thesis nature management

The Evolution of the Nature Management System and Modern Trends in Its Development

Published: 08 December 2022
Volume 43 , pages 212–217, ( 2022 )

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B. I. Kochurov 1 ,
V. V. Chernaya 2 &
R. M. Voronin 2

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We have examined the evolution of nature management systems in a historical context. An analysis has been made of the crisis of existing nature management models, an aggravation of contradictions, and an increase in threats and risks at the beginning of the 21st century. Modern trends in the development of effective nature management have been discussed, namely, low-waste technologies, technoecopolises, agroecopolises, and green clusterization. We have generalized and suggested conceptual prospects in the realm of effective nature management: the concept of a New Ecological Policy and a new “ecopolicy of containment.” We have explored the possibility of introducing the culture of nature management contributing to reinforcing the necessary rules and regulations—the binding force of the system of restrictions and prohibitions for humans in nature management, with due regard for the sustainability of natural systems. Emphasis is placed on a crucial need for changes in mass-scale consumer stereotypes and for an increase in the number of green technologies and production and the furthering of ecological education and medical–ecological tourism, as well as the importance of reorientation of the attitudes of the population from ecological–consumer to social–spiritual values in accordance with the Code of the Culture of Nature Management. We have substantiated the need for integrating the economic determinism of nature management and the ecological–economic imperative of sustainable development based on a noospheric approach.

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INTRODUCTION

The development of life, the maintenance of species diversity, and even the emergence of new organisms is possible only if there are favorable environmental conditions. In the history of the Earth, due to changes in the natural environment, many organisms have disappeared without a trace and others suddenly appeared, more developed and adapted, with a unique body structure and exceptional abilities [ 1 – 6 ]. During the appearance of Homo sapiens, on the one hand, all possible ecological niches had already been filled, but, on the other hand, there were favorable natural conditions for its existence. Today the most important global duty for a person is to maintain the environment of their habitat at the proper level. The unwillingness to fulfill this function threatens humanity with various dangers and, ultimately, extinction. The COVID-19 pandemic clearly demonstrates that it is impossible to eliminate global risks only by the development of medicine and the healthcare system [ 7 , 8 ].

Man is an integral part of the single “living organism” of the Earth’s biosphere and must ensure the waste-free activity of all living things and maintain the most effective natural mechanism—the circulation of matter, energy, and information. According to the law of internal dynamic equilibrium, matter, energy, information and the dynamic qualities of individual natural systems in their hierarchy are interconnected so much that any change in one of these indicators causes concomitant functional–structural quantitative and qualitative changes that preserve the total amount of material–energetic, informational, and dynamic qualities of the system where these changes occur, or in their hierarchy.

Human economic activity has led to changes in biogeochemical cycles and the destruction of individual components of its “biological” link—many species of animals and plants—which makes this “living organism” sick and disturbs the human habitat, in some places completely destroying and degrading it.

Thus, in modern realities, the problem of effective nature management goes far beyond the scope of economic or social issues, but is directly related to the very existence of human civilization; that is, it refers to global, worldwide problems that require their solution in the foreseeable future.

EVOLUTION OF THE NATURE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

One important question is, when did humans begin to engage in environmental management in the current sense of this term? From a modern point of view, environmental management is the science of the rational and balanced use of natural resources; it is the involvement of territorial complexes of the natural environment and their resources in the process of social production, culture, and recreation, as well as their rational and balanced use, protection, restoration, and transformation [ 9 ].

It is believed that the history of mankind began from 3400–3300 B.C. with the advent of writing [ 10 ]. However, this is not entirely accurate, since even before that time, human society actively interacted with the environment [ 1 – 3 ]. Thus, a number of researchers connect the beginning of the history of mankind with the appearance of behavioral signs similar to the characteristics of modern people. The time frame is quite difficult to establish and is the subject of a dispute between scientists, ranging from 200 000 to 40 000 B.C. [ 11 , 12 ].

The most correct, in our opinion, is the neurobiological approach [ 13 ], according to which representatives of the genus Homo became behaviorally modern people with the acquisition of prefrontal synthesis (PFS), which is a conscious purposeful process of synthesizing new mental images. This date is defined as 42 000 B.C., i.e., coincides with the time of the appearance of works of art—images of figures of people and animals [ 14 , 15 ] (see Fig. 1 ). This important event in the history of mankind provided the grounds for American researcher V.V. Torvich [ 1 – 3 ] to single out the first group of resources during this period of time (consisting of similar types of resources), “new mental images,” which are very important for the development of human society.

Block diagram of a comprehensive assessment of the ecological and economic balance of the territory. NP, natural protection of the territory; NRP, natural resource potential; AL, anthropogenic load; EES, ecological and economic state of the territory; and EEB, ecological and economic balance of the territory.

According to V.V. Torvich, “resources are tools, things, qualities, and methods that can be used to achieve human goals” [ 2 , p. 48]. In total, in the history of mankind, the author identified 26 groups of resources: from new mental images to artificial intelligence (AI).

The largest amount of new resources was mastered by humans during the Holocene period (11 700 B.C.) (see Fig. 1 ), when climatic conditions became most favorable for the development of human activity [ 1 – 3 ]. The cold climate on Earth has changed to a warmer one. The most dramatic warming occurred around 9700 B.C. Since this period, mankind has been able to successfully domesticate many plant and animal species (see Fig. 1 ), which has created unprecedented opportunities for various types of economic activities. A rapid increase in population began. In 2019 A.D., 7.6 billion people lived on Earth, which is 1 million times more than in 1000 B.C. [ 16 , 17 ], primarily due to the high rate of technological breakthroughs. Traditional nature management is increasingly becoming a thing of the past. New types of nature management have appeared, on the basis of which the industrial period (stage) in the development of human society started several centuries ago, gradually giving way to the postindustrial one. These periods are characterized by the fact that the social systems created in them increasingly depend not on the effect of influences, but on the consequences of the development of the systems themselves [ 18 – 21 ].

In connection with the threat of an ecological catastrophe, to which human society as a result of its economic activity (especially over the past decades) has come close, there is a need to revise the old approach and develop new ones that can stop destruction and death and ensure the further development of mankind. How does one see the further development of human society? V.V. Torvich [ 1 – 3 ] believes that humanity is subject to the so-called directed process and is moving towards an increase in the number of “great” opportunities for its development. This is confirmed by the increase in the number of various resources for development, which cannot always contribute to it and often lead to the degradation and death of all living things. As for the statement about the controllability of the process of emergence of new resources, technologies, tools, methods, etc., there is no evidence for this. It is only obvious that new resources expand the possibilities of influencing the environment [ 1 , 3 , 18 , 20 ].

Human society must adequately respond to various threats and challenges, and this is the main and only condition for its development and preservation. The creativity of people who make new resources is what determines the development of human society today. However, creativity must be controlled, humane, and not provide conditions for self-destruction and the death of mankind. The ever-increasing insatiability of the modern consumer society, which negatively affects the natural environment, is manifested in the uncontrolled development of the market for biotechnologies, genetic engineering, and nanotechnologies, which in the future can cause irreversible consequences—mutations and the emergence of new viruses and diseases, which can lead to the extinction of humans on Earth. In this case, we are talking about irresponsible scientific activity in modern civilization.

The alternative is the development of low-waste technologies, technoecopolises, agroecopolises, and green clusters, which can minimize the impact of by-products of technogenesis; technogenic accidents and disasters should be reduced by decreasing the energy intensity of the economy and creating autotrophic natural–anthropogenic ecosystems [ 19 – 23 ].

There are a number of prerequisites for the development of this direction, first and foremost, the growth of our knowledge and ideas about the structure and patterns of functioning of the biosphere, geo-eco-sociosystems, and the rapid development of green technological innovations that make the goal quite feasible. Today, a number of countries are developing low-waste industries and closed life support systems for outer-space, underground, underwater, and arctic purposes and sustainable green technologies and concepts. Cities of the future, from the point of view of the principle of autotrophy, are considered practically closed geosystems with a predominance of the eco-urban structure [ 24 , 25 ].

According to experts [ 26 ], environmentally compatible technologies must correspond to the natural features and patterns of the Earth’s territory, cause no harm to nature, and be in harmony with it.

In recent years, as part of environmentally compatible technologies that are used on living organisms or in contact with them, nanotechnology products, hybrid and bionic devices, and biorobotic systems [ 26 , 27 ] stand out; their environmental consequences are difficult to imagine or predict.

Environmentally compatible technologies include alternative energy—nontraditional ways of obtaining, transmitting, and using energy. Alternative energy sources are understood as renewable natural resources: water, sunlight, wind, biofuels, etc. However, the replacement of oil, gas, coal, and wood combustion technologies with alternative energy does not exclude its negative impact on the natural environment. This can be a serious reason for revising the prospects for its further development.

MODERN DIRECTIONS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF EFFICIENT NATURE MANAGEMENT

Modern environmental management is determined by three main indicators [ 1 , 2 , 5 ]: (1) the balance between the production (profit-generating) and environmental (green) sectors of the economy, (2) the creative activity of the population in two directions: national (to work for the state) and individual (to ensure their livelihoods), and (3) the balance between real and monetary efficiency of production.

As was shown by our calculations [ 20 ], for the regions of Russia and the world, a balanced and harmonious ratio of the main indicators of nature management is created when their ratio is 1.0–1.5:

1 < (PGS/GES) < 1.5, where POS is a profit-generating sector and GES is a green economic sector;

1 < (NCAP/ICAP) < 1.5, where NCAP is the nationwide creative activity of the population and ICAP is the individual creative activity of the population;

1 < (REP/MEP) < 1.5, where REP is the real efficiency of production and MEP is the monetary efficiency of production.

For example, the profit received from production activities provides a balance between the sphere of production and services, as well as the quality of the natural environment with its constant improvement [ 5 ].

If the values in the considered ratios exceed 1.5, then this indicates economic and environmental problems (a decline in production, a rapid depreciation of assets, pollution and degradation of the natural environment, etc.), which manifests itself in the form of economic, financial, and other crises that are cyclical. Thus, an increase in environmental safety and sustainability of development is seen only in a balanced approach and harmony between competing interests.

Increasing the efficiency of nature management, both from an economic and environmental point of view, is likely an insufficient measure, but it postpones the onset of a global environmental catastrophe for a certain period [ 18 – 21 ]. Therefore, effective environmental management can be considered with full confidence as a new “resource package” for the development of mankind, when the value of the results of this social and production activity exceeds the value of the natural resources consumed in this case.

The current crisis in the models of nature management is also due to problems in the environmental policy of Russia and other countries. The concept of the New Environmental Policy (NEP) of environmental expert A.I. Kalachev [ 28 ] deserves close attention, placing the following emphasis:

(i) The state is the main beneficiary of solving the problems of environmental protection and nature management.

(ii) Human-centeredness: the state is a partner for business and citizens in solving problems, and the main customer of environmental services.

(iii) There is a guideline for solving environmental problems that reasonably depend on the existing shortcomings of nature management models.

Understanding the threats looming over society (environmental disasters, pandemics, and economic crises) is a global challenge for fundamental science—the need to develop a new containment methodology (noospheric convergence) and create modern production, management, social, educational and other technologies on its basis [ 19 ].

It is urgent to achieve an ecological and economic balance on Earth based on the noospheric concept, efficient nature management, and the principles of sustainable development (see Fig. 1 ). The world, according to the capitalist model of society and based on Adam Smith’s idea of economic growth, gradually ceases to be attractive and loses its relevance [ 18 – 21 ].

The noospheric approach is the basis of the modern development of human society. It is a global concept aimed at a gradual transition to autotrophy, strategic initiatives and planning, a new environmental policy, the development of local communities (civil society), and the maximum conservation of natural landscapes and ecosystems. It can be viewed as a kind of convergence at the intersection of technological innovations, as well as economics, ecology, education, which will bring human society to a fundamentally new level of development [ 19 ].

Undoubtedly, the creation of the noosphere as an area of interaction between nature and society is associated with the emergence and formation in the biosphere of the Earth of the bearer of consciousness (mind)—humanity. Hence, consciousness is the basis of the noosphere. Its state completely depends on the adequacy of the reflection by the consciousness of humanity of the relationship between it and nature [ 25 – 27 ].

In modern realities, consciousness and its manifestations are, to a large extent, spontaneous and destructive for the biosphere and the geographical sphere as a whole. Obviously, this situation will continue until our consciousness is freed from the idea of anthropocentrism and humanity learns to adhere to objective natural laws and subordinate its needs to them.

The level of responsible consumption of natural resources in the sphere of production, aimed at meeting human needs, is determined by the culture of nature management [ 18 , 19 ]. As a scientific direction, it studies the principles of rational use of natural resources, including the factors of anthropogenic and technogenic impacts on nature and their consequences for the population. The culture of nature management not only contributes to the consolidation of the necessary rules and norms, but also acts as a binding force for a system of restrictions and prohibitions for humans in the processes of nature management and the regulation of economic activity taking into account the sustainability of natural systems.

The culture of nature management is a membrane through which human interaction with nature takes place. Its most important direction, as we noted above, is the development of the mental qualities of the individual, primarily spirituality and harmony.

To balance the processes of nature management, it is extremely necessary to change consumer stereotypes; increase the number of green technologies and industries; develop environmental education, medical and environmental tourism, i.e.; reorient people from environmental–consumerism to social–spiritual in accordance with the Code of the Culture of Nature Management [ 18 , 19 ], which consists of two sections that have specific postulates.

The first section considers the limits of human adaptation to nature, namely the following postulates:

(i) Nature is the natural source of human vitality; we cannot be allowed to deplete it or needlessly waste it.

(ii) Man-made quasi-natural developments may conceal unknown, untested dangers; therefore, before offering innovations, constantly confirmed boundaries for their safe use should be indicated.

(iii) We cannot change natural conditions without taking into account even the smallest negative consequences, because they can cause unpredictable natural and man-made disasters.

(iv) Nature must be constantly taken care of by restoring its potential, and this restoration requires the same efforts and costs as are necessary for the extraction and consumption of natural resources.

(v) Humans are children of nature, and their increasing power should not be directed to its oppression, but to ensuring the creation of mutually beneficial and mutually enriching technologies for nature management.

The second section discusses the limits of nature’s adaptation to man, expressed in certain rules and prohibitions:

(i) One must not destroy nature; mankind has become powerful and capable of causing irreparable harm.

(ii) It is necessary to limit and control the level of scientific and technical progress in terms of possible damage to nature.

(iii) Natural resources cannot be used for excessive personal enrichment; they should be distributed in proportion to ability and labor.

(iv) One cannot build a relationship with nature built on half-truths: introducing even a small lie hidden underneath a grain of truth into the technologies of nature management will destroy nature over time and bring great misfortune.

(v) One cannot use natural wealth for excesses, praise, and out of envy for others, and the acquisition of the gifts of nature should be conditioned by the need for their consumption.

The culture of nature management, according to the Code of the Culture of Nature Management, is becoming the most important mechanism for achieving effective nature management, and we have to admit that other mechanisms are secondary and, without taking into account its requirements, lead to the destruction of the natural environment.

CONCLUSIONS

The development of human society and related nature management during the Holocene period (11 700 years) is characterized by an ever-expanding use of natural resources and the rapid emergence of new resources (genetic engineering and nanotechnologies), which has led to unprecedented pressure on the natural environment and put the world on the brink of ecological disaster.

It should be noted that the current environmental crisis is perhaps the deepest in the periods of modern and recent history, and it is global in nature. Today, there is no single scientifically based approach to overcoming the ecological crisis, and there is no universal trajectory for the development of human society. Existing standards, regulations, and calls for the formation of a green economy and green technologies and cities for the environmental protection of the economy and regulations only temporarily postpone the onset of regional crises and a global environmental catastrophe [ 27 , 29 – 31 ].

Obviously, in the 2000s, ecology, the rational use of natural resources, and environmental protection are becoming the leading force in the development of society. Nondecreasing emissions of ecopollutants, pseudoscientific concepts of energy supply, and gray technologies lead to local and regional environmental and economic crises and regional and global drops in the GDP. The scenarios of A. Peccei and A. King [ 32 ], according to which the global economic growth was supposed to stop in 2020, was justified to some extent, given the coronavirus pandemic.

The existing system of global consumer nature management leads to the fact that the main goal of society is stagnation and survival, rather than development and coevolution with nature. Understanding the threat of the COVID-19 pandemic looming over human society, global climate change poses a challenge to science, primarily geoecology and nature management, environmental resource science, etc., of enormous socioeconomic significance, as well as the further development of new concepts and models: the Ecopolitics of Containment and the New Environmental Policy. It is necessary to integrate the economic determinism of nature management and the ecological and economic imperative of the sustainable development of countries and regions based on the noospheric approach in the territory–resources–population–economy–ecology system.

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Kochurov, B.I., Chernaya, V.V. & Voronin, R.M. The Evolution of the Nature Management System and Modern Trends in Its Development. Geogr. Nat. Resour. 43 , 212–217 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1134/S1875372822030064

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Received : 05 November 2021

Revised : 22 December 2021

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Published : 08 December 2022

Issue Date : September 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1134/S1875372822030064

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has the ability to read and understand professional scientific literature

This is largely an independent piece of work where the students are supervised by an appointed teacher/lecturer.

The framework for the assignment and relevant themes will be introduced in the 4th semester. Students who plan to conduct their field work during the summer must have their assignment approved and a supervisor appointed during the 4th semester, the rest of the students will have this in their 5th semester. The teaching on project work (5th semester) consists of lectures with exercises as well as submission of a pilot project towards the end of the semester.

The bachelor's thesis may be written by one student alone or by two in cooperation. Cooperation may take place across different study programmes.

Compound Assessment

Compulsory work. Approved/ Not approved. Must be passed prior to submission of the bachelor´s Thesis.
Compulsory participation. Approved/ Not approved. Must be passed prior to submission of the bachelor´s Thesis.
Bachelor´s Thesis, comprises 100% of the grade, grading scale A-F.

Jan Eivind Østnes

MSc thesis projects - Plant Ecology and Nature Conservation Group

Our research can roughly be divided into three themes. Below you will find general information on these themes, but first we would like to provide you with some guidelines on how to select the right thesis project.

How to choose a thesis project?

The MSc thesis projects are clustered in research themes that cover the fields of interest of our lecturers, post-docs and PhD students. They are listed as supervisors. Many subjects are also suitable for a BSc thesis. Length and content of a thesis project may be tailored to your wishes. An overview of available project can be found in the TIP-database http://tip.wur.nl . New projects will be added to this database throughout the year.

If you are interested in a particular thesis project you can contact the supervisor of the project directly. Alternatively, if you are interested in a theme but you cannot find a suitable project, you may consult the contact person of the theme. When you have difficulties choosing a theme, please contact Juul Limpens ( [email protected] ).

You can also do a thesis project at a research institute or a different university in the Netherlands or abroad, on the condition that the project and the supervision are of sufficient scientific quality (PhD supervisor) and a supervisor from PEN is involved.

Start in time with looking for a thesis project and contacting people: preferably 3 to 9 months before the start of your project. Preparations for projects abroad take a long time. Some projects may require following an additional course.

Information on procedures around theses and internships and instructions for doing a thesis project are presented in the ‘Guidelines for preparing an MSc-thesis’. A hard copy can be obtained at the secretary’s office after registration for a thesis. The Guidelines also give an overview of prerequisite and recommended courses for a thesis PEN.

Theme 1 Environment and ecosystem functioning

Contact person: Juul Limpens

Other supervisors: Monique Heijmans, José van Paassen, Rúna Magnússon

Background: This theme covers our research on large-scale human influences on ecosystem functioning. Increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, climate change and nitrogen deposition strongly affect nutrient- and water cycling within ecosystems, plant growth, and competitive relations between plant species. Such effects may change vegetation succession and biodiversity. Conversely, the resulting changes in the vegetation can have important consequences for ecosystem processes such as biomass production, carbon sequestration and emission, evapotranspiration, erosion, absorption and reflection of solar radiation.

Research: Peatlands equal forests as carbon (C) stores due to slow decomposition of the water-locked plant material. Large-scale draining of peatlands and extraction of peat have removed the lock on the stored carbon, turning them into sources for greenhouse gasses. At PEN we study functioning of intact, degraded and rewetted peatlands in the Netherlands and abroad to 1) understand how the ecosystem services change with environmental and human stressors and 2) how we can use these relationships to best manage and restore these ecosystems. (José van Paassen, Juul Limpens)

Northern ecosystems are facing rapid climate warming. In response, shrub vegetation is expanding. Good news, as shrubs can store carbon and protect permafrost soils from warming up in summer through shading. Bad news, as shrubs can warm up the soil in winter by capturing snow. Climate change, shrub expansion, permafrost degradation and vegetation succession - and their many interactions! - make for an exciting puzzle to work on in challenging environments. (Rúna Magnússon, Juul Limpens, Monique Heijmans)

Coastal ecosystems protect a large part of the world’s shores against flooding, harbour their own special species and often serve as recreation areas. One of the big questions is to what extent these ecosystems can keep on offering these services as the sea level keeps on rising: how resilient are salt marshes and dunes? (Juul Limpens)

Type of work: The research involves field observations, experimental work in field, garden or greenhouses, remote sensing, simulation studies on long-term dynamics of ecosystems and tree-ring studies on polar shrubs.

Theme 2 Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning

Contact person: Fons van der Plas

Other supervisors: Amanda Taylor, Coline Boonman, Philippine Vergeer

Background: The biodiversity within ecosystems is an important aspect of the conservation value of ecosystems, because species rich communities are rare and many endangered species occur mainly in species rich communities. After many years of research the regulation of biodiversity is still poorly understood. How can we explain that 40 or more plant species of higher plants per m2 coexist in some communities, while other communities contain only a few species? How do species manage to survive under the pressure of competition, stress and disturbance? What circumstances are favourable to species richness and how can we promote and maintain or destroy these circumstances? The role of biodiversity in ecosystem functioning is even more obscure. Species richness could have important impacts on other ecosystem properties and functions such as resource use, biomass production, and resistance to invasions.

Several projects are united under this theme.

A. The importance of biodiversity for ecosystem processes

The rapid loss of species has inspired ecologists to investigate the importance of biodiversity for the functioning of ecosystems. For some ecosystem processes, such as primary productivity in grasslands, several experiments have shown loss of plant species is detrimental. This negative effect has been ascribed to a loss of beneficial interactions among species. However, we still do not fully understand which interactions and, more importantly, how they work. In addition, the importance of biodiversity for many other ecosystem processes, in different ecosystems, is unclear. For example, some experiments have shown biodiversity effects for decomposition of dead organic material, a crucial process driving C and N cycles and ultimately productivity, but other studies found no effect or even negative effects! So far, we cannot explain these conflicting results. New clever experiments are strongly needed.

B. Regulation of plant species richness

In nature conservation it is important to know which circumstances are important for the development of species rich communities and how can we restore species rich communities. The relation between species richness and nutrient availability is especially important, since nutrient availability is influenced unintentionally by environmental problems, like eutrophication, and agricultural practices, like drainage. It can also be manipulated deliberately by conservation management practices (like grazing, mowing, sod cutting, hydrological measures, and fertilisation). The highest species richness is usually found at intermediate levels of biomass production, as set by the availability of the most limiting nutrient. We investigate how species richness depends on biomass production, above-ground structure of the vegetation, identity and number of (co-)limiting nutrients. To determine which factors limit the various coexisting species we measure biomass nutrient concentrations and responses to fertilisation with separate nutrients in the field. To understand differences in response we investigate nutrient uptake efficiency and nutrient use efficiency in pot and water culture experiments in the greenhouse.

C. Ecological patterns in biodiversit y

Spatial patterns in biodiversity may determine the location of specific ecosystem services and may guide conservation efforts. ecological questions regarding a shift in spatial patterns or community adjustments due to disturbance (e.g. climate change, fire, management) can be answered at various scales, from local to global and from species to community levels. the research focus of pen lies within grasslands, urban environments, and global spatial scale patterns, where field studies and large database analyses are combined. applying the latest biodiversity models enables us to link patterns in biodiversity to environmental conditions and functional traits., theme 3 nature conservation in agricultural landscapes.

Contact person: Prof.Dr. David Kleijn. E-mail

Other supervisors: Jeroen Scheper, Thijs Fijen

Background: In Europe, some of the most species-rich ecosystems have developed as a result of prolonged and extensive use by mankind (e.g. calcareous grasslands, sub-alpine meadows). The diversity and species richness of these habitats is currently under threat, particularly in agricultural areas. Policy makers at the EU and member state level have recognised this and have started large-scale conservation initiatives. One of the initiatives to reverse the trend of progressive bio-diversity loss, ‘agri-environment schemes’ (financial compensations for farmers willing to enhance biodiversity on their land), aims to integrate nature conservation into farming. However, because agri-environment scheme fail to halt farmland biodiversity loss, there is an increasing number of grassroots, bottom-up conservation initiatives by municipalities, citizens and even scientists.

Research: The research within the theme ‘Nature conservation in agricultural landscapes’ focuses broadly on questions:

A. How can we optimize the effectiveness of nature conservation in agricultural landscapes?

Here we focus on gaining a better understanding of (the factors influencing) the effectiveness of conservation measures in agricultural landscapes. We study conservation, not only on farmland (e.g. wildflower strips, strip-cropping) but also in nearby public space (e.g. staggered mowing in road-side verges) and protected areas. The projects address a range of different questions. Does a landscape-scale approach where integrated conservation measures are being implemented by many different stakeholders work better than traditional conservation approaches? What are the ecological benefits of strip cropping for insect biodiversity and farmland birds? Do ambitious nature conservation strategies of municipalities result in significant biodiversity gain? Why are most farmers reluctant to integrate the management of biodiversity into their farm business? Is co-design of conservation measures with farmers more effective than science-led conservation? A range of species groups is included in these projects (plants, birds, bees and hover flies, invertebrates in general). Most project will take place in the Netherlands, but some projects offer opportunities for MSc theses and Internships in other European countries such as Latvia, Hungary and Spain.

B. What is the contribution of biodiversity to agricultural production?

A second line of attack under the theme ‘Nature conservation in agricultural landscapes‘ quantifies the contribution of biodiversity to agricultural production. Evidence for this can help convince farmers to support biodiversity on their farms. Research mainly focusses on pollination and pest control as key regulating services, although some projects include soil services such as carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling. The projects under this theme address research questions such as: What is the relationship of flower visitation rate by wild pollinators to yield of insect pollinated crops? Does extensification of grassland management result in significant ecosystem service benefits? Does nature-inclusive farming enhance pest control? Do the benefits of enhancing biodiversity on farms outweigh the opportunity costs to farmers? These questions are mainly being addressed by studying functionally important species groups such as bees, spiders and carabid beetles and mostly in research carried out in the Netherlands.

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Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection

The Evolution of the Nature Management System and Modern Trends in Its Development

B. i. kochurov.

1 Institute of Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119017 Moscow, Russia

V. V. Chernaya

2 Pavlov State Medical University, 390026 Ryazan, Russia

R. M. Voronin

INTRODUCTION

EVOLUTION OF THE NATURE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

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