latest research coffee drinking

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 20 April 2021

Habitual coffee drinkers display a distinct pattern of brain functional connectivity

• Ricardo Magalhães 1 , 2 , 3 , 4   na1 ,
• Maria Picó-Pérez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1573-2445 1 , 2 , 3   na1 ,
• Madalena Esteves 1 , 2 , 3   na1 ,
• Rita Vieira   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6762-406X 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Teresa C. Castanho 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Liliana Amorim 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Mafalda Sousa 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Ana Coelho 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Henrique M. Fernandes 5 ,
• Joana Cabral   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6715-0826 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 ,
• Pedro S. Moreira 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 &
• Nuno Sousa   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8755-5126 1 , 2 , 3 , 7  

Molecular Psychiatry volume  26 ,  pages 6589–6598 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

144k Accesses

32 Citations

489 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Neuroscience

Coffee is the most widely consumed source of caffeine worldwide, partly due to the psychoactive effects of this methylxanthine. Interestingly, the effects of its chronic consumption on the brain’s intrinsic functional networks are still largely unknown. This study provides the first extended characterization of the effects of chronic coffee consumption on human brain networks. Subjects were recruited and divided into two groups: habitual coffee drinkers (CD) and non-coffee drinkers (NCD). Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was acquired in these volunteers who were also assessed regarding stress, anxiety, and depression scores. In the neuroimaging evaluation, the CD group showed decreased functional connectivity in the somatosensory and limbic networks during resting state as assessed with independent component analysis. The CD group also showed decreased functional connectivity in a network comprising subcortical and posterior brain regions associated with somatosensory, motor, and emotional processing as assessed with network-based statistics; moreover, CD displayed longer lifetime of a functional network involving subcortical regions, the visual network and the cerebellum. Importantly, all these differences were dependent on the frequency of caffeine consumption, and were reproduced after NCD drank coffee. CD showed higher stress levels than NCD, and although no other group effects were observed in this psychological assessment, increased frequency of caffeine consumption was also associated with increased anxiety in males. In conclusion, higher consumption of coffee and caffeinated products has an impact in brain functional connectivity at rest with implications in emotionality, alertness, and readiness to action.

Similar content being viewed by others

Drinking coffee enhances neurocognitive function by reorganizing brain functional connectivity

Resting-state functional connectivity and structural differences between smokers and healthy non-smokers

Brain activity during a working memory task after daily caffeine intake and caffeine withdrawal: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial

Introduction.

Coffee is the most widely consumed beverage, with particular interest for human health in view of its short-term effects on attention, sleep, and memory and its long-term impact on the appearance of different diseases and on healthy span of ageing [ 1 , 2 ]. Coffee has several constituents able to impact on human health, amongst which stems caffeine, which is the most widely consumed psychostimulant in the world [ 3 ]. Despite its widespread use it is surprising to note that a thorough characterization of the chronic effects of coffee upon the human brain is still lacking. In the present work we aim to begin addressing that issue.

In the brain, caffeine acts as an antagonist of adenosine A1 and A2A receptors, leading to hyperexcitability of the central nervous system [ 3 , 4 ]. This induces acute effects in diverse domains, such as physical endurance [ 1 , 5 ], vigilance, dexterity [ 6 ], mood [ 7 , 8 ], memory [ 9 ], and cognitive function [ 1 , 8 , 10 ]. There is also evidence that coffee/caffeine intake can normalize anxiety [ 11 ], although higher doses of caffeine may be anxiogenic [ 1 , 12 ] by disrupting the HPA axis [ 13 ]. On the other hand, epidemiological and animal studies converge in concluding that coffee, caffeine and adenosine receptor antagonists attenuate the burden of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s [ 14 ], or psychiatric disorders such as depression [ 15 ]. Indeed, chronic antagonism of either A1 or A2 receptors seems to induce an upregulation of the former, but not the latter. The resulting altered receptor ratio may explain the shift from the acute psychomotor effects (e.g., attention, vigilance) to the longer-term actions of coffee (e.g., stress resistance, neuroprotection) effects [ 4 , 16 ].

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allows studying, in a noninvasive way, the function of the human brain during execution of different tasks or at rest [ 17 ]. So far, most studies using fMRI were focused on measuring the acute effects of caffeine intake in the brain. Briefly, they have reported caffeine-related increases in blood oxygenation-dependent-level (BOLD) signal in different cortical and subcortical areas during a visuomotor task [ 18 ]; an impact in working memory and perfusion in elderly subjects [ 19 , 20 ]; an increase in BOLD activation in the frontopolar and cingulate cortex during a 2-back verbal working memory task [ 21 , 22 ]; and a global caffeine-induced increase in brain entropy, possibly representing an increased processing capacity [ 23 ]. Very few studies, however, were performed to study the acute effects of caffeine in functional connectivity (FC) at rest [ 24 , 25 ]. Those few studies reveal a general trend for a caffeine-induced reduction in FC, associated with neuro-electric power fluctuations as measured through magnetoencephalography and exacerbated anticorrelations. Despite this existing literature, many aspects of the characterization of the impact of caffeine on the brain remain unexplored. Critical amongst these is the characterization of the chronic effects of habitual coffee and caffeine consumption upon the functional architecture of the brain. We are only aware of a single study that touched on this subject [ 26 ]. That work revealed an association between different habits of coffee consumption and the magnitude of BOLD signals in the visual cortex; however, it did not address possible effects on the functional connectome or resting state networks. Pursuit of the latter can present significant challenges in finding and recruiting participants with sufficient variation in consumption habits and who are willing to undergo necessary, even if short, abstinence procedures.

To tackle this gap, herein we will use whole brain approaches [ 27 , 28 , 29 ], as well as the study of brain functional dynamics [ 30 ] to compare FC and its dynamics between habitual and non-habitual coffee consumers. In addition, and because of the potential anxiogenic and HPA-disrupting role of caffeine, measures of psychological state (depression, anxiety, and stress) will also be acquired, in order to explore the potential association of habitual coffee consumption with these variables.

Subject recruitment and assessment

Participants were recruited through advertisement on the Institute’s social media, institutional e-mail, and press releases distributed among Portuguese local and national newspapers. Exclusion criteria included the presence of neurological or psychiatric disorders, habitual consumption of mind-altering substances, and the inability to undergo MRI. Two experimental groups were created according to participants’ coffee consumption habits: coffee drinkers (CD), who drank a minimum of one cup of caffeinated coffee per day; and non-coffee drinkers (NCD), who had no habits of regular consumption of coffee (less than one cup per week). Consumption of coffee as well as other caffeinated products was confirmed in a structured interview. Participants were instructed to abstain from caffeinated products for 3 h before the assessment, in order to avoid acute influence of caffeine. Fifty-six subjects were recruited (32 CD and 24 NCD). One participant from the CD group was excluded due to imaging artifacts, rendering a final sample of 31 CD and 24 NCD. Characterization of subjects was done in two (CD) or three (NCD) parts within a 3 h time-period: participants were first interviewed by a certified psychologist. This was followed by an MRI scanning session, and, in the case of the NCD, the first scanning session was followed by ingestion of coffee (Nespresso ® Ristretto, ~50 cc) before a rs-fMRI scan ~30 min thereafter. During the interview, the following data were gathered: demographic data; habits of coffee and other caffeinated products consumption; and assessment of depression, anxiety, and stress scores through the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21, [ 31 , 32 ]).

Demographic and psychological data analysis

CD and NCD groups were compared in terms of sociodemographic variables, frequency of consumption of caffeinated products, and psychological variables. Since the variables did not follow a normal distribution, nonparametric tests were applied (Wilcoxon test). Moreover, multiple regression analyses were performed, aiming to determine the association between daily consumption of caffeinated products such as coffee, tea, chocolate, etc. (0 = <1/day; 1 = 1/day; 2 = 2/day; 3 = 3 or more/day) and the psychological data measured with the DASS-21 questionnaire (controlled for sex, age, and education), independently of the groups. These analyses were performed on Matlab2020a software (The Mathworks, Inc.) and p  < 0.05 was considered the threshold for statistical significance. Linear regression representations were generated in Prism 7 software (GraphPad Software, Inc.).

MRI brain imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging scans were conducted using a Siemens Verio 3T (Siemens, Erlangen, Germany) located in Hospital de Braga (Braga, Portugal) using a 32-channel head antenna. The scanning session included as an anatomical acquisition a T1-weighted sagittal magnetization-prepared rapid acquisition with gradient echo (TE/TR = 2420/4.12 ms, FA = 9°, 1 mm 3 isometric voxel size, Field-of-View = 176 × 256 × 256 mm 3 ). The resting-state fMRI (rs-fMRI) acquisition used a multi-band echo planar imaging sequence, CMRR EPI 2D (R2016A, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minnesota, USA [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]) sensitive to fluctuations in the BOLD contrast (TR/TE = 1000/27 ms, FA = 62°, 2 mm 3 isometric voxel size, 64 axial slices over an in plane matrix of 100 × 100). The rs-fMRI acquisition had a duration of 7.5 min, during which subjects were instructed to remain with their eyes closed, relaxed, and let their minds wander freely.

Preprocessing of MRI data

MRI results included in this manuscript were preprocessed using fMRIPrep 1.4.1 ([ 36 ]; RRID:SCR_016216), which is based on Nipype 1.2.0 ([ 37 , 38 ]; RRID:SCR_002502). A full description of the preprocessing pipeline can be found in the Supplementary material.

Resting-state analysis

Independent component analysis.

Resting-state network (RSN) maps were analyzed voxel-wise through a probabilistic independent component analysis (ICA) as implemented in Multivariate Exploratory Linear Optimized Decomposition into Independent Components, distributed with FSL [ 39 ]. For further details check the Supplementary material.

The RSNs FC was compared between CD and NCD groups, using a nonparametric permutation procedure implemented in the randomize tool from FSL [ 40 ]. Threshold-free cluster enhancement (TFCE) was used to detect widespread significant differences and control the family-wise error rate (FWE-R) at α  = 0.05. In total, 5000 permutations were performed.

Static functional connectomics analysis

To assess differences between the two groups in the functional connectome, the mean time series of the 268 regions of the Shen Atlas [ 41 ] were extracted. The Pearson correlation between time series, followed by Fisher r-to-Z transformation, were calculated to obtain matrices of FC for each subject. To overcome the issue of multiple comparisons induced by the large number of connections in the network, we applied the network-based statistics (NBS) approach [ 42 ]. A total of 5000 permutations were used, together with a FWE corrected network significance of 0.05. For more details check the Supplementary material.

Dynamic functional analysis

We applied the leading eigenvector dynamics analysis (LEiDA, [ 30 ]) approach to study the changes in the functional dynamics associated with habitual caffeine consumption. Instantaneous FC was calculated for each subject at each time point for all 268 regions of interest of the Shen atlas, using the time series extracted for the static analysis. To help visually identify phase locked (PL) states, the overlap between each anatomical region of each state to the 7 Yeo RSN’s [ 43 ], plus two other labels for the cerebellum and subcortical units, was calculated and anatomical units color coded in accordance to the best match. For more details check the reference paper or the Supplementary material.

Effects of acute coffee consumption and frequency of caffeine consumption

The significant findings obtained with ICA, NBS, and LEiDA were further explored, aiming to assess the effects of acute coffee consumption in NCD and of frequency of consumption of caffeinated products in both groups. The first were assessed by comparing NCD after coffee consumption with data from CD (independent sample t -test) and NCD (before coffee consumption; paired sample t -test). The second were evaluated by performing multiple regression analyses following the same approach described for the DASS-21 questionnaire.

Demographic analysis

CD and NCD groups did not differ in terms of age (range 19–57; p  = 0.28; Z  = 1.09; r  = 0.15) or number of formal years of education (range 12–25; p  = 0.07; Z  = 1.84; r  = 0.25). Frequency of consumption of caffeinated products was, as expected, higher in the CD group ( p  < 0.001; Z  = 6.17; r  = 0.83). Sex distribution was not significantly different between groups ( χ 2 (1, N  = 55) = 0.52, p  = 0.42), despite the CD group presenting a slightly higher proportion of males (41.94%) in comparison with the NCD group (33.33%). Descriptive statistics can be found in Table  1 .

Effect of habitual caffeine consumption on rs-fMRI data

Independent components analysis.

Thirty components were obtained from the probabilistic ICA of CD and NCD (before consuming coffee). Fifteen of these components were found to be representative of the most typical RSNs. A tendency toward lower FC patterns in the CD group can be seen in most of these networks (see Supplementary Fig.  1 ). Despite this, we only found significant FWE-R TFCE corrected between-group differences in two of them, namely, in the somatosensory network and the limbic network (Fig.  1 ). Regarding the somatosensory network, NCD presented a pattern of higher connectivity with the right precuneus (MNI coordinates = 30, −72, 38; 7 voxels; peak t value = 4.4). Moreover, for the limbic network, NCD had higher FC in the right insula compared to CD (MNI coordinates = 42, −12, 2; 4 voxels; peak t value = 5.09). Of note, these effects were also linearly associated with the caffeinated products’ frequency of consumption. Negative correlations were found for both right precuneus ( p  = 0.003; β  = −1.433; adjusted R 2  = 0.162; Fig.  1B ) and right insula ( p  < 0.001; β  = −2.384; adjusted R 2  = 0.267; Fig.  1B ). Detailed statistics can be found in Supplementary Table  1 .

A Sagittal, coronal, and axial view of the clusters showing significant between-group differences in the connectivity between the somatosensory network and the right precuneus (top) and the limbic network and the right insula (bottom). The FWE-R TFCE corrected clusters are shown in dark blue overlaid over a more extended non-significant after multiple comparison correction cluster in hot color scale scheme, for visualization purposes. B Associations of frequency of consumption of caffeinated beverages with the mean FC of the right precuneus and the right insula. C Scatter plots showing the mean FC of the right precuneus and the right insula for the NCD before drinking coffee (NCD), the NCD after drinking coffee (NCD pos), and the CD.

Importantly, the group differences described were reduced after NCD drank coffee (see Fig.  1C ; somatosensory network: pre vs post NCD t value = 1.86, p  = 0.075, post NCD vs CD t value = −2.89, p  = 0.006; limbic network: pre vs post NCD t value = 3.88, p  < 0.001, post NCD vs CD t value = −1.46, p  = 0.15). This points to a potential causality link between coffee drinking and the above-described changes in lower connectivity in the somatosensory and in the limbic networks.

Connectomics analysis

From the connectomics analysis done using NBS, a single network of significantly higher connectivity was found in the NCD group (pre-coffee) between the thresholds of 0.005 and 0.0005 (for statistics of all thresholds see Supplementary Table  2 ). For ease of visualization, we present only the results found at the highest significant threshold of p  = 0.0005 ( t (threshold) = 3.71, df = 54, p (network) = 0.043, Hedge’s g  = 1.08 (large effect size), 24 nodes, 46 edges; Fig.  2A ). The full list of nodes with significant different edges between groups across all thresholds can be found in Supplementary Table  3 . Of these we highlight the Thalamus (nodes #262 and #126), the Cerebellum (left anterior Culmen #245 and bilateral Tonsils #238 and #119), the right Postcentral Gyrus (#33), the left Middle Temporal Gyrus (#197), the left Precentral Gyrus (#160), and the bilateral Caudate (#260 and #122) and Putamen (#124 and #261) as having the most strongly affected connections within the network.

A Sagittal, coronal, and axial view of the network with nodes and edges colored in red–yellow color scheme representing the statistical t value of the difference between groups. B Scatter plot of the mean FC within the significant network for each experimental group. C Associations of frequency of consumption of caffeinated beverages with the mean FC of the network found in NBS.

When observing the average network connectivity from this network, NCD post-coffee drink displayed a significant reduction in connectivity (Fig.  2B ), leading to a profile more similar to CD ( p  = 0.037, t  = 2.13, df = 54) than to NCD pre-coffee drink ( p  = 1.3 × 10 −7 , t  = 7.4, df = 23). NBS mean FC was negatively associated with frequency of caffeine consumption ( p  < 0.001; β  = −0.101; adjusted R 2  = 0.506; Fig.  2C ). Detailed statistics can be found in Supplementary Table  1 .

From the dynamic FC analysis, one functional subsystem (Fig.  3A , PL state 4) was found to last significantly longer in CD (Fig.  3B , 17.95 ± 18.32 s) compared to pre-coffee NCD (8.95 ± 6.13 s) surviving correction for multiple comparisons with a corrected p  = 0.038 and a medium effect size with Hedge’s g  = 0.62. No BOLD phase-locking state was found to significantly differ in terms of probability of occurrence (see Supplementary Table  4 for all p values for all partition models).

A sagittal and axial views representing the state anatomical areas of each phase locked (PL) state. B Bar plot representing the group differences between coffee and non-coffee drinkers. Differences of p  < 0.05 are indicated in red, while multiple comparison surviving effects are indicated in green. C Associations of frequency of consumption of caffeinated beverages with the average duration (in seconds) of PL state 4. D Bar plot of the probability of state 4 for the CD, NCD, and NCD post caffeine consumption groups. E Life time of state 4 for the CD, NCD, and NCD post caffeine consumption groups. F Colored labels used to match each anatomical area of the PL states to different resting state networks.

This BOLD phase-locking state, corresponding to the fourth most probable state when partitioning the data into nine states, comprises a large number of nodes in the cerebellum, visual network as well as several subcortical nodes such as the bilateral thalamus and parahippocampal gyrus (mapped and color coded through the reference shown in Fig.  3F ). While this was the only result that survived correction for multiple comparisons, it is relevant to note that the equivalent LEiDA state for k  = 10 is just below the threshold ( p  = 0.051, Supplementary Table  4 and Supplementary Figs.  2 and 3 ). Furthermore, LEiDA lifetime results were positively correlated with frequency of caffeine consumption ( p  = 0.012; β  = 2.176; adjusted R 2  = 0.083; Fig.  3C ).

After drinking coffee, both the lifetime and the probability of this state in NCD became closer to the values observed in CD, with the probability not being significantly different from CD ( p  = 0.5, t  = 0.67, df = 54), while being significantly higher than NCD pre-coffee ( p  = 0.037, t  = 2.31, df = 23, Fig.  3D ). For the life time of state 4, post-coffee drink NCD were not significantly different from CD ( p  = 0.177, t  = 1.37, df = 54) nor the pre-drink NCD ( p  = 0.107, t  = 1.68, df = 23, Fig.  3E ). All results across the different k’ s can be found in Supplementary Figs.  2 and 3 and Supplementary Table  4 .

Effect of habitual caffeine consumption on psychological data

The association between coffee consumption and stress, anxiety, and depression (DASS-21) was assessed. When comparing CD and NCD groups, only stress was significantly different between groups (stress— p  = 0.025; Z  = 2.237; r  = 0.307; anxiety— p  = 0.851; Z  = −0.188; r  = −0.026; depression— p  = 0.085; Z  = 1.724; r  = 0.237), with CD showing higher levels of stress than NCD (median (Med) = 6.0; interquartile range (IQR) = 6.0 vs Med = 4.0; IQR = 4.0, respectively). Of notice, particular items of the DASS-21 Stress subscale that can be related to arousal were increased in CD. Items #1 and #12, which measure difficulty to relax, presented statistically significant differences ( p  = 0.007, Mann–Whitney test), while item #8, that relates to nervous arousal, presented a trend in the same direction ( p  = 0.083). Interestingly, item #7 (Anxiety subscale), that is associated with skeletal musculature, despite not achieving a statistically significant difference between groups, tended to be lower in CD ( p  = 0.113), suggesting a segregation between the motor and arousal loops.

When assessing the effects of frequency of caffeine consumption in self-reported variables (controlling for sex, age, and education), the positive correlation with stress was maintained ( p  = 0.004; β  = 1.292; adjusted R 2  = 0.135; Fig.  4A ). Moreover, a sex by anxiety interaction was found ( p  = 0.023; β  = 0.683; adjusted R 2  = 0.085; Fig.  4B ), which seems to be driven by a positive correlation in males. No significant effects were found for the depression subscale ( p  = 0.128; β  = 0.450; adjusted R 2  = 0.108; Fig.  4C ). Detailed statistics can be found in Supplementary Table  1 .

Associations of frequency of consumption of caffeinated products with the DASS-21 subscales of stress ( A ) and anxiety ( B ), and non-significant association with the depression subscale ( C ).

Herein we describe for the first time the effects of habitual coffee consumption on the human brain networks. We show that habitual CD have different patterns of FC in comparison with NCD. Our rs-fMRI analysis revealed decreased FC of the somatosensory and limbic networks in CD that correlated with the frequency of consumption of caffeinated products. Such changes were replicated in NCD after a single coffee, suggesting possible causality between coffee intake and altered patterns of brain network connectivity. Previous studies have described a reduction of similar RSN connectivity after acute caffeine ingestion [ 25 , 44 ].

Decreased FC in somatosensory and related networks in CD likely represents a more efficient and beneficial pattern of connections with respect to motor control and alertness; importantly this fits our findings of trends of increased scores in CD in the specific items of the DASS-21 scale that measure these dimensions. The other network impacted by coffee intake was the limbic network, which is involved in processing the sensory input from the external and internal environment which, by modulating memory and motivation, determine emotional, autonomic, motor, and cognitive responses [ 45 ]. A previous resting-state PET study showed reduced metabolic activity in components of this network after caffeine ingestion [ 18 ] and a study using a hedonic fMRI task showed decreased activation in neuronal areas associated with memory and reward [ 46 ] in caffeine consumers compared to non-consumers; the present FC data are consistent with those reports.

Analysis of the global functional connectome using NBS revealed a network impacted by the habitual consumption of caffeine. This widespread network of reduced FC comprised cerebellar, subcortical (striatal and thalamic), and motor cortex regions, partially matching previously reported effects of acute caffeine ingestion [ 24 , 25 ]. Interestingly, there is a clear bilateral involvement of striatal nodes and of the thalamus which, respectively, have the highest densities of A2A and A1 receptors in the brain [ 47 , 48 ]. The action of caffeine in these regions has an influence on cortico-striatal-thalamic and cerebellar-thalamocortical loops that are relevant for a variety of neuronal processes. Thus, the observed decrease in FC at rest in this network in regular caffeine-ingesting individuals reveals greater segregation of these areas with less inter-regional dependencies, favoring greater efficiency within these loops. It is relevant to note here that, even though A1 and A2A receptors are thought to mediate differential actions [ 49 ], similar effects were observed in both loops. This likely reflects the fact that fMRI provides proxy aggregate measurements of functional connections among a network of brain areas.

A previous study reported that caffeine increases brain entropy, indicating higher information processing capacity across the cerebral cortex [ 23 ]. Our LEiDA analysis revealed a dynamic state involving several cerebellar and subcortical areas, with a longer average lifetime in habitual CD. This network comprises several nodes, including the cerebellum, thalamus, and parahipocampal, lingual, and inferior occipital gyri which are relevant in the context of caffeine consumption—caffeine is known to decrease mind wandering [ 50 ] and to increase attention, alertness, and arousal [ 51 ]. In fact, the nodes implicated in this network are linked by visual processing; among these, the thalamus is critical for distributing cognitive control [ 52 ]. The lingual and inferior occipital gyrus are also implicated in visual processing, while the parahippocampus is involved in memory encoding and retrieval [ 20 , 21 ]; the latter may explain why caffeine reportedly facilitates memory processes [ 9 ]. Lastly, evidence of strong rsFC between the cerebellum, known to be also implicated in sensory processing [ 53 ] and a number of sensorial cortices [ 54 ], explains the observed increased visual alertness/attention and readiness to sensorial perception among CD individuals. While similar findings have been previously reported [ 6 ], only one other study assessed habitual CD using MRI, and did not characterize changes in FC [ 26 ]. Importantly, similarly to the other neuroimaging findings, a common pattern of connectivity dynamics was found in CD individuals and NCD subjects who drank a single coffee before scanning.

In order to provide a link with other neuropsychologic dimensions, we also assessed our subjects in the DASS-21. Interestingly, we observed habitual CD to display increased levels of stress; there was a clear positive association between the indices of stress and the amount of consumption of caffeinated drinks. Interestingly, items of the DASS-21 sub-score that showed greater variance between CD vs NCD were those related with difficulty to relax (items #1 and #12), and those related to nervous arousal (item #8), consistent with the common attribution of alertness and arousal to coffee intake. It also deserves to be mentioned that, despite the display of a higher anxiety among CD (particularly in males), there was a decrease in DASS-21 item (#7) which matches the effects on the skeletal muscles in CD; this, in turn, fits the findings of better segregation of the above-described loops. The present results extend previous studies that described an association between coffee/caffeine consumption and stress and anxiety [ 1 , 13 , 16 , 55 ] and sex [ 13 , 16 ]. It is important to note, however, that causality cannot be inferred from our study design. Our results are open to two interpretations: higher coffee/caffeine consumption leads to increased stress and anxiety; or, alternatively, higher stress and anxiety induce higher coffee/caffeine consumption. Moreover, given that resting-state studies using stress and anxiety samples have shown both decreases and increases in FC [ 56 , 57 , 58 ], the possibility that coffee/caffeine consumption elicits decreases in FC or compensates for FC beyond a certain threshold, must also be considered. While the first possibility is in line with studies showing increased anxiety upon both acute caffeine administration in humans [ 1 , 12 ] and prolonged ingestion in rodents [ 59 ] reports that greater caffeine consumption under periods of stress may help maintain synaptic homeostasis [ 60 ] as well as prevent mood disorders warrant further study in future.

The methodologies applied in the present study do not allow us to draw precise relationships between the psychological and neuroimaging results and the dosage and metabolism of caffeine among individual subjects. To study the individual responses to the acute and chronic effects of caffeinated product intake would be a complex undertaking, requiring subjects to adapt their daily habits and strict abstinence regimens. Based on our experience, recruitment of subjects for a properly balanced study is also difficult since NCD subjects are insufficiently motivated to engage in studies on the actions of caffeine. Nevertheless, we are currently developing alternative strategies that would allow us to deliver calibrated doses of caffeine during fMRI scanning sessions to better discriminate its effects from other factors (e.g., stress). Our future work will also examine inter-individual differences in response to caffeine consumption, the subjective experience of coffee consumption, as well as the influence of additional factors as the consumption of alcohol and tobacco. Despite such gaps, the data presented here represent a contribution to the knowledge of the “caffeinated brain” and how these changes underlie the behavioral effects triggered by coffee intake, with implications for physiological and pathological conditions.

Code availability

In-house scripts used in the NBS analysis are fully available online at open science framework website ( https://osf.io/qepc8/ ) and LEiDA scripts at github ( https://github.com/juanitacabral/LEiDA ).

McLellan TM, Caldwell JA, Lieberman HR. A review of caffeine’s effects on cognitive, physical and occupational performance. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016;71:294–312.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

O’Keefe JH, DiNicolantonio JJ, Lavie CJ. Coffee for cardioprotection and longevity. Prog Cardiovascular Dis. 2018;61:38–42.

Article   Google Scholar  

Fredholm BB, Bättig K, Holmén J, Nehlig A, Zvartau EE. Actions of caffeine in the brain with special reference to factors that contribute to its widespread use. Pharmacol Rev. 1999;51:83–133.

CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Ribeiro JA, Sebastião AM. Caffeine and Adenosine. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2010;20:S3–15.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Southward K, Rutherfurd-Markwick KJ, Ali A. The effect of acute caffeine ingestion on endurance performance: a systematic review and meta–analysis. Sports Med. 2018;48:1913–28.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Killgore WDS, Kamimori GH. Multiple caffeine doses maintain vigilance, attention, complex motor sequence expression, and manual dexterity during 77 h of total sleep deprivation. Neurobiol Sleep Circadian Rhythms. 2020;9:100051.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Sane RM, Jadhav PR, Subhedar SN. The acute effects of decaffeinated versus caffeinated coffee on reaction time, mood and skeletal muscle strength. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol. 2019;30.

Smit HJ, Rogers PJ. Effects of low doses of caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and thirst in low and higher caffeine consumers. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2000;152:167–73.

Borota D, Murray E, Keceli G, Chang A, Watabe JM, Ly M, et al. Post-study caffeine administration enhances memory consolidation in humans. Nat Neurosci. 2014;17:201–3.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Franceschini S, Lulli M, Bertoni S, Gori S, Angrilli A, Mancarella M, et al. Caffeine improves text reading and global perception. J Psychopharmacol. 2020;34:315–25.

Harris A, Ursin H, Murison R, Eriksen HR. Coffee, stress and cortisol in nursing staff. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2007;32:322–30.

Bruce M. Anxiogenic effects of caffeine in patients with anxiety disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49:867.

O’Neill CE, Newsom RJ, Stafford J, Scott T, Archuleta S, Levis SC, et al. Adolescent caffeine consumption increases adulthood anxiety-related behavior and modifies neuroendocrine signaling. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2016;67:40–50.

Eskelinen MH, Kivipelto M. Caffeine as a protective factor in dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2010;20:S167–74.

Wang L, Shen X, Wu Y, Zhang D. Coffee and caffeine consumption and depression: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Aust NZ J Psychiatry. 2016;50:228–42.

Kaster MP, Machado NJ, Silva HB, Nunes A, Ardais AP, Santana M, et al. Caffeine acts through neuronal adenosine A2A receptors to prevent mood and memory dysfunction triggered by chronic stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2015;112:7833–8.

Soares JM, Magalhães R, Moreira PS, Sousa A, Ganz E, Sampaio A, et al. A Hitchhiker’s guide to functional magnetic resonance imaging. Front Neurosci. 2016;10:515.

Park CA, Kang CK, Son YD, Choi EJ, Kim SH, Oh ST, et al. The effects of caffeine ingestion on cortical areas: functional imaging study. Magn Reson Imaging. 2014;32:366–71.

Haller S, Rodriguez C, Moser D, Toma S, Hofmeister J, Sinanaj I, et al. Acute caffeine administration impact on working memory-related brain activation and functional connectivity in the elderly: a BOLD and perfusion MRI study. Neuroscience. 2013;250:364–71.

Klaassen EB, de Groot RHM, Evers EAT, Snel J, Veerman ECI, Ligtenberg AJM, et al. The effect of caffeine on working memory load-related brain activation in middle-aged males. Neuropharmacology. 2013;64:160–7.

Haller S, Montandon ML, Rodriguez C, Moser D, Toma S, Hofmeister J, et al. Caffeine impact on working memory-related network activation patterns in early stages of cognitive decline. Neuroradiology. 2017;59:387–95.

Koppelstaetter F, Poeppel TD, Siedentopf CM, Ischebeck A, Verius M, Haala I, et al. Does caffeine modulate verbal working memory processes? An fMRI study. NeuroImage. 2008;39:492–9.

Chang D, Song D, Zhang J, Shang Y, Ge Q, Wang Z. Caffeine caused a widespread increase of resting brain entropy. Sci Rep. 2018;8:2700.

Tal O, Diwakar M, Wong CW, Olafsson V, Lee R, Huang MX, et al. Caffeine-induced global reductions in resting-state BOLD connectivity reflect widespread decreases in MEG connectivity. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7:63.

Wong CW, Olafsson V, Tal O, Liu TT. Anti-correlated networks, global signal regression, and the effects of caffeine in resting-state functional MRI. NeuroImage. 2012;63:356–64.

Laurienti PJ, Field AS, Burdette JH, Maldjian JA, Yen Y-F, Moody DM. Dietary caffeine consumption modulates fMRI measures. NeuroImage. 2002;17:751–7.

Bullmore E, Sporns O. Complex brain networks: graph theoretical analysis of structural and functional systems. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10:186–98.

Deco G, Kringelbach ML. Great expectations: using whole-brain computational connectomics for understanding neuropsychiatric disorders. Neuron. 2014;84:892–905.

Sporns O, Chialvo D, Kaiser M, Hilgetag C. Organization, development and function of complex brain networks. Trends Cogn Sci. 2004;8:418–25.

Cabral J, Vidaurre D, Marques P, Magalhães R, Silva Moreira P, Miguel, et al. Cognitive performance in healthy older adults relates to spontaneous switching between states of functional connectivity during rest. Sci Rep. 2017;7:5135.

Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH. The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behav Res Ther. 1995;33:335–43.

Pais-Ribeiro JL, Honrado A, Leal I. Contribuição para o Estudo da Adaptação Portuguesa das Escalas de Ansiedade, Depressão e Stress (EADS) de 21 itens de Lovibond e Lovibond. Psic Saúde Doenç. 2004;5:229–39.

Google Scholar  

Feinberg DA, Moeller S, Smith SM, Auerbach E, Ramanna S, Glasser MF, et al. Multiplexed echo planar imaging for sub-second whole brain FMRI and fast diffusion imaging. PLoS ONE. 2010;5:e15710.

Moeller S, Yacoub E, Olman CA, Auerbach E, Strupp J, Harel N, et al. Multiband multislice GE-EPI at 7 tesla, with 16-fold acceleration using partial parallel imaging with application to high spatial and temporal whole-brain fMRI. Magn Reson Med. 2010;63:1144–53.

Xu J, Moeller S, Auerbach EJ, Strupp J, Smith SM, Feinberg DA, et al. Evaluation of slice accelerations using multiband echo planar imaging at 3T. NeuroImage. 2013;83:991–1001.

Esteban O, Markiewicz CJ, Blair RW, Moodie CA, Isik AI, Erramuzpe A, et al. fMRIPrep: a robust preprocessing pipeline for functional MRI. Nat Methods. 2019;16:111–6.

Gorgolewski KJ, Esteban O, Ellis DG, Notter MP, Ziegler E, Johnson H, et al. Nipype: a flexible, lightweight and extensible neuroimaging data processing framework in Python. 0.13.1. Zenodo. 2017.

Gorgolewski K, Burns CD, Madison C, Clark D, Halchenko YO, Waskom ML, et al. Nipype: a flexible, lightweight and extensible neuroimaging data processing framework in python. Front Neuroinform. 2011;5:13.

Beckmann CF, Smith SM. Probabilistic independent component analysis for functional magnetic resonance imaging. IEEE Trans Med Imaging. 2004;23:137–52.

Winkler AM, Ridgway GR, Webster MA, Smith SM, Nichols TE. Permutation inference for the general linear model. NeuroImage. 2014;92:381–97.

Shen X, Tokoglu F, Papademetris X, Constable RT. Groupwise whole-brain parcellation from resting-state fMRI data for network node identification. NeuroImage. 2013;82:403–15.

Zalesky A, Fornito A, Bullmore ET. Network-based statistic: identifying differences in brain networks. NeuroImage. 2010;53:1197–207.

Thomas Yeo BT, Krienen FM, Sepulcre J, Sabuncu MR, Lashkari D, Hollinshead M, et al. The organization of the human cerebral cortex estimated by intrinsic functional connectivity. J Neurophysiol. 2011;106:1125–65.

Article   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Rack-Gomer AL, Liu TT. Caffeine increases the temporal variability of resting-state BOLD connectivity in the motor cortex. NeuroImage. 2012;59:2994–3002.

McLachlan RS. A brief review of the anatomy and physiology of the limbic system. Can J Neurological Sci. 2009;36:S84–87.

Gramling L, Kapoulea E, Murphy C. Taste perception and caffeine consumption: an fMRI study. Nutrients. 2018;11:34.

Svenningsson P. Distribution, biochemistry and function of striatal adenosine A2A receptors. Prog Neurobiol. 1999;59:355–96.

Fredholm BB, Arslan G, Halldner L, Kull B, Schulte G, Wasserman W. Structure and function of adenosine receptors and their genes. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Arch Pharmacol. 2000;362:364–74.

Adenosine FBB. Adenosine receptors and the actions of caffeine. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1995;76:93–101.

Mishina M, Ishiwata K. Adenosine receptor PET imaging in human brain. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2014;119:51–69.

Kahathuduwa CN, Dhanasekara CS, Chin SH, Davis T, Weerasinghe VS, Dassanayake TL, et al. l-Theanine and caffeine improve target-specific attention to visual stimuli by decreasing mind wandering: a human functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Nutr Res. 2018;49:67–78.

Brunyé TT, Mahoney CR, Lieberman HR, Taylor HA. Caffeine modulates attention network function. Brain Cogn. 2010;72:181–8.

Halassa MM, Kastner S. Thalamic functions in distributed cognitive control. Nat Neurosci. 2017;20:1669–79.

Baumann O, Borra RJ, Bower JM, Cullen KE, Habas C, Ivry RB, et al. Consensus Paper: the role of the cerebellum in perceptual processes. Cerebellum. 2015;14:197–220.

Richards G, Smith A. Caffeine consumption and self-assessed stress, anxiety, and depression in secondary school children. J Psychopharmacol. 2015;29:1236–47.

Kolesar TA, Bilevicius E, Wilson AD, Kornelsen J. Systematic review and meta-analyses of neural structural and functional differences in generalized anxiety disorder and healthy controls using magnetic resonance imaging. NeuroImage Clin. 2019;24:102016.

Koch SBJ, van Zuiden M, Nawijn L, Frijling JL, Veltman DJ, Olff M. Aberrant resting-state brain activity in posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis and systematic review: theoretical review: brain activity in PTSD during rest. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33:592–605.

Xu J, Van Dam NT, Feng C, Luo Y, Ai H, Gu R, et al. Anxious brain networks: a coordinate-based activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis of resting-state functional connectivity studies in anxiety. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;96:21–30.

Yacoubi ME, Ledent C, Parmentier M, Costentin J, Vaugeois JM. The anxiogenic-like effect of caffeine in two experimental procedures measuring anxiety in the mouse is not shared by selective A2A adenosine receptor antagonists. Psychopharmacology. 2000;148:153–63.

Yin Y-Q, Zhang C, Wang J-X, Hou J, Yang X, Qin J. Chronic caffeine treatment enhances the resilience to social defeat stress in mice. Food Funct. 2015;6:479–91.

Download references

This study was funded by the Institute for the Scientific Information on Coffee (ISIC) (ISIC_2017_NS); ISIC did not influence the experimental design or data analysis/interpretation. The laboratory was also supported by the project NORTE‐01‐0145‐FEDER000013 through the Northern Portugal Regional Operational Programme (NORTE 2020), under the Portugal 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER). RM, MP-P, and ME were supported by post-doctoral grants from the project ISIC_2017_NS. PSM was supported by a fellowship grant from the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT; grant number PDE/BDE/113601/2015) from the PhD-iHES program. RV was supported by a research fellowship of the project funded by FCT (UMINHO/BI/340/2018). AC was supported by a scholarship from the project NORTE-08-5639-FSE-000041 (NORTE 2020; UMINHO/BD/51/2017).

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Ricardo Magalhães, Maria Picó-Pérez, Madalena Esteves

Authors and Affiliations

Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal

Ricardo Magalhães, Maria Picó-Pérez, Madalena Esteves, Rita Vieira, Teresa C. Castanho, Liliana Amorim, Mafalda Sousa, Ana Coelho, Joana Cabral, Pedro S. Moreira & Nuno Sousa

ICVS/3B’s, PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal

Clinical Academic Center - Braga, Braga, Portugal

NeuroSpin, CEA, CNRS, Paris-Saclay University, Gif-sur-Yvette, France

Ricardo Magalhães

Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

Henrique M. Fernandes & Joana Cabral

Psychological Neuroscience Lab, CIPsi, School of Psychology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

Pedro S. Moreira

P5 Medical Center, Braga, Portugal

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nuno Sousa .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

The present study was conducted in accordance with the principles expressed in the Declaration of Helsinki (59th amendment) and was approved by the ethics committee of Hospital de Braga. All participants gave informed written consent after the study aims were explained and were informed of the option to withdraw from the study at any time.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplemental materials, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Magalhães, R., Picó-Pérez, M., Esteves, M. et al. Habitual coffee drinkers display a distinct pattern of brain functional connectivity. Mol Psychiatry 26 , 6589–6598 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01075-4

Download citation

Received : 19 December 2020

Accepted : 19 March 2021

Published : 20 April 2021

Issue Date : November 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01075-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

Genome-wide association studies of coffee intake in uk/us participants of european ancestry uncover cohort-specific genetic associations.

• Hayley H. A. Thorpe
• Pierre Fontanillas
• Sandra Sanchez-Roige

Neuropsychopharmacology (2024)

Current coffee consumption is associated with decreased striatal dopamine transporter availability in Parkinson’s disease patients and healthy controls

• Minming Zhang

BMC Medicine (2023)

Perceived stress modulates the activity between the amygdala and the cortex

• Inês Caetano
• Sónia Ferreira

Molecular Psychiatry (2022)

• Sung Hoon Kang
• Jung Bin Kim

Scientific Reports (2021)

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

• Election 2024
• Entertainment
• Newsletters
• Photography
• AP Buyline Personal Finance
• AP Buyline Shopping
• Press Releases
• Israel-Hamas War
• Russia-Ukraine War
• Global elections
• Asia Pacific
• Latin America
• Middle East
• Election results
• Google trends
• AP & Elections
• U.S. Open Tennis
• Paralympic Games
• College football
• Auto Racing
• Movie reviews
• Book reviews
• Financial Markets
• Business Highlights
• Financial wellness
• Artificial Intelligence
• Social Media

What to know about new research on coffee and heart risks

FILE - A worker prepares a coffee drink at a shop in Overland Park, Kan., Thursday, Aug. 14, 2008. In a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine on Wednesday, March 22, 2023, healthy volunteers who were asked to drink coffee or skip it on different days showed no signs of an increase in a certain type of heart rhythm after sipping the caffeinated drinks, although they did walk more and sleep less. (AP Photo/Orlin Wagner)

• Copy Link copied

Coffee lovers — and their doctors — have long wondered whether a jolt of java can affect the heart. New research published Wednesday finds that drinking caffeinated coffee did not significantly affect one kind of heart hiccup that can feel like a skipped beat.

But it did signal a slight increase in another type of irregular heartbeat in people who drank more than one cup per day. And it found that people tend to walk more and sleep less on the days they drank coffee.

Coffee is one of the most common beverages in the world. In the U.S., two-thirds of Americans drink coffee every day, more than bottled water, tea or tap water, according to the National Coffee Association, a trade group. Coffee contains caffeine , a stimulant, which is widely regarded as safe for healthy adults at about 400 milligrams per day, or roughly the equivalent of four or five cups brewed at home.

Coffee has been associated with multiple health benefits and even a lower risk of dying, based on large studies that observed participants’ behavior. Despite research that has shown moderate coffee consumption doesn’t raise the risk of heart rhythm problems , some professional medical societies still caution against consuming caffeine.

The latest research:

THE EXPERIMENT

Researchers outfitted 100 healthy volunteers with gadgets that continuously monitored their heart function, daily steps, sleep patterns and blood sugar. The volunteers, who were mostly younger than 40, were sent daily text messages over two weeks instructing them to drink or avoid caffeinated coffee on certain days. The results were reported Wednesday in the New England Journal of Medicine.

This type of study, which directly measures the biological effects of drinking or not drinking caffeinated coffee in the same people, is rare and provides a dense array of data points, said study co-author Dr. Gregory Marcus, a cardiologist at the University of California, San Francisco, who specializes in treating heart arrhythmias.

THE FINDINGS

Researchers found that drinking caffeinated coffee did not result in more daily episodes of extra heartbeats, known as premature atrial contractions. These extra beats that begin in the heart’s upper chambers are common and typically don’t cause problems. But they have been shown to predict a potentially dangerous heart condition called atrial fibrillation.

They also found slight evidence of another kind of irregular heartbeat that comes from the lower heart chambers, called premature ventricular contractions. Such beats are also common and not usually serious, but they have been associated with a higher risk of heart failure. The researchers found more of these early beats in people on the days they drank coffee, but only in those who drank two or more cups per day.

The volunteers logged about 1,000 more steps per day on the days they drank coffee — and they slept about 36 minutes less, the study found. There was almost no difference in blood sugar levels.

One interesting result: People with genetic variants that make them break down caffeine faster experienced less of a sleep deficit, while folks with variants that lead them to metabolize caffeine more slowly lost more sleep.

WHAT IT MEANS FOR YOU

Because the study was performed in a small number of people over a short period of time, the results don’t necessarily apply to the general population, said Dr. Dave Kao, a cardiologist and health data expert at the University of Colorado School of Medicine, who was not involved in the study. However, the study is consistent with others that have found coffee is safe and it offers a rare controlled evaluation of caffeine’s effect, Kao added.

Co-author Marcus cautions that the effects of drinking coffee can vary from person to person. He said he advises his patients with heart arrhythmias to experiment on their own to see how caffeine affects them.

“They’re often delighted to get the good news that it’s OK to try coffee and drink coffee,” he said.

The Associated Press Health and Science Department receives support from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute’s Science and Educational Media Group. The AP is solely responsible for all content.

Featured Topics

Featured series.

A series of random questions answered by Harvard experts.

Explore the Gazette

Read the latest.

Billions worldwide deficient in essential micronutrients

Smokers are less likely to develop Parkinson’s. Why?

Alzheimer’s drug may save lives through ‘suspended animation’

A new cohort study finds sugar does not negate the benefits of drinking coffee in moderation.

iStock by Getty Images

Coffee is good for you, probably

Alvin Powell

Harvard Staff Writer

Professor who edited mortality findings says evidence is strong but not yet definitive

Past research has linked coffee consumption to reduced mortality and suggested protective effects against diabetes and cancer. Now, a study published in the Annals of Internal Medicine says that adding a bit of sugar to your cup does not eliminate observed mortality effects, contrary to concerns that sweetener might negate the brew’s benefits. In fact, the study showed that those who drank 1.5 to 4.5 cups a day, even with a teaspoon of sugar, were up to 30 percent less likely to die during a seven-year period than non-coffee drinkers. The study was edited by Christina Wee , an associate professor at Harvard Medical School, who penned a companion editorial . She explained the findings in a conversation with the Gazette. The interview has been edited for clarity and length.

Christina Wee

GAZETTE:  Where we are with the science of coffee and its health benefits?

WEE:  Generally speaking, coffee drinkers tend to have a substantially reduced risk of mortality compared to non-coffee drinkers. The main evidence to date is based largely on observational cohort studies, where you’re comparing coffee drinkers and non-coffee drinkers over time. There are also some smaller Mendelian randomization studies which, rather than measuring coffee drinking directly, look at genetic markers that are correlated with caffeine metabolism and are, in essence, markers of who might better tolerate coffee — and thus be more likely to consume coffee. They then look to see whether people with that genetic makeup — a proxy for greater likelihood to consume coffee — do better. Those studies have largely found no difference in mortality. However, those studies also have limitations. Mendelian randomization is a strong study design, in the sense that you don’t worry about confounding as much — whether coffee drinking is associated with some other health behavior that is really the reason for the better outcome. On the other hand, the genetic markers of coffee consumption are pretty weak proxies for actual coffee consumption. Even if you have a genetic marker for coffee tolerance and your likelihood of drinking coffee is higher, it may be only a little higher. It’s akin to assigning people to drink coffee in a randomized trial, but only a small percentage of those assigned to drink coffee actually drink it, so when you don’t find a difference you can’t be sure that it’s because coffee has no health effects or because not enough people in the coffee group did as they were told.

“If you’re not a coffee drinker and you don’t particularly like drinking coffee, I wouldn’t start drinking coffee because of the potential health benefits. That’s a leap.”

More like this

Coffee connection gets stronger

How coffee loves us back

Coffee drinking tied to lower risk of suicide

GAZETTE:   Does that mean the jury’s still out?

WEE:  The jury’s still out. But there are smaller physiology studies that suggest there are certain components of coffee that may be beneficial as well. Caffeine and chlorogenic acids, which are found in coffee, seem to have antioxidant effects and also inhibit platelet aggregation. Whenever we see an effect in observational studies, we first ask, “Is it biologically plausible?” In the case of coffee, there is evidence to suggest that there are substances that do appear to have some beneficial physiological effects that could lead to the reductions in mortality that we’re seeing. So all of this is supportive, but not definitive, evidence.

GAZETTE:  One of the things I’ve heard over the years is that if you put a lot of cream and sugar in coffee, that might negate whatever benefit there may be. This study addressed that specific question, correct?

WEE:  To some degree. They looked specifically at coffee drinking when you add sugar or artificial sweeteners compared to people who didn’t drink coffee: If you drink coffee and add a little sugar to it, is it still potentially beneficial or at least not harmful? And these researchers did find that moderate consumption of coffee with a bit of added sugar was still associated with a substantial reduction in mortality risk. They did not look at coffee with cream or milk added specifically. They also did not compare drinking coffee with sugar to drinking coffee without sugar head-to-head. So we can’t say whether drinking coffee with sugar is worse or better than drinking coffee without sugar because, statistically, they didn’t make that comparison. The only thing we can really conclude is that when you look at people who drink coffee and add a little bit of sugar, they still do a whole lot better than people who don’t drink coffee.

GAZETTE:  Where does this leave us, if you were to sum up where we are with the science?

WEE:  What we can be most confident about saying is that drinking moderate levels of coffee is likely not harmful. If you’re someone who drinks coffee on a regular basis, up to three cups a day, you’re probably fine. If you add a little bit of sugar, you’re probably fine. And this type of coffee drinking may even be beneficial. I find it hard, though, to recommend that people start drinking coffee when the evidence is not definitive. If you’re not a coffee drinker and you don’t particularly like drinking coffee, I wouldn’t start drinking coffee because of the potential health benefits. That’s a leap.

The harder question to answer is what to do if you’re a regular coffee drinker and like two to three teaspoons of sugar in your coffee and you’re drinking four cups a day. If we believe the data that drinking coffee with a teaspoon of sugar is potentially good for you, I don’t think adding a second teaspoon is going to make it harmful. But it’s a matter of degree, and once you get into drinking multiple cups of caramel macchiatos — that’s a different story. I would take a commonsense approach. Ask yourself, “How far off am I from that typical drinker in the study?” and then, based on that, “How likely is it that any of this applies to my behavior?”

Share this article

You might like.

Inadequate levels carry risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, blindness

Researchers test theory explaining medical mystery and identify potential new treatment

Could buy patients more time to survive critical injuries and diseases, even when disaster strikes far from a hospital

Good genes are nice, but joy is better

Harvard study, almost 80 years old, has proved that embracing community helps us live longer, and be happier

Examining new weight-loss drugs, pediatric bariatric patients

Researcher says study found variation in practices, discusses safety concerns overall for younger users

Shingles may increase risk of cognitive decline

Availability of vaccine offers opportunity to reduce burden of shingles and possible dementia

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Personal Health

The Health Benefits of Coffee

Drinking coffee has been linked to a reduced risk of all kinds of ailments, including Parkinson’s disease, melanoma, prostate cancer, even suicide.

By Jane E. Brody

Americans sure love their coffee. Even last spring when the pandemic shut down New York, nearly every neighborhood shop that sold takeout coffee managed to stay open, and I was amazed at how many people ventured forth to start their stay-at-home days with a favorite store-made brew.

One elderly friend who prepandemic had traveled from Brooklyn to Manhattan by subway to buy her preferred blend of ground coffee arranged to have it delivered. “Well worth the added cost,” she told me. I use machine-brewed coffee from pods, and last summer when it seemed reasonably safe for me to shop I stocked up on a year’s supply of the blends I like. (Happily, the pods are now recyclable.)

All of us should be happy to know that whatever it took to secure that favorite cup of Joe may actually have helped to keep us healthy . The latest assessments of the health effects of coffee and caffeine, its main active ingredient, are reassuring indeed. Their consumption has been linked to a reduced risk of all kinds of ailments , including Parkinson’s disease, heart disease, Type 2 diabetes, gallstones, depression, suicide, cirrhosis, liver cancer, melanoma and prostate cancer.

In fact, in numerous studies conducted throughout the world, consuming four or five eight-ounce cups of coffee (or about 400 milligrams of caffeine) a day has been associated with reduced death rates . In a study of more than 200,000 participants followed for up to 30 years, those who drank three to five cups of coffee a day, with or without caffeine, were 15 percent less likely to die early from all causes than were people who shunned coffee. Perhaps most dramatic was a 50 percent reduction in the risk of suicide among both men and women who were moderate coffee drinkers, perhaps by boosting production of brain chemicals that have antidepressant effects.

As a report published last summer by a research team at the Harvard School of Public Health concluded, although current evidence may not warrant recommending coffee or caffeine to prevent disease, for most people drinking coffee in moderation “can be part of a healthy lifestyle.”

It wasn’t always thus. I’ve lived through decades of sporadic warnings that coffee could be a health hazard. Over the years, coffee’s been deemed a cause of conditions such as heart disease, stroke, Type 2 diabetes, pancreatic cancer, anxiety disorder, nutrient deficiencies, gastric reflux disease, migraine, insomnia, and premature death. As recently as 1991, the World Health Organization listed coffee as a possible carcinogen. In some of the now-discredited studies, smoking, not coffee drinking (the two often went hand-in-hand) was responsible for the purported hazard.

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .

Is Coffee Healthy for You? New Research Reveals It Depends on Your Genetics

When it comes to your genetics, the answer is complicated.

Coffee drinking is a heritable habit, and one that carries a certain amount of genetic baggage.

Caffeinated coffee is a psychoactive substance, notes Sandra Sanchez-Roige, Ph.D., an associate professor in the University of California San Diego School of Medicine Department of Psychiatry . She is one of an international group of researchers who compared coffee consumption characteristics from a 23andMe database with an even larger set of records in the United Kingdom. She is the corresponding author of a study recently published in the journal Neuropsychopharmacology .

Hayley H. A. Thorpe, Ph.D., is the lead author on the paper. Thorpe, of the Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry at Western University in Ontario, explained that the team collected genetic data as well as self-reported coffee-consumption numbers to assemble a genome-wide association study (GWAS). The idea was to make connections between the genes that were known to be associated with coffee consumption and the traits or conditions related to health.

“We used this data to identify regions on the genome associated with whether somebody is more or less likely to consume coffee,” Thorpe explained. “And then identify the genes and biology that could underlie coffee intake.”

Genetic Influences on Coffee Drinking

Abraham Palmer, Ph.D., is also a lead researcher on the paper and a professor in the UC San Diego School of Medicine Department of Psychiatry. He said that most people are surprised that there is a genetic influence on coffee consumption. “We had good reason to suspect from earlier papers that there were genes that influence how much coffee someone consumes,” he said. “And so, we weren’t surprised to find that in both of the cohorts we examined there was statistical evidence that this is a heritable trait. In other words, the particular gene variants that you inherit from your parents influence how much coffee you’re likely to consume.”

Sanchez-Roige said the genetic influence on coffee consumption was the first of two questions the researchers wanted to address.

“The second is something that coffee lovers are really keen on learning,” Sanchez-Roige said. “Is drinking coffee good or bad? Is it associated with positive health outcomes or not?”

The answer is not definitive. The group’s genome-wide association study of 130,153 U.S.-based 23andMe research participants was compared with a similar UK Biobank database of 334,649 Britons, revealing consistent positive genetic associations between coffee and harmful health outcomes such as obesity and substance use. A positive genetic association is a connection between a specific gene variant (the genotype) and a specific condition (the phenotype). Conversely, a negative genetic association is an apparent protective quality discouraging the development of a condition. The findings get more complicated when it comes to psychiatric conditions.

Challenges in Data Comparison and Cultural Differences

“Look at the genetics of anxiety, for instance, or bipolar and depression: In the 23andMe data set, they tend to be positively genetically correlated with coffee intake genetics,” Thorpe said. “But then, in the UK Biobank, you see the opposite pattern, where they’re negatively genetically correlated. This is not what we expected.”

She said there were other instances in which the 23andMe set didn’t align with the UK Biobank, but the greatest disagreement was in psychiatric conditions.

“It’s common to combine similar datasets in this field to increase study power. This information paints a fairly clear picture that combining these two datasets was really not a wise idea. And we didn’t end up doing that,” Thorpe said. She explained that melding the databases might mask effects, leading researchers toward incorrect conclusions — or even canceling each other out.

Sanchez-Roige says the researchers have some ideas about how the differences in results arose. To begin with, there was an apples-and-oranges aspect to the surveys. For instance, the 23andMe survey asked, “How many 5-ounce (cup-sized) servings of caffeinated coffee do you consume each day?” Compare it to the UK Biobank’s “How many cups of coffee do you drink each day? (Include decaffeinated coffee)”

Beyond serving size and the caffeinated/decaf divide, the surveys made no accommodations for the various ways coffee is served. “We know that in the U.K., they have generally higher preference for instant coffee, whereas ground coffee is more preferred in the U.S.,” Thorpe said.

“And then there’s the frappuccinos,” Sanchez-Roige added, citing the American trend of taking coffee loaded with sugary additives. Palmer mentioned other caffeinated drinks, especially in the context of the UK Biobank, tea, none of which were included in the GWAS, which addressed only coffee. Palmer added that the GWAS demonstrates the relationship between genotype and phenotype is more different than the relationship between coffee and tea.

“Genetics influences lots of things. For instance, it influences how tall you might be,” he said. “And those kinds of things probably would play out very similarly, whether you lived in the U.S. or the U.K. But coffee is a decision that people make.”

Genetic and Environmental Interactions

Sanchez-Roige pointed out that coffee comes in a variety of forms, from instant to frappuccino, and is consumed amid cultural norms that differ from place to place. A person with a given genotype might end up having quite a different phenotype living in the U.K. versus the U.S.

“And that’s really what the data are telling us,” she said. “Because unlike height, where your behavior doesn’t really have much to do with it, your behavior and the choices you’re making in your environment play out in various ways. So the interaction between genotype and environment complicates the picture.”

The collaborators stressed the need for more investigation to unravel the relationships between genetics and the environment, focusing not only on coffee/caffeine intake but also other substance-use issues.

Reference: “Genome-wide association studies of coffee intake in UK/US participants of European ancestry uncover cohort-specific genetic associations” by Hayley H. A. Thorpe, Pierre Fontanillas, Benjamin K. Pham, John J. Meredith, Mariela V. Jennings, Natasia S. Courchesne-Krak, Laura Vilar-Ribó, Sevim B. Bianchi, Julian Mutz, 23andMe Research Team, Sarah L. Elson, Jibran Y. Khokhar, Abdel Abdellaoui, Lea K. Davis, Abraham A. Palmer and Sandra Sanchez-Roige, 11 June 2024, Neuropsychopharmacology . DOI: 10.1038/s41386-024-01870-x

In addition to the researchers noted above, co-authors on the paper from UC San Diego are: Benjamin K. Pham, John J. Meredith, Mariela V. Jennings, Natasia S. Courchesne-Krak and Sevim B. Bianchi, all of the Department of Psychiatry. Other co-authors are Pierre Fontanillas, of 23andMe, Inc.; Laura Vilar-Ribó, of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain; Julian Mutz, of King’s College London, U.K.; Sarah L. Elson and Jibran Y. Khokhar, of the University of Guelph, Canada; Abdel Abdellaoui, of the University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Lea K. Davis, of Vanderbilt University Medical Center; and the 23andMe Research Team.

Mariela V. Jennings, Sevim B. Bianchi, and Sandra Sanchez-Roige are supported by funds from the California Tobacco-Related Disease Research Program (TRDRP; Grant Number T29KT0526 and T32IR5226). Sevim B. Bianchi and Abraham Palmer were also supported by P50DA037844. BKP, Julian Mutz, and Sandra Sanchez-Roige are supported by NIH/NIDA DP1DA054394. Hayley H. A .Thorpe is funded through a Natural Science and Engineering Research Council PGS-D scholarship and Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Fellowship. Jibran Y. Khokhar is supported by a CIHR Canada Research Chair in Translational Neuropsychopharmacology. Lea K. Davis is supported by R01 MH113362. Natasia S. Courchesne-Krak is funded through an Interdisciplinary Research Fellowship in NeuroAIDs (Grant Number R25MH081482). Julian Mutz is funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre at South London Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King’s College London.

The datasets used for the PheWAS and LabWAS analyses described were obtained from Vanderbilt University Medical Center’s BioVU which is supported by numerous sources: institutional funding, private agencies, and federal grants. These include the NIH-funded Shared Instrumentation Grant S10RR025141; and CTSA grants UL1TR002243, UL1TR000445, and UL1RR024975. Genomic data are also supported by investigator-led projects that include U01HG004798, R01NS032830, RC2GM092618, P50GM115305, U01HG006378, U19HL065962, R01HD074711; and additional funding sources listed at https://victr.vumc.org/biovu-funding/. PheWAS and LabWAS analyses used CTSA (SD, Vanderbilt Resources). This project was supported by the National Center for Research Resources, Grant UL1 RR024975-01, and is now at the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, Grant 2 UL1 TR000445-06.

Related Articles

Perk up your health: uncovering coffee’s role in reducing type 2 diabetes risk, not safe for everybody: the hidden risk of green tea extract, researchers zero in on natural products that disrupt lethal viruses, including the covid-19 coronavirus, scientists discover a gene to stay thin – protects against diet-induced obesity, scientists find it is better to drink coffee after breakfast, not before – here’s why, most widely used cooking oil causes genetic changes in the brain, neu5gc sugar is related to the appearance of spontaneous tumors in humans, study links diet soda with depression in older adults, diets high in fructose lead to overeating.

Coffee exists solely as a delivery mechanism for the drug caffeine, nothing more. It tastes so bad that many people load it up with all sorts of flavorings to mask the bitter taste.

Go to the drugstore, spend $3 or so and buy a box of 16 caffeine pills. You can then use a pill cutter to make 50mg chunks of pure caffeine to dose with whenever you need a kick in the pants of energy.

Possibly it is treated that way by some people, but coffee is complex, made of thousands of chemicals. Coffee is roasted, so it contains acrylamide, which has been known for decades to cause cancer (or recently maybe it doesn’t, we don’t know yet). It also contains chlorogenic acid, which recently is found to prevent cancer among other benefits, and some of its effects seem opposed to caffeine’s energy effects.

Personally, I like the taste of very strong coffee and I only add hot water. Have you tried tea?

I didn’t read the whole article or the study, because watching them consider if genetics might contribute to health effects of anything made me very tired and a little sad. Also, their using the 23andme dataset, which they use to pretend you’re 0.3 percent Mongolian and 0.2 percent Ashkenazi, I don’t have enough time in my life to read this.

“The idea was to make connections between the genes that were known to be associated with coffee consumption and the traits or conditions related to health.” Coffee consumption is a cultural issue, so I don’t see how genetics has anything to do with coffee, specifically. Would the same genes be associated with other caffeinated beverages, like tea or chai? Perhaps it has to do with the ability to detoxify caffeine, which is a serious poison. But using coffee consumption specifically as a phenotypical expression of some genes does not make sense to me without looking at a specific chemical that coffee contains. Coffee consumption is a product of lots of cultural factors, like needing stimulants to get through work, or socializing with others, or wanting to get a caffeine buzz, or just having the habit from living with coffee drinkers. These cultural factors are multifaceted and not coded for in our genome, although there may be genetic factors that affect how the culture influences people. But it’s a complicated and confusing mess, as the study apparently discovered.

For the effects of coffee, see my article, Dr Jekyll And Mr Coffee – Are You A “Caf-Fiend”? https://www.academia.edu/10217756/Dr_Jekyll_And_Mr_Coffee_Are_You_A_Caf_Fiend_

Sydney Ross Singer wrote “Coffee consumption is a cultural issue, so I don’t see how genetics has anything to do with coffee, specifically.” —- Genetics is certainly a factor. My 23andMe analysis indicates that I metabolize caffeine more slowly than average. This is proven science. Look it up.

Throughout my life I never liked coffee. In fact, I only drank it a few times as a youngster to get over a hangover. Possibly, it was the stronger caffeine buzz that I might have experienced that pushed me away from coffee, even if the taste was masked with various sweeteners.

Looking back, I came to realize that never drinking coffee put me at a disadvantage during my corporate career, as I often suffered from after lunch tiredness and was dragging by 3:30 pm while the coffee drinkers were buzzing around the office looking like energetic go-getters, which is what bosses like to see. I was also at a disadvantage culturally, as you mention.

It was only after exiting the corporate world that I started experimenting with caffeine pills and came to appreciate the energy boost that caffeine opens up, for which I put to use as art of my regularly exercise program. But I have to be careful with the dose. Just 50mg of caffeine keeps me going strong for 8-12 hours!

Caffeine dependence permeates our society. Kids start acclimating to caffeine as young as 5 years old when their parents give them soda or watered down coffee. This is criminal. Caffeine is required for most people to get through their business day.

I’ve often wondered how much caffeine contributes to athletic performances. If caffeine were banned from sports, I would wager that no one would come close to current world records in running or swimming for many years. This is SAD!

Alan, I agree that genetics affects how we metabolize caffeine, which is a toxic substance. But coffee is a cultural product. Coffee trees need to be first identified as a food source and grown, the beans harvested and processed and roasted, and the product consumed in a culturally-defined way. Those processes are cultural, not genetic. And coffee contains hundreds, if not thousands, of chemicals, in addition to caffeine. So I stand by my statement. No coffee gene, and the enzymes responsible for caffeine metabolism and elimination are not specifically for caffeine.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Type above and press Enter to search. Press Esc to cancel.

Is coffee good or bad for your health?

Although early studies of coffee suggested that it could lead to health problems, recent research provides strong evidence that drinking coffee actually has a variety of health benefits.

“The overall evidence has been pretty convincing that coffee has been more healthful than harmful in terms of health outcomes,” said Frank Hu , chair of the Department of Nutrition at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, in an April 5, 2021, article in Discover. “For most people, moderate coffee consumption can be incorporated into a healthy diet.”

Hu said that moderate coffee intake—about 2–5 cups a day—is linked to a lower likelihood of type 2 diabetes , heart disease , liver and endometrial cancers, Parkinson’s disease, and depression . It’s even possible that people who drink coffee can reduce their risk of early death.

Early research linked coffee to diseases ranging from heart disease and asthma . But Hu noted that many participants in those studies also smoked, which may have led researchers to think that coffee was responsible for the adverse effects that are now linked with cigarettes . He added that anything people consume a lot of tends to come under scrutiny. “In the past, I think a lot of people thought, ‘Oh, coffee’s so delicious, there must be something bad about coffee,’” he said. “So I think the good news is that [for] most people, coffee actually confers some health benefits.”

Certain groups should be careful about drinking coffee, according to the article. Not much is known about the effects of coffee on children , and caffeine could be harmful to pregnancies . Too much caffeine can also cause anxiety in people with panic or anxiety disorders.

For those who drink coffee, experts suggest brewing it with a paper filter, because unfiltered coffee is associated with higher rates of early death, and can contain compounds that raise levels of LDL, or “bad,” cholesterol. They also advise not going overboard with added cream or sugar.

Read the Discover article: Is Coffee Good for You or Not?

Moderate coffee, tea consumption can be part of healthy lifestyle for most (Harvard Chan School news)

Coffee can be beneficial part of a healthy diet (Harvard Chan School news)

Coffee (The Nutrition Source)

Brain scans of coffee drinkers suggest there's more to feeling alert than just the caffeine

Many coffee drinkers will tell you there's something about that morning cup that other sources of caffeine just can't match.

Researchers in Portugal recently set out to investigate that idea: Is caffeine solely responsible for making people feel more alert, or do other parts of the morning ritual — coffee's smell or taste, perhaps — trigger that energetic feeling?

"If you listen to these individuals, they typically say that they need to have coffee in the morning to get ready. We wanted to understand the brain mechanisms and functional connectivity pattern that would justify this claim," said Nuno Sousa, one of the study's authors and a professor at the University of Minho's School of Medicine in Portugal.

The researchers recruited 83 people who drank at least one cup of coffee a day to undergo MRI scans so they could observe the participants' brain activity.

Of that total, 47 people were scanned before drinking their morning cup of coffee, then again 30 minutes after they had a cup. The 36 others were simply given caffeine diluted in hot water — no coffee — and underwent the same types of MRI scans before and after they consumed the beverage.

The results, published last week in the journal Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, suggest that, indeed, certain changes in brain activity were attributable only to coffee, while others were attributable to caffeine, as well.

The scans revealed that both groups — those who consumed caffeine and those who drank coffee — had decreased activity afterward in a part of the brain that puts people in a resting state. That indicated that people were more ready to start their days and engage with others after consuming either beverage. Decades of research has already shown that caffeine, a psychostimulant , can help people feel more aroused and alert.

However, the MRI scans showed that drinking coffee increased activity in parts of the brain involved in short-term memory, attention and focus, whereas ingesting caffeine on its own did not.

The researchers theorized that the sight, smell or taste of coffee may help people feel alert, regardless of the caffeine content.

"The pleasure that is given to an individual that likes coffee in the morning, that actually is part of almost a ritual that really is also important for that individual to feel that 'I'm ready for the day,'" Sousa said.

He added that people who don't regularly drink coffee may not experience the same effect.

Mark Mattson, an adjunct professor of neuroscience at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine who wasn't involved in the research, said the findings weren't surprising, since people form associations with particular sensory experiences over time, which in turn can influence their future reactions.

"It kind of makes sense, right? Coffee has taste and smell, so when you drink coffee, you're activating brain regions that are involved in the perception of the taste of the coffee, the perception of the smell," Mattson said.

Dr. Uma Naidoo, a nutritional psychiatrist at Harvard Medical School, said the sight of coffee may trigger positive memories or make a person believe they're about to feel more awake.

"The visual impact of coffee is powerful," she said. "It could be like, 'Oh, I think there’s something that gives me energy now. I’m going to have something that gives me that second wind I need at work or to study.'"

That's different from a placebo effect, she added, since the coffee is still inducing a physical, and perhaps emotional, response.

All three researchers said it's also possible that the natural chemicals found in coffee may have independent effects on brain activity, apart from those of caffeine. A group of chemicals in coffee called epicatechins, for instance, has been shown to improve memory in animal studies .

Sousa said the goal of the study is not to influence anyone's coffee consumption habits.

"We are not saying that coffee is good or coffee is bad," he said.

Mattson also pointed out that the study comes with several limitations. For one, the MRI scans measured blood flow, but caffeine can restrict blood flow, so the scans may not give a clear picture of its impact on brain activity. Mattson also noted that the study didn't include people who drank decaf coffee, which might have helped distinguish the effects of coffee versus caffeine on the brain.

Naidoo, meanwhile, highlighted that most of the study participants were women, so there could be sex-based differences in how people's brains respond to coffee.

But one point on which the researchers agreed is that coffee is a healthier way to consume caffeine than energy drinks or soda.

"It has caffeine, but it also is very rich in antioxidants and some polyphenols," Naidoo said, referring to natural compounds that may lower blood pressure, destroy cancer cells and protect against diabetes by improving metabolism.

"There’s also another substance called trigonelline that gives coffee the aroma, the taste, that bitterness, but it also has antibacterial, antiviral properties," Naidoo said.

Aria Bendix is the breaking health reporter for NBC News Digital.

• Alzheimer's disease & dementia
• Arthritis & Rheumatism
• Attention deficit disorders
• Autism spectrum disorders
• Biomedical technology
• Diseases, Conditions, Syndromes
• Endocrinology & Metabolism
• Gastroenterology
• Gerontology & Geriatrics
• Health informatics
• Inflammatory disorders
• Medical economics
• Medical research
• Medications
• Neuroscience
• Obstetrics & gynaecology
• Oncology & Cancer
• Ophthalmology
• Overweight & Obesity
• Parkinson's & Movement disorders
• Psychology & Psychiatry
• Radiology & Imaging
• Sleep disorders
• Sports medicine & Kinesiology
• Vaccination
• Breast cancer
• Cardiovascular disease
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
• Colon cancer
• Coronary artery disease
• Heart attack
• Heart disease
• High blood pressure
• Kidney disease
• Lung cancer
• Multiple sclerosis
• Myocardial infarction
• Ovarian cancer
• Post traumatic stress disorder
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Schizophrenia
• Skin cancer
• Type 2 diabetes
• Full List »

share this!

March 23, 2023

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

peer-reviewed publication

reputable news agency

What to know about new research on coffee and heart risks

by Jonel Aleccia

Coffee lovers—and their doctors—have long wondered whether a jolt of java can affect the heart. New research published Wednesday finds that drinking caffeinated coffee did not significantly affect one kind of heart hiccup that can feel like a skipped beat.

But it did signal a slight increase in another type of irregular heartbeat in people who drank more than one cup per day. And it found that people tend to walk more and sleep less on the days they drank coffee.

Coffee is one of the most common beverages in the world. In the U.S., two-thirds of Americans drink coffee every day, more than bottled water, tea or tap water, according to the National Coffee Association, a trade group. Coffee contains caffeine , a stimulant, which is widely regarded as safe for healthy adults at about 400 milligrams per day, or roughly the equivalent of four or five cups brewed at home.

Coffee has been associated with multiple health benefits and even a lower risk of dying, based on large studies that observed participants' behavior. Despite research that has shown moderate coffee consumption doesn't raise the risk of heart rhythm problems , some professional medical societies still caution against consuming caffeine.

The latest research:

THE EXPERIMENT

Researchers outfitted 100 healthy volunteers with gadgets that continuously monitored their heart function, daily steps, sleep patterns and blood sugar. The volunteers, who were mostly younger than 40, were sent daily text messages over two weeks instructing them to drink or avoid caffeinated coffee on certain days. The results were reported Wednesday in the New England Journal of Medicine.

This type of study, which directly measures the biological effects of drinking or not drinking caffeinated coffee in the same people, is rare and provides a dense array of data points, said study co-author Dr. Gregory Marcus, a cardiologist at the University of California, San Francisco, who specializes in treating heart arrhythmias.

THE FINDINGS

Researchers found that drinking caffeinated coffee did not result in more daily episodes of extra heartbeats, known as premature atrial contractions. These extra beats that begin in the heart's upper chambers are common and typically don't cause problems. But they have been shown to predict a potentially dangerous heart condition called atrial fibrillation.

They also found slight evidence of another kind of irregular heartbeat that comes from the lower heart chambers, called premature ventricular contractions. Such beats are also common and not usually serious, but they have been associated with a higher risk of heart failure. The researchers found more of these early beats in people on the days they drank coffee, but only in those who drank two or more cups per day.

The volunteers logged about 1,000 more steps per day on the days they drank coffee—and they slept about 36 minutes less, the study found. There was almost no difference in blood sugar levels.

One interesting result: People with genetic variants that make them break down caffeine faster experienced less of a sleep deficit, while folks with variants that lead them to metabolize caffeine more slowly lost more sleep.

WHAT IT MEANS FOR YOU

Because the study was performed in a small number of people over a short period of time, the results don't necessarily apply to the general population , said Dr. Dave Kao, a cardiologist and health data expert at the University of Colorado School of Medicine, who was not involved in the study. However, the study is consistent with others that have found coffee is safe and it offers a rare controlled evaluation of caffeine's effect, Kao added.

Co-author Marcus cautions that the effects of drinking coffee can vary from person to person. He said he advises his patients with heart arrhythmias to experiment on their own to see how caffeine affects them.

"They're often delighted to get the good news that it's OK to try coffee and drink coffee ," he said.

© 2023 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed without permission.

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Managing early stages of abortion care at home after 12 weeks is safe and reduces time spent in hospital, study finds

5 hours ago

Billions worldwide consume inadequate levels of micronutrients critical to human health, new study finds

Blocking the longevity gene S6K1 extends lifespan in mice by reducing inflammation

6 hours ago

Machine learning predicts which patients will continue taking opioids after hand surgery

7 hours ago

Study describes a new molecular pathway involved in the control of reproduction

Machine learning helps identify rheumatoid arthritis subtypes

Immune protection against tuberculosis reinfection driven by cells that dampen lung inflammation, shows study

Girls with mental health conditions have lower HPV vaccination coverage

8 hours ago

Mankai plant found to reduce post-meal sugar levels in diabetics

Unique chicken line advances research on autoimmune disease that affects humans

9 hours ago

Related Stories

Drinking caffeinated coffee has both beneficial and harmful short-term health effects

Nov 15, 2021

Q&A: Caffeine's effects on blood sugar and blood pressure

Mar 23, 2022

Drinking coffee helps maintain low blood pressure, says study

Feb 7, 2023

Is caffeine a friend or foe?

Aug 8, 2022

How much coffee is OK?

Mar 5, 2019

Nope, coffee won't give you extra energy. It'll just borrow a bit that you'll pay for later

Jan 30, 2023

Recommended for you

Smart mask monitors breath for signs of health

Mechanical stress in the borderzone: A new source of cardiac inflammation

13 hours ago

VR headsets could be life changing for people with intellectual disability

Researchers attempt to emulate a clinical trial using data from real patients

Study finds unhealthy commodities—like alcohol and social media—are connected with poor mental health

Aug 28, 2024

Let us know if there is a problem with our content

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Medical Xpress in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

Can daily coffee use increase your lifespan? Here's what the latest research says

You’ve probably heard of the many benefits of drinking coffee . There is no shortage of research studies attesting to the benefits of one (or two or three) cups of joe every day. Some of the studied benefits include reduction of risk of:

• Parkinson’s disease
• Type 2 diabetes
• Heart disease
• Prostate cancer
• Depression and suicide
• Cirrhosis of the liver
• Liver cancer

But did you know that coffee can also increase your lifespan? That’s what scientists behind a new research study announced recently.

So, what’s so special about coffee? How is it able to reduce our risk of dying from so many diseases? Let’s dive in.

Can coffee grounds be used to stop bleeding?  The answer might surprise you

More: Coffee with sugar can be good for your health and help you live longer, study suggests

What we know about coffee

Coffee is actually a complex mixture of over 1,000 different chemicals . It can pose a challenge for scientists to nail down which of these constituents provide the health benefits of coffee. In fact, coffee has had a checkered past. Some of its many chemicals have been identified as possible carcinogens – in 1991, the World Health Organization actually included coffee on a list of possible carcinogens. However, coffee was subsequently exonerated and removed from that infamous list.

Coffee is thought to be beneficial through the following mechanisms:

• Anti-inflammatory
• Reduced insulin resistance
• High amounts of antioxidants that can prevent or delay cell damage
• Lignans, which disrupt growth and spread of cancer cells
• Chlorogenic acid, which lowers blood sugar levels

What does the research show?

The newest study in the Annals of Internal Medicine analyzed coffee consumption habits of more than 170,000 people in the United Kingdom ages 37 to 73 and followed them for an average of seven years. Researchers found that those who drank between 1.5 to 3.5 cups of coffee per day were 16% to 21% less likely to die from all-cause, cancer-related and cardiovascular disease-related mortality during the study period than non-coffee drinkers.

But this is not the first study to look at the reduction in mortality from regular daily coffee use. A study published in 2015  in the journal Circulation tracked more than 200,000 participants for 30 years. Those who drank 3 to 5 cups of coffee a day were 15% less likely to die from all causes of mortality including cardiovascular disease, Parkinson’s disease and suicide. A more recent study in 2018 tracked over 500,000 participants across 10 years. Compared to non-coffee drinkers, participants who downed 6 to 7 cups daily had a 16% lower risk of early death.

In all studies, the benefit was enjoyed by those who drank both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee – again, suggesting the benefit is from the myriad bioactive substances in coffee as opposed to caffeine.

Are you next?  More Americans than ever are being diagnosed with high blood pressure.

More: Which supplements are most likely to land you in the ER?

Association does not necessarily mean causation

The key takeaway from all these studies is that the data demonstrates an association between daily coffee consumption and a reduced risk of dying. But we should remember that a correlation between two things – in this case, coffee and decreased mortality – does not necessarily mean there’s direct causation. What we don’t really know is how much of the reduction in mortality is from the coffee itself, despite its known myriad benefits and this strong association.

There are many other so-called confounders that could influence this data. However, what I like about this new study is that researchers accounted for possible confounders by controlling for factors like smoking, presence of chronic medical problems, socioeconomic status and diet.

This new study is consistent with findings from a 2019 meta-analysis – which is one of the strongest evidence-based research studies that can be done. This meta-analysis examined 40 different studies that included 3.8 million participants. Researchers found that moderate coffee consumption (2 to 4 cups/day) was associated with reduced all-cause mortality compared to those who do not drink coffee. This benefit was observed irrespective of age, weight, alcohol or smoking use as well as the amount of caffeine present in the coffee.

But we must bear in mind that coffee-drinking study participants could have many other lifestyle factors contributing to reduced mortality such as a healthier diet or regular exercise routine. For example, researchers hypothesize that regular coffee drinkers will more likely opt for a cup of coffee versus a more sugar-heavy caffeine boost from an energy drink or soda.

The bottom line is that the new study is consistent with multiple studies showing a strong association between moderate daily coffee consumption (more than 1 cup/day) and a reduction in death from many causes. If you already drink coffee daily – caffeinated or decaffeinated – great! However, it’s no substitution for daily exercise and a healthy diet! If you get your caffeine from energy drinks or soda, consider switching to a cup of joe – but opt against adding a lot of sugar or whipped cream to your coffee or you might reduce the benefit.

TikTok’s ‘pomegranate pump’:  Does it actually work?

More: We've long been told salt is bad for you. Is it really?

Michael Daignault, MD, is a board-certified ER doctor in Los Angeles. He studied Global Health at Georgetown University and has a Medical Degree from Ben-Gurion University. He completed his residency training in emergency medicine at Lincoln Medical Center in the South Bronx. He is also a former United States Peace Corps Volunteer. Find him on Instagram  @dr.daignault

Appointments at Mayo Clinic

• Nutrition and healthy eating

Does coffee offer health benefits?

While past studies hinted that coffee might have a dark side, newer research suggests that it may actually have health benefits.

Why the reversal? It's hard to look at just one aspect of diet and connect it to a health condition because so many other factors that could play a role. For example, early research on coffee didn't always take into account that heavy coffee drinkers also tended to use tobacco and be sedentary.

When newer studies adjusted for such factors, they found a possible association between coffee and decreased mortality. Coffee may offer some protection against:

• Parkinson's disease
• Type 2 diabetes
• Liver disease, including liver cancer
• Heart attack and stroke

Coffee still has potential risks, mostly due to its high caffeine content. For example, it can temporarily raise blood pressure. Women who are pregnant, trying to become pregnant or breastfeeding need to be cautious about caffeine. High intake of boiled, unfiltered coffee has been associated with mild increase in cholesterol levels.

The bottom line? Your coffee habit is probably fine and may even have some benefits. But if you have side effects from coffee, such as heartburn, nervousness or insomnia, consider cutting back.

Donald Hensrud, M.D.

There is a problem with information submitted for this request. Review/update the information highlighted below and resubmit the form.

From Mayo Clinic to your inbox

Sign up for free and stay up to date on research advancements, health tips, current health topics, and expertise on managing health. Click here for an email preview.

Error Email field is required

Error Include a valid email address

To provide you with the most relevant and helpful information, and understand which information is beneficial, we may combine your email and website usage information with other information we have about you. If you are a Mayo Clinic patient, this could include protected health information. If we combine this information with your protected health information, we will treat all of that information as protected health information and will only use or disclose that information as set forth in our notice of privacy practices. You may opt-out of email communications at any time by clicking on the unsubscribe link in the e-mail.

Thank you for subscribing!

You'll soon start receiving the latest Mayo Clinic health information you requested in your inbox.

Sorry something went wrong with your subscription

Please, try again in a couple of minutes

• Coconut water: Is it super hydrating?
• Diet soda: How much is too much?
• Lieberman HR, et al. Daily patterns of caffeine intake and the association of intake with multiple sociodemographic and lifestyle factors in U.S. adults based on the NHANES 2007­2012 surveys. Journal of the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2019; doi:10.1016/j.jand.2018.08.152.
• Bordeaux B. Benefits and risks of caffeine and caffeinated beverages. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Sept. 20, 2019.
• Grosso G, et al. Coffee, caffeine, and health outcomes: An umbrella review. Annual Review of Nutrition. 2019; doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816-064941.
• O'Keefe JO, et al. Coffee for cardioprotection and longevity. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases. 2018; doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2018.02.002.
• IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans. Vol. 116: Drinking coffee, mate, and very hot beverages. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans. International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2018. http://publications.iarc.fr/566. Accessed Sept. 25, 2019.
• Benefits of coffee. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. https://www.eatright.org/health/wellness/preventing-illness/benefits-of-coffee. Accessed Sept. 25, 2019.
• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee Opinion No.462: Moderate caffeine consumption during Pregnancy. Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2010; doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181eeb2a1. Reaffirmed 2016.
• Hensrud DD (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic. Feb. 6, 2020.
• Zhou A, et al. Long-term coffee consumption, caffeine metabolism genetics, and risk of cardiovascular disease: A prospective analysis of up to 347,077 individuals and 8368 cases. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2019; doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqy297.
• Wikoff D, et al. Systematic review of the potential adverse effects of caffeine consumption in healthy adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2017; doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.04.002.

Products and Services

• Available Health Products from Mayo Clinic Store
• A Book: Mayo Clinic on High Blood Pressure
• A Book: Mayo Clinic Family Health Book
• A Book: Cook Smart, Eat Well
• The Mayo Clinic Diet Online
• A Book: The Mayo Clinic Diet Bundle
• A Book: Live Younger Longer
• A Book: Mayo Clinic Guide to Home Remedies
• Newsletter: Mayo Clinic Health Letter — Digital Edition
• A Book: Mayo Clinic on Digestive Health
• Health foods
• Alcohol use
• Alkaline water
• Artificial sweeteners and other sugar substitutes
• Autism spectrum disorder and digestive symptoms
• Breastfeeding nutrition: Tips for moms
• Caffeine: How much is too much?
• Is caffeine dehydrating?
• Calorie calculator
• Can whole-grain foods lower blood pressure?
• Carbohydrates
• Chart of high-fiber foods
• Cholesterol: Top foods to improve your numbers
• Dietary fats
• Dietary fiber
• Prickly pear cactus
• Does soy really affect breast cancer risk?
• Don't get tricked by these 3 heart-health myths
• High-protein diets
• How to track saturated fat
• Is there a special diet for Crohn's disease?
• Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
• Nuts and your heart: Eating nuts for heart health
• Omega-3 in fish
• Omega-6 fatty acids
• Phenylalanine
• Portion control
• Taurine in energy drinks
• Underweight: Add pounds healthfully
• Daily water requirement

Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.

• Opportunities

Mayo Clinic Press

Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic Press .

• Mayo Clinic on Incontinence - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic on Incontinence
• The Essential Diabetes Book - Mayo Clinic Press The Essential Diabetes Book
• Mayo Clinic on Hearing and Balance - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic on Hearing and Balance
• FREE Mayo Clinic Diet Assessment - Mayo Clinic Press FREE Mayo Clinic Diet Assessment
• Mayo Clinic Health Letter - FREE book - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic Health Letter - FREE book
• Healthy Lifestyle
• Expert Answers
• Coffee and health What does the research say

5X Challenge

Thanks to generous benefactors, your gift today can have 5X the impact to advance AI innovation at Mayo Clinic.

• Today's news
• Reviews and deals
• Climate change
• 2024 election
• Fall allergies
• Health news
• Mental health
• Sexual health
• Family health
• So mini ways
• Unapologetically
• Buying guides

Entertainment

• How to Watch
• My Portfolio
• Latest News
• Stock Market
• Biden Economy
• Stocks: Most Actives
• Stocks: Gainers
• Stocks: Losers
• Trending Tickers
• World Indices
• US Treasury Bonds Rates
• Top Mutual Funds
• Options: Highest Open Interest
• Options: Highest Implied Volatility
• Basic Materials
• Communication Services
• Consumer Cyclical
• Consumer Defensive
• Financial Services
• Industrials
• Real Estate
• Stock Comparison
• Advanced Chart
• Currency Converter
• Credit Cards
• Balance Transfer Cards
• Cash-back Cards
• Rewards Cards
• Travel Cards
• Credit Card Offers
• Best Free Checking
• Student Loans
• Personal Loans
• Car insurance
• Mortgage Refinancing
• Mortgage Calculator
• Morning Brief
• Market Domination
• Market Domination Overtime
• Asking for a Trend
• Opening Bid
• Stocks in Translation
• Lead This Way
• Good Buy or Goodbye?
• Financial Freestyle
• Capitol Gains
• Living Not So Fabulously
• Fantasy football
• Pro Pick 'Em
• College Pick 'Em
• Fantasy baseball
• Fantasy hockey
• Fantasy basketball
• Download the app
• Daily fantasy
• Scores and schedules
• GameChannel
• World Baseball Classic
• Premier League
• CONCACAF League
• Champions League
• Motorsports
• Horse racing
• Newsletters

New on Yahoo

• Privacy Dashboard

Yahoo Finance

Ready to drink tea & coffee market to reach usd 216.40 billion by 2032, driven by 7.4% cagr | polaris market research.

Increasing demand for convenient beverages and rising innovations by the food and beverage industry in easy-to-access beverages fuels the growth of the ready-to-drink tea and coffee market.

New York, USA, Aug. 26, 2024 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- Market Overview:

The global ready to drink tea and coffee market size is expected to upsurge from USD 114.49 billion in 2023 to USD 216.40 billion by 2032. The market is likely to exhibit a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.4% during the forecast period from 2024 - 2032.

Market Introduction:

What is Ready-to-Drink Tea and Coffee?

Today’s hectic modern lifestyle has led consumers to search for convenient foods and beverages. Ready-drink beverages such as tea, coffee, and juices are gaining popularity among consumers due to their easier accessibility and availability. Along with consumers, these ready-to-drink teas and coffee are also creating growth opportunities for the food industry, with many companies constantly experimenting with unique flavors and ingredients.

However, there is still a need to incorporate functional benefits into ready-to-drink (RTD) coffee and tea, such as immunity-boosting ingredients without the added sugars and calories, as well as added protein. As consumers become more health-conscious, they are seeking healthy on-the-go beverages.

Download Free Sample PDF Copy of the Report: https://www.polarismarketresearch.com/industry-analysis/global-ready-to-drink-tea-and-coffee-market/request-for-sample

Market Report Attributes:

Key Highlights of Report:

The market is significantly driven by factors including growing demand for convenient and portable beverages, increasing consumption of RTD tea and coffee among the urban population, and increasing products launched by market players.

The market is primarily segmented on the basis of packaging, distribution channel, product, price, and region.

Based on region, the market in North America accounted for the largest revenue share in 2023.

Ready-to-Drink Tea and Coffee Market Key Players:

AriZona Beverages USA

ASAHI GROUP HOLDINGS, LTD.

Coca-Cola HBC

Monster Energy Company

Pretty Tasty Tea

Starbucks Corporation

SUNTORY HOLDINGS LIMITED

Request for a Discount on this Report Before Purchase: https://www.polarismarketresearch.com/industry-analysis/global-ready-to-drink-tea-and-coffee-market/request-for-discount-pricing

Growth Drivers and Trends:

Demand for Convenience and Portable Options: Consumers find ready-to-drink tea and coffee convenient because they are easily accessible without the need for brewing or steeping. These beverages can be enjoyed during work hours or while performing activities such as traveling. Thus, the growing demand for convenient options like RTD coffee and tea drives the ready-to-drink tea and coffee market demand.

Increasing Product Launches: Companies operating in the market are constantly introducing products with new flavors, formulations, and packaging to cater to the rising consumer demand, which is accelerating the ready-to-drink tea and coffee market growth. For instance, in July 2024, DAVIDsTEA unveiled ready-to-drink (RTD) sparkling cold-brewed iced tea, which contains natural ingredients with an Organic Earl Grey blend.

Variety of Flavors Attracting Consumers: Ready-to-drink tea and coffee come in various flavors, including ginseng and honey, fruit juice cocktails, mint, lemon, peach, strawberry, and fruity cereal. This diverse range of flavors attracts consumers, encourages repeat purchases, and fuels market sales.

Which Region Dominates Ready-to-Drink Tea and Coffee Market Globally?

The market in North America held the largest share owing to the rising consumption of tea across the region. For instance, in 2022, the US-led North American countries in per capita consumption of ready-to-drink (RTD) tea, averaging 18.90 liters per year. Additionally, busy lifestyles and increasing urbanization are driving market growth in the region.

Inquire more about this report before purchase: https://www.polarismarketresearch.com/industry-analysis/global-ready-to-drink-tea-and-coffee-market/inquire-before-buying

Segmental Overview:

Ready-to-Drink Tea and Coffee Market – Product Based Outlook:

Flavored coffee

Cold brew coffee

Iced coffee

Ready-to-Drink Tea and Coffee Market – Packaging Based Outlook:

Glass Bottle

Ready-to-Drink Tea and Coffee Market – Price-Based Outlook:

Ready-to-Drink Tea and Coffee Market – Distribution Channel Based Outlook:

Food Service

Supermarkets/Hypermarkets

Convenience Stores

Ready-to-Drink Tea and Coffee Market – Regional Outlook:

North America

Netherlands

Rest of Europe

Asia-Pacific

South Korea

Rest of Asia-Pacific

Middle East & Africa

Saudi Arabia

South Africa

Rest of Middle East & Africa

Latin America

Rest of Latin America

Browse More Research Reports: L-citrulline Market Tea Extracts Market Instant Noodles Market Acerola Extracts Market Aquaponics Market

About Polaris Market Research:

Polaris Market Research  is a global market research and consulting company. The company specializes in providing exceptional market intelligence and in-depth business research services for PMR’s clientele spread across different enterprises. We at Polaris are obliged to serve PMR’s diverse customer base present across the industries of healthcare, technology, semiconductors, and chemicals among various other industries present around the world. We strive to provide PMR’s customers with updated information on innovative technologies, high-growth markets, emerging business environments, and the latest business-centric applications, thereby helping them always to make informed decisions and leverage new opportunities. Adept with a highly competent, experienced, and extremely qualified team of experts comprising SMEs, analysts, and consultants, we at Polaris endeavor to deliver value-added business solutions to PMR’s customers.

Contact: Likhil G 30 Wall Street 8th Floor, New York City, NY 10005, United States Phone: +1-929 297-9727 Email:  [email protected] Web:  https://www.polarismarketresearch.com Follow Us:   LinkedIn  |  Twitter

JavaScript seems to be disabled in your browser. For the best experience on our site, be sure to turn on Javascript in your browser.

• Create an Account

• Compare Products

New Mystery Drink at Scooter’s Coffee® Provides an Element of Surprise and Also a Delight for Taste Buds

An official website of the United States government

Here's how you know

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

•   Facebook
•   Twitter
•   Linkedin
•   Digg
•   Reddit
•   Pinterest
•   Email

Latest Earthquakes |    Chat Share Social Media  

Tap water study detects PFAS ‘forever chemicals’ across the US

Usgs estimates at least 45% of tap water could have one or more pfas.

At least 45% of the nation’s tap water is estimated to have one or more types of the chemicals known as per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances, or PFAS, according to a new study by the U.S. Geological Survey. There are more than 12,000 types of PFAS, not all of which can be detected with current tests; the USGS study tested for the presence of 32 types. 

This USGS research marks the first time anyone has tested for and compared PFAS in tap water from both private and government-regulated public water supplies on a broad scale throughout the country. Those data were used to model and estimate PFAS contamination nationwide. This USGS study can help members of the public to understand their risk of exposure and inform policy and management decisions regarding testing and treatment options for drinking water. 

PFAS are a group of synthetic chemicals used in a wide variety of common applications, from the linings of fast-food boxes and non-stick cookware to fire-fighting foams and other purposes. High concentrations of some PFAS may lead to adverse health risks in people, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . Research is still ongoing to better understand the potential health effects of PFAS exposure over long periods of time. Because they break down very slowly, PFAS are commonly called “forever chemicals.” Their persistence in the environment and prevalence across the country make them a unique water-quality concern. 

"USGS scientists tested water collected directly from people’s kitchen sinks across the nation, providing the most comprehensive study to date on PFAS in tap water from both private wells and public supplies,” said USGS research hydrologist Kelly Smalling, the study’s lead author. “The study estimates that at least one type of PFAS – of those that were monitored – could be present in nearly half of the tap water in the U.S. Furthermore, PFAS concentrations were similar between public supplies and private wells.”  

The EPA regulates public water supplies, and homeowners are responsible for the maintenance, testing and treatment of private water supplies. Those interested in testing and treating private wells should contact their local and state officials for guidance. Testing is the only way to confirm the presence of these contaminants in wells. For more information about PFAS regulations, visit the EPA’s website on addressing PFAS . 

The study tested for 32 individual PFAS compounds using a method developed by the USGS National Water Quality Laboratory. The most frequently detected compounds in this study were PFBS, PFHxS and PFOA. The interim health advisories released by the EPA in 2022 for PFOS and PFOA were exceeded in every sample in which they were detected in this study. 

Scientists collected tap water samples from 716 locations representing a range of low, medium and high human-impacted areas. The low category includes protected lands; medium includes residential and rural areas with no known PFAS sources; and high includes urban areas and locations with reported PFAS sources such as industry or waste sites.  

Most of the exposure was observed near urban areas and potential PFAS sources. This included the Great Plains, Great Lakes, Eastern Seaboard, and Central/Southern California regions. The study’s results are in line with previous research concluding that people in urban areas have a higher likelihood of PFAS exposure. USGS scientists estimate that the probability of PFAS not being observed in tap water is about 75% in rural areas and around 25% in urban areas.  

Learn more about USGS research on PFAS by reading the USGS strategy for the study of PFAS and visiting the PFAS Integrated Science Team’s website . The new study builds upon previous research by the USGS and partners regarding human-derived contaminants, including PFAS, in drinking water and PFAS in groundwater . 

Related Content

• Publications

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in United States tapwater: Comparison of underserved private-well and public-supply exposures and associated health implications

Pfas in us tapwater interactive dashboard.

Drinking-water quality and potential exposures to per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) at the point-of-use (tapwater) are a rising concern in the United States (US).

USGS Releases Strategy for Addressing PFAS Science Gaps

RESTON, Va. – The U.S. Geological Survey released a strategy today that outlines the agency’s future scientific role in the study of perfluoroalkyl...

Get Our News

These items are in the RSS feed format (Really Simple Syndication) based on categories such as topics, locations, and more. You can install and RSS reader browser extension, software, or use a third-party service to receive immediate news updates depending on the feed that you have added. If you click the feed links below, they may look strange because they are simply XML code. An RSS reader can easily read this code and push out a notification to you when something new is posted to our site.

National News Release News

United States of America News