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Introduction to nuclear engineering and ionizing radiation, lecture 3: nuclear mass and stability, nuclear reactions and notation, introduction to cross section.

Description: Today we formally introduce the concept that mass is energy, by exploring trends in nuclear stability. We introduce the notation we’ll use to describe nuclei and their reactions throughout the rest of the course, and introduce nuclear binding energy, analogous to chemical binding energy. We also introduce cross sections, or per-particle nuclear reaction probabilities, showing how a simple, first-order differential equation can result in their definition.

Instructor: Michael Short

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You are leaving MIT OpenCourseWare

The Understand Energy Learning Hub is a cross-campus effort of the Precourt Institute for Energy .

Introduction to Nuclear Energy

Exploring our content.

Fast Facts View our summary of key facts and information.

Our Lecture Watch the Stanford course lecture.

Fast Facts About Nuclear Energy

Principal Energy Use: Electricity

Nuclear energy is a carbon-free and extremely energy dense resource that produces no air pollution . Nuclear reactions produce large amounts of energy in the form of heat. That heat can be used to power a steam turbine and generate electricity. There are two types of nuclear reactions:

• Nuclear fission occurs when a large atom is split into smaller atoms, producing lots of heat and long-lived radioactive waste . See our Nuclear Fission page for more information.
• Nuclear fusion occurs when two nuclei combine to form a single nucleus, releasing massive amounts of heat with no long-lived radioactive waste (the sun is a nuclear fusion reactor). See our Nuclear Fusion page for more information.

All commercial nuclear power plants today use nuclear fission. The highly radioactive byproducts of nuclear fission must be secured away from people for hundreds of thousands of years, but we have no proven long term solutions for doing that. Nuclear fusion is still in the research phase.

Both nuclear fission and nuclear fusion have benefited from large amounts of government funding for basic science, technology, fuel-sourcing, and regulation; and both forms have origins in the defense industry (nuclear bombs - fission; hydrogen bombs - fission and fusion).

Fission and Fusion Characteristics

Climate Impact: Low

• Near-zero emissions (fission and fusion)

Environmental Impact: Low to Medium

• No air pollution (fission and fusion)
• Radioactive waste is toxic for hundreds of thousands of years
• Risk of radiation leaks from nuclear meltdowns
• Large amounts of water used for cooling; thermal pollution of water
• Mining of uranium can pollute water and degrade land and habitat
• Nuclear waste can be used for bombs; high security required to reduce the risk of proliferation
• No long-lived radioactive waste

Updated October 2023

Our Lecture on Introduction to Nuclear Energy

This is our Stanford University Understand Energy course introduction to nuclear energy. We encourage you to watch this 5-minute video for important context before diving into the more in-depth content on our Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion pages.

Presented by: Diana Gragg, PhD ; Core Lecturer, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University; Explore Energy Managing Director, Precourt Institute for Energy Recorded on: September 13, 2023    Duration:  5 minutes

Lecture slides available upon request .

Next Topic: Nuclear Fission Other Energy Topics to Explore

Fast Facts Sources Overview: Breeze, P. Power generation technologies, 3 rd . edition. Newnes, 2019; What is Nuclear Energy? The Science of Nuclear Power . IAEA, 2022; Nuclear Explained . EIA, 2022; Nuclear Fusion Power . WNA, 2022. Chart of Characteristics: Fission vs Fusion: What's the Difference? DOE, 2019; Nuclear Power for Electrical Generation . NRC; Nuclear Explained . EIA, 2022; Nuclear Power in the World Today. WNA, 2023; Fusion Device Information System . n.d. More details available on request . Back to Fast Facts

Nuclear reactors are the heart of a nuclear power plant.

They contain and control nuclear chain reactions that produce heat through a physical process called fission. That heat is used to make steam that spins a turbine to create electricity.

With more than 400 commercial reactors worldwide , including 93 in the United States, nuclear power continues to be one of the largest sources of reliable carbon-free electricity available.

Nuclear Fission Creates Heat

The main job of a reactor is to house and control nuclear fission —a process where atoms split and release energy.

Reactors use uranium for nuclear fuel. The uranium is processed into small ceramic pellets and stacked together into sealed metal tubes called fuel rods. Typically, more than 200 of these rods are bundled together to form a fuel assembly. A reactor core is typically made up of a couple hundred assemblies, depending on power level. 

Inside the reactor vessel, the fuel rods are immersed in water which acts as both a coolant and moderator. The moderator helps slow down the neutrons produced by fission to sustain the chain reaction.

Control rods can then be inserted into the reactor core to reduce the reaction rate or withdrawn to increase it.

The heat created by fission turns the water into steam, which spins a turbine to produce carbon-free electricity.

Types of Light-water Reactors in the United States       

All commercial nuclear reactors in the United States are light-water reactors. This means they use normal water as both a coolant and neutron moderator.

There are two types of light-water reactors operating in America.

Pressurized water reactors

More than 65% of the commercial reactors in the United States are pressurized-water reactors or PWRs. These reactors pump water into the reactor core under high pressure to prevent the water from boiling.

The water in the core is heated by nuclear fission and then pumped into tubes inside a heat exchanger. Those tubes heat a separate water source to create steam. The steam then turns an electric generator to produce electricity.

The core water cycles back to the reactor to be reheated and the process is repeated.

Boiling Water Reactors

Roughly a third of the reactors operating in the United States are boiling water reactors (BWRs).

BWRs heat water and produce steam directly inside the reactor vessel. Water is pumped up through the reactor core and heated by fission. Pipes then feed the steam directly to a turbine to produce electricity.

The unused steam is then condensed back to water and reused in the heating process. 

*This article was originally published on 2/6/2019 and is routinely updated to include the latest stats.

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nuclear reaction

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• Chemistry LibreTexts - Nuclear Reactions
• University of California - Nuclear Reactions
• HyperPhysics - Nuclear Reactions

nuclear reaction , change in the identity or characteristics of an atomic nucleus, induced by bombarding it with an energetic particle. The bombarding particle may be an alpha particle , a gamma-ray photon , a neutron , a proton , or a heavy ion . In any case, the bombarding particle must have enough energy to approach the positively charged nucleus to within range of the strong nuclear force .

A typical nuclear reaction involves two reacting particles—a heavy target nucleus and a light bombarding particle—and produces two new particles—a heavier product nucleus and a lighter ejected particle. In the first observed nuclear reaction (1919), Ernest Rutherford bombarded nitrogen with alpha particles and identified the ejected lighter particles as hydrogen nuclei or protons ( 1 1 H or p ) and the product nuclei as a rare oxygen isotope . In the first nuclear reaction produced by artificially accelerated particles (1932), the English physicists J.D. Cockcroft and E.T.S. Walton bombarded lithium with accelerated protons and thereby produced two helium nuclei, or alpha particles. As it has become possible to accelerate charged particles to increasingly greater energy, many high-energy nuclear reactions have been observed that produce a variety of subatomic particles called mesons, baryons, and resonance particles.

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Nuclear Reactions.

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Nuclear Reactions - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Nuclear Reactions

First nuclear reaction performed by rutherford in 1919 using -particles: reaction energy: ... without energy source, star collapses and may explode as a supernova ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• First nuclear reaction performed by Rutherford in 1919 using ?-particles
• Reaction Energy
• Exothermic energy released in reaction
• Endothermic energy absorbed in reaction
• Goes into mass
• Nuclear reactions take place in atmosphere
• Carbon binds to form CO2 which is absorbed by plants and animals
• Carbon-14 dating
• 14C is continually replenished until the plant or animal dies
• 14C decays, and amount left gives age
• t1/2 5730 years
• Enrico Fermi and Italian groups bombard nuclei with neutrons to produce new isotopes
• In 1938, Hahn and Strassman in Germany split uranium
• Frisch and Lise Meitner call it fission (like cell division) and observe that excess energy is shed (exothermic)
• Excess neutrons are released which may catalyze more reactions
• Niels Bohr points out that 235U (0.7 natural abundance) is more likely than 238U (99.3) to fission because of odd number of neutrons
• Need to use enriched uranium
• Many possible fission fragments are possible
• For example
• Energy released is1.0087u 235.04u 98.92u 133.91u 3(1.0087u) 0.2u ? 185 MeV
• Average number of neutrons released is 2.3
• Uranium is on the downward slope of the binding energy per nucleon curve
• More energetically favorable for Uranium to split into smaller nuclei
• More neutrons are released than incident
• If the released neutrons are absorbed, this starts a chain reaction
• Critical Mass
• Larger mass sustains chain reaction
• Smaller mass implies neutrons escape
• Critical mass is a few kg for uranium
• Controlled fission moderators slow and absorb neutrons
• More efficient fission from plutonium, which can be produced by bombarding 238U with neutrons to get 239Pu
• Average of 2.7 neutrons per Pu fission
• t1/2 24,000 years
• Suppose 1 kg of enriched 235U fissions
• Large as this is, it is still small compared to the total rest mass energy
• Only 1/1000 of energy released in fission
• Dividing high Z elements librates energy, but so does fusing low Z elements (upward part of binding energy per nucleon curve)
• Consider the fusion of deuterium and hydrogen (powers the Sun and H-bomb)
• The burning of hydrogen into helium and higher Z materials in stars
• PPIII cycle
• Fusion of higher Z elements occurs when lower Z fuel is exhausted
• Continues until 56Fe is produced, which is at the peak of the binding energy vs. Z curve
• Not energetically favorable to fuse higher Z nuclei
• Without energy source, star collapses and may explode as a supernova
• All elements in the periodic table besides H and He are produced (and released) by stars in the universe
• Direct evidence for solar fusion is available because we have detected the neutrinos released in the solar reactions

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Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions

Jan 05, 2020

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Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions. Chapter 18 Physical Science. Section 1: Radioactivity. Why is it important? Radioactivity is everywhere because every element on the periodic table has some atomic nuclei that are radioactive. New Vocabulary that you will learn in this section:

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Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions Chapter 18 Physical Science

Section 1: Radioactivity • Why is it important? • Radioactivity is everywhere because every element on the periodic table has some atomic nuclei that are radioactive. • New Vocabulary that you will learn in this section: • Strong force • radioactivity

What you’ll learn… • Describe the structure of an atom and its nucleus • Explain what radioactivity is. • Contrast properties of radioactive and stable nuclei • Discussthe discovery of radioactivity.

The nucleus…lets review • Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. • Nucleus occupies only a tiny fraction of the space in the atom. Contains almost all the mass of the atom • contains protons (+) and neutrons (neutral) • Total amount of protons= atomic number (charge in a nucleus) • Electrons-located outside the nucleus (-) charge

The Strong Force (p537) • How do you suppose protons and neutrons are held together so tightly in the nucleus?

Answer • The strong force causes protons and neutrons to be attracted to each other • See Figure 2 on page 537

The Strong Force cont… • 1 of the 4 basic forces in nature and is about 100 times stronger than the electric force • Electric force: long range force, so protons that are far apart still are repelled by the electric force • The total force between two protons/neutrons depends on how far apart they are. • The strong force is a short-range force: that quickly becomes extremely weak as protons and neutrons get farther apart

Attraction and Repulsion • If a nucleus has only a few protons and neutrons, they are all close enough together to be attracted to each other by the strong force. • See Figure 4A • Protons and neutrons are held together less tightly in a large nuclei. (each protons and neutron is attracted to only a few neighbors by the strong force) • See Figure 4B • All protons is a large nucleus exert a repulsive electric force on each other. Thus, the electric repulsive force on a proton in a large nucleus is larger than it would be in a small nucleus

Radioactivity p. 538 • When the strong force is not large enough to hold a nucleus together tightly, the nucleus can decay and give off matter and energy. This process of nuclear decay is called Radioactivity. • Large nuclei tend to be unstable and can break apart of decay. • All nuclei that contain more than 83 protons are radioactive. See 2nd paragraph (read as a class) • Almost all elements with more than 92 protons do not exist naturally on Earth. Produced in labs (synthetic elements)

Isotopes (p. 539) • Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons but the same number of protons • Ex). The elements Carbon • 3 isotopes that occur naturally (Carbon nuclei can have 6,7, or 8 neutrons) • Look at figure 5 and identify the ratio of protons to neutrons in each isotope of helium • Answer: Helium-3 : 2 to 1; Helium-4 : 2 to 2 Brain Pop Video: http://glencoe.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0078779626/student_view0/brainpop_movies.html#

Stable and Unstable Nuclei • The ratio of neutrons to protons is related to the stability of the nucleus • Less massive elements are stable when: • Ratio is 1 : 1 • Heavier elements are stable when: • Ratio is 3 : 2 • Nuclei is any isotopes that differ much from these ratios are unstable. (whether the elements are light or heavy) • Nuclei with too many or too few neutrons compared to the number of protons are radioactive

Nucleus Numbers • Atomic #: # of protons in nucleus • Mass #: # of protons and neutrons • See page 539 at the bottom

Mini Lab • 15 silver=NEUTRONS • 13 green= protons • 2 red= 2 nuclei • Small Nucleus Model: • Place 2 green protons and 3 silver neutrons around a red nucleus so they touch • Large Nucleus Model: • Arrange the remaining candies around the other red nucleus so they are touching.

Analysis/Conclusion Questions: • Compare the number of protons and neutrons touching a green protons in both models. • (How many red and yellow are touching a green) • Suppose the strong force on a green proton is due to protons and neutrons that touch it. Compare the strong force on a green proton in both models.

Answers: • 1. About the same number touch the green protons in the larger nucleus, so the strong force is about the same. • 2. The total number of protons and neutrons increases. The number nearby stays the same. The electromagnetic force on a proton increases, but the strong force stays the same, so the nucleus is less stable.

The Discovery of Radioactivity (p. 540) • 1896 Henri Becquerel • Uranium salt • 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie • 2 new elements: polonium and radium

Self check • 1). Describe the properties of the strong force • 2). Compare the strong force between protons and neutrons in a small nucleus and a large nucleus. • 3). Explain why large nuclei are unstable.

Section 2 Nuclear Decay • Why it’s important? • Nuclear decay produces nuclear radiation that can both harm people and be useful

What You Will Learn: • Compare and contrast alpha, beta, and gamma radiation • Define the half-life of a radioactive material • Describe the process of radioactive dating

Nuclear Radiation • Occurs when an unstable nucleus decays, particles and energy called nuclear radiation are emitted from it. • 3 types: • Aplha • Beta • Gamma

Alpha Particles (p 541) • Alpha particle: • Made of two protons and two neutrons is emitted from the decaying nucleus. • See Table 1 • Compared to beta and gamma radiation, alpha particles are much more massive • They have the most electric charge (therefore, lose energy more quickly when they interact with matter than the other types of nuclear radiation do).

Damage from Alpha Particles (p.542) • Can be dangerous if they are released by radioactive atoms inside the human body. • A single alpha particle can damage many fragile biological molecules. • Can cause cells not to function properly, leading to illness and disease. • Ex. Smoke detectors give off alpha particles that ionize the surrounding air.

Transmutation (p. 542) • The process of changing one element to another through nuclear decay • See Figure 8 on page 542

Beta Particles • When an electron is emitted from the nucleus • Beta decay is caused by another basic force called the weak force. • Damage from Beta Particles • Beta particles are much faster and more penetrating than alpha particles • They can pass through paper but are stopped by a sheet of aluminum foil • Damage cells when they are emitted by radioactive nuclei inside the human body

Gamma Rays • Electromagnetic waves with the highest frequencies and the shortest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. • Contain no mass and no charge • Travel at the speed of light • Emitted from a nucleus when alpha decay or beta decay occurs. • See Table 3 on Page 543 • What stops gamma rays? • Thick blocks of dense materials (lead and concrete) • They cause less damage to biological molecules as they pass through living tissue.

Radioactive Half-life • Half-life: The amount of time it takes for half the nuclei in a sample of the isotope to decay. • Radioactive dating: • Geologists, biologists, and archaeologists, among others, are interested in the ages of rocks and fossils found on Earth. • First: the amount of the radioactive isotope and its daughter nucleus in a sample of material are measured. • Second, the number of half-lives that need to pass to give the measured amounts of the isotope and its daughter nucleus is calculated. • Third, the number of half-lives is the amount of time that has passed since the isotope began to decay

Carbon Dating • Carbon-14 often is used to estimate the ages of plant and animal remains. • See page 545

Uranium Dating • Radioactive dating also can be used to estimate the ages of rocks. • Some rocks contain uranium, which has two radioactive isotopes with long half-lives.

Checks for understanding • 1. Infer how the mass number and the atomic number of a nucleus change when it emits a beta particle. • 2. Describe how each of the three types of radiation can be stopped.

Section 4: Nuclear Reactions (p 551) • What you will learn… • Explain nuclear fission and how it can begin a chain reaction • Discuss how nuclear fusion occurs in the Sun. • Describe how radioactive tracers can be used to diagnose medical problems. • Discuss how nuclear reactions can help treat cancer. VOCABULARY: nuclear fission, chain reaction, critical mass, nuclear fusion, and tracer.

Nuclear Fission (p. 551) • Nuclear fission: • The process of splitting a nucleus into several smaller nuclei • The word “fission” means to divide • Only large nuclei, such as the nuclei of uranium and plutonium atoms, can undergo nuclear fission. • Figure 16 • The products of a fission reaction usually include several individual neutrons in addition to the smaller nuclei

Chain Reactions/Critical Mass (p. 552) • Chain Reactions: • The series of repeated fission reactions caused by the release of neutrons in each reaction • If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, an enormous amount of energy is released in an instant. However, it can be controlled by adding materials that absorb neutrons. • Critical Mass: • The amount of material required so that each fission reaction produces approximately one more fission reaction. • If less than the critical mass of material is present, a chain reaction will not occur

Nuclear Fusion (p. 553) • Nuclear Fusion: • 2 nuclei with low masses are combined to form one nucleus of larger mass. • Fusion: fuses atomic nuclei together • Fission: splits nuclei apart • For Fusion to occur: positively charged nuclei must get close to each other. • Example: The Sun • Most of the energy given off by the Sun is produced by a process involving the fusion of hydrogen nuclei.

Tracer (p. 554) • Tracer: • A radioisotope that is used to find or keep track of molecules in an organism. • Scientist can use tracers to follow where a particular molecule goes in your body or to study how a particular organ functions. • Also used in agriculture to monitor the uptake of nutrients and fertilizers.

Treating Cancer with Radioactivity • Radiation can be used to stop some types of cancerous cells from growing. • Cancer: a group of cells in a person’s body grows out of control and can form a tumor

Summary: • Nuclear Fission • Occurs when a neutron strikes a nucleaus, causing it to split into smaller nuclei • A chain reaction requires a critical mass of fissionable material • Nuclear Fusion • Nuclear fusion occurs when two nuclei combine to form another nucleus • Nuclear fusion occurs at temperatures of millions of degrees which occur inside the Sun.

Check for understanding: • Explain how a chain reaction can be controlled. • Describe two properties of a tracer isotope used for monitoring the functioning of an organ in the body.

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Nuclear Stability and Radioactivity. AP Physics B Montwood High School R. Casao. Nuclear Stability. Of the 2500 known nuclides, less than 300 are stable. The others are unstable and decay to form other nuclides by emitting particles and EM radiation.

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Nuclear Energy and Radioactivity

Nuclear Energy and Radioactivity. Environmental Science. Radioactivity:. The spontaneous emission of radiation Created by unstable nuclei of very heavy elements Radioactive elements can give off 3 types of radiation: Alpha: helium nuclei can usually be stopped by a piece of paper

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Nuclear stability and radioactivity

Nuclear stability and radioactivity. Dr. Samer sayed [email protected]. Goals for this Chapter. To consider radioactive decay To view the biological effects of radiation To Calculate Radiation Doses To consider the beneficial uses of radiation. Radioactivity

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Chapter 18: Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions

18. Table of Contents. 18. Unit 4: The Nature of Matter. Chapter 18: Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions. 18.1: Radioactivity. 18.2: Nuclear Decay. 18.3: Detecting Radioactivity. 18.4: Nuclear Reactions. Radioactivity. 18.1. The Nucleus.

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Radioactivity and Nuclear energy

Radioactivity and Nuclear energy. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE UNIT 3. MRS. SHARPLESS - TEAM E MR. CONRAD - TEAM F. Radiation was discovered purely by chance ………. Henri Becquerel.

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Radioactivity and Nuclear Energy. Chapter 19. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PEHcHcneFFc&feature=related. Chemical vs. Nuclear. Chemical Reactions. Nuclear Reactions. Involve nuclei changes Can involve e-, p+, and n o Convert 1 element to another element LARGE energy changes.

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Table of Contents. 18. Unit 4: The Nature of Matter. Chapter 18: Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions. 18.1: Radioactivity. 18.2: Nuclear Decay. 18.3: Detecting Radioactivity. 18.4: Nuclear Reactions.

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Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity. Online Introduction to Nuclear Physics. http://www.sciencejoywagon.com/physicszone/lesson/12nuclear/intronuc.htm Online lesson on nuclear decay http://207.10.97.102/chemzone/lessons/11nuclear/nuclear.htm

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Radioactivity and Nuclear energy. We will discuss three basic types of nuclear change Fusion Fission Decay. Think about nuclear processes and what parts of our lives are they involved in… Nuclear weapons, power plants, radioactive dating, nuclear medicine.

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Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions. Chapter 18 in the Glencoe Textbook. What do you remember about atoms?. The nucleus contains _________& _________. Most of the volume of the atom is _______________. Most the mass of the atom is located in the __________. Draw a picture of a helium atom.

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Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions. Ch 9.1-9.2, 9.4. Nucleus and the Strong Force. Protons and neutrons are packed tightly together Two positives normally repel each other, so why don ’ t the protons in the nucleus repel?

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Nuclear Binding, Radioactivity

Physics 102: Lecture 27. Nuclear Binding, Radioactivity. Make sure your grade book entries are correct! e.g. HOUR EXAMS, “EX” vs. “AB” EX = excused, AB = absent = 0 credit Honors projects are due May 3 via email: Word/PDF, file name to include your full name

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