questions on research methodology and answers

Research Methodology

• Introduction to Research Methodology
• Research Approaches
• Concepts of Theory and Empiricism
• Characteristics of scientific method
• Understanding the Language of Research
• 11 Steps in Research Process
• Research Design
• Different Research Designs
• Compare and Contrast the Main Types of Research Designs
• Cross-sectional research design
• Qualitative and Quantitative Research
• Descriptive Research VS Qualitative Research
• Experimental Research VS Quantitative Research
• Sampling Design
• Probability VS Non-Probability Sampling

40 MCQ on Research Methodology

• MCQ on research Process
• MCQ on Research Design
• 18 MCQ on Quantitative Research
• 30 MCQ on Qualitative Research
• 45 MCQ on Sampling Methods
• 20 MCQ on Principles And Planning For Research

Q1. Which of the following statement is correct? (A) Reliability ensures the validity (B) Validity ensures reliability (C) Reliability and validity are independent of each other (D) Reliability does not depend on objectivity

Answer:  (C)

Q2. Which of the following statements is correct? (A) Objectives of research are stated in first chapter of the thesis (B) Researcher must possess analytical ability (C) Variability is the source of problem (D) All the above

Answer:  (D)

Q3. The first step of research is: (A) Selecting a problem (B) Searching a problem (C) Finding a problem (D) Identifying a problem

Q4. Research can be conducted by a person who: (A) holds a postgraduate degree (B) has studied research methodology (C) possesses thinking and reasoning ability (D) is a hard worker

Answer: (B)

Q5. Research can be classified as: (A) Basic, Applied and Action Research (B) Philosophical, Historical, Survey and Experimental Research (C) Quantitative and Qualitative Research (D) All the above

Q6. To test null hypothesis, a researcher uses: (A) t test (B) ANOVA (C)  X 2 (D) factorial analysis

Answer:  (B)

Q7. Bibliography given in a research report: (A) shows vast knowledge of the researcher (B) helps those interested in further research (C) has no relevance to research (D) all the above

Q8. A research problem is feasible only when: (A) it has utility and relevance (B) it is researchable (C) it is new and adds something to knowledge (D) all the above

Q9. The study in which the investigators attempt to trace an effect is known as: (A) Survey Research (B) Summative Research (C) Historical Research (D) ‘Ex-post Facto’ Research

Answer: (D)

Q10. Generalized conclusion on the basis of a sample is technically known as: (A) Data analysis and interpretation (B) Parameter inference (C) Statistical inference (D) All of the above

Answer:  (A)

Q11. Fundamental research reflects the ability to: (A) Synthesize new ideals (B) Expound new principles (C) Evaluate the existing material concerning research (D) Study the existing literature regarding various topics

Q12. The main characteristic of scientific research is: (A) empirical (B) theoretical (C) experimental (D) all of the above

Q13. Authenticity of a research finding is its: (A) Originality (B) Validity (C) Objectivity (D) All of the above

Q14. Which technique is generally followed when the population is finite? (A) Area Sampling Technique (B) Purposive Sampling Technique (C) Systematic Sampling Technique (D) None of the above

Q15. Research problem is selected from the stand point of: (A) Researcher’s interest (B) Financial support (C) Social relevance (D) Availability of relevant literature

Q16. The research is always – (A) verifying the old knowledge (B) exploring new knowledge (C) filling the gap between knowledge (D) all of these

Q17. Research is (A) Searching again and again (B) Finding a solution to any problem (C) Working in a scientific way to search for the truth of any problem (D) None of the above

Q20. A common test in research demands much priority on (A) Reliability (B) Useability (C) Objectivity (D) All of the above

Q21. Which of the following is the first step in starting the research process? (A) Searching sources of information to locate the problem. (B) Survey of related literature (C) Identification of the problem (D) Searching for solutions to the problem

Answer: (C)

Q22. Which correlation coefficient best explains the relationship between creativity and intelligence? (A) 1.00 (B) 0.6 (C) 0.5 (D) 0.3

Q23. Manipulation is always a part of (A) Historical research (B) Fundamental research (C) Descriptive research (D) Experimental research

Explanation: In experimental research, researchers deliberately manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their effects on dependent variables. The goal is to establish cause-and-effect relationships and test hypotheses. This type of research often involves control groups and random assignment to ensure the validity of the findings. Manipulation is an essential aspect of experimental research to assess the impact of specific variables and draw conclusions about their influence on the outcome.

Q24. The research which is exploring new facts through the study of the past is called (A) Philosophical research (B) Historical research (C) Mythological research (D) Content analysis

Q25. A null hypothesis is (A) when there is no difference between the variables (B) the same as research hypothesis (C) subjective in nature (D) when there is difference between the variables

Q26. We use Factorial Analysis: (A) To know the relationship between two variables (B) To test the Hypothesis (C) To know the difference between two variables (D) To know the difference among the many variables

Explanation: Factorial analysis, specifically factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA), is used to investigate the effects of two or more independent variables on a dependent variable. It helps to determine whether there are significant differences or interactions among the independent variables and their combined effects on the dependent variable.

Q27. Which of the following is classified in the category of the developmental research? (A) Philosophical research (B) Action research (C) Descriptive research (D) All the above

Q28.  Action-research is: (A) An applied research (B) A research carried out to solve immediate problems (C) A longitudinal research (D) All the above

Explanation: Action research is an approach to research that encompasses all the options mentioned. It is an applied research method where researchers work collaboratively with practitioners or stakeholders to address immediate problems or issues in a real-world context. It is often conducted over a period of time, making it a longitudinal research approach. So, all the options (A) An applied research, (B) A research carried out to solve immediate problems, and (C) A longitudinal research are correct when describing action research.

Q29.  The basis on which assumptions are formulated: (A) Cultural background of the country (B) Universities (C) Specific characteristics of the castes (D) All of these

Q30. How can the objectivity of the research be enhanced? (A) Through its impartiality (B) Through its reliability (C) Through its validity (D) All of these

Q31.  A research problem is not feasible only when: (A) it is researchable (B) it is new and adds something to the knowledge (C) it consists of independent and dependent var i ables (D) it has utility and relevance

Explanation:  A research problem is considered feasible when it can be studied and investigated using appropriate research methods and resources. The presence of independent and dependent variables is not a factor that determines the feasibility of a research problem. Instead, it is an essential component of a well-defined research problem that helps in formulating research questions or hypotheses. Feasibility depends on whether the research problem can be addressed and answered within the constraints of available time, resources, and methods. Options (A), (B), and (D) are more relevant to the feasibility of a research problem.

Q32. The process not needed in experimental research is: (A) Observation (B) Manipulation and replication (C) Controlling (D) Reference collection

In experimental research, reference collection is not a part of the process.

Q33. When a research problem is related to heterogeneous population, the most suitable sampling method is: (A) Cluster Sampling (B) Stratified Sampling (C) Convenient Sampling (D) Lottery Method

Explanation: When a research problem involves a heterogeneous population, stratified sampling is the most suitable sampling method. Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subgroups or strata based on certain characteristics or variables. Each stratum represents a relatively homogeneous subset of the population. Then, a random sample is taken from each stratum in proportion to its size or importance in the population. This method ensures that the sample is representative of the diversity present in the population and allows for more precise estimates of population parameters for each subgroup.

Q34.  Generalised conclusion on the basis of a sample is technically known as: (A) Data analysis and interpretation (B) Parameter inference (C) Statistical inference (D) All of the above

Explanation: Generalized conclusions based on a sample are achieved through statistical inference. It involves using sample data to make inferences or predictions about a larger population. Statistical inference helps researchers draw conclusions, estimate parameters, and test hypotheses about the population from which the sample was taken. It is a fundamental concept in statistics and plays a crucial role in various fields, including research, data analysis, and decision-making.

Q35. The experimental study is based on

(A) The manipulation of variables (B) Conceptual parameters (C) Replication of research (D) Survey of literature

Q36.  Which one is called non-probability sampling? (A) Cluster sampling (B) Quota sampling (C) Systematic sampling (D) Stratified random sampling

Q37.  Formulation of hypothesis may NOT be required in: (A) Survey method (B) Historical studies (C) Experimental studies (D) Normative studies

Q38. Field-work-based research is classified as: (A) Empirical (B) Historical (C) Experimental (D) Biographical

Q39. Which of the following sampling method is appropriate to study the prevalence of AIDS amongst male and female in India in 1976, 1986, 1996 and 2006? (A) Cluster sampling (B) Systematic sampling (C) Quota sampling (D) Stratified random sampling

Q40. The research that applies the laws at the time of field study to draw more and more clear ideas about the problem is: (A) Applied research (B) Action research (C) Experimental research (D) None of these

Answer: (A)

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100 questions (and answers) about research methods

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• Part 1. Understanding the Research Process and Getting Started
• Part 2. Reviewing and Writing About Your Research Question
• Part 3. Introductory Ideas About Ethics
• Part 4. Research Methods: Knowing the Language, Knowing the Ideas
• Part 5. Sampling Ideas and Issues
• Part 6. Describing Data Using Descriptive Techniques
• Part 7. All About Testing and Measuring
• Part 8. Understanding Different Research Methods
• Part 9. All About Inference and Significance.
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100 Questions (and Answers) About Research Methods

• Neil J. Salkind
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"How do I know when my literature review is finished?"

"What is the difference between a sample and a population?"

"What is power and why is it important?"

In an increasingly data-driven world, it is more important than ever for students as well as professionals to better understand the process of research. This invaluable guide answers the essential questions that students ask about research methods in a concise and accessible way.

Sample Materials & Chapters

Question #16: Question #16: How Do I Know When My Literature Review Is Finished?

Question #32: How Can I Create a Good Research Hypothesis?

Question #40: What Is the Difference Between a Sample and a Population, and Why

Question #92: What Is Power, and Why Is It Important?

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Research Methodology

Student resources, multiple choice questions.

Research: A Way of Thinking

The Research Process: A Quick Glance

Reviewing the Literature

Formulating a Research Problem

Identifying Variables

Constructing Hypotheses

The Research Design

Selecting a Study Design

Selecting a Method of Data Collection

Collecting Data Using Attitudinal Scales

Establishing the Validity and Reliability of a Research Instrument

Selecting a Sample

Writing a Research Proposal

Considering Ethical Issues in Data Collection

Processing Data

Displaying Data

Writing a Research Report

430+ Research Methodology (RM) Solved MCQs

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Comprehensive Guide to Research Methodology – Design | Methods | Best Practices

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Table of Contents

• Introduction
• Steps in Research Process
• Classification of Research Design

1. Introduction

This article describes the research process and different research designs in detail. Management and social science research, like other forms of scientific inquiry, require a structured sequence of highly interrelated steps (Zigmund et al., 2010). The research process involves a series of steps or actions essential for the smooth conduct of any research. The figure below illustrates the sequence of the research process. It is to be noted that these steps are not a road map to all kinds of research. Basically, it is applicable for deductive or functionalist research, and it can or needs to be revised to suit the requirements of a specific project. The research process doesn’t need to be followed successively; rather, the steps overlap frequently and are interrelated. The research process offers a comprehensive guideline that can be referred to for any management and social science research. It may happen that later stages can be accomplished before the earlier stages.

The steps involved in the research process are neither mutually exclusive nor separate and distinct. The selection of a research topic at the outset, defining the research problem and objectives, influences the selection of a sample and data collection. The sample selection may affect the design of questionnaire items. For example, suppose an organization wants to know the cause of attrition among lower-category employees with low educational qualifications. In that case, the wording for the questionnaire will be easier than for people in top management positions with professional educational qualifications. The steps may differ based on the objectives of the research. However, research based on deductive logic should follow the steps outlined below:

2. Steps in Research Process

• Problem Identification
• Literature Review
• Formulating Research Questions
• Research Design
• Data Collection
• Data Analysis
• Conclusions and Report Writing.

The quest for research must always be triggered by the longing to explore and gain more knowledge and understanding. The management dilemma encourages the need for a decision. The need may arise owing to the cause that the researchers want to discover or reestablish certain relationships. The orientation might be to solve immediate management issues, discover something new, or have purely academic intentions. For instance, in an organization, the manager may want to know the reason for high attrition and lack of job satisfaction, or a retail store may survey the post-purchase satisfaction among the customers.

2.1 Research Problem Identification

Defining the research problem is the first step in the research process. The researchers get the proper direction to conduct their research by first understanding the research problems. Hence, a well-defined research problem is crucial. When the problem is discovered, researchers and management can take further steps to define the problem clearly and precisely. A problem defined with accuracy and conscience helps the researchers utilize the available resources effectively. It is imperative for researchers to explore what exactly is the problem and what are the objectives of the research. The rule generally followed to define the research problem is that the definition should permit the researchers to acquire all details required to address the managerial issues and show guidelines for finding a solution. The researcher should be careful not to define the problem too broadly or narrowly. Examples of broad managerial problems are defining a strategy for enhancing organizational performance and a strategy to elevate the organization’s brand equity. An example of a narrow definition of a problem is how to match competitors’ recruitment strategies. To overcome the possibility of both errors while defining the research problem, the researchers must define the problem with broad, popular terms and devise its components. The broad general statement helps the researchers get a sound perspective on the research problem and avoid the error of defining the problem narrowly. On the other side, the specific component helps to identify the key aspects of the research problem, extend a transparent guideline to proceed further and avoid the error of defining the problem too broadly. In management and social science research, broad management problems need to be converted to information-oriented research problems that focus more on the cause than the symptoms. Some examples of managerial problems converted to research problems are presented in Table below. The conversion of management dilemma to managerial questions and further to research questions can be carried out through exploratory research. Such research incorporates an examination of past research studies, a review of extant literature and organizational records and interviewing experts (Cooper et al., 2016).

2.2 Literature Review

Exploring the existing literature is critical in the research process. Researchers must explore and investigate extant literature to observe whether other researchers have already addressed the identified research problem. A literature review is a systematic search of published work, including periodicals, books, journal papers (conceptual and empirical), and reports, representing theory and empirical work about the research problem and topic at hand. A survey of existing literature is customary in applied research and is an elementary requirement of a basic research report. The internet, electronic databases, websites, and e-library help the researcher to carry out literature surveys systematically and easily.

The literature review aims to study the existing state of knowledge in the domain of interest, to picture key authors, theories, methods, topics, and findings in that domain, and to explore the gaps in knowledge in that domain. A literature review conducted systematically reveals whether initial research questions have already gained substantial attention in the extant literature, whether more interesting newer research questions are available, whether past studies have consistent findings or contradictions exist, flaws in the body of research that the researchers can address, and whether the initial research questions need to be revised as per the findings of the literature review. Furthermore, the review can answer the proposed research questions and help identify theories used in previous studies to address similar research questions. For example, for an organization interested in determining the true cause of turnover, the researcher will study extensively the existing literature on attrition and its causes. By studying relevant journal articles, books, and book chapters, the researcher will discover the causes of attrition in general, find out the existing gaps, and suggest the management carry forward the research to find causes specific to the organization.

As deductive research primarily involves theory testing, the researchers must identify one or more theories that can illuminate the proposed research questions. Through an extensive literature review, researchers may uncover various concepts and constructs related to the phenomenon of interest. A theory will extend support to constructs/variables that are logically relevant to the chosen phenomenon. In the deductive approach, researchers use theory/theories as the logical basis for hypothesis testing. However, researchers must carefully select the theories appropriate for the identified problem to be studied. The hypotheses need to be logically formulated and connected to the research objectives.

2.3 Formulating Research Questions

After problem identification and clarification, with or without an exploratory research approach, the researchers should derive the research objectives. Cautious attention to problem definition helps the researchers devise proper research objectives. Research objectives are the goal to be achieved through research. The research objective drives the research process further. A well-devised research objective enhances the possibility of gathering, relevant information and avoiding unwanted information. The research objectives can be properly developed with the consensus of the researchers and management on the actual managerial and business problems. The researcher should ensure that the research objectives are clearly stated, appropriate, and will yield germane information. The research objective may involve exploring the likelihood of venturing into a new market or may necessitate examining the effect of a new organizational policy on employee performance. The nature and types of objectives lead to choosing an appropriate research design.

Research Objectives:  Research objectives represent the goal of the research the researchers want to accomplish.

2.3.1 Suitable Research Questions

Research questions are important to conduct effective research. Without a clear research question, the researcher may face the risk of unfocused research and will not be sure of what the research is about. Research questions are refined descriptions of the components of the research problem. These are questions related to behavior, events or phenomena of interest that the researchers search for answers in their research. Examples include what factors motivate the employees in an organization to apply the gained knowledge back to their jobs or what needs to be done to enhance the creativity of school-going students. Research questions can best state the objectives of the research. Each component of the research problem needs to be broken down into sub-parts or research questions. Research questions inquire about the information essential concerning the problem components. Properly answered research questions will lead to effective decision-making. While formulating research questions, researchers should be guided by the problem statement, theoretical background, and analytical framework.

Sources of Research Questions

• Extant Literature
• Personal experience
• Societal issues
• Managerial problems
• New theories
• Technological advancement
• Empirical cases
• Contradictory finding

2.3.1.1 Significance of Research Questions

Research questions are critical because they guide scientific and systematic literature search, the decision about appropriate research design, the decision about data collection and target audience, data analysis, selection of right tools and techniques and overall to move in the right direction.

The researcher can utilize different sources for formulating research questions, such as extant literature, personal experience, societal issues, managerial problems, new theories, technological advancement, and contradictory findings. The research question must portray certain attributes. Research questions in quantitative research are more specific compared to qualitative research. Sometimes, some qualitative research follows an open approach without any research questions. The main steps involved in formulating research questions are illustrated in Figure below.

Criteria of Effective Research Questions

• Rateability
• Systematic and logical
• Significant
• Fascinating
• Logical association among variables

The sequence in selecting research questions suggests that the researchers are engrossed in a process of progressive focusing down when developing the research questions. It helps them to slide down from the general research area to research questions. While formulating the research questions, the researchers should understand that ending a research question with a question mark is essential. Without a question mark, a statement cannot be considered as a research question. It is quite possible that the researchers may not get answers to all research questions. The research questions need to be related to each other.

2.4 Planning the Research Design

After formulating research problems and literature surveys, the next stage in the research process is to develop the research design. Research design is the blueprint of research activities to answer research questions. It is a master plan that includes research methods and procedures for gathering and analyzing the relevant information with minimum cost, time, and effort. A research design extends a plan for carrying out the research. The researchers need to decide the source to collect information, the techniques of research design (survey or experiment), sampling techniques, and the cost and schedule of the research. The success of these objectives depends on the purpose of the research. Usually, research purposes are segregated into four types: exploration, description, diagnosis, and experimentation.

There are varied designs, such as experimental or non-experimental hypotheses testing (details of different research designs are outlined in section 2.3 in this chapter). There are four primary research methods for descriptive and causal research: survey, experiments, secondary data, and observations. The selection of an appropriate research method relies on the research objectives, available data sources, the cost and effort of collecting data, and the importance of managerial decisions. If the research objective is exploration, a flexible research design can extend better opportunities to investigate different aspects of the research problem. On the other hand, if the intention is simply to describe any situation or phenomena of interest to examine the relationship between two or more variables, the appropriate design should prioritize minimizing bias and maximizing reliability in data collection and analysis. For example, suppose a researcher wants to conduct exploratory research to know the different types of arthritis common in India. In that case, it may require a flexible design relying on secondary data from hospital records or discussions with doctors or other experts to reach conclusions. However, to invent COVID-vaccination and medicine for the COVID-19 virus, the researchers conducted varied experiments to reach a conclusion.

2.4.1 Hypotheses Development

Exploratory research helps the researchers define the research questions, key variables, and theoretical underpinnings and formulate hypotheses if required in the research. The hypotheses must be logically derived based on the research questions and linked to research objectives. A hypothesis is a tentative proposition regarding a research phenomenon. It may be a tentative statement that indicates an association between two or more variables, guided by any supportive theory, theoretical framework, or analytical model. It is a viable answer to the research questions framed by the researchers. Hypotheses are statements of relationships or propositions that are declarative and can be tested with empirical data. Some examples are:

H 1 : Training influences organizational performance.

H 2 : Training enhances employee performance.

For two more research questions i.e., “to what extent does brand love determine purchase intention?” and “does age and family background moderate the relationship?”, the hypotheses are:

H 1 : Brand love is related to purchase intention.

H 2 : Age and Family status moderate the association between brand love and purchase intention. Figure below provides a pictorial representation of the hypotheses drawn.

However, it is not always feasible for researchers to formulate hypotheses in all situations. Sometimes, researchers may lack all relevant information, and theoretical support may not be available to formulate the hypotheses.

2.5 Sampling Design

This stage of the research process involves an investigation of the population under study. A complete investigation of the population under study is known as a census inquiry. Usually, in census investigation, all units or items of the population are studied with high accuracy and reliability. However, it is usually not practicable and feasible for the researchers to study the entire population. Researchers usually prefer to investigate small, representative subgroups from the population known as sample. The procedure to select the sub-groups/samples is called sampling design. Sampling entails the process of drawing conclusions based on a subgroup of the population. Hence, the sample is a subset of the population. The first question that needs to be addressed in sampling is “who is to be included in the sample?” and this requires the identification of the target population under study. It is difficult for the researcher to define the population and sampling unit. For example, if a researcher wants to investigate the financial savings and vehicle loan association survey. In that case, individuals with existing accounts will be taken, and this sample unit represents the existing customers and not the potential customers. Hence, it is critical in sampling design to determine the specific target population.

Secondly, the issue that concerns the researchers in sampling design is selecting an appropriate sample size, and the third concern is selecting the sampling units. Researchers need to address these concerns to justify the research. Samples can be selected either using probability sampling techniques or non-probability sampling techniques. There are four types of probability sampling such as simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling. Non-probability sampling includes convenience, judgmental, quota, and snowball sampling. Depending on the objective, researchers should select the appropriate sampling techniques for their study.

2.6 Fieldwork and Gathering Data

After the formalization of the sampling plan, the fieldwork and data-gathering stage begins. The researcher gathers data after finalizing what to research, among whom, and which method to use. Data gathering involves the process of information collection. Different data collection instruments are available for researchers to collect information or data. Broadly, there are two ways to collect data, such as primary and secondary data collection methods. Primary data include data collected firsthand and are original. Varied methods are available for primary data collection, such as structured and unstructured interviews, focused group discussion, observation, and survey using a structured questionnaire. The data can be collected offline or online. Secondary data included information collected from published or unpublished sources that were already available. Some secondary data collection sources are articles, magazines, company records, expert opinion survey data, feedback of customers, government data, and past research on the subject. For example, to conduct a survey of job satisfaction in an organization, the researcher may circulate a printed questionnaire offline or mail the questionnaire to the selected respondents following an appropriate sampling technique.

Another example could be a study that investigates the purchase preference for luxury cars, and the base model demands primary and empirical information. However, another study that intended to describe the financial investment behavior of existing customers will use secondary data. At this stage, the researchers need to ensure the reliability and validity of the data obtained for the study.

2.7 Data Processing and Analysis

After data gathering, the data needs to be converted or properly coded to answer the research question under study. The information gathered in the data collection phase should be mined from the primary raw data. Data processing starts with data editing, coding, and tabulation. First, it is vital for the researchers to check the data collection forms for missing data, clarity, and consistency in categorization. The editing process involves problems associated with data, such as respondents’ response errors. Editing improves the quality of the data and makes the data usable for tabulation, analysis, and interpretation. Tabulation is a technical process in which classified data are presented in tables. Researchers use computers to feed data to a computer spreadsheet for data analysis. The preparation of a spreadsheet also requires lots of expertise and experience.

After coding the data, the next step is to analyze the data. Data analysis is the utilization of reasoning to make sense of data gathered. Ample statistical techniques are available for the researchers to analyze the data. Based on the research questions, objectives, study types, sampling framework used, data types, and degree of accuracy involved in the research, one can choose from parametric or non-parametric techniques for data analysis. Researchers may adopt univariate, bi-variate or multi-variate methods for data analysis. The analysis may include simple frequency analysis, multiple regression, or structural equation modeling. Different techniques are available for qualitative data, presented in Part 3 of this book.

2.8 Drawing Conclusion and Preparing a Report

After data analysis, the final stage in the research process is the interpretation of the results. The researcher requires analytical skills to interpret the statistical results, link the output with the research objectives, and state the implications of the result.

Research Design:  Research design is the blueprint/systematic steps to carry out research smoothly

Finally, researchers must communicate the result in the form of a report. The preparation of the final report needs to be done with the utmost care. The final report should include the identified research questions, research approach, data collection method, data analysis techniques, study findings, and implications for theory and practice. The structure of the report will be discussed in the last section of this book. The report should be prepared comprehensively to be usable by management or organizations for decision-making.

3. Classification of Research Design

This section highlights the classification of research design. As mentioned in the previous section, research design is the framework for carrying out management and other research. After the identification of a problem, the researchers formulate the research design. A good research design ensures the effectiveness of the research work. The choice of selecting an appropriate design relies on the research objectives. The broad categorization of research design with sub-categorization is detailed in various sub-sections.

3.1 Exploratory Research Design

Methods to Conduct Exploratory Research

• Literature survey
• Secondary sources of data
• Experience survey
• Focused group discussions
• Observations
• Structured and unstructured interviews
• Pilot surveys
• Case Studies

Exploratory research design is the simplest form of research design. The researchers explore the true nature of the problem. When researchers aim to study a new area or examine a new interest, exploratory design is a good option. This research design is flexible and versatile in approach. The information required by the researchers is defined loosely and unstructured. Researchers carrying out qualitative research usually adopt exploratory research design. Exploratory research design serves three purposes (a) it helps the researchers to address their inquisitiveness and quest for better understanding (b) to assess the practicality of carrying out border research (c) and devise methods for further studies.

Methods to Conduct Descriptive Research

• Self-administered survey
• Phone survey
• Mail survey/online survey
• Observation
• Personal interview
• Telephone interview

Exploratory research design has paramount significance in management and social science research. They are crucial for researchers who want to study something new. To cite an example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, physical health, mental health, and safety of school and college-going children were a concern for most people. The online education system was the new normal at that time. Research studying the impact of digitalization, long time spent in online studies on students’ health and mental well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, is of an exploratory kind. One of the disadvantages of exploratory research design is that researchers rarely get specific answers to the research questions.

3.2 Descriptive Research Design

The prime objective of descriptive research design is to describe certain situations or events. This type of design provides an extensive explanation of the research phenomena under study. In descriptive research, the researchers possess prior knowledge about the problem situations. The information is defined with clarity. This kind of research is preplanned and more structured than exploratory research. Researchers must formulate research questions properly and have clarity regarding the types of data needed and the procedure to be followed to achieve the research objectives. Researchers have the luxury of covering a large representative sample. Researchers must answer five Ws and one H – what, who, when, where, why, and how of research issues. What kind of information is required for the research, who are the target respondents, when the information will be collected, where to interact with the respondents, why information is collected from the respondents and how to collect data from the respondents. Descriptive research studies can be cross-sectional or longitudinal. The major objectives for the following descriptive research are given below.

• To explain the characteristics of certain groups such as the Indian population, employees, students, marketing personnel, organizations, sales persons. For example, a university to design a customized online higher studies course for working professionals needs a holistic profile of the interested population.
• To evaluate the portion of individuals in a specific population portraying a typical behavior. For instance, when a researcher is inclined to know the percentage of employees not interested in an online platform introduced for them in their organization.
• To predict for future. For instance, to know the future of physical retail stores due to the widespread expansion of online stores.
• To examine the extent to which management research variables relate to each other. For example, to what extent does work-life balance, salary, and conducive work environment enhance employee job satisfaction?

3.3 Causal Research Design

Usually, causal research design is adopted by researchers to explain causal relationships among phenomena under study. Causal research examines cause-and-effect relationships among variables. Causal research has certain criteria, as already discussed in Chapter 1. Causal research follows a planned and structured design like descriptive research. Though the magnitude of the relationship among variables is examined in descriptive research, the causal association cannot be explained through such research. Experimentation is one of the methods for carrying out causal research.

In causal research, the researchers usually examine the impact of one variable on another. The researchers try to explore the cause-and-effect relationship (nomothetic explanation). How can the researcher know whether cause and effect are associated? There are three criteria for a nomothetic causal relationship when (1) two or more variables are correlated, (2) the cause precedes the effect and (3) the absence of a plausible alternative explanation for the effect other than the proposed cause (Babbie, 2020). First, without establishing a correlation among two or more variables, causation cannot exist. Second, the cause should happen before the effect in time. For instance, it is more sensible to say that children’s religious affiliation is caused by their parents than to reflect that parents’ religious affiliation is due to children; even in some cases, it is plausible that children may convert to other religions later with their parent’s permission. The third significant condition for a causal relationship is that the effect cannot be attributed to any external third variable for establishing causation.

To cite one classic example, there is a causal association between sales of ice cream and death owing to drowning. Intake of more ice creams in summer does lead to a higher death rate due to drowning. The third intervening variable that causes higher death is season or temperature. In summer, higher deaths occur due to swimming and not because of taking ice-creams. The intervening variable season or temperature causes a higher death rate.

To establish a reliable causal relationship among two or more variables, other influencing variables must be controlled to neutralize their impact on the studied variables. For example, to study the effect of factors influencing training transfer in soft skill training, the other intervening variables such as age, gender, and educational qualification need to be controlled. This kind of research sometimes demands experimentation to establish causality. In most cases, causal research is quantitative and needs statistical hypothesis testing.

3.4 Experimental Research Design

Experimental research aims to examine the cause-effect relationship in a controlled setting by isolating the cause from the effect in time. The three criteria suggested by John Stuart Mill mirror in experimental research. In experimental research, the cause is administered to one group of subjects, known as the treatment group and not to the control group, and the researchers observe the difference in mean effect among the subjects of both groups. Whether variation in the cause is connected to variation in effect is observed. To be more specific, the researcher manipulates the independent variable and examines the change in the dependent variable, keeping other variables constant. Researchers used varied methods during the experiments to reduce the plausible effect of other explanations for the effect, along with ancillary methods to investigate the plausibility of those that cannot be ruled out. It is vital in experimental studies to control the extraneous and confounding variables while carrying out the experiments. Ignorance of such variables may lead to spurious relationships among studied variables. However, bringing many of the variables under experimental control is impossible. For example, personal characteristics of the subject like age, sex, intelligence, beliefs and persona. In such cases, the researchers must observe natural variations in the variables of concern. Then, statistical procedures are used to rule out the plausible impact of uncontrolled factors.

Experimental Research Design:  An experiment is a method of collecting evidence to indicate the effect of one variable on another.

Experimental research design can be conducted in a laboratory setting (laboratory experiment) or in a field setting (field experiments) where the phenomena of research interest happen. As an example, one of the most talked about and controversial experiments conducted on understanding human behavior has been the Stanford Prison Experiments, which took place at Stanford University in 1971. The experiments were funded by the US Office of Naval Research, and the principal investigator for the same was Prof Phillip Zimbardo. The major purpose of these experiments was to understand how norms develop and social expectations about roles shape group behavior. Experimental studies are segregated into four categories such as pre-experimental, true-experimental, quasi-experimental and statistical design.

3.4.1 Correlation, Causation and Cofounds

Correlation cannot be treated as causation, and correlation does not always prove causation. In correlation, it is unclear which variable comes first or whether any alternative explanation exists for the assumed effect. Two variables may be correlated due to chance. Correlation is symmetric, while causation is asymmetric. Two variables may be co-related, but their relationship may be affected by a third variable called cofounds. For example, let’s say that high salary and high educational qualifications are correlated. It is difficult to say with confirmation which comes first. Whether a high educational qualification leads to a high salary, or a high salary leads to a high educational qualification. Both possibilities can hold true and necessitate further investigation. Until researchers conclude through their investigation, a mere correlation among these two variables will not give a clear picture of their causal relationship. There is also the possibility of an alternative explanation for the relationship between high salary and high educational qualifications. The link may be due to a third variable called intellect, which results in high salary and high educational qualifications.

In management research, social science, and natural science, three significant pairs of components are required for experimentation: Experimental and control group, independent and dependent variable, and pre-test and post-test.

3.4.1.1 Experimental and Control Group

The group in which an experimental treatment is administered is known as the experimental or treatment group. In contrast, the group in which no experiment is administered is known as the control group. Using control groups enables the researchers to assess the experiment’s effects. For example, suppose a researcher wants to study the impact of rewards on employee productivity in an organization. In that case, the researcher can experiment with two groups of employees. One group will be given external rewards, known as the experimental group, and the other group (control group) will provide no external rewards. Then, the researcher can investigate the causal association between rewards on employees’ productivity through this experiment. The use of a control group is quite common in medical science research. In social science and management research, the use of control groups and experimental studies became popular with several experiments conducted in the late 1920s and early 1930s by F. J. Roethlisberger and W. J. Dickson (1939) to discover the changes required in working conditions to enhance employee satisfaction and productivity. Their series of experiments resulted in the Hawthorne effect.

3.4.1.2 Independent and Dependent Variables

In experimental research, the researchers study the impact of an independent variable on the dependent variable. Usually, experimental stimuli, whether present or absent, are considered independent variables. Independent variables are manipulated in the study, and their effects are assessed and compared. The researchers compare outcomes when the stimulus is present and not present. Hence, the independent variable is the cause, and the dependent variable is the presumed effect. It is to be noted that the independent variable in one study may serve as a dependent variable in another study. For example, an experiment intends to explore the causality between high salary and job satisfaction, job satisfaction is the dependent variable. However, in another experiment designed to explore the causality between job satisfaction and employee productivity, job satisfaction is the independent variable.

3.4.1.3 Pre- and Post-test

In an experiment, the experimenters measure the variable before conducting the experiment on the group known as the pre-test and measure the variable after conducting the experiments is called as post-test. Hence, subjects are exposed to a stimulus called a dependent variable (pre-testing), then exposed to a stimulus, i.e., independent variable, and again assessed with a dependent variable (post-testing). Any discrepancies between the two measurements of dependent variables are ascribed to the independent variable.

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• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on October 26, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, using sub-questions to strengthen your main research question, research questions quiz, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

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Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific

Complex and arguable

Relevant and original

Chances are that your main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. That’s why sub-questions are important: they allow you to answer your main question in a step-by-step manner.

Good sub-questions should be:

• Less complex than the main question
• Focused only on 1 type of research
• Presented in a logical order

Here are a few examples of descriptive and framing questions:

• Descriptive: According to current government arguments, how should a European bank tax be implemented?
• Descriptive: Which countries have a bank tax/levy on financial transactions?
• Framing: How should a bank tax/levy on financial transactions look at a European level?

Keep in mind that sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if you need the findings to answer your main question. If your main question is simple enough to stand on its own, it’s okay to skip the sub-question part. As a rule of thumb, the more complex your subject, the more sub-questions you’ll need.

Try to limit yourself to 4 or 5 sub-questions, maximum. If you feel you need more than this, it may be indication that your main research question is not sufficiently specific. In this case, it’s is better to revisit your problem statement and try to tighten your main question up.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (“ x affects y because …”).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses . In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

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McCombes, S. (2023, November 21). Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 17, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-questions/

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