literature review on drug abuse among youth in nigeria

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

The burden of drug abuse in nigeria: a scoping review of epidemiological studies and drug laws.

• 1 School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
• 2 School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
• 3 Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
• 4 School of Global Health and Bioethics, Euclid University, The Gambia
• 5 Hospital Services Management Board, Ministry of health, Gusau, Nigeria
• 6 Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
• 7 Malaria Consortium Nigeria, Dutse, Nigeria
• 8 Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bayero University Kano, Kano, Nigeria

Background: The burden of drug abuse is becoming a public health concern in Nigeria. Preventive measures should include identifying the root causes of the burden for targeted intervention. We, therefore, aim to conduct a scoping review of the literature to summarize the findings of epidemiological studies on drug abuse and provisions of drug laws in Nigeria. The review also provides appropriate recommendations as interventions for prevention.

Methods: We conducted a systematic search of the literature on PubMed to identify information on drug abuse and drug laws in Nigeria from the inception of the database to March 2020. Additional information was retrieved from Google Scholar, a manual search of included articles, discussion with experts on the subject matter, and gray literature. Study selection was performed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statements. Information from gray literature was assessed for quality and accuracy using the AACODS checklist (authority, accuracy, coverage, objectively, date, significance).

Results: The systematic search of the literature generated 253 studies. Nine articles were obtained from other sources. After the selection process, 23 eligible studies were included for review. A prevalence of 20–40% and 20.9% of drug abuse was reported among students and youths, respectively. Commonly abused drugs include cannabis, cocaine, amphetamine, heroin, diazepam, codeine, cough syrup and tramadol. Sources where abusers obtained drugs, were pharmacies/patent medicine shops, open drug markets, drug hawkers, fellow drug abusers, friends, and drug pushers. Drug abuse was common among undergraduates and secondary school students, youths, commercial bus drivers, farmers, and sex workers. Reason for use included to increase physical performance, stress and to derive pleasure. Poor socioeconomic factors and low educational background were the common risk factors associated with drug abuse. We identified several drug laws and policies that were established under government agencies such as the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA), National Agency for Foods and Drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC), Pharmacists Council of Nigeria (PCN) and a Presidential Advisory Committee.

Conclusion: Findings from epidemiological studies on drug abuse in Nigeria has demonstrated that the burden of drug abuse is still high despite the existing drug laws, policies, and strategies for prevention. Measures to reduce the burden should involve the community, government, and religious bodies. Preventive measures should target the youths, the students, identified sources of the drugs, reasons and risk factors associated with drug abuse in Nigeria.

Introduction

Drug abuse is emerging as a global public health issue. The recent world drug report-2019 of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) estimated that 271 million (5.5%) of the global population (aged between 15 and 64 years), had used drugs in the previous year [ 1 ]. Also, it has been projected that 35 million individuals will be experiencing drug use disorders [ 1 ]. Further, the Global Burden of disease Study 2017 estimated that, in 2017, there were 585,000 deaths due to drug use, globally [ 1 ]. The burden of drug abuse (usage, abuse, and trafficking) has also been related to the four areas of international concern, viz. organized crime, illicit financial flows, corruption, and terrorism/insurgency [ 2 ]. Therefore, global interventions for preventing drug abuse including its impact on health, governance, and security, requires a widespread understanding of the prevalence, frequently implicated drugs, commonly involved population, sources of the drugs and risk factors associated with the drug abuse.

In Nigeria, the burden of drug abuse is on the rise and becoming a public health concern. Nigeria, which is the most populous country in Africa, has developed a reputation as a center for drug trafficking and usage mostly among the youth population [ 5 , 6 ]. According to the 2018 UNODC report “Drug use in Nigeria”—The first large-scale, nationwide national drug use survey in Nigeria, one in seven persons (aged 15–64 years) had used a drug in the past year [ 3 ]. Also, one in five individuals who had used drug in the past year is suffering from drug-related disorders [ 3 ]. Drug abuse has been a cause of many criminal offences such as theft, burglary, sex work, and shoplifting [ 3 ].

Nigeria is an enormously diverse country with over 400 ethnicities and many religious groups [ 9 ]. Drug abuse is therefore viewed within a broader context in Nigeria, due to its multicultural nature. For instance, most societies do not consider the use of some drugs which do not produce overt behavioral changes as drug abuse. However, despite this multicultural nature of the Nigerian population, there is a consistent outcry from both the public, police, preachers, health professionals, teachers, regulatory agencies and parents on the growing burden of drug abuse (abuse of drugs which affect behavior) in the country. The recent call was that of the President of the Pharmaceutical Society of Nigeria [ 4 ].

Efforts to prevent the growing burden of drug abuse in Nigeria involve the identification of evidence-based information on the extent of the problem, from epidemiological studies. To date, most of the information on drug abuse in Nigeria is reported by the media (print, electronic and online). However, scientific evidence from epidemiological studies has started emerging in recent years. Although there were attempts in the past to summarize such studies in the form of a narrative review, such reviews were limited with lack of systematic search of the literature. Also, such studies were published in 1982 [ 5 ], 1991 [ 6 ], and 1992 [ 7 ]. There is, therefore, a need for recent summarized data on drug abuse in Nigeria. We, therefore, aim to conduct a scoping review of the literature to summarize the findings of epidemiological studies on drug abuse and provisions of drug laws in Nigeria. In this review, we attempt to summarize the results from various studies regarding the prevalence of drug abuse, commonly abused drugs, sources of the drugs, group of people frequently involved, the reason for drug abuse, risk factors, extant policies and laws, and to recommend intervention measures for prevention.

Literature Search

In the literature search, we have not restricted our sources of information to any specific period. A systematic search of the literature regarding drug abuse in Nigeria was conducted using PubMed from the inception of the database to March 13, 2020. A search strategy using the following terms both as medical sub-heading (MeSH) and free text as title and abstract (tiab) was developed. The search terms used included: “abuse drug” [MeSH], “abuse drug” [tiab], “illicit drug use” [tiab], “drug, illicit” [MeSH], “psychoactive drugs” [MeSH], Nigeria [tiab]. Relevant studies were also identified manually from the reference lists of the included articles and discussion with experts on the subject matter. Additional information was also retrieved from Google Scholar using the following search expression “Drug abuse, illicit drug abuse, psychotropic abuse in Nigeria.” Based on previous recommendations, only the first 200 search results from the Google scholar search were considered for inclusion [ 8 ]. The search strategies employed in the systematic search of the literature in PubMed and Google Scholar is provided in Appendix 1 . Due to limited research on drug abuse in Nigeria, gray literature related to drug abuse in Nigeria were identified in Google search, web pages of drug regulatory agencies in Nigeria, and the UNODC. Information from gray literature was evaluated for trustworthiness and relevance based on AACODS (Authority, Accuracy, Coverage, Date, Significance) checklist [ 9 ].

Study Selection

Studies or reports were included in this review based on the following criteria: reporting prevalence/incidence of drug abuse in Nigeria; conducted among different populations in the community, government policies and interventions on drug abuse; and drug laws in Nigeria. Studies or reports were excluded from this review if they focused on alcohol abuse only. Disagreements between authors regarding study selection were resolved through discussion until consensus was reached. Figure 1 demonstrates the study selection process.

FIGURE 1 . PRISMA Flowchart for the study selection process.

Data Extraction

Information extracted from the included studies included: study authors, population/sample size, settings, prevalence, commonly abused drugs, sources, reasons, and factors associated with the drug abuse.

Operational Definition

There was no universal definition of the term “Drug abuse” in the literature. In this review, the definition of drug abuse by Benjamin and Chidi (2014) was adopted and modified [ 10 ]. “the use of a drug that is not generally accepted on medical ground, i.e. continuous or occasional use of drugs that would cause overt behavioral change by the individual either of his own choice or under a feeling of compulsion, to achieve his wellbeing or what he conceives as of his own wellbeing” [ 10 ].

Results and Discussion

The initial search PubMed and Google Scholar generated 53 articles and 200 records, respectively. One study was identified following discussion with an expert, two from a manual search of included studies and six articles from Google search. The screening for duplicates excluded twenty-two articles. One hundred and forty-eight articles were removed after screening for title and abstracts, and 62 studies did not meet the eligibility criteria and were excluded. A total of 30 studies were included in this review; 23 epidemiological studies [ 3 , 11 – 21 , 23 – 32 ], one thesis inclusive [ 22 ], five reports from the websites of drug-related agencies [ 38 , 41 , 43 , 44 ] and UNODC [ 2 ], and two articles from newspapers[ 40 , 45 ]. Figure 1 illustrates the study selection process.

Nine of the included epidemiological studies were conducted among secondary school students [ 12 , 16 , 21 – 24 , 27 , 30 , 31 ], five among drug abusers [ 15 , 18 , 25 , 29 , 32 ], four among undergraduate students [ 17 , 20 , 26 , 28 ], three among members of different populations in the community [ 3 , 11 , 14 ], two among commercial vehicle drivers [ 13 , 19 ]. Table 1 shows the characteristics of the included studies.

TABLE 1 . Summary of the included epidemiological studies.

Prevalence of Drug Abuse in Nigeria

Of the 23 epidemiological studies, only seven reported an overall prevalence of drug abuse among the study sample [ 3 , 11 - 13 , 21 , 22 , 27 ]. Given the heterogenic nature of the studies, determination of the pool prevalence of drug abuse in Nigeria may not be possible. Four of the studies were conducted among secondary school students and reported a prevalence between 20 and 40% [ 12 , 21 , 22 , 27 ]. A prevalence of 14.4% was reported among members of the general public (all ages), 20.9% among youths in the community [ 11 ], and 81.1% among commercial bus drivers [ 13 ].

Commonly Abused Drugs in Nigeria

The most frequently implicated drugs, consistently reported by the majority of the studies were; cannabis [ 3 , 12 , 14 , 16 - 19 , 21 , 22 , 24 - 31 ], codeine [ 3 , 12 , 14 , 15 , 17 , 24 , 25 , 28 ], amphetamine/dexamphetamine [ 3 , 14 - 17 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 25 , 27 , 29 , 32 ], heroin [ 3 , 14 , 16 – 18 , 21 , 22 , 26 , 27 ], cocaine [ 12 , 14 , 15 , 17 , 18 , 21 , 22 , 25 ], diazepam [ 26 , 27 , 30 – 32 ], and cough syrup [ 3 , 14 – 16 ], Reactivan (fencamfamine) [ 16 , 31 ], Mandrax [ 27 , 29 – 31 ], and tramadol [ 3 , 11 , 13 ].

Some drugs were frequently reported by studies published in the early 80s [ 29 – 32 ]. Proplus (caffeine 50 mg) was reported by three papers published in 1982 [ 30 – 32 ], and Madrax (Methadone and diphenhydramine) in studies published between 1981 and 2011 [ 27 , 29 – 31 ]. The absence of these drugs in recent studies may be related to the decline in their availability in Nigeria.

Cannabis was the most abused drug reported across the different study populations. The prevalence of cannabis abuse among members of the general public was 10.8% [ 3 ] and 22.7% among adolescents of 25 years and younger [ 14 ]. The frequency of abuse among secondary school students was between 0.6 and 34%, with a pooled prevalence of 12.5% [ 12 , 16 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 31 ]. The abuse of cannabis among undergraduate students was also common, with a prevalence of 8–11% [ 17 , 26 , 28 ].

The frequency of cocaine abuse ranges from 1.6 to 4.8% among secondary school students [ 12 , 16 , 21 , 22 ], 0.6–10% among undergraduate students [ 26 , 28 , 33 ] and 0.1–0.6% among members of the general public [ 3 , 14 ]. The widespread use of cocaine in Nigeria may be related to easy access due to increased trafficking of drugs despite the existing legal control measures [ 22 , 34 ].

Codeine was the third most frequently reported drug of abuse from the included studies. The prevalence of abuse in the general public (all ages) was 2.4% [ 3 ], and 22.7% among adolescent [ 14 ]. A prevalence of 3–8.2% [ 17 , 28 ], and between 5.3 and 28% [ 12 , 24 ] was recorded among undergraduate students and secondary school students respectively. Table 1 indicates the frequently abused drugs. The high rates of drug abuse among the younger persons could reflect the easy accessibility of these drugs, peer group influence and possibly lack of effective counseling programs in secondary schools and universities.

Sources Where Drug Abusers Obtained Drugs

Identifying the sources where drug abusers obtained drugs is essential in preventing drug abuse in Nigeria. Interventions to block the supply of these drugs from identified sources could reduce the increasing prevalence of drug abuse. Only five studies reported the sources of the drugs being abused. The common sources included: pharmacies/patent medicine shops (23–33%) [ 15 , 25 , 31 , 32 ], open markets (17%) [ 31 ], drug hawkers [ 25 , 32 ], hawkers of traditional herbal preparations [ 25 ], fellow drug abusers (8%) [ 15 ], underground agents (57%) [ 31 ], family members (1.6–33%) [ 22 , 27 , 31 ], friends (up to 61%) [ 22 , 27 ], teachers (3%) [ 22 , 27 ], physician (8.3%) [ 22 ], other health practitioners (3.0%) [ 22 ].

Reasons for Drug Abuse in Nigeria

Determination of the reasons why people indulged in drug abuse may guide the development and implementation of targeted interventions for reducing the burden of drug abuse in Nigeria. The eleven studies that reported the reasons for drug abuse gave several reasons. The commonly reported reasons included the following: to increase physical performance [ 11 , 13 , 14 , 17 , 19 , 30 , 32 ], to drive pleasure [ 13 , 14 , 17 , 27 , 30 ], desire to relax/sleep [ 13 , 14 , 17 , 27 , 30 ], experiment/curiosity [ 15 , 19 , 26 , 30 , 31 ], to keep awake [ 19 , 25 , 27 , 30 , 32 ], to relieve stress [ 13 , 14 , 17 ], to relieve anxiety [ 13 , 15 , 27 ], unemployment [ 14 , 17 ], frustration [ 14 , 15 ], and easy access [ 16 , 25 ].

Exterior or curiosity motives, often in the form of extreme explorative curiosity to experience ‘the unknown’ about drugs, motivate individuals into drug use and subsequent drug misuse and abuse. The first experience in drug abuse produces a state of arousal in the form of extreme happiness and pleasure, which in turn motivates users to continue [ 34 ]. With the high poverty rate of about 50% of people living in extreme poverty in Nigeria [ 35 ], and the rising rate of unemployment (23.1%) [ 36 ], indicate how challenging the socioeconomic condition could be for many Nigerians. These conditions could predispose people to engage in drug abuse to work harder to earn a living or to ward off the stress and frustration of daily living in hardship.

Risk Factors Associated With Drug Abuse

Nineteen of the included studies examined factors that could raise people’s likelihood of drug abuse [ 3 , 11 – 23 , 25 , 27 – 32 ]. Among the frequently reported factors included being a male gender [ 3 , 12 , 13 , 15 , 16 , 18 - 20 , 22 , 23 , 25 , 27 , 28 , 32 ], younger age [ 3 , 15 , 17 , 27 , 29 , 32 ], poor economic status [ 13 , 14 , 25 , 28 ], unemployment [ 14 , 18 , 25 ], and parental deprivation (broken home) [ 14 , 15 , 28 , 30 , 31 ], Other factors included having a lower education level [ 13 , 28 , 32 ], and peer-group influence [ 15 , 22 , 23 , 28 , 30 , 31 ].

Younger population aged ≤35 years older was the most common group of people indulged in drug abuse based on the data of the included studies. The prevalence of drug abuse among this population may be the reason why some of the studies were specifically conducted among this group of people in the general population [ 11 , 14 ], undergraduate students [ 17 , 20 , 26 ], and secondary school students [ 12 , 16 , 21 – 24 , 26 , 27 , 30 , 31 ]. Also, studies have shown that over 50% of persons with drug abuse-related psychiatric admission were secondary school students [ 29 , 32 ]. These findings also suggest that the prevalence of drug abuse among secondary school students is high. Young people are the most valuable asset for sustainable social development in any society, but most of this population lacks awareness of substance addiction which would empower them to escape drug abuse. This limitation is demonstrated in a study carried out among secondary school teachers and students in Nigeria [ 37 ]. The study revealed that approximately 60% of students were never exposed to drug abuse education, while 73% of teachers reported that they currently did not teach their students about drug abuse education. This finding could be another reason for the highest prevalence in younger populations, and a crucial gap that could be targeted for interventions.

Determinants of drug abuse also included those related to family background. Individuals from polygamous family backgrounds, dysfunctional families (parental deprivation), being single and having parents or relatives who abuse drugs are more likely than those who are not to abuse drugs [ 14 , 17 , 18 , 28 ]. Since in most cases children from broken families or polygamous families are left alone to feed themselves and their desire to go to school is often not of great concern to family members. Thus, to escape the reality of frustration and family strain, they find themselves entangled in substance abuse habits.

The peer-group influence was a predictor of drug abuse which most studies consistently reported. People with friends who abuse drugs are more likely than those with friends who do not abuse drugs to engage in the act [ 15 , 22 , 23 , 30 , 31 ].

The same author identified religion as a protective determinant of drug abuse in Nigeria in two studies [ 19 , 20 ]. Makanjuola et al. found that undergraduate medical students who are religious are less likely than those who were not to engage in drug abuse [ 20 ]. Further, religious commercial drivers are less probable to engage in drug abuse than those who are not religious [ 19 ]. Commercial drivers in Nigeria constitute an integral part of socioeconomic growth, on which the majority of the public depend for transport. Preventing drug abuse among commercial vehicle operators in Nigeria will, therefore ensure optimum safety for the people.

Psychiatric Admission due to Drug Abuse

Three studies were on psychiatric admission due to drug abuse [ 25 , 29 , 32 ]. The studies were conducted in Kaduna state (northwestern region) in 1986 [ 29 ], Edo state (south southern region) in 1976 [ 32 ], and the other was performed at all psychiatric facilities in Nigeria [ 25 ]. Findings of these studies showed the psychiatric symptoms resulting in admissions included toxic psychosis, anxiety state, schizophrenia, delusion [ 25 , 32 ]. There was no suicide case recorded in all the studies.

Policy and Laws Against Drug Abuse in Nigeria

In Nigeria, the fight against drug abuse is backed by federal laws as far back as 1935. Since then, many laws were enacted, while others were amended leading to the establishment of the National Drug Laws Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) -an agency with the sole responsibility of tackling drug abuse and related offences [ 38 ]. Some of the most important laws against the cultivation, trafficking, and abuse of illicit drugs in Nigeria are as follows [ 38 ]:

1 The Dangerous Drugs Ordinance of 1935 enacted by the British Colonial administration.

2 The Indian Hemp Decree No. 19 of 1966.

3 The Indian Hemp (Amendment) Decree No. 34 of 1979.

4 The Indian Hemp (Amendment) Decree, and the Special Tribunal (Miscellaneous Offences) Decree No. 20 of 1984.

5 >The Special Tribunal (Miscellaneous Offences) (Amendment) Decree of 1986 and the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency Decree No. 48 of 1989 (as amended by Decree No.33 of 1990, Decree No 15 of 1992 and Decree No. 62 of 1999). These laws were harmonized as an Act of the parliament, CAP N30 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria (LFN) 2004. This Act established the NDLEA.

Government Efforts in Preventing Drug Abuse in Nigeria

The NDLEA has been launching nationwide enforcement activities to seize drugs of abuse and arrest drug abusers in the community; sensitization program, rehabilitation and border patrol to checkmate trafficking of illicit drugs to and from Nigeria [ 38 ]. The 2019 NDLEA report has shown that in the last 10 years of operations, a total of 56, 745, 795, 555 kg of drugs were seized, 85, 058 persons with drug-related offences were arrested and 16, 937 cases were secured and convicted [ 39 ].

Recently, The Federal government of Nigeria, through Pharmacists Council of Nigeria (PCN) -an agency in charge of regulating the practice of pharmacy in Nigeria, banned the operation of open drug markets in Nigeria [ 40 ]. This effort was introduced to sanitize the drug distribution system in the country. The PCN also prohibits the handling of drugs by unlicensed personnel, especially prescription and controlled only drugs [ 41 ].

The National Agency for Foods and Drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC), an agency of the Federal government of Nigeria, banned the manufacturing, importation and sale (without a valid prescription) of codeine and codeine-containing syrups in Nigeria [ 42 ]. In 2018, the agency shut down some pharmaceutical companies involved in the manufacturing of codeine-containing syrups in the country [ 43 ].

Other strategies by the Federal government include the establishment of the National Drug Control Master Plan (NDCMP) [ 44 ]. The NDCMP is a national blueprint for addressing the complex issues of drug trafficking, production, cultivation, and abuse in Nigeria. In 2018, the Federal government constituted a Presidential Advisory Committee for the Elimination of Drug abuse in Nigeria. The committee was saddled with the responsibility of advising the government on ways to reduce the increasing burden of drug abuse in the country [ 45 ]. However, the literature suggests that the burden of drug abuse may continue to rise in Nigeria due to the involvement of politics in law enforcement and lack of political goodwill [ 46 , 47 ].

Gaps Identified in the Included Literature

1 Results from the included studies have shown that, despite the existence of Federal drug laws, and national drug policies and strategies, the burden of drug abuse and proliferation of controlled drugs are still on the increase in the country.

2 Most of the epidemiological studies were conducted among secondary school students. Only a few studies were performed among the general population to identify other vulnerable groups of people involved in drug abuse.

3 Only three studies were conducted on psychiatric admission related to drug abuse. Of the three studies, the most recent was published in 1986.

4 Only a few studies reported sources of drugs, reasons for the abuse and risk factors associated with drug abuse. Identifying this information could guide the implementation of interventions.

Recommendations

Reports from the included studies demonstrate that intervention measures to prevent drug abuse in Nigeria should be all-inclusive. The government, society, religious bodies, Non-Governmental Organisations as well as individuals all have a role to play. The efforts are numerous and not exhaustive. Below are some recommendations that might be applied to address the growing epidemic:

(1)The government should provide more employment opportunities to the youths and review existing drug laws to include stiffer penalties for offenders [ 38 ]. Allocation of funds to drug-related agencies should be increased to better the fight against the abuse of drugs. Enforcement activities should be more effective through strengthening the activities of taskforce at Federal and State governments levels. Nigerian borders should be well protected with surveillance activities by responsible agencies.

(2)Applying the conceptual model for understanding adverse drug events in the community [ 48 ]. Intervention measures based on Group-focused Cognitive Behavioral Health Education Program (GCBHEP) should be adopted to improve awareness and behavioral change [ 49 ]. Based on the model, other community-based education awareness in the form of mass campaigns through media houses both print and electronic, adverts, flyers, banners, radio jingles, lectures and other programs in religious places and public functions should be created and sustained [ 48 ].

(3)Secondary school-based programs aimed at encouraging healthy practices and lifestyle among adolescents would help to prevent substance use. There is also a need for periodic review of the curriculum in schools to introduce topics centered on dangers of drug abuse.

(4)Parents need to educate their children early enough on the risks associated with drug abuse [ 3 , 15 , 17 , 27 , 29 , 32 ]. They should monitor the children closely and know the kinds of friends they are keeping [ 15 , 22 , 23 , 28 , 30 , 31 ].

Limitations

The present review has the following limitations; first, the systematic search of the literature was limited to two electronic databases. This approach may have excluded some eligible studies in the review. Secondly, we have not assessed the qualities of the included studies in this review. We have attempted to summarize their findings within this limitation and hope that readers, would be aware of such shortcomings, and be cautious in drawing conclusions from them.

Findings from the epidemiological studies, reports and drug laws in Nigeria have shown that the burden of drug abuse is growing despite several drug laws, policies and strategic plans to prevent it. The prevalence is higher among the younger population, males, undergraduate and secondary school students, and commercial vehicle drivers. The most abused drugs included cannabis, amphetamine, codeine, cocaine and heroin. The major sources for the drugs were pharmacies/patent medicine stores, drug hawkers, friends who are abusers and drug pushers. The frequent reasons for indulging into drug abuse were to improve physical performance, to drive pleasure, desire to sleep, to experiment/curiosity motives, and to keep awake. Factors such as poor socioeconomic status, peer-group pressure, family problems and poor academic performance were commonly associated with drug abuse in Nigeria. Drug abuse has been a cause of many debilitating conditions such as schizophrenia and psychosis, leading to psychiatric admissions. Therefore, stringent measures and sustainable interventions are urgently needed to curb the increasing burden of drug abuse in Nigeria.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors will like to thank and appreciate the efforts of: Anas Haruna, Auwal Bala, Baraka Ado, Abubakar Bilyaminu, Sa’idu Burji, Dahiru Malami, Abubakar Danbatta, Abdulmunin Shehu, Hafsat Nasidi, Inuwa Bello, Ismaeel Yunusa, Mubarak Hussain, Safiya Abdulkadir, Sagir Mustapha, and Salim Ilyasu of the Young Pharmacists Scholars (YPS) mentoring forum for the guidance, mentoring, encouragement and support in developing this review.

Search strategies used in the systematic search of the literature

Abbreviations

AACODS, authority, accuracy, coverage, date, significance; FCT, federal capital territory; GCBHEP, group-focused cognitive behavioral health education program; FN, laws of the federation of nigeria; LSD, lysergic acid diethylamide; MeSH, medical sub-heading; NAFDAC, national agency for foods and drugs administration and control; NDCMP, national drug control master plan; NDLEA, national drug law enforcement agency; PCN, pharmacists council of Nigeria; PRISMA, preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses; UNODC, nations office on drugs and crime; YPS, young pharmacists scholars.

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29. Ahmed, M (1986). Drug abuse as seen in the university department of psychiatry, Kaduna, Nigeria, in 1980–1984. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 74 (1), 98–101. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1986.tb06234.x

30. Nevadomsky, J (1982). Self-reported drug use among secondary school students in two rapidly developing Nigerian towns. Bull Narc. 34 (3-4), 21–32.

31. Nevadomsky, J (1981). Patterns of self-reported drug use among secondary school students in Bendel State, Nigeria. Bull. Narc. 33 (2), 9–19.

32. Oviasu, VO (1976). Abuse of stimulant drugs in Nigeria. Br J Addiction Alcohol Other Drugs. 71 (1), 51–63. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1976.tb00060.x

33. Lanters, E, Yaksh, A, Kik, C, Knops, P, Teuwen, C, Van Der Does, L, et al. (2016). 18-01: is conduction block during sinus rhythm associated with development of post-operative atrial fibrillation? Europace. 18, i162. doi:10.1093/europace/18.suppl_1.i162c

34. Odejide, AO (2006). Status of drug use/abuse in Africa: a review. Int J Ment Health Addict. 4 (2), 87–102. doi:10.1007/s11469-006-9015-y

35.The World Bank (2020). Poverty and equity data portal—Nigeria. Available at: http://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/country/NGA (Accessed 03 29, 2020).

36.National Bureau of Statistics (2019). Unemployment rate 2019. Available at: https://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/ (Accessed 03 29, 2020).

37. Adelekan, ML, Ogunlesi, AO, and Akindele, MO (1992). Nigerian secondary school teachers: a pilot survey of views and knowledge about drug abuse. East Afr Med J. 69 (3), 140–145.

38.National Drug Laws Enforcement Agency (2020). Available at: https://nigeria.tradeportal.org/media/NDLEA%20Act.pdf (Accessed 13/11/2020).

39. Abdallah, MM (2019). Text of the pre-event press briefing to flag-off the commemoration of 2019 international day against drug abuse and illicit drug trafficking. Available at: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2019/06/drug-abuse-ndlea-takes-campaign-to-streets-markets-schools-chairman/ (Accessed 12/09/2020).

40. Akinkuotu, E. FG to stop open sale of drugs next month -PCN. Available at: https://punchng.com/fg-to-stop-open-sale-of-drugs-next-month-pcn/ (Accessed 03 21, 2020).

41.Pharmacists Council of Nigeria (2020). Council of Nigeria. Available at: http://www.pcn.gov.ng/index.php (Accessed 01 25, 2020).

42.Reuters. Nigeria recalls 2.4 million. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nigeria-drugs/nigeria-recalls-24-million-bottles-of-codeine-cough-syrup-idUSKBN1KL207 (Accessed 21 03, 2020).

43.Codeine. NAFDAC Syrup crisis. Available at: https://www.nafdac.gov.ng/codeine-syrup-crisis-nafdac-shuts-down-peace-standard-pharmaceutical-limited-bioraj-pharmaceutical-limited-both-in-ilorin-and-emzor-pharmaceuticals-ind-ltd-lagos/ (Accessed 03 21, 2020).

44.National drug control master plan-2015 to 2019. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/documents/nigeria/Drug-response/NDCMP_book_1706152.pdf . (Accessed 21/03/2020).

45.The Guardian (2019). Buhari receives report of marwa’s presidential committee on drug abuse. Available at: https://guardian.ng/news/buhari-receives-report-of-marwas-presidential-committee-on-drug-abuse/ (Accessed 03 21, 2020).

46. Klantschnig, G (2009). The politics of law enforcement in Nigeria: lessons from the war on drugs. J Mod Afr Stud , 47, 529–549. doi:10.1017/s0022278x09990036

47. Yakubu, R, Isa, AM, Abubakar, IJ, Oreagba, I, and Awaisu, A (2020). Drug safety in developing countries . Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier , 525–556.

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48. Jatau, AI, Shitu, Z, Khalid, GM, Yunusa, I, and Awaisu, A (2019). Understanding adverse drug-related emergency department visits: development of a conceptual model through a systematic review. Ther Adv Drug Saf. 10, 2042098619852552. doi:10.1177/2042098619852552

49. Onyechi, KC, Eseadi, C, Umoke, PC, Ikechukwu-Ilomuanya, AB, Otu, MS, Obidoa, JC, et al. (2017). Effects of a group-focused cognitive behavioral health education program on cigarette smoking in a sample of Nigerian prisoners. Medicine (Baltim). 96 (1), e5158. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000005158

Keywords: drug abuse, cocaine, Nigeria, codeine, public health, reviews

Citation: Jatau AI, Sha’aban A, Gulma KA, Shitu Z, Khalid GM, Isa A, Wada AS and Mustapha M (2021) The Burden of Drug Abuse in Nigeria: A Scoping Review of Epidemiological Studies and Drug Laws. Public Health Rev 42:1603960. doi: 10.3389/phrs.2021.1603960

Received: 04 January 2021; Accepted: 12 January 2021; Published: 29 January 2021.

Edited and reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Jatau, Sha’aban, Gulma, Shitu, Khalid, Isa, Wada and Mustapha. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Abubakar Ibrahim Jatau, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Drug Abuse among Nigerian High-School Adolescents

Exploring the relationship with problematic internet use, suicidality, anxiety, depression, and self-esteem.

Opakunle, Tolulope; Opakunle, Olubukola 1 ; Toki, Damilola 2 ; Aloba, Olutayo 3 ; Nwozo, Chioma

Department of Mental Health, State Specialist Hospital, Osogbo, Nigeria

1 Department of Community Medicine, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria

2 Health & Rehabilitation Sciences Graduate Program, Faculty of Health Sciences, Western University, London Ontario, Canada

3 Department of Mental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

Address for correspondence: Dr. Tolulope Opakunle, Department of Mental Health, State Specialist Hospital, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria. E-mail: [email protected]

Received December 19, 2021

Received in revised form March 08, 2022

Accepted March 14, 2022

This is an open access journal, and articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as appropriate credit is given and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.

Background: 

Drug abuse is a global public health problem that is associated with increased psychiatric morbidity and mortality.

Objectives: 

This study assessed the prevalence of drug abuse and its relationship with problematic Internet use (PIU), suicidality, anxiety, depression, and self-esteem among high school adolescents.

Materials and Methods: 

This is a cross-sectional descriptive study involving 1304 Nigerian high school adolescents recruited through the multistage stratified sampling method. The participants completed a study-specific sociodemographic questionnaire, a 10-item Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST), Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire-Short Form-6 (PIU-SF-6), the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview Suicidality module, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES).

Results: 

The prevalence rate of drug abuse was 49.8%. Adolescents who abused drugs had higher mean scores on PIU, suicidality, depression, and anxiety scales and lower scores on the self-esteem scale. All these variables cumulatively accounted for approximately 22% of the total variance in the DAST score.

Conclusions: 

Drug abuse is still prevalent among Nigerian adolescents, with a significant association with PIU, suicidality, depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. All these variables may provide the template for psychological and social interventions that are specifically targeted to the management of drug abuse among Nigerian adolescents.

INTRODUCTION

Drug abuse is a global public health problem, with disturbing figures among adolescents.[ 1 , 2 , 3 ] Studies from developed and developing countries indicate that more than half of the students enrolled in high school engage in drug abuse, regarded as harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol and other illicit drugs.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] Some of the identified drivers for drug abuse among adolescents include peer pressure, experimentation, and easy access to substances, alongside the desire to reduce stress and cope with life pressures.[ 5 , 6 ]

The differences observed in the prevalence rates of adolescent drug abuse across countries may be attributed to the differences in sample characteristics and the variations in sociocultural factors.[ 7 ] Globally, it is estimated that 9% of the adolescent population aged 12 years and older are classified as drug dependent.[ 8 ] In Europe, up to 58% of adolescents engage in substance abuse, whereas in Asia, about 40% of adolescents are reported to abuse various psychoactive substances.[ 9 , 10 ] Findings from a systematic review and a meta-analytic report of 27 studies across sub-Saharan Africa indicate that the overall prevalence of drug abuse among adolescents is 41.6%.[ 11 ] In Nigeria, available statistics indicate a relatively high prevalence rate of adolescent drug abuse, ranging from 32.9% to 69.3%.[ 3 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]

The abuse of drugs among adolescents is associated with risky sexual behaviors, poor academic performance, criminal behaviors, and an increased risk of developing a mental disorder.[ 15 , 16 ] Other psychosocial factors associated with adolescent drug abuse in developed countries include problematic Internet use (PIU), suicidality, low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety.[ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ] PIU is the inability of an individual to exert self-control in terms of involvement in activities on the Internet, thereby resulting in marked impairments in psychosocial functioning.[ 22 , 23 ] Literature shows that PIU does not exist independently but often coexists with other psychopathological conditions such as drug abuse, particularly among adolescents.[ 17 ]

Drug abuse increases the odds of suicidal behaviors among adolescents.[ 18 , 24 ] It is one of the high-ranking risk factors associated with adolescent suicidal behaviors and associated mortality.[ 25 , 26 ] This is in concert with the existing body of evidence that showed a linkage between high scores on depressive symptom evaluating instruments and adolescents who engage in drug abuse.[ 20 ] It has been suggested that depressive symptoms worsen with increasing drug abuse among adolescents.[ 27 ] Higher levels of anxiety symptoms have also been reported among adolescents who abuse drugs.[ 21 ] Furthermore, substance abuse, particularly alcohol, is associated with a reduced sense of self-worth (i.e., self-esteem) among adolescents.[ 19 ] One plausible reason for this association is that adolescents with low self-esteem engage in drug abuse as a means of coping with their sense of poor self-worth.[ 28 ]

There is a dearth of studies regarding the psychological factors associated with drug abuse among Nigerian adolescents. An extensive electronic literature search revealed that most of the Nigerian studies of drug abuse among adolescents were focused primarily on epidemiological descriptions of prevalence rates and the types of the substance of abuse.[ 6 , 29 ] In addition, other gaps emerging from existing literature on drug abuse among Nigerian adolescents include relatively small sample sizes,[ 13 , 14 ] the related social settings,[ 30 ] the parental /guardian factors,[ 31 ] and awareness about the risk of substance use.[ 32 ] To the knowledge of the authors of this current study, no study in Nigeria has examined among adolescents the relationship of drug abuse with psychological or mental health-related variables such as PIU, suicidality, anxiety, and depression.

Therefore, the aim of this study, apart from evaluating the current prevalence rate of drug abuse among Nigerian adolescents, is to assess the strength and directions of the relationship of PIU, suicidality, anxiety, depression, and self-esteem with drug abuse. Ultimately, this study will not only contribute to the current data regarding the prevalence of drug use among the Nigerian adolescent population but also enable the identification of the psychological factors that can prospectively play a role in the development of psychological interventions for the management of drug abuse among Nigerian adolescents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was conducted in Osogbo, the capital city of Osun State, in Southwestern Nigeria. The city has a total of 15 public senior secondary schools. Using a balloting approach, we randomly selected six of the senior high schools. After the selection of the senior secondary schools, we subsequently adopted a multistage stratified sampling recruitment method to obtain our sample. In the first stage, three classrooms from the three arms of the senior secondary classes (I, II, and III; the equivalent of Grade 10 to 12) were randomly selected from each high school (yielding nine classrooms from each school and a total of 54 classrooms from the six schools). Second, using a balloting method, we selected 25 students per classroom, producing a total of 1350 senior high school adolescents. What we did in the balloting method used to select the senior secondary schools and the number of students to be recruited per classroom was to write out the names of the 15 public senior high schools and the names of the students in the selected classrooms individually on different pieces of paper that were folded (in order not to make the names of the schools and students visible). This was done separately for the schools and the students. It is from this pool of folded papers that the six schools and the 25 students per classroom were selected.

We prepared a study-specific sociodemographic questionnaire to collect respondents’ sociodemographic variables such as age, gender, and family settings.

The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST) is a 10-item self-reported brief measure that provides information on the abuse of nonmedical and nonprescribed drugs.[ 33 ] The DAST-10 has been used to assess the abuse of these drugs among outpatients in other African countries.[ 34 ] The 10-item DAST is an abridged version of the 28-item instrument.[ 33 ] The higher the cumulative score on the DAST, the greater the likelihood that the respondent is abusing one or more drugs. A score of 0 implies no drug abuse, a total score of 1–2 means a low level of drug abuse, 3–5 signifies a moderate level of drug abuse, 6–8 indicates a substantial level of drug abuse, and 9 to 10 indicates a severe level of drug abuse. Therefore, in this study, any respondent with a minimum score of 1 was recorded to be engaged in drug abuse. The DAST-10 cumulative score is further classified into the categories of actions that should be taken; a score of 0 indicates no action needed, 1–5 suggests monitoring and further investigations, and a total score of 6–10 reflects the need for intensive assessment.[ 33 ]

The difficulties related to Internet use were evaluated with the Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire-Short Form-6 (PIU-SF-6).[ 35 ] This shortened version was extracted from the original 18-item version.[ 36 ] The three dimensions (Obsessions, Neglect, and Control) in the original version, which has six items per dimension, were retained in the short-form version, which has two items per dimension. Each item on the three dimensions of the PIUQ-SF-6 is scored on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from “never”rated 1 to “always/almost always”rated 5. The aggregate score on the whole instrument ranged from 6 to 30. Higher scores reflect more severe PIU. A cutoff score of 15 was used to determine those with problematic Internet use.[ 35 ] The PIU-SF-6 has been validated among Nigerian adolescents.[ 37 ]

The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) is designed as a brief structured interview for the major Axis I psychiatric diagnoses in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) and the tenth edition of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10).[ 38 ] The MINI Suicidality module was used to objectively assess suicidality among the respondents. There are nine questions in this module labeled C1 to C9. Questions C1 to C8 assess suicidality-related events in the previous one month, whereas question C9 assesses lifetime suicide attempts.[ 38 ] MINI has been used in diverse clinical and nonclinical populations in Nigeria.[ 39 , 40 ]

The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) is a 14-item scale with two subscales (each consists of seven items). It quantitatively assesses anxiety and depressive symptoms.[ 41 ] Each item is rated on a 4-point Likert scale (0–3). The cumulative score on each subscale ranges from 0 to 21. Its psychometric properties have been reported to be adequate in different populations in Nigeria.[ 42 ]

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) is a self-worth evaluating 10-item questionnaire.[ 43 ] Each item is scored on a four-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9 on the scale are reverse scored. Higher scores reflect a greater sense of self-worth. Satisfactory reliability and validity have been demonstrated among Nigerian adolescents.[ 44 ]

The approval for the study protocol was obtained from the Specialist Hospital Health Research Ethics Committee of the Hospitals’ Management Board, Osogbo in Osun State. The education authorities in charge of the schools where the study was conducted also gave ethical approval for the study. The high school students excluded were those older than 19 years, those with a current or previous history of a psychiatric disorder, those who refused to assent, and those whose parents or guardians refused consent. All the senior high school students gave their assent. The adolescents went home with a study-specific parental/guardians consent form that explained the objectives of the study. Their parents or guardians were requested to append their signatures on the form as an indication of their consent. Out of the 1350 adolescents recruited for the study, 46 parents/guardians refused to give their consent for the recruitment of their children into the study. Hence, study measures from 1304 respondents were available for analysis (response rate of approximately 97%).

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software, 21st version. Descriptive statistics such as the mean (standard deviation) and frequency (percentages) were utilized in depicting the students’ sociodemographic variables and scores on the DAST-10 and the other study measures. The dependent variable was drug abuse as measured with the DAST-10, whereas the other study measures were the exploratory variables. The directions and strengths of the relationship between DAST-10 score and the other measures were evaluated by applying correlational analyses. The t-test was utilized to compare the mean scores of respondents who abused drugs and did not abuse drugs. A multivariate linear analysis was conducted to identify selected sociodemographic and exploratory variables that significantly predicted the DAST-10 scores among the respondents. The level of statistical significance was set at a p -value less than 0.05, and all tests were two-tailed.

Sociodemographic and study measure characteristics of the respondents

As shown in [ Table 1 ], the mean age of the respondents was 15.77 (SD 1.36) years. Females constituted 51% (665) of the respondents. The majority (89.8%) of them had their parents living together. The prevalence of drug abuse was 49.8% (i.e., those who scored 1 and above on the DAST-10). The mean scores of the DAST-10, PIU-SF-6, MINI Suicidality module, RSES, and HADS-Depression and HADS-Anxiety subscales were 1.59 (SD 2.17), 15.44 (SD 5.42), 4.52 (SD 8.97), 17.01 (SD 2.17), 7.22 (SD 3.49), and 8.52 (SD 3.80), respectively.

Correlational analysis between DAST-10 and other study measures

Table 2 shows that there were statistically significant positive correlations (Pearson’s) between DAST-10 and PIU-SF-6 (r p = 0.111, P < 0.001), MINI Suicidality (r p = 0.363, P < 0.001), HADS-Depression (r p = 0.231, P < 0.001), as well as HADS-Anxiety (r p = 0.363, P < 0.001). In addition, DAST-10 had a statistically significant negative correlation with RSES (r p = -0.143, P < 0.001) and age (r p = -0.057, P < 0.001). The Cronbach’s alpha values of the DAST-10, PIU-SF-6, MINI Suicidality module, RSES, HADS-Anxiety, and HADS-Depression were 0.79, 0.77, 0.72, 0.70, 0.69, and 0.71, respectively.

Comparison of the mean DAST-10 score with other study measures mean scores between the respondents with and without drug abuse

As demonstrated in [ Table 3 ], the respondents who abused drugs compared with those who did not (DAST-10 score of one and above compared with a score of zero) had higher mean scores regarding PIU, suicidality, depression, and anxiety symptoms and lower self-esteem scores [ Table 3 ].

Multiple linear regression showing factors associated with the DAST-10 scores among adolescents

Table 4 (regression analysis) shows that all the psychological variables in our study collectively explained 22% of the variance in the dependent variable (DAST-10).

This is a cross-sectional study that examined the correlates of drug abuse, in addition to the assessment of the current prevalence of drug abuse among Nigerian senior high school adolescents. The prevalence of drug abuse was 49.8%. This finding is similar to what was reported in an Ethiopian adolescent study (47.9%).[ 45 ] Our observation is slightly higher than the findings of a systematic review of 27 studies across sub-Saharan Africa, which reported a prevalence rate of 41.6%.[ 11 ] However, the observed prevalence in our study is much lower than the rate of 66%, which was previously reported four years earlier in the same region where this study was conducted.[ 3 ] The reason for the reduced prevalence in our study may be a beneficial offshoot of the regular enlightenment on the hazards of drug abuse that the adolescents in this region of the country have been exposed to through the various media since the study by Ogunsola and Fatusi in 2016.[ 3 ] Another plausible reason for the lowered prevalence rate may be the free mental health services provided by the State Government.[ 46 ] The disparity noted between our study and the earlier one could also be due to methodological differences. It has been suggested that the contrasts in the prevalence of substance abuse in different communities may be due to different sample characteristics, cultural backgrounds, and socioeconomic environments.[ 7 ]

Substance use is associated with serious mental health problems among adolescents.[ 9 ] In our study, substance abuse was positively correlated with PIU, suicidality, depression, and anxiety symptoms. It has been reported that drug abuse independently increases suicidal behaviors and PIU among adolescents.[ 17 , 18 ] This could be due to fact that drug abuse erodes judgment, impairs impulse control, and interrupts neurotransmitter pathways, thereby leading to behaviors of disinhibition.[ 26 ] In addition, there is an exacerbation in the severity of depressive and anxiety symptoms as substance use increases.[ 27 , 47 ]

Self-esteem is the perception of one’s worthiness.[ 48 ] Low self-esteem makes adolescents view themselves as inadequate, worthless, unlovable, and incompetent.[ 49 ] We noted that drug abuse negatively correlated with self-esteem (i.e., those who abuse drugs have lower self-esteem). This is consistent with a Pakistani study that reported an association between drug abuse and low self-esteem in a sample of older adolescents.[ 50 ] It has been postulated that adolescents with low self-esteem engage in substance use as a way of coping with negative feelings regarding themselves.[ 28 , 49 ]

In multiple linear regression analysis, drug abuse was significantly associated with age, PIU, suicidality, depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. All the psychological variables along with the age of the respondents in our study collectively explained 22% of the variance in the dependent variable (DAST-10). Studies from developed countries have reported that PIU among adolescents is a major contributor to the variances regarding psychoactive substance abuse among the adolescent population.[ 17 , 51 ] Some authors have suggested that substance abuse and PIU have similar behavioral characteristics.[ 49 , 52 ] The results of our regression analysis seem to show that there is a need for more studies to investigate other variables that may potentially contribute to drug abuse among Nigerian adolescents.

This study is not without some limitations. First, the adolescents were recruited from senior high schools in the southwestern region of Nigeria; hence, our findings may not be generalized to adolescents in the other parts of the country. Second, the direction of causality between drug abuse and the other study measures cannot be established due to the cross-sectional nature of the study. In addition, some of our respondents may have been subjected to both recall and reporting bias due to the self-reported nature of some of the study measures. Despite these limitations, the strength of our study is that we recruited a fairly large sample size. Also, this is the first study in Nigeria to examine the relationships between a modestly significant number of psychological variables and psychoactive substance use among the adolescent population.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has shown that there is still a relatively high rate of drug abuse among high school adolescents in Nigeria. Drug abuse is significantly associated with PIU, suicidality, depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. Consequently, the study findings contribute to the body of evidence, calling for an intensification of efforts by key stakeholders, government, and nongovernment organizations to reduce the prevalence and burden of drug abuse among high school adolescents through innovative interventions. There is an urgent need for the formulation and implementation of mental health policies that will strengthen school-based mental health services directed towards the identification and provision of support services to adolescents who abuse various psychoactive substances. Services provided under school-based mental health services may include screening for the related psychological variables identified in this study among the adolescents.

Recommendations

• Need for the provision of mental health services, specifically for addressing the needs of senior high school adolescents. These services may play an important role in screening for drug use and the design of public health interventions geared toward the prevention of drug use.
• Mainstreaming psychoeducation into the curricula and daily routines observed in schools, as a strategy to mitigate some of the risk factors for substance abuse.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgment

The authors are grateful to the staff and students in the high schools where this study was conducted. They are also grateful to the parents and guardians of the students who gave their consent.

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Drug Abuse among Secondary School Students in Nigeria from 1980 to 2023: A Narrative Review of Literatures

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Research Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2688-7517/203

• Ogbonna O Brian 2,3*
• Anietoh Maureen U 3
• Daniel U Eze 2
• Eze S Amarachi 3
• Victor U Chigozie 2
• Osuafor Nkeiruka G 4
• Ighorodje E Austine 1

1Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Madonna University Elele, River State, Nigeria. 2 Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, David Umahi Federal University of Health Sciences, Uburu, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. 3Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Management, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria. 4Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Abuja.   

*Corresponding Author: Ogbonna O Brian, Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Madonna University Elele, River State, Nigeria.

Citation: Ogbonna O Brian, Anietoh Maureen U, Daniel U Eze, Eze S Amarachi, Victor U Chigozie, et al, (2024), Drug Abuse among Secondary School Students in Nigeria from 1980 to 2023: A Narrative Review of Literatures, J. Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology Research, 7(8); DOI:10.31579/2688-7517/203

Copyright: © 2024, Ogbonna O Brian. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Received: 19 June 2024 | Accepted: 02 June 2024 | Published: 22 July 2024

Keywords: drug abuse; drug use; secondary school; high shool; peer pressure; nigeria

Drugs play a crucial role in modern medicine, aiding in the treatment and management of various illnesses and conditions, thereby contributing to improved health and well-being. When used appropriately under the guidance of healthcare professionals, drugs can be highly beneficial and even life-saving. This study narratively reviewed the occurrence, trends, and potential risk factors linked with substance use among secondary school students in Nigeria to generate evidence for interventions and policy. The study design was a narrative review of published studies. Fourteen articles met the inclusion criteria for this review. Table 1 shows the characteristics and findings of the studies reviewed. All of the papers included in the review were published in journals. The majority of these studies (n = 13, 92.8%) examined the prevalence rate of drug abuse, the pattern of drugs being abused, and the precipitating factors that trigger this abuse while one examined just the prevalence of drug abuse and the drugs. All of them employed quantitative methodology utilizing self-report instruments. Substance use is widespread among secondary school students in Nigeria and usually starts at a young age. Various risk factors include gender, age, parental influences, peer dynamics, individual characteristics, and lack of awareness of the consequences of the substances involved.

Drugs can indeed be effective substances for promoting health and well-being. However, it's essential to ensure that they are used responsibly and by medical guidelines to prevent the harm that can result from their misuse and abuse. The misuse and abuse of drugs, especially among young people, have become significant concerns in many societies. Instead of being used for their intended therapeutic purposes, drugs are often illegally obtained and consumed in ways that pose serious risks to both physical and mental health. This misuse can lead to addiction, overdose, and a range of other harmful consequence. “Drug abuse” is defined as any use of drugs for non-medical purposes almost always for altering consciousness. Drug abuse denotes substances that change the mental or physical state of a person and that may be used repeatedly for that effect leading to abnormality [1].

Drug abuse can lead to abnormalities in both mental and physical functioning. This can manifest as changes in behavior, mood disturbances, cognitive impairment, and physical health problems. Over time, drug abuse can have profound and detrimental effects on various aspects of an individual's life, including their relationships, academic or occupational performance, and overall quality of life. The use and misuse of drugs, particularly among young people, represent significant and growing concerns worldwide. Drug abuse among young people is rising in many Western countries, making it increasingly difficult to ignore the fact. [2,3]. According to a report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in 2005 [4], approximately 200 million people, constituting 5 percent of the world’s population aged 15 to 64 years, had used drugs at least once within a year. This figure represented an increase of about 15 million compared to the previous year's estimate.

Similarly, the World Drug Report indicated that the use of illicit drugs has increased in all nations in recent years. The report further highlights that the growing availability of a diverse range of drugs to an increasingly broad socio-economic spectrum of consumers is concerning [5]. The global impact of alcohol misuse alone is significant, with an estimated 3.3 million deaths attributed to its harmful use annually. Furthermore, at least 15.3 million individuals worldwide have been diagnosed with drug use disorders, underscoring the pervasive nature of substance abuse issues [6].

In 2012, an estimated 162 to 324 million people globally were found to have used psychoactive substances, this corresponds to between 3.5% to 7.0% of the global population aged 15-64, who had used illicit drugsand also an estimated 183,000 drug-related deaths were reported in 2012, ranging from 95,000 to 226,000, among the population aged 15-64 years [4]. In 2014, nearly one out of every 20 adults worldwide, aged between 15 and 64 years, were identified as drug abusers. This amounted to over 29 million people worldwide suffering from drug abuse disorders [5].

Another research indicates that at least 14% of adolescent girls and 18% of boys aged 13–15 years in low- and middle-income countries have reported consuming alcoholic beverages [6]. By the time they reach their senior years in high school, almost 70% of adolescents will have experimented with alcohol, while half will have used an illegal drug. Additionally, nearly 40% will have smoked a cigarette, and more than 20% will have misused a prescription drug for nonmedical purposes [6]. The prevalence of illicit drug use among adolescents in the United States of America, Canada, and the United Kingdom has been on the increase [7]. According to the British Office for National Statistics, 12% of pupils aged 11–15 had used drugs [8]. The prevalence of substance use is on the rise across numerous African countries [9]. Research indicates that the onset of drug abuse often commences during adolescence [10]. This increase in prevalence rate among adolescents in African countries includes high rates of alcohol use, cigarette smoking, and cannabis consumption [11, 12].

Adolescence is a time of transition from infancy to adulthood, marked by various physical, psychological, and social changes. During this critical developmental period, individuals experience rapid physical growth, cognitive development, and emotional changes. Adolescents, aged 14 to 25, comprise a significant part of Nigeria's population. Many students in Nigerian schools are in this age group [13], the Nigerian National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) has emphasized that drug abuse constitutes a significant challenge within schools. For example, research by Alemika revealed that over 20% of the student population in Lagos State, Nigeria, had experimented with psychoactive drugs at least once in their lives [14]. Substance abuse among adolescents is a growing concern, with significant implications for their overall well-being. Despite the limited data on alcohol consumption, Nigeria still ranks second in alcohol consumption among youths in Africa [15]. Research consistently demonstrates that students who consume alcohol often use other psychoactive substances as well [16,17]. 

 Several research done have also reported the use of licit drugs among both adolescents in school and out-of-school adolescents [18-21]. These studies have indicated a differ prevalence rate of substance abuse among students. The use and abuse of drugs by adolescents have emerged as one of the most concerning health-related phenomena in Nigeria and other regions across the globe. However, there are disagreements among researchers regarding the prevalence, patterns, and factors that predict the consumption of substances. The prevalence of substance abuse has been stems from various factors, including social, economic, and psychological influences. Peer pressure, stress, curiosity, and accessibility to drugs are among the factors that can contribute to drug experimentation and misuse among adolesents. Understanding the causes and risk factors associated with adolescent substance abuse is essential in developing effective intervention strategies.

Despite this, there is currently no comprehensive review on drug abuse among secondary school students in Nigeria. In this narrative review, we will explore the prevalence of substance abuse among adolescents, delve into the root causes and contributing factors, and discuss the type and pattern of drug abuse. By shedding light on the complexities surrounding adolescent substance abuse, this review aims to provide valuable insights for professionals and educators working with this vulnerable population. It is against this backdrop that this article has been written. This study evaluated the occurrence, trends, and potential risk factors linked with drug abuse among secondary school students in Nigeria.

Study area:

The scope of the study covered all published studies carried out in Nigeria from 1980 to 2023, on drug and substance abuse: its prevalence, pattern, and causes of drug abuse in secondary school students.

 Study design:

The study was a narrative review of all studies previously conducted on the prevalence, pattern, and causes of substance abuse among secondary school students in Nigeria within the period under review. 

Study setting: 

Only studies carried out in Nigeria were used for this study.

• Inclusion criteria: Criteria for inclusion were based on studies carried out in Nigeria and published in English Language within the review period.
• Exclusion criteria: Studies within the period under review nut with incomplete data and methodological flaws were eliminated

Review questions:

• How many studies have been carried out on the prevalence, pattern, and causes of drug and substance abuse among secondary school students in Nigeria? 
• What is the occurrence, trends, and potential risk factors linked with drug abuse among secondary school students in Nigeria?

Article search process: 

The review explains and synthesizes results from various studies that met inclusion criteria and conclusions were drawn from these findings. The keywords related to the title of the study were used for the search, both individually and in combination, employing Boolean operators such as AND/OR to ensure comprehensive coverage of relevant literature. A computerized search of all studies on drug and substance abuse among secondary school students was conducted using electronic databases such as PubMed, Google, and Google Scholar searched from January to March 2024 to identify published studies from 1980 to December 2023. A manual search was also conducted to identify studies that met the inclusion criteria.

During the search, relevant studies on English Language databases were searched with the combination of keywords such as: “prevalence of drug use among secondary school students”, the pattern of drug use in secondary school”, “Causes of drug use among secondary school students”. Other search terms included: “Determinant of drug abuse in secondary/high school”, “Factors that encourage drug abuse in secondary school students”, psychoactive substance use among adolescents in secondary school”. The authors chose studies from 1980 onwards because previous literature and independent searches revealed that studies in the subject area were predominantly not visible before this period within the country.

Articles selection process

After a careful search and screening of the literature, 342 studies were identified and 328studies were excluded after a thorough assessment based on duplicates, incomplete articles texts and not meeting the inclusion criteria and covering the scope of prevalence, pattern, and factors of drug and substance abuse on secondary school students. This left 14 studies available for inclusion in the review.Top of Form The figure (Figure 1) is a diagrammatical illustration of the search process conducted for the study

Study Characteristics

Fourteen articles met the inclusion criteria for this review. Table 1 shows the characteristics and findings of the studies reviewed. All of the papers included in the review were published in journals. The majority of these studies (n = 13, 92.8%) examined the prevalence rate of drug abuse, the pattern of drugs being abused, and the precipitating factors that trigger this abuse while one (Ekop EE, et al) examined just the prevalence of drug abuse and the drugs. All of them employed quantitative methodology utilizing self-report instruments. Among the fourteen studies examined, six  (Oshodi, et al,2012; Bassi AP, et al,2017;Ajala, R.O, et al. 2018; Afolabi MO, et al, 2021; Ekop EE, et al, 2019; Adesina BO, et al, 2020) employed cross-sectional and descriptive designs, five  (Idowu A, et al 2018; Atoyebi AO, et al, 2012;Anyanwu O.U. et al. 2018; ; Soremekun RO, et al, 2020; Umukoro EK, et al, 2021) adopted cross-sectional survey designs, and three(Okwaraji FE,2006;Ekpenyongi SN, et al, 2012; Eriyo William, 2021)did not provide study design details.

Data Collection Instruments                         

Four authors used a modified World Health Organization (WHO) Student Drug Use questionnaire as their data collection tool (Eriyo William et al; Soremekun, et al.; Anyanwu et al.; Oshodi et al) one author used the United Nations questionnaire for conducting school surveys on drug abuse (Afolabi et al). The remaining authors structured their questionnaires (Ekop EE, et al.; Umukoro EK, et al; Ekpenyongi et al.; Adesina et al.; Ajala, et al.; Bass, et al.; Atoyebi et al.; Okwaraji et al; Idowu et al)

Study Location

Collectively, there were two studies (14.2%) carried out in south-eastern Nigeria (Anyanwu O.U. et al. 2018,Okwaraji FE,2006), three (21.4%) in the south-south region (Eriyo William, 2021,Ekpenyongi SN, et al, 2012,Umukoro EK, et al, 2021), three (21.4%) from the northern region (Bassi AP, et al,2017, Ekop EE, et al, 2019,Adesina BO, et al, 2020) and six (42.9%) in south-western Nigeria (Idowu A, et al 2018; Atoyebi AO, et al, 2012;Oshodi, et al,2012;Ajala, R.O, et al. 2018; Afolabi MO, et al, 2021; Soremekun RO, et al, 2020). It is pertinent to note the study locations due to Nigeria's diverse ethnic, cultural, and religious landscape, with over 250 different native languages. These diversities may influence prevalence,patterns, and factors contributing to substance use in each region.

Prevalence rate

The prevalence of drug use among secondary students was reported in all fourteen (Idowu A, et al 2018; Atoyebi AO, et al, 2012; Oshodi, et al, 2012; Ajala, R.O, et al. 2018; Afolabi MO, et al, 2021; Soremekun RO, et al., 2020; Bassi AP, et al,2017, Eriyo William, 2021, Adesina BO, et al, 2020, Ekpenyongi SN, et al, 2012, Ekop EE, et al, 2019; Anyanwu O.U. et al. 2018, Okwaraji FE, 2006, Umukoro EK, et al, 2021) studies. The prevalence rate of substance abuse was found to be high among secondary school students ranging from the highest recorded rate of 87.3% from a study in the southwestern (Oshodi, et al, 2012), to the lowest recorded rate of 19.4 % in the south-southern region (Umukoro EK, et al, 2021). Similarly, a high prevalence rate of 72% was also recorded for young adults in a study in the southwestern region [36], Idris and Sambo in 2009, reported that 56% of in-school adolescents in Zaria, North Western Nigeria had used at least one psycho-active substance [37].

Pattern of Drug Use

Fourteen of the studies revealed that a large number of students use multiple substances, among these studies, eight (57.1%) reported that alcohol was the most used and abused substance in terms of lifetime and current use. four (28.6%) studies revealed that caffeine was the most commonly abused substance by secondary students. Similarly, two (14.3%) studies indicated that out of all the abuse drugs measured analgesic was the most used drug.

Influence of drug abuse

This represents factors that influence and drive drug abuse among secondary school studentsin Nigeria. Several studies drew on the strong effect of peer pressure on drug abuse as it was consistently reported by six (Bassi AP, et al,2017; Ajala, R.O, et al. 2018; Ekpenyongi SN, et al, 2012; Umukoro EK, et al, 2021; Eriyo William, 2021; Adesina BO, et al, 2020) studies.

Curiosity was recognized by three (Adesina et al., 2020, Bassi AP, et al,2017; Anyanwu O.U. et al. 2018) of the articles as one of the strongest predictors for initiation to abuse of drugs.

Three (Soremekun RO, et al., 2020; Adesina et al., 2020; Afolabi MO, et al, 2021) of the articles included identified pleasure as a factor in drug abuse. Perceived feelings experienced after abuse may be related to why students continue abusing drugs. Similarly, three (Okwaraji FE, 2006, Adesina et al., 2020; Umukoro EK, et al, 2021) studies highlighted socializing as a factor in drug abuse by secondary students. During adolescence, individuals often experience heightened engagement with peers, socializing, and seeking acceptance within desired social groups

Oshodi, et al. (2012), Anyanwu et al. (2016), Afolabi MO, et al. (2021), Umukoro EK, et al. (2021), Adesina et al. (2020), Okwaraji FE, (2006) and Soremekun RO, et al. (2020) identified from their respective studies that dealing with anxiety and relieves stress can predict and influence alcohol and tobacco use.

The objective of this research was to evaluate the occurrence, trends, and potential risk factors linked with substance use among secondary school students in Nigeria. There were variations in the definitions of substance use in different studies, but the utilization of the WHO Student Drug Use questionnaire provided a consistent and standardized approach to measuring and defining substance use thus facilitating easier comparison between studies.

In this review, the high prevalence of substance abuse among secondary school students is a cause for concern due to the potential long-lasting and detrimental health effects associated with substance use [38, 39]. Notably, there has been a significant increase in the prevalence of alcohol and caffeine use, with alcohol being the most commonly consumed substance among adolescents in Nigeria, as reported in other studies [40]. Additionally, Erumi in 2002, identified alcohol and energy drinks as among the substances commonly abused based on an empirical survey conducted among adolescents and young adults in the Warri metropolis [41].

In Nigeria, it concerning to hear that some alcoholic beverage companies enlist celebrities who serve as role models to adolescents to promote and endorse their products. It is also troubling to learn that there is presently no established alcohol control policy aimed at regulating the availability and accessibility of alcoholic beverages to adolescents [42]. This could potentially contribute to underage drinking and its associated negative consequences.

The use of caffeine (kola nuts) among Nigerian secondary school students was notably high and a cause for concern, although not as prevalent as alcohol consumption. Caffeine consumption, known for its addictive properties and association with insomnia and anxiety, was also reported in another study conducted within the country [43]. Thus, highlighting the need to address this issue and raise awareness about its potential risks and adverse effects, particularly among secondary school students.

According to studies, adolescence is a critical age for drug abuse initiation and experimentation, which can sometimes lead to risky behaviors such as drug abuse. Research has shown that the use of one drug, often referred to as a gateway drug can increase the likelihood of trying other substances as well [44]. Adolescents are more likely to experiment with other substances following their initial abuse of one drug, making it crucial to address the use of these gateway drugs among young people.

According to this review, the prominent risk factor associated with drug abuse among school students, as reported by the majority of the reviewed articles, is having peers who use psychoactive substances. Peer pressure or the desire to please friends was identified as the primary reason for the involvement of secondary school students in substance use (Bassi AP, et al., 2017; Ajala, R.O, et al., 2018; Ekpenyongi SN, et al., 2012; Umukoro EK, et al., 2021; Okwaraji FE, 2006; Eriyo William, 2021; Adesina BO, et al., 2020). Adolescents tend to place more importance on peer approval during their teenage years, and in secondary schools, they spend more time with their peers than any other group [45]. Consequently, they are likely to adopt similar habits or may feel pressured into adopting such behaviors to fit into social groups.

Furthermore, the reviewed studies indicated that students engage in drug abuse due to misconceptions, such as the belief that it enhances intelligence (Ajibola I, et al., 2018; Dowu et al., 2018), provides stress relief, or helps avoid worries (Soremekun RO, et al., 2020; Oshodi et al., 2010), Some even resort to drugs as a way to stay awake (Afolabi MO, et al., 2021; Atoyebi & Atoyebi, 2013; Oshodi et al., 2010).  These beliefs underscore the need for proper education on psychoactive substances in schools.

Additionally, students cited curiosity about the effects of drugs (Bassi AP, et al., 2017; Onyinye U. et al., 2018; Adesina BO, et al., 2020) as a reason for drug abuse and the desire to have a good time (fun) with friends are also cited as reasons for drug abuse(Afolabi MO, et al., 2021; Umukoro EK, et al., 2021; Okwaraji FE, 2006).It is essential to promote alternative, positive, and healthy ways of having fun and avenues to express their playful and creative sides in alleviating the stress associated with academic learning in  school to discourage students from resorting to drug

The study had some limitations. Firstly, some valuable articles could have been left out due to the use of non-matching keywords during the search process. Secondly, some studies with potential biases may have passed through the selection process despite potential biases, which could have influenced the study's outcomes. This narrative study opted for the use of tables and flowcharts to present data for easy understanding and clarity and also it did not adhere to all the methodological details outlined in a systematic review protocol

The choice of using self-administered instruments and quantitative designs in some of the reviewed studies had significant implications on the quality of their outcomes, particularly due to the inherent flaws associated with self-report questionnaires .

Drug abuse is a condition where an individual habitually uses drugs and it is characterized as a self-destructive behavior. Several authors indicate that drug abuse is not caused by a single factor rather it is influenced by multiple factors. Moreover, drug abuse has evolved beyond individual circumstances to become a universal, cultural, and mental health concern

Substance use is widespread among secondary school students in Nigeria and usually starts at a young age. Various risk factors contribute to this, including gender, age, parental influences, peer dynamics, individual characteristics, and Lack of awareness. To address this issue, effective interventions within schools should encompass a range of strategies, including peer education, family-based support, health education, and engaging activities. There is a pressing need for additional research into substance abuse among Nigerian secondary school students to provide an understanding of adolescents’ attitudes, knowledge of the health implications of drug abuseTop of Form

 and measure other psychological and school-related factors .

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• Open access
• Published: 07 September 2024

Prevalence of Methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) use in south east Nigeria: a community-based cross-sectional study

• Nkiru Edith Obande-Ogbuinya 1 ,
• Christian Okechukwu Aleke 2 ,
• Lois Nnenna Omaka-Amari 2 ,
• Uba Mercy Benedette Ifeoma 3 ,
• Stanley Chijioke Anyigor-Ogah 4 ,
• Emeka Usman Mong 2 ,
• Eunice Nwafor Afoke 2 ,
• Theresa Nwamaka Nnaji 5 ,
• Onyechi Nwankwo 6 ,
• Ifeyinwa Maureen Okeke 7 ,
• Anthonia Ogechukwu Nnubia 7 ,
• Uzochukwu Chimdindu Ibe 8 ,
• Raphael E. Ochiaka 9 ,
• Patricia C. Ngwakwe 2 ,
• OkochaYusuf Item 7 ,
• Kenneth Adibe Nwafor 10 ,
• Idakari Chinedu Nweke 11 &
• Arinze Francis Obasi 12  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  2436 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Methamphetamine (MA) (Mkpurummiri) is seen as the most common, accessible and new drug of use/abuse in south east Nigeria. Despite the overwhelming evidence of the dire consequences of this drug to the users, there is lack of empirical research to determine its prevalence in this area where use is assumed to be common. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of MA use, characteristics of the users and the control measures.

A descriptive cross-sectional survey research design was conducted from May through November 2023 among adolescents/adults at the age bracket of 15-64 years in the five states of south east, Nigeria. Three hundred and seventy-one (371) respondents were recruited using purposive/convenience sampling methods. A semi structured questionnaire was the instrument used. Data were analyzed using percentage, bivariate and multivariate logistics regression statistics. The Prevalence of MA was determined using percentages whereas the factors that are associated with MA use were expressed using multivariate logistics regression statistics AORs and 95%CIs. The level of significance was set at P  < 0.05.

The prevalence of Methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) was (21.8%). The most common reason for MA use was depression (86.5%), the most common route of administration was inhalation (64.9%). The most common characteristic of MA (Mkpurummiri) user was aggressive/violent behaviour (94.1%).The control measures were self-control (92.2%), parental monitoring (85.7%), drug education (83.1%) and legal control (80.8%). The multivariate logistics regression statistics AOR shows that off-campus were 3 times (AOR = 0.298; CI = 0.12–0.73 P  = 0.008), family house 4 times (AOR = 0.241; CI = 0.09–0.65; P  = 0.005 \(\le 0.05\) ) less likely than on-campus to predict MA use. Recently married were 3.25 times (aOR = 3.25; CI = 1.47–7.18), divorced 3.45 times (aOR = 3.45; CI = 1.23–9.58), polygamy 2.3 times (aOR = 2.3; CI = 1.08–4.90; P  = 0.031 \(\le 0.05\) ), tradition 4.44 times (aOR = 4.44; CI = 1.77–11.15; P  = 0.001 \(\le 0.05)\) , more likely than others to use MA.

Conclusions

MA use prevalence was relatively high, and marital status, living arrangements, family type and religion were the predictors. These findings underscore the need for concerted effort among the relevant government agencies, community stakeholders, families, religious bodies and school authorities to designing MA use policy/laws with special focus on adopting the punitive measure used in checking cocaine users. This may help to arrest and prosecute the manufacturers, distributors and users of MA.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Hard drugs proliferations, accessibility and use particularly Methamphetamine (commonly called Mkpurummiri in South Eastern Nigeria) by adolescents/youths is an emerging public health threat and concerns globally [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Research has reported that hard drugs use/abuse is high across the world with the percentage of adolescents and youth topping the previous years [ 5 ]. For instance, in 2021, research has documented that one (1) in every seventeen (17) persons from the age of 15–64 years worldwide had used any illegal drugs in the past year [ 6 ]. It was also reported that the number of users had increased from 240 million in 2011 to 296 million in 2021, with 5.8 per cent estimate of the global population aged 15–64 [ 5 ]. The trend was as well recorded in several studies both in the year 2022 and 2023 globally [ 5 , 7 , 8 ]. In Nigeria, the prevalence of 20% to 65.7% of lifetime and current use of any illicit drug among adolescent/youth population has been documented [ 1 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ].

Studies have reported Methamphetamine (MA) as the most common illicit drug use by adolescents and adults [ 5 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Adolescents and adults being at high risk of hard drugs use/abuse has been attributed to risk factors like increased adventurous tendencies, peer influences, curiosity, depression, anxiety, behavioural disorders and risk-taking behavior [ 10 , 16 ]. Adolescence and adults has got various definitions [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. However, for the purpose of the current study, UNODC classification of adolescents/adults drug users at age bracket of 15 to 64 is adopted to elicit information from MA users among the population [ 20 , 28 ].

Prevalence of MA use by Adolescents and adults has been reported. For instance, research carried out among American adolescents reported that approximately 4.7 million (2.1% of the U.S. population) have used MA at some stages in their lives [ 21 ]. Another US National Survey conducted from 2015–2018, reported 6.6 per, 1,000 rate of past-year MA use/ abuse among youth [ 22 ]. Further, the School-based drug surveys carried out in Ontario and Manitoba to determine MA use among adolescents students revealed prevalence of 2.7% and 3.3% within the past year preceding the survey [ 23 , 24 ]. In the same vein, the study conducted in low and middle income countries on MA use among the students, revealed that both male and female abuse MA with an estimate of 1.6 million using the drug in the past year preceding the survey [ 25 , 26 , 27 ].

In Nigeria, there was little or no empirical studies conducted to determine the prevalence of MA use despite overwhelming evidence of MA production, availability and use in the country. However, a comprehensive nationwide general drug use survey carried out among people aged 15–64 years in Nigeria estimated the prevalence of psychoactive drug use [ 28 ]. According to the study, the last year prevalence of drug use/abuse from the southern region was at the range of 13.8 per cent to 22.4 per cent which was higher compared to the northern region with the prevalence ranging from 10 per cent to 13.6 per cent [ 1 , 28 ]. The study further revealed that South-Eastern Nigeria, (Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States) had the prevalence of any drug use estimated at 13.8 per cent of the population or 1.5 million people aged 15–64 years [ 20 , 28 ]. It was further observed that out of every 4 drug users/abusers, 1 is a woman in Nigeria. Moreover, the annual prevalence of men 21.8 per cent or 10.8 million men, and women 7.0 per cent or 3.4 million women were reported as drug users in the past-year [ 28 ]. The UNODC study focused on the general drug abuse in Nigeria not MA use/abuse in particular. Nevertheless, the general drug use survey included MA with an estimated prevalence of 0.06 per cent, this was perceived as very low [ 28 ].

The UNODC estimate of MA use prevalence of 0.06 per cent may be very low due to the high rate of MA (Mkpurummiri) use/abuse in the region. Evidence from various Nigeria newspapers, magazines, grey literature, periodicals and article reviews reports [ 2 , 29 , 30 , 31 ], suggest that use of MA is common. More so, the evidence of manufacturing MA in the region by drug merchants, accessibility with the number of seizures by NDLEA has affirmed its ubiquity and high rate of abuse in south east region [ 30 , 32 ].

Research has revealed that MA was manufactured in some parts of Nigeria particularly in Igbo of South east and sold in the form of meth of crystalline powder, capsule or pressed tablet, and pill [ 13 , 14 , 33 ]. Due to the endemic nature of the drug in the region, the people of the area nicknamed the drug in a local parlance as “Mkpurummiri”. The name comes from the appearance of MA in the form of ice, broken glass-like or crystalline rocks [ 2 , 32 ]. MA (Mkpurummiri) has other street names as meth, crystal meth, crank, speed, and kryptonite [ 2 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]. The routes of administration of MA (Mkpurummiri), as reported by other studies include smoking, injection, snorting, ingesting, inhaling, chewing, and rubbing on the skin [ 2 , 34 , 36 ].

Several reports have it on the pages of Nigerian newspapers, Magazines and periodicals that it was common to observe some adolescents/adults MA (Mkpurummiri) users on the streets of various communities of south eastern Nigeria. The MA users were observed due to the way they dressed, like some dressed naked or half naked walking around the streets without shame [ 2 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ]. Some of them were reported to have killed their parents, siblings, girlfriend, boyfriend, or burnt their houses. Some students among them have assaulted their teachers/lecturers leading to dropout from school and other consequences associated with MA use [ 2 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ].

Methamphetamine (MA) has been variously conceived as a potent and highly addictive psychoactive stimulant that excites and raises the level of nervous (brain and spinal cord) activities [ 14 , 22 , 37 ]. MA is regarded as a dangerous drug due to its effect on the brain, thus, the use of any minute quantity is regarded as an abuse. The primary mechanism of action to the MA users is on the brain dopamine (DA) system, leading to high rate of abuse [ 38 , 39 ]. Moreover, the major effects of MA users include depression, antisocial behavior like risky sexual behaviors, sexual assault, rape, violent behavior, mental illness, movement disorders, cognitive impairments, insomnia, suicide and death [ 40 , 41 , 42 ].

UNIDOC has grouped the burden of the adolescents/adults psychoactive drug use/abuse including MA into four areas of international concern. This includes organized crime, illicit financial flows, corruption, and terrorism/insurgency [ 43 ]. Nigeria, especially South East region has been grasping with all these factors as grouped by UNIDOC like insecurity, organized crime, terrorism/insurgency, youth unemployment, increased violence, lawlessness, kidnapping, hostage-taking and cultism [ 44 , 45 ]. There is also evidence of rising spate of people living in abject poverty and the rising rate of unemployment and underemployment among Nigerian youths [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ]. Further, the current challenges of high cost of living and hardship associated with subsidy removal by the current administration in Nigeria, might be causing depression and fuelling the youths vulnerability to MA use/abuse [ 50 ]. This may be so as insecurity, gang formation leading to kidnapping for ransom and armed robbery as a means to earn a living is the order of the day in Nigeria [ 1 , 32 , 48 , 49 ].

MA (Mkpurummiri) control measures have been observed among some community leaders, and stakeholders of some affected states. For instance, some community leaders have created local vigilante group who work in synergy with security operatives to identify and banish anyone found with MA including the manufacturers and peddlers. Individuals taking the drugs are publicly punished by flogging them at the village squares [ 2 , 29 , 32 ]. Some villagers and stakeholders have equally protested through the major roads to register their displeasure towards the phenomenon of MA (Mkpurummiri) abuse in the region [ 29 , 31 ]. However, despite all these effort to curb the menace, MA use/abuse has continued to be rampant in the region. The production and sale by some drug merchants and peddlers have continue to grow assuming a more critical dimensions and causing public hysteria [ 2 , 29 , 51 ]. Moreover, public flogging as a physical punishment to MA users which has been adopted by vigilante groups and stakeholders of some communities has not yielded the desired result [ 31 , 32 ]. The approach has also been seen as uncivilized, barbaric and not scientific [ 31 , 32 ]. The worst still was the compromise reported among the police and vigilante group which is frustrating the war against MA use [ 52 ]. This has led to the palpable fear of unknown that the measure adopted might fall back on the community leaders, hence, the MA users might strategize, form a gang of cultists to fight back and attack the community and their leaders [ 32 ].

The mentioned scenarios have prompted the current researchers to find a scientific means towards curbing this menace, hence a step towards prevention of any drug abuse including MA is by establishing the prevalence, determining the characteristics of the users and its risk [ 1 , 37 ]. Moreover, the global interventions for prevention of drug use/abuse in a population including its impact has recommended a widespread understanding of the prevalence of the drug, frequently implicated drugs, the affected population, sources of the drugs and the risk factors [ 1 , 43 ]. However, due to lack of studies describing the prevalence and factors influencing the use of MA, the authors were inspired to lay this ground work to determine the prevalence of MA (Mkpurummiri) use, characteristics of the users and the control measures among the population. This is because, if prevalence and characteristics of MA users could be established, it is hoped that the government at all level in collaboration with NDLEA, law enforcement agencies and other relevant stake holders may be better equipped in designing MA use policy/laws with the punitive measures to curb the menace. The policymakers may use the findings of the study to determine the most affected group either adolescents or adults and devise a more stringent measures in combating MA use among the population.

Research design/setting

This is a descriptive cross-sectional survey research design conducted between May 2023 through November 2023, to determine the prevalence of methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) use, characteristics of the users and the control measures among adolescents/adults of south-eastern Nigeria. South eastern Nigeria comprises of five states namely: Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo. This states have common boundaries with similar cultures and traditions. Due to this similar characteristics with the high rate of unemployment, increase in poverty level, low level of educational opportunities and high cost of living associated with socioeconomic implications of fuel subsidy removal in Nigeria, common sense would expect risky behaviours and social vices like, drug use/abuse among the adolescents and adults. The scenarios have necessitated the current study in the South Eastern Nigeria.

The population of the study

The population of the study comprises all adolescents and adults in the five states of South Eastern Nigeria, namely: Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo with an estimated population of 1.5 million persons at the age bracket of 15-64 years [ 27 ]. Inclusion/exclusion criteria: All the adolescents/adults at the ages of 15 to 64yrs, residing at the South Eastern Nigeria and consented to participate in the study were recruited. Adolescents/adults who are below 15yrs and above 64years, and those who are sick or not available at the time of the study were excluded.

Sample size determination

We calculated the sample size using the past year prevalence of drug abuse among adolescents/ adults in the South East Nigeria which was 13.8% with a population of 1.5million people aged 15 to 64 [ 20 ]. Thus;

Where N  = 1,500,000, e = 0.04, P  = 0.138, Z = 1.96

Adding 20% attrition rate, the total sample is 371.

Sampling procedure

The procedure for sample selection involved multi-stages. In the first stage, the South East region was clustered into five states namely: Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States. In the second stage, three (3) states were selected from the five (5) states, using simple random sampling technique of balloting with replacement. The stage three involved the use of purposive/convenience sampling technique to draw 127 participants from each of the three (3) states selected in the second stage, namely: Ebonyi, Imo and Anambra. The researchers therefore administered three hundred and seventy-one copies of the questionnaire to the respondents in those states and at any point where they were accessible and convenient to fill the questionnaire. However, out of three hundred and Seventy-one (371) copies of questionnaire administered to the participants, three hundred and sixty-two (362) were properly filled and fit for data analysis. Nine (9) copies were excluded due to incomplete responses and insufficient demographic characteristics.

Research instrument

A semi structured questionnaire was used for data collection. This was developed by the researchers after thoroughly reviewing relevant literature and questionnaire of some related studies [ 1 , 27 , 37 , 53 , 54 ]. The questionnaire was entitled, “Prevalence of Methamphetamine Use among Adolescents/Adults Questionnaire (PMUAAQ). This consisted of four sections: A, B, C and D. Section A; contained Ten (10) items of demographic characteristics of the participants. Section B consisted items on prevalence of methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) use and reasons for Use/Abuse among Adolescents/Adults. The respondents were requested to use a tick [√] on the Yes or No question. Section C consisted the items on routes of administration of MA. The respondents were requested to use tick (√) to indicate their best options on the checklist. Section D also contained a checklist for the characteristics of the users and the control measures. Respondents were required to use tick (√) to indicate their options from the list.

Validation and pre‑test of research instrument

The instrument was face-validated through the verdict of five experts before the final data collection. Two experts from the department of Human Kinetics and health education, one from the department of psychology, one from the field of Epidemiology and one from the department of community medicine, all from the universities in the south east, Nigeria. The five experts were given drafted copies of PMUAAYQ accompanied with the study objectives and research questions. The experts’ constructive criticisms, assessment of language, clarity and coverage of items, and appropriateness for the target group, viz-a-viz the specific objectives of the study were used to modify the instrument for data collection. The questionnaire was pretested among Forty (40) respondents from two other states (Enugu and Abia) that are not part of the study sample but were part of the study population. The reliability of the instrument was established with Cronbach Alpha statistics. The Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency reliability index of r = 0.923 was obtained thus, considered highly reliable to be used for the general study.

Data collection methods/procedures

Data were collected from the participants in schools, village squares, streets, parks, playground, home environments, market places, churches, and other places convenient for the researchers until the desired sample size was reached. The researchers were many and hail from different states of the studied population. Therefore, we divided ourselves into groups based on the understanding of each community’s dialect, tradition, and proximity and conversant to the various communities of each selected state. The administration and filling of the questionnaire survey lasted about seven months. The survey was strictly conducted without coercion but based on respondents’ volition and consent. The respondents whose age fall within 15–16 years were regarded as minors thus, the consent to participate was obtained from their parents or legal guardians. We offered help to clarify instructions as well as assistance based interview using the questionnaire. This was to help some respondents who were unable to fill the questionnaire due to where they were located like a rave, eatery centers, view centers, lounge and restaurants. This was strictly for those who sought for it. The data were collected and crosschecked for completeness of information and responses.

Study variables and measurements

Measurement of main outcome variables.

The dependent variable was the prevalence of methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) use, while the independent variables (predictors) were the socio-demographic factors such as age which was categorized into two (adolescents 15-19 years and adults 20-64 years), sex (gender), marital status, level of education, residence/Living arrangements, family size, birth order, family type, family income status (Naira), and religious affiliations. These socio-demographic factors of the respondents were correlated with the prevalence of MA use among adolescents and adults using the multivariate logistics regression adjusted odds ratios (AOR).The prevalence of methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) use was determined using the questions (Have you ever used Methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) in the past one year?), and their reasons for use was assessed using the dichotomous response questions of Yes or No adapted from related studies [ 1 , 27 , 53 , 54 ]. The routes of administration of MA (Mkpurummiri) by the respondents including the characteristics of the users and its control measures were determined using a checklist. The respondents were requested to use tick (√) to indicate their best options on the checklist.

Data analysis

Data generated and properly filled were analyzed using IBM SPSS version 25 (Statistical Package for Social Science). The serial number was assigned to each question for easy identification and for correct data entry and analysis. The analysis of the data was done using frequencies, percentages, bivariate and multivariate logistics regression statistics, as required by the research questions. The multivariate logistics regression analysis was employed to estimate the adjusted odds ratios (AORs) along with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to identify the independent predictors of demographic characteristics of the adolescents/adults MA use and the degree of the relationship. The level of significance was set at P  < 0.05. The percentages extracted were presented using tables and figures.

Data from a total of three hundred and sixty-two (362) properly filled copies of the questionnaire were included for data analysis. The findings in Table  1 shows the age bracket of 15-19yrs which were classified as adolescents had the highest percentage (62.2%), whereas those at the age bracket of 20–64 years classified as adults had the percentage of 37.8%. On their sex (gender), the female had the majority (50.8%) whereas the male counterpart had 49.2%. On the marital status, those who were never married had 68%, married had 19.9% whereas formerly married (Divorce) had 12.2%. Regarding the level of education, those who were not in any school/dropout had 29.8%, those in primary school had 8.6%, secondary 10.5% and tertiary 29.8%. On the participant’s residence/living arrangements, those living off-campus/streets had 44.8%, and family house 33.7% whereas those on campus had 21.5%. On the family size, the participants whose family size is 1–2 had 22.1%, 3–4 had 41.2%, 5–6 had 22.7% and over 7 had 14.1%. Regarding family order of birth, majority of the participants are first born 42.8%, followed by middle born 32.6% and last born 24.6% respectively. As for the family type/structure, majority are from monogamous family with the percentage 53.9%, followed by Polygamous 26.5%, and Single parent 19.6% respectively. Family income status (Naira), those earning less than #30000 had 27.6%, from #30,000-#99,000 had 40.9% and those earning #100,000 and above had 31.5%. On the religion, majority of the participants are Christians 75.7%, followed by Traditional religion 17.1% and Muslim 7.2% respectively (Table  1 ).

Data in Table  2 shows that out of 362 of the respondents, 74 (21.8%) have used Methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri), while 288 (79.6%) have not. Therefore, the overall prevalence of Methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) use in the past year was 21.8%. The commonest reasons for consuming Methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) include: To overcome stress/depression (86.5%), Calm down worries (82.4%), Eliminate shyness (82.4%), Peer pressure (81.1%), low self-confidence (81.1%), performance improvement (73.0%) and Curiosity (55.4%) (Table  2 ).

The most common routes of administration of Methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) were through the Inhalation (64.9%), Sniffing (51.4%). Swallow/cook with food (50.0%), Injection (48.6%), Smoking Ice (43.2%), and other routes of administration not specified shows (48.6%) (Table  3 ).

The characteristics of MA (Mkpurummiri) use among adolescents/adults were determined using checklist, percentage and frequency and presented in the graph in Fig.  1 . The findings show that the greater percentage of youth who use methamphetamine (mkpurummiri) were highly aggressive/violent (94.1%), followed by suicide (88.3), Depression (87.3%), Relationship problems (86%), Psychological distress (85.3%), School dropout (84%), absenteeism (83.1), Peer group influence (82.1%), Poor academic performance (81.4%), Anxiety/panic(80.8%), Risky sexual behavior (80.1%), Financial problems(79.2), Parental deprivation (77.5%), Sensation seeking (72%), Unemployment (70%), respectively (Fig.  1 ).

Characteristics of MA (Mkpurumiri) users, n  =  362

The Data in the Fig.  2 represented the perceived control measures of MA (Mkpurummiri) use. The findings indicated that the best way to protect and avoid the use of MA (Mkpurummiri) by adolescents and adults is by self-control with the highest percentage of 92.2% followed by parental monitoring (85.7%), drug education (83.1%), legal control (80.8%), punitive measures by the concerned stakeholders (80.1%), strong neighborhood attachment (76.5) and by school based intervention mechanisms (70%) (Fig.  2 ).

Respondents’ perspectives on control measures of MA (Mkpurumiri) Use, n  =  362

In Table  4 , we used multivariable/multivariate logistic regression to evaluate the respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics that were associated with MA use. Due to the dichotomous nature of our dependent variable in the past year MA use. The following socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents such as age, gender, marital status, educational level, residence/living arrangements, family size, order of birth, family type, family income, and religious affiliation were plugged in the multivariate logistic regression. The findings from the adjusted odd ratios shows that being recently married were 3.25 times (AOR = 3.25; CI = 1.47–7.18; P  = 0.003 ≤ 0.05), and being “formerly married (divorced) 3.45 times (AOR = 3.45; CI = 1.23–9.58; P  = 0.017 \(\le 0.05\) ) respectively more likely than never married to use Ma in the past year. On the residence/living arrangements, students living off-campus were 3 times (AOR = 0.298; CI = 0.12–0.73 P  = 0.008), and family house 4 times (AOR = 0.241; CI = 0.09–0.65; P  = 0.005 \(\le 0.05\) ) less than on-campus hostel youths to use Ma in the past year. On the family type, being from a “polygamous family were 2.3 times (AOR = 2.301; CI = 1.08–4.90; P  = 0.031 \(\le 0.05)\) more likely than being from monogamous family to use Ma in the past year. Being from single parent (AOR = 0.518; CI = 0.16–1.67; P  = 0.269 \(>0.05\) ) has no statistically significant association with the prevalence of Ma use. On the religious affiliation: Being traditional religion were 4.44 times (AOR = 4.44; CI = 1.77–11.15; P  = 0.001 \(\le 0.05)\) more likely than being Christian religion to use Ma in the past year. Being Muslim (AOR = 1.606; CI = 0.58–4.45; P  = 0.363 \(>0.05\) ) has no statistically significant association with Ma use in the past year (Table  4 ).

This study was among the first to examine the prevalence of MA (Mkpurummiri) use, characteristics of the users and the control measures among adolescents/adults of south-eastern Nigeria. The finding of the study revealed the overall prevalence of 21.8% MA (Mkpurummiri) use in the past year. The finding was anticipated and consequently not a surprise, though the prevalence was below expectations due to the several reports of MA use from Nigeria newspapers, Magazines, grey literature, periodicals and article reviews. These reports indicated MA increased production, availability, accessibility, pervasiveness and endemic among adolescents/adults of South Eastern Nigeria [ 2 , 29 , 32 ]. It was also reported that it is common to observe Methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) users on the streets of various communities walking naked or half naked without shame [ 2 , 29 , 31 , 32 ]. Some students among them have assaulted their teachers/lecturers leading to dropout from school [ 2 , 29 , 32 ]. However, the current findings were somewhat higher though agreed with the study which reported prevalence of 12.7% of methamphetamine abuse in south western Iran [ 55 ]. The present study also revealed a higher prevalence more than other studies conducted among secondary school students MA and other drugs of use/abuse in the past year [ 56 , 57 ]. Nevertheless, the prevalence of the current study was somewhat lower than the prevalence 45.38% of MA use in the study conducted in 2015 among youths in China [ 58 ], although the prevalence rate of various studies varies. Thus, the high prevalence of the current study could be attributed to the available evidence on the recent discoveries by NDLEA on illegal laboratories where methamphetamine is manufactured by drug barons and their foreign counterparts including drug traffickers who made it available to the users [ 48 ]. All these have largely contributed to the rampant use of MA in the region [ 2 , 31 , 32 ].

The reasons commonly attributed to MA use were to overcome stress/depression and to calm down worries. These findings may not be unconnected with the high rate of unemployment, increase in poverty level, lack of educational opportunities, and high cost of living among other socioeconomic implications of fuel subsidy removal in Nigeria currently. All these factors may be fuelling the adolescents/adults vulnerability to drug use/abuse including MA leading to the formation of drug users gang, insecurity, kidnapping, armed robbery, cultism and the high rate of mental illness of the youths in the south eastern Nigeria [ 44 , 45 ]. The current findings alluded to the study which revealed poverty rate of about 50% of people living in abject poverty in Nigeria [ 46 ], and the rising rate of unemployment (23.1%) [ 47 ], including the challenges of high cost of living associated with the recent fuel subsidy removal in the country [ 50 ]. All these may be fuelling youth vulnerability to drugs to enable them cope and work harder to earn a living or to ward off the stress and frustration of daily living in hardship [ 1 ]. The findings of this study are in line with other studies which consistently reported depression, anxiety, frustration, unemployment, and predominantly socio-economic problems of the country as reasons for drug use/abuse [ 1 , 7 , 59 ].

The most common routes of administration of MA by users as identified in the study were inhalation, sniffing, swallowing/cooking with food among others. The findings were consistent with other studies which reported the mode of MA intake to include smoking, injection, snorting, ingestion, inhalation, chewing and rubbing on the skin [ 34 , 36 ].

The common characteristics of MA (Mkpurummiri) use in this study were aggressive/violent behavior, suicide, relationship problems, school dropout, absenteeism, poor academic performance, financial problems. The outcome of the study is not a surprise thus, in recent years, Nigeria as a country has simultaneously faced numerous challenges ranging from COVID-19 outbreak, high rate of inflation, unemployment and increase in poverty rates. Currently these challenges seem to be worse due to another level of hardship associated with the decision to remove petroleum subsidy which has a high significant impact on the cost of living especially among the youths. The current findings were in line with other studies which associated the characteristics of MA users such as violent behaviour, hopelessness, suicide, high rate of unemployment, relationship problems, school dropout, absenteeism, poor academic performance, financial problems and parental deprivation to adolescents/youths [ 1 , 44 , 60 , 61 , 62 ]. The findings further support the reports by WHO which revealed that persistent sadness, loss of interest in activities that are normally enjoyed, including inability to carry out daily activities are as a result of high cost of living that enhances illegal drug use/abuse [ 19 ].

The perceived control measures of MA (Mkpurummiri) use as identified in this study include self-control, parental monitoring, drug education, legal control, punitive measures, strong neighborhood attachment, and school based intervention mechanisms. This finding is in line with the study which reported parental monitoring, quality education, provision of employment opportunities, and inclusion of drug education in school as the most effective control measures for MA use [ 63 ]. Regarding self-control and parental monitoring identified in the current study, it affirmed other studies which reported parental support as a preventive/control measures for multiple outcomes including an individual self-control over illicit drug use/abuse [ 63 , 64 ]. Further, there should be more stringent measures by government at all levels and other relevant authorities to uphold the preventive/ control measures of MA use as identified in this study and to checkmate and eliminate the process of MA production, trading networks, circulation and the sale in the region [ 58 ].

The findings from the adjusted odd ratios show that being recently married as well as being formerly married (divorced) were more likely than never married to use Ma in the past one year. These findings might not be out of place hence the users of MA have reported increased sexual activities, duration of sex, quality and quantity of sexual pleasure including sexual performance [ 65 ]. Therefore, recently married may be using MA during honey moon for sexual pleasures and to enable them satisfy their partners sexually. On the other hand, those who are divorced or formally married may be using MA due to loneliness, decreased level of happiness, change in economic status and emotional/psychological problems and depression associated with divorce among couples. The findings are in line with the study which reported divorce as a potent risk factor from onset of drug abuse, thus, the prevalence of drug abuse is higher among divorced individuals than married couple [ 66 , 67 ]. The finding also supports the study which revealed common drug use/ abuse particularly MA among recently married and divorced family [ 68 , 69 ].

Residence/living arrangements indicated that students living in “off-campus” and those living in “family house” were less likely than those living “on-campus hostel” to use MA in the past year. This finding was not expected because those living off-campus hostel may be living amidst different group of people like hooligans, school dropout and perhaps might be prone to MA use. However, the finding was not deceitful as it is consistent with studies which reported that students who reside on-campus were more associated with heavier drinking and other drug use/abuse than those living off-campus and peers at home with parents [ 70 , 71 ]. The finding disagrees with the study which reported that students living off-campus without parents are more frequent and heavier drinkers including other drugs with greater consequences than students living on-campus [ 72 ]. This agreement and disagreement with reference to the findings could be attributed to varied geographical locations, subject composition and other demographic factors associated with the studies.

Family type shows that being from polygamous family were more likely than others to use Ma in the past year. The finding was not deceitful thus, it is in consonance with the study which attributed psychoactive substance use including MA to family type [ 73 ]. More so, the finding further supports the study which reported family factors like polygamous family as the most important predictor of Methamphetamine use/abuse [ 74 ]. The finding was at variant with studies which reported single-parent families as important predictors for future MA use and other delinquent behaviours [ 75 , 76 ].

On the religious affiliation, belonging to traditional religion were more likely than being an adherent of Christian religion to predict Ma use in the past year. However, being Muslim has no statistically significant association with Ma use in the past year. The outcome of this finding may be attributed to some traditional religious activities associated with the people of the area like traditional wrestling, traditional dances, masquerade cult, new yam festival and other festivals which when ongoing, predispose the people of the area especially the youth to be more vulnerable to excessive drug use and abuse including MA [ 77 ]. The Christian religion and Muslim religion which are known as custodians of public morality might be preaching against this menace to strengthen the religious faith and dissuade the people from the use of MA and other illicit drugs. However, the findings of the current study are in consonance with the study which revealed religion ( P  = 0.009), as a predictor of psychoactive drug use including Ma [ 51 ]. It was also consistent with the study which revealed that the rate of drug abuse was higher among traditional religion than those of Christianity, Islam and other religions [ 73 , 78 ]. The finding further alluded to the study which reported that frequent attendance to religious fellowships was a high significant factor that reduces adolescents, youths and adults likelihood of anti-social activities including drug use/abuse [ 79 ].

Strengths and weaknesses of the study

The major strength was that this study on prevalence of methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) use/ abuse was among the first in the south eastern Nigeria. This is because despite the availability of MA and its rampant use in the region, there was little or no empirical study to establish its prevalence. This necessitated the current study.

The weakness may be that we used prevalence of MA (Mkpurummiri) use/abuse in the past year because MA was assumed to be a new drug of abuse by adolescents/youths at the time of the study. Hence, we did not include the prevalence of life time and current MA use during data collection. Additionally, the method of data collection was quantitative that used closed ended questions which may not have captured all the predictors of MA use. The study suggested the use of mixed study or qualitative data collection like in-depth interview and/or Focus Group Discussion. Hence, in-depth interview and FGDs have the potential to facilitate group interaction which would help to understand other factors predicting MA use.

Our study provided the first data on the prevalence of MA (Mkpurummiri) use, characteristics of the users and the control measures among adolescents/adults of south-eastern Nigeria. The study revealed that the prevalence of MA use was relatively high thus requiring an urgent response to halt the spread and use/abuse of this dangerous drug in the region. The relevant government agencies, in collaboration with stakeholders in various communities, families, religious bodies and school managements/authorities should as a matter of urgency design and implement effective MA use policy/law and its consequences same with cocaine and other illicit drug users. This will help to arrest and prosecute the manufacturers, distributors, promoters and users of this dangerous drug. Other measures are to rehabilitate the MA users by providing employment opportunities and upholding the control measures of MA use among adolescents/adults as indicated in this study.

Availability of data and materials

The data sets generated and analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request through the email address of [email protected] or [email protected].

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Acknowledgements

We thank the stakeholders of various communities, state and university communities for their prompt approval and direction provided towards the successful conduct of this study in South East Nigeria. Special thanks also go to all the adolescents/adults who consented and participated actively in this study.

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NEO-O and COA, conceived and commissioned the study. COA and NEO-O performed the literature search and screened for the selected studies, extracted the data and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. COA, AFO, EUM and LNO-A proposed the methodology, performed the analysis and interpretation of the study. COA, ENA, SCA-O, UMBI, UCI, ON, IMO, OYI, TNN, AON, REO, PCN, KAN and ICN revised and supervised all aspects of the study. All the authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

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Ethical approval was obtained from Ebonyi State University Research Ethics committee (EBSU/DRIC/UREC/vol.7/05223). The approval letter introduced the researchers to the relevant stakeholders of various communities and respondents stating the objectives of the study. This helped the researchers to gain access to and cooperation from the respondents and the stakeholders of the study population. Before the commencement of the study, a written informed consent was obtained from all the participants. Regarding the minors, which refers to individuals below the age of 16 years, informed consent to take part in the study was obtained from their parents or legal guardians. In the consent letter, they were fully assured of confidentiality and anonymity of the data. All procedures were strictly performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki ethical standards in 1964 and its amendments.

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Obande-Ogbuinya, N.E., Aleke, C.O., Omaka-Amari, L.N. et al. Prevalence of Methamphetamine (Mkpurummiri) use in south east Nigeria: a community-based cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 24 , 2436 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19921-9

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Drug abuse among nigerian youth and its consequences – a review of literature, adepeju akinlawon adetiloye, osunwoye adedapo abel.

The available evidences suggest that it is true that drugs are used for beneficial therapeutic purposes, effective substance for good health, but they are also being abused by people especially youths. They use it illegally and unlawfully, thus it becomes harmful to the body. Studies have described a growing impact of drug abuse among Nigerian youths to the extent of being considered a moral decadent. The Nigerian youths are deliberately using drugs illegally, unlawfully and intentionally. while many are ignorantly or knowingly depending on one drug or the other for their daily activities. The objective of this review is to highlight the dangers and consequences of drug abuse particularly among the Nigerian youths. The review, which consists of literature search of journals and chapters in books, provides an insight into common drugs and substances that are abused, causes of drug abuse, social effect, prevention or control measures and laboratory investigations. Hence, for its public health significance, there is an urgent call for increased vigilance and improved knowledge/research-driven approaches to the diagnosis and management of drugs and substance of abuse.

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Prevalence and Impacts of Psychoactive Substance Abuse amongst Undergraduate University Students in Katsina State, Nigeria

Yusuf hassan wada.

1 Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria AND West African Academy of Public Health, Abuja, Nigeria

Garba M. Khalid

2 Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria

Zayyanu Shitu

3 Medecins Sans Frontieres Operation Center Barcelona and Athens. Shinkafi Project, Zamfara State, Nigeria

Umar Idris Ibrahim

4 Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria

Drug and substance abuse among university students is of public health concern and is becoming a global threat to the education system. This is more devastating to the academic performance of the addicts. The present study aims to assess the prevalence and impacts of psychoactive substance abuse among the university undergraduate students in Katsina State, Nigeria, and to determine the effects of such abuses on the students’ academic performance.

A cross-sectional study was conducted using online survey tool (Google Form) validated by content validity and pilot study. The hyperlink to the online survey tool was shared with undergraduate students from three universities located in Katsina State via emails and social media platforms, namely WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter. Data collected from eligible participants were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

A total of 308 students from the three universities returned the online questionnaire, of which 67.2% were men and 32.8% were women. Among the respondents, 37% admitted practicing drug and/or substance abuse. Majority of them (56.2%) were third-year students in the age range of 20-25 years.

Drug and substance abuse among the undergraduate university students in Katsina State is common, and it cuts across both male and female students. Concerted efforts towards parental support and supervisions, social intervention programs, and campus-based prevention and supported programs against drug and substance abuse should be encouraged.

Introduction

Youths remain the bedrock of any society. Indeed, the future of any progressive society depends largely on the productivity of its youths. Hence, their background and upbringing, education, and literacy level, as well as social life need to be carefully monitored to ensure they live a healthy and productive life. Neglecting these processes in the youths can negatively affect their lives and subsequently lead to deterioration of the society at large. Parents, government, and the community leaders have a pivotal role to play in ensuring an industrious upbringing of the youths, ensuring that they get acquainted with the right peers and develop positive social attitudes.

In Nigeria, the prevalence of drug abuse accounts for about 14.4% or 14.3 million people aged between 15 and 64 years, which is comparatively high in comparison to the global annual prevalence of 5.6%. 1 This has been the most important factor contributing to many social vices, mostly among the youth with the highest level of any past drug use among those aged 25-59 years. 1 Students play an important role in the social and economic development programs and management of community; paying attention to their issues in different dimensions, particularly their mental aspect should not be neglected. 2 Of the estimated 14.4% prevalence of people who use drug, our study center, Katsina, Nigeria, accounts for an estimated prevalence of 12% of most drug types is high among young people within the age range of 25 and 39 years. 1 It is one of the reasons why we are undertaking this study to investigate the prevalence of drug abuse amongst students which are predominantly youths.

In this modern world with its very limited excuse for failure, it has become common to identify certain youths at risk of failing to succeed in life because of the hardships in their early adult lives. Poverty and unemployment, violence, family conflict, and illness represent a few potential vulnerabilities affecting the youths indulged in drug and substance abuse. 3 Drug and substance abuse begins with acquisition or initiation of drug and/or substance in vulnerable individuals, especially youths who eventually progress through phases of increased consumption until an individual is addicted. 4 Drug and substance addiction among the youths is one of the prominent pressing societal problems affecting many countries across the globe including Nigeria. 2 Drug and/or substance abuse is an attempt to escape from reality and it is associated with several factors including dissatisfaction with the social, political, and especially economic situation, unemployment, and peer pressure among many others. 1 In response to the above seemingly grim picture, only a small number of addicts are ready for treatment or rehabilitation. 5 Studies have divulged that substance abuse among young populations is more prevalent than other age groups. 6 Drug and substances are used conversely; a drug is referred to a medicine prescribed by a certified medical practitioner to treat an underlined medical condition, while a substance may include anything other than drug that could modify perception, mood, cognition, behaviour, or motor functions when taken by an individual. A drug or substance is considered abused if it is deliberately used to induce physiological or psychological effects for a purpose other than therapeutic purposes. The youths of today suffered from negative consequences of drug and substance abuse such as absconding from school, poor academic performance, mental deficits, and negative sexual outcomes among others. 7

Nigeria is the most populated country in Africa with over 190 million people; this figure positioned Nigeria as the 7th most populous country in the world. 8 , 9 Indeed, nearly about 70% of Nigeria population are young adults below the age of 35 years. 10 Therefore, this underscores the importance of the youths for the future of the country. Unfortunately, over the past few years, there is a rapid proliferation of drug and substance abuse, particularly among youths in their early adulthood in Nigeria. 11 , 12 Katsina State is one of the northern states with alarming rates of drug and substance abuse. Indeed, the trend cuts across all genders. Recently, the menace has been amplified in the northern part of Nigeria, and peer-reviewed literature on such issues is very scanty. In addition, the extent to which the undergraduate university students are involved in the menace is not known. Therefore, this study aims to: (I) assess the prevalence of drug and substance abuse amongst undergraduate university students in Katsina State, (II) investigate the level of awareness on the effect of drug and substance abuse among the students, and (III) determine the impact of such abuses on students’ academic performance.

Study design: The study was designed into two phases (I and II). Phase I is the development of the data collection tool, and phase II is the application of the data collection tool.

Phase I: Development of data collection tool

A web-based questionnaire was developed and discussed with the panel of experts. The data collection tool was divided into three sections; first the socio-demographic information of the students, and second and third were related to awareness and consequences of drug and substance abuse, respectively. The survey tool was made up of closed-ended and open-ended items. The draft tool was then tested for validity using face validity and pilot study.

Face validity: Face validation was performed to test whether the tool appeared to measure prevalence of drug and substance abuse amongst undergraduate university students. The choice of wordings and the flow of the items. The draft tool was tested by some selected students and an expert panel consisting of four pharmacists with experience in research. The panel evaluated the tool in terms of readability, clarity, and flow to ensure that the items are appropriate for the target participants. The students were asked to comment on any section that was ambiguous or difficult to comprehend.

Pilot study: Pilot study was conducted to measure how the respondents understood and responded to draft tool. The draft tool was administered to 15 undergraduate university students selected using purposive sampling. The students were drawn from the 3 selected universities in Katsina State. An online survey tool was created in form of a Google Survey. The hyperlink to the survey tool was shared with the selected students via WhatsApp. The responses were analyzed accordingly; result was not shown. The draft tool was revised based on the result of the pilot study and finalized.

Phase II: Application of the data collection tool

Online survey: A cross-sectional study design (online survey) was conducted among undergraduate university students in Katsina State. The hyperlink to the online survey was shared via social media among the students in particular, WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter. The survey was conducted from March to July 2019. Reminders were sent intermittently to increase response rate. Responding to the survey was reported in the tool as an implied consent.

Study setting: The study was conducted among undergraduate university students in Katsina State. The universities included two public universities, Federal University, Dutsin-Ma, Katsina, Umaru Musa Yar’adua University, Katsina, and one private university, Al-Qalam University, Katsina.

Federal University, Dutsin-Ma, is located in Dutsin-Ma Local Government Area of Katsina State, which is located in the north-western region of Nigeria, bordering Niger Republic, Kaduna, Kano, and Jigawa States, and was established in 2010. It has about 1754 students across three faculties of 21 departments. 13

Umaru Musa Yar’adua University, formerly known as Katsina State University, was established under the Katsina State Law No.7 of September, 2006, with currently about 10000 students across five faculties of 21 departments. 14

Al-Qalam University, formerly known as Katsina University, is the first private Islamic University in Nigeria which was established in 2005 and awards undergraduate/post-graduate degree programs under four colleges. 15

Study population and sampling: Purposive sampling method was adopted for the selection of the study participants. Purposive sampling has been reported for an online survey. 16 , 17 Students who used social media in particular WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter were targeted. Inclusion criteria were: (I) registered students who were studying at year one up to year six in various courses in the three universities selected, (II) students re-sitting and spill over were also included. Exclusion criteria were: (I) students of higher institutions other than universities in the state, (II) students at postgraduate levels, and (III) pre-degree students. Eligible participants were recruited through presidents of their associations and class representatives. Data obtained were extracted using Microsoft Excel (version 16). It was later rearranged on SPSS software (version 24, IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA).

Analysis of the data was conducted using SPSS. The socio-demographics of the students, prevalence of drug and substance abuse, and its awareness among the undergraduate students in Katsina State, were presented in frequencies and percentages. All variables were categorical; hence, no variable was presented in mean and standard deviation (SD). To determine the impact of such abuses on students’ academic performance, some of the related variables were analyzed using Pearson’s chi-square test to determine the statistical significance of the drug and substance abuse among the students to the selected variables. Variables with P-value less than 0.05 (typically ≤ 0.05) were considered statistically significant.

Ethical considerations: Ethical approvals were obtained from the Katsina State Ministry of Health (Health Research Ethical Review Committee) (MCH/ADM/SUB/1152/1/271), and the various ethical committees of the three universities involved in the study. In addition, permission to share the online survey form was obtained from the presidents of the different student associations and class representatives of each level. Moreover, the online questionnaire conveyed the study information, and a statement that participation was exclusively voluntary.

A total of 308 students from the three universities in Katsina State, completed and submitted the online questionnaire. Most responses were obtained from Umaru Musa Yar’adua University with 39.9% with the least being Al-Qalam University with 29.2%. Majority of the respondents (37.0%) were third-level students, with the least being sixth-level students (6.0%). There were more male respondents than female ones (67.2% vs. 32.8%); most of them were single. Most of the respondents were between the age of 20 and 25 years and very few of them were above 35 years. A higher proportion of them came from a monogamous family (67.2%) with family size ranging between 6 and 10 in number ( Table 1 ).

Socio-demographic characteristics of students from the three universities in Katsina State, Nigeria (n = 308)

Drug and substance abuse and its awareness among the students

The drug and substance abuse among the cumulative or all students was found to be common with the prevalence rate of 37%. Of the total respondents, 80% have been in the system of substance abuse for less than 4 years at the period of data collection. Most of them claimed that they were introduced by peer groups or friends before gaining admission into the university. The university environment had no influence in their initiation to the drug or substance abuse ( Table 2 ).

Prevalence and awareness of drug and substance abuse among students (n = 308)

Highest proportion of the students claimed to have previous information about drug and substance abuse (59.7%). In addition, most of them believed that drug and substance abuse campaign had positive impact. Moreover, many students believed that drug or substance abuse increased intelligence (45.5%). Most of the students started abusing drugs and/or substances out of curiosity (69.8%) and frustration (69.8%) ( Table 2 ).

Most commonly-abused drugs and substances among the students

According to the operational definitions in the current study, tobacco and cannabis were the most commonly-abused substances among the students, 14.0% and 13.3%, respectively ( Table 3 ).

Most commonly-abused drugs and substances among the students (n = 286)

These substances were more frequently used among male students compared to female ones. Coffee and inhalants were the least abused substances, and there was no report on volatile agent abuse among female students. For drugs, cough syrups were the most commonly abused (14.7%), which female students abused the most compared to male ones (21.7% vs. 11.3%). Codeine was the second most abused drug among the students (9.1%), which the abuse cut across both genders.

Tranquilizers were also commonly abused among the students (5.2%) as well as antibiotics and pain killers (19.6% and 13.3%, respectively).

Factors associated with drug and substance abuse among the students

Table 4 shows the variables associated with drug and substance abuse among the respondents.

Statistical comparison between students involved in drug and substance abuse and variables associated with the abuse practice (n = 308)

Indeed, the academic performance of the students, class attendance, students’ information, and belief on the menace were all found to be associated with drug and substance abuse among the students (P < 0.050).

Of the students who abused drug and/or substance, 49.4% were thought to have poor academic performance; only 2.3% of the drug abusers were thought to have excellent academic record. 10 respondents (3.3%) claimed to have excellent class attendance, while 46.1% had poor class attendance. Those variables involved in the Pearson’s chi-square analysis with P-value > 0.05 were not statistically significant.

Drug and substance abuse is known to be contributor to many risk behaviors and a myriad of undesirable outcomes, such as mental and physical health complications, suicide, traffic accidents, injuries, and social violence. Perhaps a relationship between violence including social vices and the consumption of psychoactive substances has been established. 18 Using substances like marijuana, alcohol, and various types of stimulants among youths is associated with risky and unhealthy sexual behaviors and outcomes such as multiple sexual partners, high prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) and other sexually-transmitted infections (STIs), and high rate of teenage pregnancies, which consequently, expose them to high risk of morbidity and mortality at early age. 7 , 19 Therefore, it is imperative to understand the nature and consequences of drug and substance abuse among undergraduate university students if meaningful and effective preventive and/or treatment measures are to be proposed.

In the present study, we found that drug and substance abuse was common among the undergraduate university students from the three universities in Katsina State (37.0%). The figure was higher than those reported for undergraduate students of Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria (25.7%), even though their findings involved only one university and perhaps only three faculties, 20 in contrast to our study setting which involved three different universities and without discrimination with respect to the students’ faculty. Possibly, our finding was slightly lower than those reported for undergraduate students of university of Benin in Southern Nigeria (46.6%), 21 and undergraduate medical students of the University of Nigeria (56.0%). 22 The lower figure with respect to the two aforementioned universities could as well be related to the fact that their respective studies reported only one university each, while in our case, three universities are reported and the high prevalence of drug and substance abuse from one university could be diluted by the other. The prevalence in this study is higher than the reported incidences of illicit drug use among university students in Laos (5.5%), Indonesia (5.3%), and Malaysia (0.2%), respectively. 23 Moreover, the prevalence appeared lower compared to those reported for similar studies involving seven and eight universities in Wales and Germany, respectively. 24 , 25 Differences observed could be attributed to the differences in the study settings, sociocultural characteristics of the respondents, and differences in the number and types of drugs included in the studies. However, regardless of the variations observed with respect to other study settings, the prevalence observed in the present study is alarming and of great concern.

The most abused substances were tobacco and cannabis, and less frequently coffee and inhalants, while various types of cough syrups, codeine, and tranquilizers were the most abused drugs among the students. However, use of multiple drugs and/or substances was reported among the respondents. Of all the abused drugs and substances reported by the students, male students showed more abuse than female ones except for cough syrups. Adeyemo et al. reported a similar pattern among undergraduate university students in Southern Nigeria. 21 Perhaps this could be related to the fact that men have more access to such substances compared to women. Moreover, socioeconomic situation of the women in the northern Nigeria may also be a contributing factor, since most women in the region do not go to work and rely majorly on men for their incomes (as husband, father, or guardian). But there were more female abusers in comparison to male abusers among university students in Germany. 25 Despite the trend observed, there was no reported case of abusing any form of stimulants among the female respondents, which corresponds to the findings of Ihezue with respect to the undergraduate medical students in Nigeria. 22 Moreover, although not in the main scope of the present study, antibiotics and pain killers were among the drugs commonly abused by the students. This could partly explain the rise in the antibiotic resistance all over the globe. Indeed, recently, a study reported prevalence cases of antibiotic self-medication among undergraduate students in Nigeria, and irrational use of antibiotics has been reported to enhance chances of antibiotic resistance among humans. 17

Majority of the respondents were in their third year at the university and were of the age range of 20 to 25 years. Perhaps 80% of them have been indulged in drug and substance abuse for less than 4 years and were mainly introduced into the practice by peer friends and family members before gaining admission into the university. The initiation of the abuse was mainly out of curiosity and frustration. Peer groups and parental upbringing are believed to play a pivotal role in modelling individuals’ behaviors, especially during the early adolescence life. Therefore, it is imperative to note that, from our findings, the university environment had no influence towards initiating the students into the drug or substance abuse. This is perhaps contrary to the findings reported from a similar study by Adeyemo et al., in the Southern Nigeria. 21 The variation could be related to the sociocultural differences in the two study settings. It is worth noting that majority of the students had previous information about drug and substance abuse (59.7%). Moreover, most of them believed that drug and substance abuse campaign had positive impact. This implies that the addicts are in some way aware of the consequences of what they are into, but probably lack of proper monitoring of their behaviors, university-based information and rehabilitation programmes, and social norm approaches designed to control drug and substance abuse kept the students in the abuse culture. 26 Indeed, 45.5% of the students believed that drug or substance abuse increased intelligence. Therefore, this explains the tendency and tenacity of the students to maintain the abuse culture even after getting into the university system.

On assessing the variables associated with drug and substance abuse among the students, it was observed that the academic performance of the students, class attendance, students’ information, and belief on the menace were all found to be important factors that significantly had influence on the culture of drug and substance abuse among the students. About 50% of the students involved in drug and substance abuse reported having poor class attendance and poor academic performance. The implication is multidimensional, which may include the potential for student being deprived to sit for an exam due to poor lecture attendance, since there is a rule in the Nigerian universities that students must have a minimum of 70% attendance to be allowed to sit for an exam. Other implications include expulsion due to poor academic performance, and perhaps several consequences to the society at large.

Drug and substance abuse among the undergraduate university students in Katsina State is common, and it cuts across both male and female students. Most abused drugs are cough syrups, codeine (in all forms), and sleeping pills (tranquilizers), while of the substance type, tobacco, cannabis, coffee, and inhalants are the most commonly abused. However, there was no record regarding female abusing inhalants. A significant number of the respondents have information regarding the consequences of drug and substance abuse. Moreover, the university environment has no influence on the abusers regarding their indulgence into the menace. Finally, the abuse practice has serious negative impacts on the students’ zeal to attend lectures and their academic performance.

Concerted efforts towards parental support and supervisions, social intervention programs, and campus-based prevention and supported programs against drug and substance abuse should be encouraged.

Limitations: To our knowledge, this is the first study that involved three different universities (both public and private) on drug and substance abuse among undergraduate students in Nigeria. The study provides insights into the root causes and whether university environment has an influence on initiating drug and substance abuse among the students. The study is, however, not without some limitations; firstly, the online nature of the study may automatically exclude some of the eligible participants who may not have smartphones or other means of accessing the survey tool. Secondly, the study did not report the proportion of drug and substance abusers for individual universities involved in this study. This was intentional in order to avoid stereotyping some set of students from a particular university.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank writing consultant, Dikko Muhammad, for his editorial services. We are also grateful to the Health Research Ethical Review Committee of Katsina State Ministry of Health. We are equally grateful to all the Research Ethics Committees of Al-Qalam University, Federal University Dutsin-Ma, and Umaru Musa Yar’adua University. Finally, to all the participants in this study, we are most grateful.

Conflicts of Interest

The Authors have no conflict of interest.

Authors’ Contribution

Conceptualized the study: YHW; designed the study: YHW, KGM, UII; wrote the first draft of manuscript: KGM; led data collection: YHW; performed analysis and wrote results: ZS; wrote the part of discussion: UII and YHW; revised the whole manuscript: YHW and UII. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Drug abuse in Nigeria: a review of epidemiological studies

• PMID: 6985029

This paper reviews the available literature on the epidemiology of drug abuse in Nigeria. Depending on the definition used, substances which are abused include antibiotics, antidiarrhoeals, laxatives, pain-relieving drugs, sedatives, amphetamines and cannabis. This review is, however, limited to studies on substances which alter behaviour or mood. These drugs include cannabis, sedative-hypnotics, amphetamines and alcohol. For some classes of drugs there has been a noticeable shift in patterns of drug abuse, for example, from abuse of methaqualone to barbiturates. The abuse of volatile solvents and other substances has also been noted. The review shows that there is no age limit among drug abusers. Studies on the influence of social class have been contradictory. Factors which indicate a predisposition to initial drug use have been similar to those reported in other cultures. Although the studies agreed on the classes of drugs abused and the changing patterns of drug abuse, there has been no uniform reporting system. This situation is attributed to financial constraints. Large-scale surveys which should incorporate most of the core items in any epidemiological study on substance abuse have been suggested.

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