose of the observation is to learn from one another. Teacher diary and peer observation are the tools which are strongly recommended to be used for reflection. The video below gives more explanation about observation.

c. Getting students’ feedback. An important point is that students’ feedback can provide teachers with unique data and cannot be obtained by the other three tools because students always have many things to say and feel about the teaching and learning process, whether they find some difficulties or not, like the lesson or not, find the lesson motivating or not, etc. (Fatemipour, 2013) .

The video below shows how useful students’ feedback is.

d. Audio recording. A teacher can record what happened in his/ her classroom using a recording. He/she can review the recording to see what it tells them about their teaching (Richards, 2002). However, besides audio recording, teachers nowadays may also use video recording since it is easy to use in the classroom and the school may provide the equipment like video recording and the tripod. Thus, the teacher can use it without any difficulties or even he/she doesn’t have to ask their colleagues to do the recording because it can be set easily. Here is an example of the video recording of classroom activities.

Additionally, Soisangwarn and Wongwanich (2014) mentioned that practicing to become a reflective teacher may be achieved via a variety of models but peer coaching tends to be used in many fields. They defines peer coaching as a process that involves colleagues collaborating sharing ideas, thoughts, and observations. They found that self-reflective practice and reflective peer coaching practice can help teachers to better understand themselves and their students in order to make learning more meaningful.

5. Related Research

For decades, there are some researches related to reflective teaching. One of them is a research by Akbari et al. (2010) that developed English language teaching reflection inventory which consists 42 items at the beginning and the reduced to 29 items.

Another research was by Xu et al. (2015) about the newly developed questionnaire in their study that was developed from Akbari et al.’s (2010) tentative model of English language teaching reflection inventory. They found that the teachers’ reflection was at the medium level.

A research by Bababei & Abednia (2016) found that there was a positive relationship between some components of teachers’ self-efficacy and reflective teaching, especially metacognitive reflection suggests incorporating a focus on (metacognitive) reflection into second language teacher education and professional development helps improve teachers’ pedagogical competencies and efficacy beliefs. In addition, Robichaux & Guarino (2012) found that by getting into reflective habit, the pre-service teachers are developing habits of professional growth and improvement. Meanwhile, Farrel’s (2016) study indicated that the novice teacher reflection group they were member of helped the teachers better understand the many shocks they experienced so they could get through the first semester as ESL teachers.

From the researches mentioned before, it can be said that teachers’ reflection can be measured and they have positive effect on teachers teaching practice both for in-service and pre-service teachers.

6. Concluding Remark

Reflective teaching is one of the steps to develop teachers’ professionalism. Therefore, it is necessary for teachers to be reflective on their teaching practice. As we know that reflective teaching has more advantages than the disadvantages. Thus, it is better if teachers consider more about the advantages rather than the disadvantages. There are some tools to be used by the teachers in reflecting their teaching practice, like teacher’s journal, peer observation, students’ feedback, and audio and/ or video recording. Actually, it doesn’t matter what tools are used by the teacher in reflecting their teaching practice since they have strength and weaknesses. It will be better if a teacher is able to combine the use of those tools to make his/ her teaching practice more effective. In addition, there are some research about reflective teaching which measure teachers’ reflective level and also the use of the reflective teaching that found the positive effect of being reflective teacher. However, there has not been a research which correlates teachers’ reflective skill with teachers’ success in doing their teaching practice in their classroom. Hence, the present study is going to investigate the correlation between teachers’ reflective skills and their success in teaching practice in their classroom.

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Written by Diah Wulan Hudaya

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