a level history tsarist and communist russia essay plans

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AS and A-level History

• Specification
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• Introduction
• Specification at a glance
• 1A The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204
• 1B Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598 (A-level only)
• 1C The Tudors: England, 1485–1603
• 1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702
• 1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796 (A-level only)
• 1F Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885
• 1G Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

1H Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

• 1J The British Empire, c1857–1967
• 1K The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975
• 1L The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991
• 2A Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216
• 2B The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499
• 2C The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564 (A-level only)
• 2D Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570
• 2E The English Revolution, 1625–1660
• 2F The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715 (A-level only)
• 2G The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801
• 2H France in Revolution, 1774–1815 (A-level only)
• 2J America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877
• 2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (A-level only)
• 2L Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945
• 2M Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957
• 2N Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953
• 2O Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945
• 2P The Transformation of China, 1936–1997
• 2Q The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980
• 2R The Cold War, c1945–1991
• 2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007
• 2T The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000 (A-level only)
• Component 3: Historical investigation (non-exam assessment) (A-level only)
• Scheme of assessment
• Non-exam assessment administration
• General administration

This option allows students to study in breadth issues of change, continuity, cause and consequence in this period through the following key questions:

• How was Russia governed and how did political authority change and develop?
• Why did opposition develop and how effective was it?
• How and with what results did the economy develop and change?
• What was the extent of social and cultural change?
• How important were ideas and ideology?
• How important was the role of individuals and groups and how were they affected by developments?

Part one: Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

Trying to preserve autocracy, 1855–1894.

• Political authority and the state of Russia: autocracy; the political, social and economic condition of Russia in 1855 and the impact of the Crimean War
• Political authority and attempts at reform: Alexander II; emancipation of the serfs and attempts at domestic and military reform
• Government and Tsars: Alexander II and Alexander III as rulers; attitudes to and imposition of autocracy; key developments
• Political authority in action: Russification; treatment of ethnic minorities and Jews
• Opposition: ideas and ideologies; individuals; liberals and radical groups and the Tsarist reaction
• Economic and social developments: industrial developments and the land issue; social divisions; nobles, landowners and position of the peasantry; the cultural influence of the Church

The collapse of autocracy, 1894–1917

• Political authority, government and Tsar; Nicholas II as ruler: political developments to 1914; 1905 Revolution; Duma government
• Economic developments to 1914: industrial and agricultural growth and change
• Social developments to 1914: change and conditions of working and living in towns and countryside; social divisions; cultural changes
• Opposition: ideas and ideologies, liberalism, socialism; Marxism; individuals and radical groups
• Political authority, opposition and the state of Russia in wartime: the political, economic and social problems of wartime; opposition and the collapse of autocracy; the political developments of 1917
• Political authority, opposition and government: the Bolshevik takeover and the establishment of Bolshevik government by December 1917; opposition

Part two: the Soviet Union, 1917–1964 (A-level only)

The emergence of communist dictatorship, 1917–1941 (a-level only).

• Political authority and government: new leaders and ideologies; Lenin's Russia, ideology and change; Stalin's rise, ideology and change
• Political authority and government: the consolidation of Bolshevik authority and development of the Stalinist dictatorship
• Economic developments: Lenin's decrees; the Stalinist economy; collectivisation and the Five Year Plans
• Social developments: effect of Leninist/Stalinist rule on class, women, young people, religion and national minorities; propaganda and cultural change
• Opposition: faction; the Red Terror and the purges
• The political, economic and social condition of the Soviet Union by 1941

The Stalinist dictatorship and reaction, 1941–1964 (A-level only)

• Political authority, opposition and the state of Russia in wartime: the political, economic and social impact of war; effect on Stalin, government and 'the people'
• Political authority and government to 1953: High Stalinism; the revival of terror; destruction of 'supposed' opposition and cult of personality; the power vacuum on Stalin's death
• Political authority and government: Khrushchev’s rise to power; policies and ideology; de-Stalinisation; political and party change
• Economic and social developments: changes in industrial organisation from Stalin to Khrushchev; agriculture and the Virgin Lands scheme; social and cultural change from Stalin to Khrushchev
• Opposition: cultural dissidents; communist divisions; hardliners and reformers; opponents of Khrushchev and his fall from power
• The political, economic and social condition of the Soviet Union by 1964

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Oxford AQA History for a Level: Tsarist and Communist Russia 1855-1964 Revision Guide

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Understanding Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964

Studying an entire century of a country’s history is always going to be challenging, especially one as dramatic and complex as Russia. Include in this the different political movements and the dramas of revolution and war and it can seem overwhelming.

This article is a helpful guide to deal with the daunting nature of this period of study for the aqa history exam board and it’s based on one simple practice – breaking down each phase of the past to help you have a greater understanding of the period. We’re going to look at nine segments of Russian history and try to understand each one in its own right. So that we don’t have to consume an entire textbook in one blog post here, I’m going to give a brief overview to each section, not a detailed description. Some of these periods are longer than others, and in some short phases crucial events take place. In each period we will examine one core theme that defined the political, social and economic changes during that time. This article is based on specification content and will focus on the key events of the period. For full details of each section of the module click here .

1855-1881: Alexander II

Core theme: The tension between reform and autocracy. 

In a nutshell: Alexander II, not a natural reformer, realised that Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War was the product of its backwardness. Alexander also knew that unless serfdom was ended by the autocracy, it would end itself through peasant revolts that would consume Tsarist Russia. Alexander therefore wanted to modernise and strengthen the institutions of the Russian state (army, judiciary, education etc) and end serfdom. He wanted to do this without reforming the autocracy. Alexander’s reforms brought improvements to some areas of Russian life such as equality before the law but his halfway-house attempts to reform serfdom actually led to more unrest and anger in the countryside. Overall Alexander’s limited reforms led to greater revolutionary tensions in Russia, which in part led to his assassination in 1881. 

1881-1894 Alexander III

Core Theme: Re-establishing reaction

In a nutshell: Alexander III was a deeply reactionary Tsar and believed that his father’s reforms had been a mistake. Instead of binding the chaotic Russian empire together with reform of its institutions, Alexander sought to use Russian language, culture and Orthodox Christianity to unify the country through a policy of Russification. He also believed that the emancipation of the serfs had been a disaster and empowered the nobles to take back control of a restless countryside by creating the land captains, rural policemen (often nobles) who could harshly discipline the peasantry. Alexander’s attempts to restore what he believed had been lost under his father ended in failure, as the revolutionary tensions that were unleashed in the 1860s endured. 

1894-1917 Nicholas II

Core Theme: The incapable autocrat

In a nutshell: When Nicholas II came to the throne he inherited the problems of his father and grandfather. Unlike his forebears, however, Nicholas lacked the skills, abilities and temperament to rule. Nicholas was a weak autocrat who was dedicated to maintaining the autocracy but lacked the skill and judgement to do it effectively. In 1905 the Tsar came close to losing his throne in a revolution and was only saved by the skill of his Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Sergei Witte and the creation of the October Manifesto. In 1914 the Tsar was swept towards war and the resulting revolutionary pressures led to the collapse of the autocracy in February 1917. Note that in February the regime collapsed rather than was overthrown, the Russian Revolution happened because the state stopped functioning.

1917-1924 Lenin

Core Theme: The trapped revolution

In a nutshell: When Lenin and the Bolsheviks came to power in October 1917, Lenin anticipated a civil war and even welcomed one, knowing that it would be ideal in order for him to institute the massive changes he wanted in Russia. A civil war would lead the introduction of mass terror and class warfare against the bourgeoisie and nobility. Lenin hoped that the revolution would spread to Europe, but by 1919 this had failed to occur. Without Germany, France and other countries falling to revolution, there was no chance that they would help Russia rapidly industrialise and escape its backward peasant society and economy. As a result, by 1921 the USSR had established itself as a powerful one party state, presiding over a mainly peasant economy, one which would need intense coercion in order to transform it into a socialist economy. By the time of Lenin’s death two policies had followed one another, War Communism, the brutal wartime control of the economy and the New Economic Policy, the limited introduction of markets into the USSR. The latter policy was introduced to stave off total economic collapse caused by the former. 

1924-1928 Power Struggle

Core Theme: Deciding the future of the USSR

In a nutshell: Lenin’s death in 1924 after three debilitating strokes had left the country directionless. Nobody was sure how long the NEP was meant to last for and the issue had divided the party. Two competing philosophies presented by different wings of the party also vied for dominance. Permanent revolution, favoured by Leon Trotsky, competed with Socialism in One Country, the approach of Joseph Stalin. Permanent revolution was the idea that spreading revolution beyond Russia’s borders was the key to achieving international socialism and subverting capitalist countries. Stalin believed that soon the USSR would face a counter revolutionary invasion (as had happened in the Russian civil war) and the building of socialism in one country through collectivisation, forced industrialisation and the creation of a huge defence industry would be the key to saving the revolution. The triumph of Stalin in the power struggle to succeed Lenin decided the outcome of this debate and the future direction of the USSR. 

1928-1941 High Stalinism

Core Theme: The brutal construction of socialism in one country

In a nutshell: Forced industrialisation could only happen in the USSR by establishing the complete control of the state over the production of food. Collectivisation was the means by which Stalin could export enough grain to buy foreign industrial machinery and also feed workers cheaply in the towns and cities. The immense violence and famines that followed also helped Stalin break what he saw as the ‘kulak’ class. Forced industrialisation and its failings were always blamed on saboteurs and class enemies; Stalin saw Russia existing in a state of siege from capitalist powers and this created conditions for revolutionary terror in the second half of the decade. Stalin saw himself in a race against time to eliminate class enemies before a future war with Germany could begin. He believed that if ‘traitors’ were not taken care of, they they would assist Germany or another foreign invader when the next war began.

1941-1953 Wartime Stalinism and Cold War

Core Theme: Changing enemies

In a nutshell: In August 1939 Stalin signed a non aggression pact with Nazi Germany and covertly assisted Hitler with his war on the west for the next two years. In June 1941, the surprise Nazi invasion of the USSR led to Stalin rapidly establishing alliances with Britain and then the USA. All three powers cooperated until 1945, defeating Nazi Germany and then Imperial Japan. From 1945 to his death in 1953, Stalin shaped the early years of the Cold War, as wartime alliances soured in 1945. Within the USSR, he reasserted control that had been disrupted by the chaos of the war, politically purging rivals and commencing a final anti Semitic purge which was curtailed by his death. The development of rivalries with Maoist China and Stalin’s involvement in the Korean War shaped the early Cold War in Asia

1953-1964 Khrushchev

Core Theme: Finding a path after Stalin

In a nutshell: Stalin had economically, politically and psychologically shaped the Soviet Union for three decades and Khrushchev needed to find a way of holding together the USSR whilst dismantling Stalinism itself. The abolition of the gulag system, the Secret Speech in 1956 and the ‘thaw’ all signalled that change was coming and some overly optimistic onlookers in Eastern Europe also hoped that it might mean the end of communism. However, Khrushchev demonstrated in his crushing of the Budapest uprising and his collaboration in building the Berlin Wall that he would defend Soviet communism. The country was still deeply scarred by collectivisation and Khrushchev’s attempts at boosting grain yields through the Virgin Lands campaign were a failed attempt at providing an alternative. 

Important Note: This blog doesn’t constitute an essay, an answer or anything that is remotely likely, on its own, to get you serious marks. It’s a framework for thinking about each phase of the course. Also, in each period studied a bunch of other social, cultural, political and economic change happened which you need to know about in depth (I’ve left most of that out here for obvious reasons).

If you found this brief guide to Tsarist and Communist Russia for AQA useful, check out the Explaining History store for modern history study guides and ebooks here

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• Tsarist and Communist Russia

This period is one of revolutionaries and oppressive authoritarian regimes; of booming industrialization and radical changes in world order; of tradition clashing with modernity; of human suffering and human progress. Learning about Tsarist and Communist Russia, comparing the two, and seeing how they were similar is not just helpful in determining Russia’s place in the world today, but also in understanding the geopolitics of the last half-century. 

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Nicholas II

• Russian Autocracy
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Timeline of Tsarist and Communist Russia

The following is a high-level overview of the key events that occurred between the years 1855–1964. We will review them later in more depth.

1855–81: Rule of Tsar Alexander II

1856: Crimean War ends and Russia is defeated

1861: Enacted the emancipation of the serfs

1864: Reforms to the judicial system and local governments are introduced

1870: Elected town councils called Dumas were introduced

1881: Alexander II is assassinated by a group called the ‘People’s Will’, who wanted autocratic and Tsarist rule to come to an end

1881–94: Rule of Alexander III

1881: Alexander III pursued a policy of Russification

1889: Powers that the local governments held were revoked

1894: Alexander III dies from kidney failure

1894–1917: Rule of Tsar Nicholas II

1904: Russo-Japanese War breaks out

1905: On 22 January, Bloody Sunday occurs

1905: On 5 September, Russia surrendered and brought the Russo-Japanese war to the end signing the Treaty of Portsmouth

1905: On 30 October, Tsar Nicholas II implements the October Manifesto

1914: Nicholas II allied with Britain and France and entered Russia into the First World War

1915: On 6 September, Nicholas II personally headed the Imperial Army

1917: February Revolution occurred

1917: On 15 March, Tsar Nicholas abdicates and the provisional government is formed

1917: October Revolution occurred

1917–24: Bolshevik Consolidation of power and Vladimir Lenin ’s leadership

1917: In December, the White Army begins to form and oppose the Bolsheviks, marking the start of the civil war

1918: On 3 March, Russia signed the treaty of Brest-Litovsk to end Russia’s involvement in the First World War

1918: On 17 July, Nicholas II and his entire family were assassinated

1918: In September, the Red Terror begins

1921: On 18 March, Lenin implements the New Economic Policy

1924: On 21 January, Lenin dies

1924–53: Stalinist Dictatorship

1924: In December, Stalin advocates for ‘Socialism in One Country’

1929: Stalin announces the collectivisation of agriculture and the first Five Year Plan

1931: Collectivisation causes a massive famine in the USSR

1934: Sergei Kirov was assassinated, marking the beginning of the Great Terror

1939: The Nazi-Soviet Pact is signed on August

1941: On 21 June, Hitler invades the Soviet Union

1948: The USSR blockade East Berlin

1950: Sino-Soviet treaty is signed

1953: On 5 March, Stalin dies

1953–64: Nikita Khrushchev ’s rule

1956: On 25 February, Khrushchev gives a secret speech denouncing Stalin

1956: In November, Khrushchev violently dispelled the Hungarian Uprising against Soviet hegemony in the country

1957: Khrushchev relaxed censorship laws, visited foreign countries, and implemented plans to raise the standard of living for the Russian people

1962: Cuban missile crisis raises tensions with the United States

1963: US and USSR agree to a partial nuclear test ban treaty

Consider the questions below as you learn about Tsarist and Communist Russia

• How did political authority in Russia change from autocracy to dictatorship, and develop over time?
• How did opposition to this political authority flourish or disappear?
• How and at what cost was economic development achieved?
• How did society and culture change, and what were the immediate effects?
• How significant were ideologies and how did these ideologies change over time?
• How were individual sections of society (eg. women, ethnic minorities) affected by these changes?

1855–94: the attempt to preserve autocracy

The years 1855–94 cover the reign of Tsar Alexander II (who ruled from 1855 until his assassination in 1881) and his son, Tsar Alexander III (who ruled from 1881 until his death in 1894). During this period, Russia was a rapidly modernising, multi-ethnic nation whose elites established a belligerent foreign policy to legitimise itself domestically and preserve the system of autocracy that had existed for centuries.

How was Russia governed?

In 1855, Russia was an autocracy (where absolute power over a state is held by one individual) ruled by the Tsar, who held the title, ‘Emperor and Autocrat of all Russia’. The Tsar was the head of the Orthodox Church, and his decrees were seen as God’s will.

A person with absolute power. In Russia, a Tsar would have absolute power.

Orthodox Church

A branch of the Christian church that has members from Eastern Europe to Eastern Africa (Russia, Greece, Ethiopia).

What was Russia’s economy like?

In 1855, Russia's economy was mainly rural, with over 90% of Russians living in villages. This meant it was economically behind the industrialised West, including Britain and France. The heavy agricultural focus of the Russian economy was a mainstay of Russian life until the rise of Stalin in 1924.

Reasons for Russia's slow economic development include:

Inhospitable terrain: much of Russia was barren and unsuitable for development.

Climate: Russia's extreme climate, especially the subzero temperatures, was problematic for agriculture and transport.

Size: Russia's size (1/6th of the world's land surface) made development expensive and challenging. In particular, communication across the empire was poor.

Serf-based economy: over 50% of Russians were serfs. Most serfs were subsistence farmers who grew just enough to survive on the land given to them by their landlords. The way the mirs (or village communities) managed the land meant that serfs had to farm communally, and had little opportunity to farm their private plots. Serfs often suffered from food shortages in bad harvests or winters.

Peasant agricultural labourers who were tied to working on the estate of an aristocrat.

What was social life like in Russia?

Russia was divided into the majority 'productive class' and minority 'non-productive class'. The productive class was mostly made up of serfs. It also included a small number of urban artisans, manufacturers, and merchants. The non-productive class consisted of the nobility, clergy, officials, and royal court. A 'middle class' did not exist in Russia in 1855. Some educated professionals (e.g. doctors and lawyers) formed the Russian intelligentsia, but they were usually the children of the nobility.

Of the 50% of Russians who were serfs, roughly half were 'state serfs'. These serfs paid taxes and rent. The rest of serfs were privately owned by members of the nobility. Serfs could be bought and sold, punished without trial, and were eligible for conscription into the army. Most serfs worked on the land in mirs, rural communes run by village elders. Peasants lived and worked in primitive conditions.

Conscription

A mandatory enlistment into the army.

How diverse was Russia?

Russia as an empire contained many different ethnic and national minorities. In the first national census of 1897, only 55% of Russian citizens identified as Russian nationals. The largest minority group was Ukrainians, at 22% of the population, followed by the Polish, at 8%. National minorities often retained their own culture, traditions, and language. They faced more restrictions and harsher treatment than Russian nationals. For example, Russian was the official language used in the government and civil service, and ethnic minorities were deterred from pursuing public service careers.

1855–81: Tsar Alexander II

Under the rule of Tsar Alexander II, sweeping political, educational, judicial, and military reforms changed life in mid-nineteenth-century Russia. His rule effectively re-defined autocratic duty but also adhered to a phenomenon that historians call reform conservatism. This meant that the state resisted change, despite pursuing forward-looking goals that made the autocracy seem progressive.

Alexander II inherited from his father Nicholas I a country dispirited from the Crimean War (1853–56). Russia’s military was humiliated, its economy was on the brink of failing, its peasants were becoming increasingly dissenting, and the threat of war with foreign powers continued. Alexander II had realized that change was necessary and that Russia had to enter the modern age.

Alexander II’s Reforms

• Elected councils supplanted the rights of the Russian elite. However, the electoral system was weighted in favour of the votes of the nobles. These councils could elect to improve public services, embark on infrastructure projects and create a system of welfare for its poorest community members.

A new judicial system was created based on Western models of justice.

The military was transformed to include conscription for nobles and serfs alike. Modern weaponry and a new command structure were introduced; however, the military still faced problems of supply and leadership.

Primary and secondary schooling was extended to all people irrespective of class and gender.

Freedom of speech was introduced and press censorship was reduced. However, this led to scathing criticism of the ruling class and harsher censorship was re-introduced in 1870.

The emancipation of the Serfs

Perhaps Alexander II’s most radical reform was his emancipation of the serfs in 1861. He freed over 23 million Russians from serfdom. Although serfs became free citizens, they were still subjected to high taxes, restrictions on movement, and unfair distribution of fertile land.

Some key reasons for the emancipation of Serfs were:

The failure of Russia during the Crimean war.

Pressure from progressive nobles, who believed that a free population was key to Russia’s development.

The increase in peasant uprisings.

The reduction of state debts.

What was the effect of these reforms?

The Russian people had generally welcomed Alexander II as a symbol of hope and stability. However, his reforms also created opposition to his rule. As the reforms allowed people more freedoms, the public increasingly demanded great changes that would have threatened the security of Russia’s ruling elite. Radicals were not satisfied with the reforms as they felt that the nation remained essentially a serf owners’ state. On the 13th of March, 1881, Alexander II was assassinated.

1881–94: Tsar Alexander III

Unlike his father, Tsar Alexander III believed strongly in the autocracy and adopted a more traditional ideology of autocratic religious legitimacy. His rule stands in stark contrast to that of his father. It was characterised by repression compared to the more liberal period under Alexander II. He viewed Russians with western education and the reformist nobles as guilty for the revolutionary movement that ultimately led to the assassination of his father. His main objective was to promote stability and ensure that the opposition to tsarism that had built up in the preceding years was controlled. Overall, his reign proved to be relatively secure for thirteen years until his death from a kidney disorder in 1894.

Alexander III’s reforms

Alexander III centralised power and limited the democratic elements of the Russian government.

A policy of russification was enforced, which forced Russian culture and the Russian language on the ethnic minorities living in the empire.

Inheritance tax was introduced, which lessened the burden on peasants and instead shifted it to aristocrats.

Police were given more power over citizens, and their numbers were sharply increased.

1894–1917: Tsar Nicholas II

Tsar Nicholas II was the last emperor of Russia, ruling from his father’s death in 1894 until his abdication in 1917. Much like his father, he believed in a vision of himself as a leader ordained by God who would restore patriarchal rule. As such, he refused to accept any concessions to his own absolute power. In general, he continued the policies of Alexander III, with an added emphasis on the modernisation of Russia. These policies had little positive impact, as Nicholas II had a limited grasp of politics; instead, they only made life harder for civilians and soldiers.

His regime was further complicated by a rapidly growing and indignant working class that demanded rights, and a middle class that demanded greater participation in government. This opposition was only made worse by the incompetence displayed in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, and later in the First World War.

1905 Revolution

The 1905 Revolution, or the first Russian revolution, saw strikes, protests, peasant unrest, and military mutiny.

Long-term causes of the 1905 Revolution included:

Long-term economic hardship: newly emancipated peasants earned pitiful wages, were made to work in appalling conditions, and faced high taxation. Famine only exacerbated the hunger and difficulty that Russia's newly freed peasants endured.

Political discontent: ethnic minorities faced constant cultural repression due to the ongoing policy of ‘Russification’. The policy actively discriminated against minorities, banning them from serving in the Imperial Guard, limiting their access to education, and excluding them from voting. Working-class individuals resented the government for failing to protect their interests; strikes and labour unions were illegal. Moreover, intellectuals and some nobles criticized the Tsar for failing to modernise and democratise Russia.

Marxism was already popular in Russia at the turn of the twentieth century, and the Social Democrats (later split into the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks ) wanted to overthrow the regime in order to give power to the working class.

The radical, far-left, revolutionary group that followed the beliefs of Karl Marx, specifically the working class overthrowing the existing capitalistic state in a revolution. The Bolsheviks followed Lenin and believed in a tight-knit, centralized party.

Short-term causes of the 1905 Revolution included:

The Russo-Japanese War: the humiliation of the Russian military in the Russo-Japanese War ended in the same year. Japanese negotiations to avoid war over territories in China were ignored by the tsarist regime because they believed that war would provide an opportunity to strengthen patriotism. However, Japanese forces proved to be vastly superior, and this made peasants and nobles alike question the competence of Tsar Nicholas II. The diversion of resources towards the war effort made domestic supplies of grain and oil even harder to come by.

Bloody Sunday: on 22 January 1905, Father Gapon led thousands of workers in a peaceful protest to deliver a petition to the Tsar. They called for changes to the working conditions of the lower classes. Imperial troops were sent to quell the demonstration. Hundreds were killed.

In the end, the revolution was short-lived, but it indicated the strength of the opposition to the autocratic rule that was building. The revolution did, however, bring about significant changes. On 17 October 1905, Nicholas II passed the October Manifesto. This was a constitutional reform that promised the creation of a State Duma , a legislative body elected by the people which would pass new laws. The manifesto granted the Russian people basic civil liberties, such as the freedom of speech, religion, and assembly. Nicholas II also appointed a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, who would be directly accountable to him.

1917 February Revolution

In 1917, Russia saw two tumultuous revolutions that would end centuries of tsarist rule and set the stage for the creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The first revolution occurred in February.

Long-term causes of the February 1917 Revolutions included:

An outdated political system: all the power was concentrated in the hands of Tsar Nicholas II. The Tsar feared power-sharing as it threatened his divine right to rule. Historian Scott Giltner argued that because of the Tsar’s disinterest in the working class, “Russia’s proletariat class was more radical than elsewhere”.

A decline in the prestige of the Tsardom: Russia had faced a series of embarrassing military defeats (in the Crimean War of 1853, in the Congress of Berlin over the Turks in 1880, in the Russo-Japanese War, and especially in the First World War, beginning in 1917). These national humiliations conflicted with Russia’s projection of itself as a great world power and brought economic devastation at home.

The rise of the intelligentsia: widening the access to education led to more people rejecting the current system of autocracy. The dissatisfaction of Russia’s peasant class was redirected to the government’s incompetency. The intelligentsia wanted major reforms, arguing that the October Manifesto failed to live up to its promises and was unwilling to accept minor compromises in the Duma .

Short-term causes of the February 1917 Revolutions included:

The First World War, which began in 1914. Estimates hold that more than two million Russian soldiers were killed during the war, in a crushing blow to the Russian empire. The Tsar made a myriad of critical errors in his management of the War, but perhaps the most significant was his decision to take direct command of Russia’s armed forces himself. This effectively tied the fate of the tsardom to the success or failure of the Imperial forces. Over the course of the War, enthusiasm for the Tsar evaporated, even among his natural supporters, the leaders of the army, the aristocrats in the Duma, and the progressive but non-radical parties.

By the end of the February Revolution, senior military leaders and prominent members of the Duma advised Nicholas II to abdicate. Members of the Duma then established a Provisional Government consisting of liberals, socialists, conservatives, and monarchists. Members of the working class began asserting a larger role in the governance of Russia. Despite these changes, the wealthy aristocrats of the provisional government entered into a power struggle with the less privileged members of the Provisional Government. Wartime chaos gained momentum in Russian cities, where individuals took it upon themselves to kill officials and military officers because they symbolised the old regime. This disorder, along with the need to fight in the War, weakened the government and the rest of Russia’s institutions.

The 1917 October Revolution

This Revolution, led by Vladimir Lenin of the Bolsheviks, instigated a period of political and social change in which the Communist Party would control Russia until 1989.

Reasons for the 1917 October Revolution:

Weakness of the Provisional Government: the government was unelected and closely associated with the Tsar and the Duma. Issues of land ownership, inflation, overcrowding, working conditions, and food shortages were not addressed with any decisiveness or clarity. Similarly, because the representatives of the Provisional Government were unelected, ongoing political repression was blatant.

Strength of the Bolshevik Movement: Lenin’s ideologies were popular with the masses. Lenin declared a platform of ‘Peace, Bread, and Land’, in which he rejected the continuation of the Great War, and promised stability to the hungry and landless populace. Lenin asserted that as long as the Provisional Government continued to rule, these issues would remain unresolved; ministers only governed with the interests of their own class in mind, he asserted. He argued that there was no incentive for them to end the war because they profited off the war efforts. Similarly, they had no incentive to reform the land-holding system, which protected their own property rights while excluding the less privileged from ownership. It is in this spirit that Lenin demanded ‘All Power to the Soviets.’

By late October, Lenin persuaded his followers to take action against the provisional government. Leon Trotsky, Chairman and military chief of the Bolsheviks, organized the October Revolution which overthrew the government. The government offered little resistance.

On 17 July 1918, Nicholas II and his entire family were murdered by the Bolsheviks, putting an end to the Romanov dynasty and the tsardom that had existed for centuries.

1917–64: the Soviet Union

Following the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks asserted control over Russia in a way that triggered fierce opposition. This led to a two-year civil war and foreign interventions. Triumphant, the Bolsheviks imposed their will by a ‘reign of terror’ under Lenin, which established a single-party authoritarian state. In 1919, the Bolshevik party was renamed the Communist Party. In 1922, the Soviet State became the Soviet Union .

What were the political ideologies of the Bolsheviks?

The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, broke away from Marx’s idea of communism, where the working-class would rise and spearhead a revolution. Instead, the Bolsheviks believed that an elite group of leaders needed to lead the Revolution. Indeed, the society that the Bolsheviks established was markedly different from the one that Marxist socialists had imagined in the nineteenth century. Instead of putting power in the hands of the workers, the Bolsheviks crushed opposition from peasants and soldiers who complained about the privileges of the Bolshevik elite.

Marx predicted that the state would diminish after a workers’ revolution, but the Bolshevik state only gained more power, albeit with broad support from the populace.

1917–24: Vladimir Lenin

Vladimir Lenin’s legacy reverberated throughout the twentieth century. As the first leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Lenin laid the foundation for all future communist leaders. Lenin oversaw the creation of a communist state through a brutal civil war, founded the Communist International (Comintern), and instigated the New Economic Policy (NEP) to bolster the Soviet economy.

Lenin quickly made peace with the Germans, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which officially ended Russia’s participation in the First World War on 3 March 1918. Lenin then oversaw a bloody civil war against the ‘Whites’, who were a loosely associated group of armies united only by their resistance to Bolshevism. The side of the Bolsheviks was known as the ‘Reds’, led by Leon Trotsky. In the civil war, Lenin ordered the use of unsparing violence against the White Army but also against civilian peasants. This bloody campaign became known as the ‘ Red Terror ’, marking the start of the long history of violence from the communist party to suppress its opponents.

By 1922, Lenin was the unquestioned leader of a unified but devastated country. Shortly after consolidating power and establishing a single-party state, he suffered two strokes, passing on his power to Joseph Stalin. Lenin passed away on 21 January 1924.

1924–53: Stalinist dictatorship

Following Lenin's death in 1924, the Communist Party faced the problem of choosing a new leader. This created a power struggle between some of the Party’s members, but in the end, Joseph Stalin triumphed over Leon Trotsky, Lev Kamenev, Grigory Zinoviev, Nikolai Bukharin, and other prominent members of the Communist Party. In the years that led up to 1928, Stalin took advantage of several opportunities that arose to gain power and solidify his position as the indisputable leader of Soviet Russia.

Historian Stephen Kotkin characterizes Stalin as ‘a people person’ with ‘surpassing organisational abilities; a mammoth appetite for work; a strategic mind and an unscrupulousness that recalled his master teacher, Lenin.’

Stalin’s regime would prove to be one of the most ruthless in recorded history. Approximately 30 million people died from famine and state-mandated terror and millions more found themselves imprisoned in the terrifying Siberian labour camps known as gulags.

What was Stalin’s political ideology?

Stalin’s ideology changed over time to adapt to what was popular with the proletariat (Russia’s working-class). His ideology had direct, practical benefits for the people, which gave him broad support. For example, Stalin favoured ‘Socialism in One Country’, which focused the state’s efforts on domestic stability and peace over ‘permanent revolution’, which Trotsky and the left-wing of the Bolshevik party favoured (this would have led to continuous revolutionary upheaval and disorder abroad).

Stalin took advantage of the centralised government model. He ensured that all cultural associations, the clergy, and even the smallest social institutions were controlled by the party. This allowed him to consolidate what was almost complete control over the social life of the Russian people. Stalin also used his position of power to execute or exile any politician who threatened his absolute rule.

After the ‘purges’, in which vast numbers of the Communist Party and the Red Army were eliminated and the peasantry terrorized into obedience, Stalin ruled unchallenged until he died in 1953.

What were Stalin’s economic policies?

At the end of the 1920s, Stalin launched a myriad of radical economic policies that completely transformed the agricultural and industrial standing of the Soviet Union. Stalin eliminated private enterprise, market mechanisms, and concessions for foreign investment that the NEP had allowed for.

Stalin’s economic policy pointed broadly to one, overarching aim: to modernise the Soviet economy. This was to be achieved through collectivisation and industrialisation. Collectivisation refers to the policy of socialised agriculture that was implemented by the Soviet Union from 1929 onwards. Kolkhoz (collective farms) and Sovkhoz (state-owned farms) were founded to replace the individual farms owned by peasants. Roughly 25 million small farms were merged to create 200,000 kolkhozy. The Five Year Plans were a tool to accelerate industrialisation by strictly controlling, managing and measuring goals. The Five Year Plans detailed Soviet plans for growth over a set period and imposed industrial quotas on workers. The plans were set out by the Gosudarstvennyy Planovyy Komitet, or Gosplan, which was the state planning committee.

The Stalinist Economy was characterized by the costly process of industrialisation, the complete restructuring of the ancient system of peasant farming, and the total consolidation of Communist Party rule. The human suffering that this great upheaval brought about was staggering. However, it is undeniable that in the years between 1928-1940 Soviet Russia evolved from an agrarian economy into an industrialised one.

1953–64: Nikita Khrushchev

Khrushchev came to power in 1953, over other prominent politicians who had close ties to Stalin. Krushchev’s political ideology differed markedly from Stalinism, making him stand out as a reformer.

In 1956, Nikita Khrushchev delivered a ‘secret speech’ at the Twentieth Party Congress. In it, Khrushchev openly criticized Stalin and called for a return to Leninism. This speech made Khrushchev’s campaign of ‘de-Stalinization’ clear, as well as marking the beginning of a period of liberalisation known as the ‘Khrushchev Thaw’. Khrushchev strongly believed in communism and believed that the terror and suffering endured under Stalinism was an unfortunate mistake. As such, Khrushchev set out to create economic and social reforms that would allow for ‘socialism with a human face’.

‘De-Stalinization’

A series of political reforms pursued after the death of Stalin and Nikita Khrushchev's attempt to seize power.

What were Khrushchev’s political reforms?

• The NKVD (which oversaw the USSR’s police, prisons and labour camps) was disbanded and replaced with the KGB. Members of the NKVD and the lawyers involved in the show trials were prosecuted for their involvement in the purges.

The Communist Party was restructured along administrative lines, which shifted power away from Moscow to local authorities.

Legal reforms gave more protections to ordinary citizens and diminished the power of the secret police.

What were Khrushchev’s economic reforms?

• Taxes were reduced and wages were increased to encourage peasants to be more productive.

Khrushchev began the Virgin Lands Scheme in 1954, relocating thousands of workers to cultivate more than 70 million acres of land in Siberia. This scheme was largely unsuccessful as the quality of land was extremely poor.

Regional economic councils were established which had autonomy over setting industrial quotas.

Consumer goods were emphasised to increase the standard of living for Soviet citizens.

What were Khrushchev’s foreign policy reforms?

Khrushchev improved the USSR’s relationship with the US, establishing a policy of peaceful co-existence that culminated in the signing of the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty in 1963. Unlike Stalin, he participated in numerous summits and travelled to Western countries. However, there were still moments of tension between the US and the USSR, as evidenced by the Cuban Missile Crisis which almost led the two powers into nuclear war.

Why was Khrushchev removed from power?

Despite Khrushchev’s best efforts, his domestic policies suffered against the background of the financially debilitating Cold War . Often, he lacked the funds necessary to successfully carry out his plans. Moreover, his liberal attitude and his leniency towards the Soviet people threatened the authority of the Communist Party. In the end, his rivals launched a campaign to dismiss him in 1964, which was successful.

Comparison of Tsarist and Communist Russia

Here is a brief summary of the similarities and differences between Tsarist Russia and Communist Russia.

Tsarist and Communist Russia - Key takeaways

• The last three tsars of the Russian empire were Alexander II, Alexander III, and Nicholas II.
• Under Alexander II, massive reforms were made to liberalise and modernise Russia.
• Under Alexander III and Nicholas II, these reforms were curbed in an attempt to maintain the legitimacy of their rule.
• During Nicholas II’s rule, three major revolutions occurred: in 1905, February 1917, and October 1917. In the end, the Bolsheviks took power after a bloody civil war and executed Nicholas II and his family in 1918.
• The Bolsheviks were led by Lenin under his slogan ‘Peace, Land, and Bread’. Their triumph in the civil war led to the creation of the world’s first communist state: the Soviet Union.
• After Lenin’s death in 1924, Joseph Stalin took power, starting a terrifying dictatorship and embarking on major economic reforms that left millions dead but brought Russia’s economy into the modern age.
• Nikita Khrushchev took power after Stalin, moving away from his predecessor’s policies, in an effort to humanise socialism.

Flashcards in Tsarist and Communist Russia 354

Who was the last Tsar of the Russian Empire?

When did Alexander II enact the emancipation of the Serfs?

What was Lenin’s slogan during the 1917 October Revolution?

Peace, Land, and Bread

In 1855, Russia's army was the second-largest in the world.

 False - it was actually the largest.

Which power first declared war, and when?

Russia - June 1853

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Frequently Asked Questions about Tsarist and Communist Russia

When did the Tsarist regime end?

The Tsarist regime ended in 1917, following the Bolshevik takeover of Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was the last of the Russian tsars and was executed on 17 July 1918.

How was communist rule similar to the tsarist Russia?

Both tsarist and communist Russia had highly centralised control of governance. They both used various levers of repression to bend people to their will and were highly dependent on individual leaders for the success or failure of the state.

What was the tsarist regime in Russia?

The tsars were the rulers of the Russian empire. The Tsars were also head of the Orthodox Church, which meant that they had a divine right to rule over the empire and had complete authority over every aspect of governance. The tsarist regime refers to the autocratic rule by the tsars.

What is the meaning of Tsarist?

Tsar was a title given to the emperors of Russia before the Russian revolutions of 1917. In medieval times, the term meant a supreme ruler, who was also the head of the Orthodox Church. The term tsarist typically refers to the time period in which Russia was ruled by Tsars.

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AQA AS Tsarist Russia, 1855-1917 essay plans

These are just essay plans made from the markschemes of previous years, I don't know how helpful this is but here you go guys :)

Teacher recommended

• Created by: Phoebe Lam
• Created on: 13-05-12 17:08
• Russia - 19th and 20th century

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I love u u angel. Doubt u check this as its been 4 years since u posted this. But u are a dream

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Tsarist and Communist Russia: All the revision notes you need to know A-level

Subject: History

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Assessment and revision

Last updated

15 October 2023

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This is a complete set of detailed notes you will need for A level Tsarist and Communist Russian history and it covers the period of 1855-1964. Unlike a textbook or revision guide these notes are detailed yet relevant and it uses clear bullet points rather than long, waffly paragraphs. Also all the notes are clearly organised into major topic. This makes revision much simpler and you will know exactly what knowledge to put in for a specific question. The topic are all organised in clear documents with simple and uniform presentation to make revision straight forward. These are vital for anybody doing this course and will save you hours and hours of sorting through notes made in class and putting them into a useful format. They are also much more comprehensive than normal revision notes and will ensure there are no gaps in your knowledge when it comes to your exam as long as you learn them! There is tons of content in this package so it is definitely worth it.

I have similar resources for history available at https://www.tes.com/teaching-resources/shop/theinvisiblehand1 as well as resources for maths and economics.

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Tsarist and Communist Russia 1855-1964 Complete Revision Package

Grab a bargain bundle of history resources including detailed notes of all topics from the A level course, a list of all the relevant dates and a enormous 45 essay plans to prepare you for any question that could come up. Unlike a textbook or revision guide these notes are detailed yet relevant and it uses clear bullet points rather than long, waffly paragraphs. The topic are all organised in clear documents with simple and uniform presentation to make revision straight forward. These are vital for anybody doing this course and will save you hours and hours of sorting through notes made in class and putting them into a useful format. They are also much more comprehensive than normal revision notes and will ensure there are no gaps in your knowledge when it comes to your exam as long as you learn them! I have similar resources for history available at https://www.tes.com/teaching-resources/shop/theinvisiblehand1 as well as resources for maths and economics. You can also purchase each of the three resources in this package separately at the shop.

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Hi, I’ve downloaded the pdf, however the notes aren’t organised at all and I’m missing ‘2.4 opposition:ideas and ideologies’ as well as ‘2.5 Political authority, oposition and the state of Russia in wartime’ Could you please send the full and organised pdf. Thank you

theinvisiblehand1

Hi buyer, apologies for that. This appears to be an issue with TES not downloading the resources in the same order I uploaded them. I have added letter categories to make it clearer the intended order. The notes you mention are included. many thanks, John

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Holliewilkinns

Hi, I’’ve noticed that there are a few sub-titles with no information. Specifically : Industrial development under Stalin, 1945-53 Industrial development under Stalin, 1953-64 Results of industrial change Just wanted to let you know!

Thank you! The latest file was not uploaded. Sorry for the mistake, should be good now.

Quality of notes = okay. However, it is not a complete set of notes as there are a few missing (titles there but no notes to accompany them). It is also terribly organised when it downloads as the separate documents are organised in no particular order or theme.

Thank you for your feedback. Upon looking at the resource I realise there were some problems. I have added any missing notes, added better labelling to make them more organised and sorted them into chronological order. I hope this helps you with the notes. They will be incredibly useful for you I am sure. They have been tested and they do really work.

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ESSAY PLANS

Here are some examples of plans that can be used when writing an essay on the subject of Communism in Russia:

Question 1 - Evaluate the causes of Bolshevik success in the October 1917 Revolution 

Question 2 - What part did Lenin play in the establishment of the Soviet Union?

Question 3 - To what extent was Trotsky responsible for the victory of the Red Army in the Civil War? 

Question 4 - To what extent were economic problems the main reason for the collapse of Soviet power in Eastern Europe? 

Question 5 - What was the attitude of the Soviet Union to German expansion after 1935?

Question 6 - Russia under Lenin was not too dissimilar to Russia under the Tsars. Discuss