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• Introduction

Sri Lanka’s prehistoric record

Legendary origins, indo-aryan settlement in sri lanka, conversion to buddhism, the anuradhapura period, the polonnaruwa period, government and society, the advent and impact of irrigation, the fall of polonnaruwa.

• Political changes
• Collapse of the Dry Zone civilization
• New cultivation techniques
• Foreign trade
• Land control
• Religious and ethnolinguistic changes
• The expansion of Portuguese control
• Kandy and its struggle with European powers
• Control of Kandy
• Social and administrative reforms
• Emergence of capitalist agriculture
• Constitutional reforms
• Growth of nationalist power
• Social and cultural changes
• Dominion status
• Independent Ceylon (1948–71)
• Peace accord and discord
• End of the war
• Reconstruction
• Growing debt and instability
• Ascent of the Rajapaksas and economic collapse

history of Sri Lanka

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• My Sri Lanka travel - History of Sri Lanka
• Kataragama.org - Kataragama's Role in Sri Lankan History
• The Living Heritage Trust - History of Sri Lanka
• Table Of Contents

history of Sri Lanka , a survey of the notable events and people in the history of Sri Lanka from ancient times to the present day. The country, formerly known as Ceylon, is an island lying in the Indian Ocean and separated from peninsular India by the Palk Strait . Proximity to the Indian subcontinent has facilitated close cultural interaction between Sri Lanka and India from ancient times. At a crossroads of maritime routes traversing the Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka has also been exposed to cultural influences from other Asian civilizations.

Sri Lanka has had a continuous record of human settlement for more than two millennia, and its civilization has been shaped largely by that of the Indian subcontinent. The island’s two major ethnic groups, the Sinhalese and the Tamils , and its two dominant religions, Buddhism and Hinduism , made their way to the island from India , and Indian influence pervaded such diverse fields as art, architecture, literature, music, medicine, and astronomy.

Despite its obvious affinities with India, Sri Lanka nevertheless developed a unique identity over the ages that ultimately set it apart from its neighbour. Cultural traits brought from India necessarily underwent independent growth and change in Sri Lanka, owing in part to the island’s physical separation from the subcontinent. Buddhism, for instance, virtually disappeared from India, but it continued to flourish in Sri Lanka, particularly among the Sinhalese. Moreover, the Sinhalese language , which grew out of Indo-Aryan dialects from the mainland, eventually became indigenous solely to Sri Lanka and developed its own literary tradition.

Also important to Sri Lanka’s cultural development has been its position as the nexus of important maritime trade routes between Europe , the Middle East , and Asia. Long before the European discovery of an oceanic route to India in the 15th century, Sri Lanka was known to Greek, Roman, Persian, Armenian, Arab, Malay, and Chinese sailors. With the coming of the Europeans, however, the strategic importance of Sri Lanka increased, and Western maritime powers fought to control its shores. Both Sri Lanka and India came under European influence and colonial rule. This common experience worked to tighten the long-standing links between the two countries, and, with the attainment of independence in the mid-20th century, Sri Lankan and Indian social institutions and ideologies began to resonate more closely with each other.

Geologically, Sri Lanka is an extension of peninsular India that separated from the mainland perhaps as recently as the Miocene Epoch (roughly 25 to 5 million years ago). Archaeological excavations undertaken since the late 20th century have indicated that the island already supported human inhabitants some 75,000 to 125,000 years ago. The earliest occupants of the region were, like other Paleolithic peoples, hunters and gatherers who made and used fairly rough stone tools. Finer tools made of quartz and occasionally of chert become visible in the archaeological record about 28,000 years ago. The artifacts from this era, which include many microliths (very small, sharp flakes of stone that can be used individually or hafted together to make a serrated edge), have been found throughout the country, especially among the grasslands of the hills and the sandy tracts of the coast. By about the 9th century bce , people had begun to experiment with food production and irrigation and had gained access to some of the iron tools produced on the continent.

Early settlement and the spread of Buddhism

Sri Lanka’s earliest human inhabitants of whom there is direct fossil evidence were hunter-gatherers in the area of Balangoda in the south. Urban settlements first appeared in the 10th century bce near Anuradhapura in north-central Sri Lanka. The ancestors of the Sinhalese , who were speakers of Indo-Aryan languages , migrated from northern India about the 5th century bce . The Tamils were probably later immigrants from areas of central, eastern, and southern India where Dravidian languages were spoken; their early migrations spanned a period from about the 3rd century bce to about 1200 ce .

Sri Lanka possesses a historical tradition preserved in written form by Buddhist chroniclers. The earliest of the extant chronicles is the Dipavamsa (“Island’s Chronicle”), compiled probably by Buddhist nuns in the 4th century ce . The Dipavamsa was followed by the Mahavamsa (“Great Chronicle”) and its continuation, called the Culavamsa (“Little Chronicle”). Together, these chronicles constitute a literary record of the establishment and growth of Sinhalese political power and of Sri Lankan Buddhism; however, the documents must be used with caution and always in conjunction with archaeological—especially epigraphic—material.

According to the Sinhalese tradition, as recorded in the Mahavamsa , the first Indian settlers on Sri Lanka were Prince Vijaya and his 700 followers, who landed on the west coast near Puttalam (5th century bce ). They had been banished for misconduct from the kingdom of Sinhapura in northern India by Vijaya’s father, King Sinhabahu, who put them all in a ship and drove them away. When Vijaya’s band landed on the island, it was inhabited by yaksha s (a type of spirit; perhaps referring here to human members of a cult of yaksha devotees), whom they defeated and chased into the interior. Vijaya married a yaksha princess and had two children by her. Later he drove her and the children away and sent to the Madurai court in India for a Pandu (probably referring to the Pandya dynasty ) princess and for wives for his 700 followers. Vijaya settled down to reign as king after a ceremonial enthronement and marriage and founded a dynasty . He had no heir to the throne, and toward the end of his reign he sent for his younger brother at Sinhapura. The brother, unwilling to leave his native land, sent his youngest son, Panduvasudeva, to Sri Lanka. Panduvasudeva landed with 32 followers at Gokanna (now Trincomalee ) on the east coast. He was enthroned at Upatissagama and continued the Vijaya dynasty.

The account of Sri Lanka’s settlement as presented in the Mahavamsa contains an element of historical fact—the settlers were Indo-Aryan peoples from northern India. However, controversy exists as to the exact provenance of the early settlers; the legends contain evidence pointing to both the northeastern and the northwestern parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain . Vijaya’s ancestors hailed from Bengal , in the northeast, but his father established himself subsequently in Gujarat , the area in northwest India from which the adventurers were put out to sea. Before arriving in Sri Lanka, their ship called at Supara, on the west coast of India. Their landing in Sri Lanka, at Tambapanni, near Puttalam, would indicate their arrival from western India. Some early tribal names occurring in Sri Lanka also suggest connections with northwestern India and the Indus River region.

While considerable evidence points to western India as the home of the first immigrants, it seems probable that a subsequent wave arrived from the vicinity of Bengal and Odisha in the northeast. One band of settlers landed in Sri Lanka at the east-coast port of Gokanna, a natural port of disembarkation for vessels arriving from the Bay of Bengal . The traditional accounts of the arrival of Panduvasudeva may portray a second wave of migration following the first mentioned in the Vijaya legend . Linguistic affinities between the early Sinhalese- and Prakrit -speaking peoples of eastern India strengthen the hypothesis of a migration from this area.

The tradition speaks primarily of settlement by conquest, and tribes of conquerors led by a warrior nobility would certainly have propelled the Indo-Aryan migration southward. Also important, however, was the pursuit of trade (as opposed to military conquest). Indo-Aryan merchants probably reached Sri Lanka while sailing down the Indian coast, and some of these merchants, motivated by a lucrative trade in Sri Lanka’s natural products, may have founded settlements.

The view that Indo-Aryan migrants laid the foundations of Sinhalese civilization increasingly has come into question since the late 20th century. Archaeological evidence has indicated that settled agriculture, tank irrigation, use of iron, and pottery were features present before the Indo-Aryan migrations. During the early phases of these migrations, a synthesis seems to have taken place between Indo-Aryan, pre-Indo-Aryan, and possibly Dravidian elements to create the early Sinhalese culture of the Anuradhapura period, which spanned the 3rd century bce to the 10th century ce . The chronicled account of Vijaya’s confrontation with the yaksha s and the search for consorts in the Pandu kingdom of Madurai (if this may be presumed to be the Pandya Tamil kingdom of southern India) point to such integration .

In any case, Indo-Aryan settlements grew in different parts of the island from about the 5th century bce . The settlers came in numerous clans or tribes; the most powerful were the Sinhalese, who eventually gave their name to the descendants of the various groups. The earliest settlers were those on the west-central coast, who pushed inland along the Malwatu River and founded a number of riverbank villages. Their seat of government was Upatissagama.

Tradition attributes the founding of the kingdom of Anuradhapura to Pandukkabhaya, the third king of the Vijaya dynasty. With its growth as the strongest Sinhalese kingdom, the city of Anuradhapura and the nearby settlements flourished . Kings built up the city and developed it for urban life as they extended royal control over villages and outlying settlements. With the establishment of strong government, the population grew and the kingdom expanded into the north-central region.

According to Sinhalese tradition, Buddhism was first brought to Sri Lanka by a mission sent out from eastern India during the reign of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (c. 273–232 bce ). The leader of the mission to Sri Lanka, Mahendra (Mahinda), is described as Ashoka’s son. Mahendra and his colleagues traveled to the Mihintale hill (the site of some of the earliest inscriptions), 8 miles (13 km) from Anuradhapura. There they chanced to meet the Sinhalese king Tissa, to whom they delivered a sermon on Buddhism. The king was brought into the Buddhist fold, and he invited Mahendra and his followers to the city. The missionaries were settled in a royal pavilion in the city park of Mahamegha, where they preached first to members of the royal family and then to the common people. Many embraced the new religion, some taking holy orders and joining the Buddhist sangha (community of monks). The king donated the Mahamegha park to the sangha. Meanwhile, the monastery of Mahavihara was established, and it became the prime centre of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Mahendra sent for his sister Sanghamitta, who arrived with a branch of the Bo tree (at Bodh Gaya ), under which the Buddha had attained enlightenment. The sapling was ceremonially planted in the city. Sanghamitta founded an order of nuns, and a stupa (shrine), the Thuparamacetiya, was built by the king for popular worship. Thus, with the founding of these and other institutions, Buddhism became an established religion in Sri Lanka.

Through the conversion of King Tissa and the missionary activity of monks in the villages, by the 2nd century bce the Sinhalese had accepted Buddhism, and this faith helped produce a unity and consciousness on which subsequent political and economic strength was founded. However, it should be recognized that while the monastic chronicles accord the pride of place to Buddhism, other religions also were practiced on the island. Jainism , for instance, probably represented another major religious tradition, and a Jain monastery is mentioned in the Mahavamsa . The chronicle also indicates the presence of Brahmans —Hindus of the highest social rank—in Sri Lanka.

Early growth and political centralization, c. 200 bce –1255 ce

Expansion of Buddhism preceded political unification; many of the areas embraced by the new religion were still ruled by a multitude of chiefs. The ruler of Anuradhapura , Duttagamani Abhaya (reigned 161–137 bce ), was preeminent among these chiefs, and, as Buddhism spread, the Anuradhapura kingdom extended its political control over the rest of Sri Lanka.

The Vijaya dynasty of kings continued, with brief interruptions, until 65 ce , when Vasabha, a member of the Lambakanna royal family, founded the Lambakanna dynasty. The Lambakannas ruled for about four centuries. Their most noteworthy king was Mahasena (reigned 276–303), who constructed many major irrigation systems and championed heterodox Buddhist sects.

A Pandyan invasion from southern India put an end to this dynasty and, briefly, to Sinhalese rule in 432. Dhatusena (reigned 459–477) defeated the Pandyas and reestablished Sinhalese rule with the line of Moriya kings. His son Kashyapa I (reigned 477–495) moved the capital from Anuradhapura to the rock fortress of Sigiriya . After Kashyapa’s dethronement the capital was returned to Anuradhapura.

From the 7th century there was an increase in the involvement of south Indian powers in the island’s politics and in the presence of Tamil mercenaries in and around the capital. Manavamma, a Sinhalese royal fugitive, was placed on the throne in 684 with the support of the Pallava rulers of south India.

Manavamma founded the second Lambakanna dynasty, which reigned in Anuradhapura for about 400 years. The dynasty produced a number of distinguished kings, who consolidated and extended Sinhalese political power. During this period, Sinhalese involvement with southern India was even closer. Sinhalese kings were drawn into the dynastic battles between the Pandyas, Pallavas, and Colas . Invasions from south India to Sri Lanka and retaliatory raids were a recurrent phenomenon. In the 10th century the island’s political and military power weakened because of regional particularism and internecine warfare; the Colas—hostile because of the Sinhalese alliance with Pandya—attacked and occupied the Sinhalese kingdom in 993 and annexed Rajarata (in the north-central region of Sri Lanka) as a province of the Cola empire. The conquest was completed in 1017, when the Colas seized the southern province of Ruhuna.

The Colas occupied Sri Lanka until 1070, when Vijayabahu liberated the island and reestablished Sinhalese power. He shifted the capital eastward to Polonnaruwa , a city that was easier to defend against south Indian attacks and that controlled the route to Ruhuna. The capital remained there for some 150 years. The most colourful king of the Polonnaruwa period was Parakramabahu I (reigned 1153–86), under whom the kingdom enjoyed its greatest prosperity. He followed a strong foreign policy , dispatching a punitive naval expedition to Myanmar (Burma) and sending the army to invade the Pandyan kingdom; however, these initiatives achieved no permanent success. After Parakramabahu I the throne passed to the Kalinga dynasty, and the influence of south India increased. Nissankamalla (reigned c. 1186–96) was the last effective ruler of this period. The last Polonnaruwa king was Magha (reigned 1215–36), an adventurer from south India who seized power and ruled with severity.

Kingship was the unifying political institution in the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa periods, a symbol of the aims and achievements of the Sinhalese people. The kingship was essentially Brahmanic (hereditary within the priestly social class), with strong Buddhist influences; all the kings were practicing Buddhists and patrons of Buddhist institutions. The support and blessing of the clergy, moreover, were perceived as essential to a peaceful and continuous reign. This connection between kingship and Buddhism enabled Buddhism to flourish. Kings built, maintained, and endowed many shrines and monasteries, and they intervened to establish order and prevent schism within the Buddhist community . Nobles and commoners too were lavish in their support, and thus Buddhist institutions prospered. Many beautiful temples were built with finely carved sculpture, and monasteries thrived as centres of learning in the Pali and Sinhalese languages and in Buddhist philosophy.

The king was supported by an inner administrative hierarchy consisting of members of his family and influential nobles. The yuvaraja , the king’s chosen heir to the throne, was given responsible office. The army was the major prop of royal absolutism, and the senapati , or commander in chief, was the king’s closest counselor and confidant.

Sinhalese society was segmented into social classes— castes —each of which performed a particular occupation. (The caste system in Sri Lanka, however, was not as rigid as its counterpart in India.) The Govi, or cultivators, made up the highest caste in Sri Lanka, but many other castes also engaged in farming. Administrative officials were drawn from the Govi caste, which was stratified into chiefs, titled men, and peasants. Chiefs were important supporters of royal absolutism and helped administer the government. Nonagricultural people, the Hina, were considered of lower rank and were divided into occupational groups. These caste groups were endogamous; each lived in its own section, along particular streets. Castes were stratified in terms of status, with the lowest on the scale—the candala —performing the most menial of jobs.

The Sinhalese civilization was hydraulic, based on the storage and use of water for the regular cultivation of wet fields. The early Indo-Aryan settlers cultivated rice and settled along river valleys and other suitable lands. They began with simple schemes for damming rivers and storing water below them. Small systems for storing water in reservoirs by tapping seasonal streams later became a feature of nearly every village; these waterworks probably were managed communally by the landowners of the village. With the increase in royal power, the attraction of greater revenue through greater production made kings play an active role in the construction of large-scale irrigation schemes. Beginning about the 1st century ce during the reign of King Vasabha, large perennial rivers were blocked with massive earthen dams to create colossal reservoirs. With increasingly sophisticated irrigation technology, water from these reservoirs was delivered through canals to distant fields and through underground channels to the capital city.

Further technological progress was achieved in the 3rd century during the reign of King Mahasena; a number of storage tanks and canals are attributed to him, the most outstanding of which is the Minneriya tank and its feeder canals. The construction and maintenance of monumental irrigation works became a regular preoccupation of kings. Reservoirs and canals studded the northern and north-central plains, tapping every source of water. Among the most noteworthy was the magnificent Parakrama Samudra in Polonnaruwa, the crowning glory of Parakramabahu I’s reign, with a storage area of more than 5,000 acres (2,000 hectares) for the irrigation of 18,000 acres (7,300 hectares).

Operation of the large works demanded a great deal of coordination and central control; mobilization of labour and technical skill was required at the construction stage, and bureaucratic machinery was essential to keeping the system in repair. Among the primary functions of the central administration was the enforcement of regulations to coordinate cultivation of irrigated plots, to control the flow of water, and to collect water dues from the irrigation operators. Such effective and efficient water management led to increased productivity, which ultimately increased the power of the king.

Many medium and small irrigation works were, however, initiated and managed by regional and village authorities, who became important props of royal authority. When rights to revenue were devolved to these local notables, a feudal system began to emerge, with feudal relations proliferating especially rapidly after 1200.

A grain tax, the water dues, and trade in surplus grain were major sources of the king’s revenue. They sustained strong political and military power for more than a millennium and enabled the dispatch of expeditions abroad. Increased revenue also made possible widespread religious construction, which, along with remarkable accomplishments in the plastic arts and irrigation, was a hallmark of the reign of Parakramabahu I.

When Parakramabahu I died in 1186, the throne passed to the non-Sinhalese Kalinga dynasty—to Nissankamalla, brother of Parakramabahu I’s Kalinga queen. Following the death of Nissankamalla in 1196, the Polonnaruwa kingdom was weakened by a succession of ineffective rulers. Non-Sinhalese factions such as the Kalingas and Pandyas of India gained power in Sri Lanka as a result of dynastic marriages with south Indian royalty; conflict between these factions was common. South Indian notables occupied positions of influence under Kalinga kings, and their power was buttressed by mercenaries of various origins. In 1214 Magha of the Kalingas invaded Sri Lanka with the help of thousands of such mercenaries, and he took control of the whole island. Magha’s rule, a veritable reign of terror, lasted until 1255 and was marked by bold disregard of traditional authority and of established religion. Polonnaruwa itself fell into the hands of non-Sinhalese elements, each vying with the others for power and office.

Photos of Sri Lanka

Introduction

The first Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th century B.C., probably from northern India. Buddhism was introduced circa 250 B.C., and the first kingdoms developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (from circa 200 B.C. to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070 to 1200). In the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty established a Tamil kingdom in northern Sri Lanka. The Portuguese controlled the coastal areas of the island in the 16th century followed by the Dutch in the 17th century. The island was ceded to the British in 1796, became a crown colony in 1802, and was formally united under British rule by 1815. As Ceylon, it became independent in 1948; its name was changed to Sri Lanka in 1972. Prevailing tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil separatists erupted into war in July 1983. Fighting between the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) continued for over a quarter century. Although Norway brokered peace negotiations that led to a ceasefire in 2002, the fighting slowly resumed and was again in full force by 2006. The government defeated the LTTE in May 2009.

During the post-conflict years under President Mahinda RAJAPAKSA, the government initiated infrastructure development projects, many of which were financed by loans from China. His regime faced significant allegations of human rights violations and a shrinking democratic space for civil society.  In 2015, a new coalition government headed by President Maithripala SIRISENA of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party and Prime Minister Ranil WICKREMESINGHE of the United National Party came to power with pledges to advance economic, governance, anti-corruption, reconciliation, justice, and accountability reforms. However, implementation of these reforms has been uneven. In October 2018, President SIRISENA attempted to oust Prime Minister WICKREMESINGHE, swearing in former President RAJAPAKSA as the new prime minister and issuing an order to dissolve the parliament and hold elections. This sparked a seven-week constitutional crisis that ended when the Supreme Court ruled SIRISENA’s actions unconstitutional, RAJAPAKSA resigned, and WICKREMESINGHE was reinstated. In November 2019, Gotabaya RAJAPAKSA won the presidential election and appointed his brother, Mahinda, prime minister.

Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.

Southern Asia, island in the Indian Ocean, south of India

Geographic coordinates

7 00 N, 81 00 E

Map references

total: 65,610 sq km land: 64,630 sq km water: 980 sq km

Area - comparative

slightly larger than West Virginia

Land boundaries

total: 0 km

Maritime claims

territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin

tropical monsoon; northeast monsoon (December to March); southwest monsoon (June to October)

mostly low, flat to rolling plain; mountains in south-central interior

highest point: Pidurutalagala 2,524 m lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m mean elevation: 228 m

Natural resources

limestone, graphite, mineral sands, gems, phosphates, clay, hydropower, arable land

agricultural land: 43.5% (2018 est.) arable land: 20.7% (2018 est.) permanent crops: 15.8% (2018 est.) permanent pasture: 7% (2018 est.) forest: 29.4% (2018 est.) other: 27.1% (2018 est.)

Irrigated land

5,700 sq km (2012)

Population distribution

the population is primarily concentrated within a broad wet zone in the southwest, urban centers along the eastern coast, and on the Jaffna Peninsula in the north

Natural hazards

occasional cyclones and tornadoes

Geography - note

strategic location near major Indian Ocean sea lanes; Adam's Bridge is a chain of limestone shoals between the southeastern coast of India and the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka; geological evidence suggests that this 50-km long Bridge once connected India and Sri Lanka; ancient records seem to indicate that a foot passage was possible between the two land masses until the 15th century when the land bridge broke up in a cyclone

People and Society

23,044,123 (July 2021 est.)

Nationality

noun: Sri Lankan(s) adjective: Sri Lankan

Ethnic groups

Sinhalese 74.9%, Sri Lankan Tamil 11.2%, Sri Lankan Moors 9.2%, Indian Tamil 4.2%, other 0.5% (2012 est.)

Sinhala (official and national language) 87%, Tamil (official and national language) 28.5%, English 23.8% (2012 est.) note: data represent main languages spoken by the population aged 10 years and older; shares sum to more than 100% because some respondents gave more than one answer on the census; English is commonly used in government and is referred to as the "link language" in the constitution

Buddhist (official) 70.2%, Hindu 12.6%, Muslim 9.7%, Roman Catholic 6.1%, other Christian 1.3%, other 0.05% (2012 est.)

Age structure

0-14 years: 23.11% (male 2,696,379/female 2,592,450) 15-24 years: 14.58% (male 1,700,442/female 1,636,401) 25-54 years: 41.2% (male 4,641,842/female 4,789,101) 55-64 years: 10.48% (male 1,110,481/female 1,288,056) 65 years and over: 10.63% (male 1,023,315/female 1,410,734) (2020 est.)

Dependency ratios

total dependency ratio: 53.7 youth dependency ratio: 36.4 elderly dependency ratio: 17.3 potential support ratio: 5.8 (2020 est.)

total: 33.7 years male: 32.3 years female: 35.1 years (2020 est.)

Population growth rate

0.63% (2021 est.)

14.01 births/1,000 population (2021 est.)

6.45 deaths/1,000 population (2021 est.)

Net migration rate

-1.24 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2021 est.)

Urbanization

urban population: 18.9% of total population (2021) rate of urbanization: 1.22% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)

Major urban areas - population

103,000 Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte (legislative capital) (2018), 619,000 COLOMBO (capital) (2021)

at birth: 1.04 male(s)/female 0-14 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-24 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 25-54 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 55-64 years: 0.86 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2020 est.)

Mother's mean age at first birth

25.6 years (2016 est.) note: median age at first birth among women 30-34

Maternal mortality ratio

36 deaths/100,000 live births (2017 est.)

Infant mortality rate

total: 8.36 deaths/1,000 live births male: 9.35 deaths/1,000 live births female: 7.34 deaths/1,000 live births (2021 est.)

Life expectancy at birth

total population: 77.75 years male: 74.31 years female: 81.33 years (2021 est.)

Total fertility rate

2 children born/woman (2021 est.)

Contraceptive prevalence rate

64.6% (2016)

Drinking water source

improved: urban: 98.1% of population rural: 91.4% of population total: 92.6% of population unimproved: urban: 1.9% of population rural: 8.6% of population total: 7.4% of population (2017 est.)

Current Health Expenditure

3.8% (2018)

Physicians density

1 physicians/1,000 population (2018)

Hospital bed density

4.2 beds/1,000 population (2017)

Sanitation facility access

improved: urban: 97.1% of population rural: 99.3% of population total: 98.9% of population unimproved: urban: 2.9% of population rural: 0.7% of population total: 1.1% of population (2017 est.)

HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate

<.1% (2020 est.)

HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS

3,700 (2020 est.)

HIV/AIDS - deaths

<200 (2020 est.)

Major infectious diseases

intermediate

Obesity - adult prevalence rate

5.2% (2016)

Children under the age of 5 years underweight

20.5% (2016)

Education expenditures

2.1% of GDP (2018)

definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 92.3% male: 93% female: 91.6% (2019)

School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)

total: 14 years male: 14 years female: 14 years (2018)

Unemployment, youth ages 15-24

total: 21.1% male: 16.6% female: 29.4% (2018 est.)

Environment

Environment - current issues.

deforestation; soil erosion; wildlife populations threatened by poaching and urbanization; coastal degradation from mining activities and increased pollution; coral reef destruction; freshwater resources being polluted by industrial wastes and sewage runoff; waste disposal; air pollution in Colombo

Environment - international agreements

party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Marine Life Conservation

Air pollutants

particulate matter emissions: 15.25 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est.) carbon dioxide emissions: 23.36 megatons (2016 est.) methane emissions: 10.95 megatons (2020 est.)

Revenue from forest resources

forest revenues: 0.06% of GDP (2018 est.)

Revenue from coal

coal revenues: 0% of GDP (2018 est.)

Waste and recycling

municipal solid waste generated annually: 2,631,650 tons (2016 est.) municipal solid waste recycled annually: 336,588 tons (2016 est.) percent of municipal solid waste recycled: 12.8% (2016 est.)

Total water withdrawal

municipal: 805 million cubic meters (2017 est.) industrial: 831 million cubic meters (2017 est.) agricultural: 11.31 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)

Total renewable water resources

52.8 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)

Country name

conventional long form: Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka conventional short form: Sri Lanka local long form: Shri Lanka Prajatantrika Samajavadi Janarajaya/Ilankai Jananayaka Choshalichak Kutiyarachu local short form: Shri Lanka/Ilankai former: Serendib, Ceylon etymology: the name means "resplendent island" in Sanskrit

Government type

presidential republic

name: Colombo (commercial capital); Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte (legislative capital) geographic coordinates: 6 55 N, 79 50 E time difference: UTC+5.5 (10.5 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time) etymology: Colombo may derive from the Sinhala "kolon thota," meaning "port on the river" (referring to the Kelani River that empties into the Indian Ocean at Colombo); alternatively, the name may derive from the Sinhala "kola amba thota" meaning "harbor with mango trees"; it is also possible that the Portuguese named the city after Christopher COLUMBUS, who lived in Portugal for many years (as Cristovao COLOMBO) before discovering the Americas for the Spanish crown in 1492 - not long before the Portuguese made their way to Sri Lanka in 1505; Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte translates as "Resplendent City of Growing Victory" in Sinhala

Administrative divisions

9 provinces; Central, Eastern, North Central, Northern, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva, Western

Independence

4 February 1948 (from the UK)

National holiday

Independence Day (National Day), 4 February (1948)

Constitution

history: several previous; latest adopted 16 August 1978, certified 31 August 1978 amendments: proposed by Parliament; passage requires at least two-thirds majority vote of its total membership, certification by the president of the republic or the Parliament speaker, and in some cases approval in a referendum by absolute majority of valid votes; amended many times, last in 2020

Legal system

mixed legal system of Roman-Dutch civil law, English common law, Jaffna Tamil customary law, and Muslim personal law

International law organization participation

has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICCt

Citizenship

citizenship by birth: no citizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of Sri Lanka dual citizenship recognized: no, except in cases where the government rules it is to the benefit of Sri Lanka residency requirement for naturalization: 7 years

18 years of age; universal

Executive branch

chief of state: President Gotabaya RAJAPAKSA (since 18 November 2019); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government; Prime Minister Mahinda RAJAPAKSA (since 21 November 2019) head of government: President Gotabaya RAJAPAKSA (since 18 November 2019) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president in consultation with the prime minister elections/appointments: president directly elected by preferential majority popular vote for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 16 November 2019 (next to be held in 2024); prime minister appointed by the president from among members of Parliament for a 5-year term) election results: Gotabaya RAJAPAKSA elected president; percent of vote - Gotabaya RAJAPAKSA (SLPP) 52.2%, Sajith PREMADASA (UNP) 42%, other 5.8%

Legislative branch

description: unicameral Parliament (225 seats; 196 members directly elected in multi-seat district constituencies by proportional representation vote using a preferential method in which voters select 3 candidates in order of preference; remaining 29 seats, referred to as the "national list" are allocated by each party secretary according the the island wide proportional vote the party obtains; members serve 5-year terms) elections: last held on 17 August 2015 (next originally scheduled for 25 April 2020 but postponed to due to the COVID-19 pandemic) election results: percent of vote by coalition/party - SLFPA 59.1%, SJB 23.9%, JVP 3.8%, TNA 2.8%, UNP 2.2%, TNPF 0.6%, EPDP 0.5%,  other 7.1%; seats by coalition/party - SLFPA 145, SJB 54, TNA 10, JVP 3, other 13; composition - NA

Judicial branch

highest courts: Supreme Court of the Republic (consists of the chief justice and 9 justices); note - the court has exclusive jurisdiction to review legislation judge selection and term of office: chief justice nominated by the Constitutional Council (CC), a 9-member high-level advisory body, and appointed by the president; other justices nominated by the CC and appointed by the president on the advice of the chief justice; all justices can serve until age 65 subordinate courts: Court of Appeals; High Courts; Magistrates' Courts; municipal and primary courts

Political parties and leaders

Crusaders for Democracy [Ganeshalingam CHANDRALINGAM] Eelam People's Democratic Party or EPDP [Douglas DEVANANDA] Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front [Suresh PREMACHANDRAN] Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna or JVP [Anura Kumara DISSANAYAKE] Jathika Hela Urumaya or JHU [Karunarathna PARANAWITHANA, Ven. Hadigalle Wimalasara THERO] National Peoples Power or JVP [Anura Kumara DISSANAYAKE] Samagi Jana Balawegaya or SJB [Sajith PREMADASA] Sri Lanka Freedom Party or SLFP [Maithripala SIRISENA] Sri Lanka Muslim Congress or SLMC [Rauff HAKEEM] Sri Lanka People's Freedom Alliance [Mahinda RAJAPAKSA] Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna or SLPP [G. L. PEIRIS] Tamil National Alliance or TNA [Rajavarothiam SAMPANTHAN] (alliance includes Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi [Mavai SENATHIRAJAH], People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam [D. SIDDARTHAN], Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization [Selvam ADAIKALANATHAN]) Tamil National People's Front [Gajendrakumar PONNAMBALAM] United National Front for Good Governance or UNFGG [Ranil WICKREMESINGHE] (coalition includes JHU, UNP) United National Party or UNP [Ranil WICKREMESINGHE] United People's Freedom Alliance or UPFA [Maithripala SIRISENA] (coalition includes SLFP)

International organization participation

ABEDA, ADB, ARF, BIMSTEC, C, CD, CICA (observer), CP, FAO, G-11, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, MINURSO, MINUSTAH, MONUSCO, NAM, OAS (observer), OPCW, PCA, SAARC, SACEP, SCO (dialogue member), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNISFA, UNMISS, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO

Diplomatic representation in the US

chief of mission: Ambassador Ravinatha ARYASINHA (since 23 December 2020) chancery: 3025 Whitehaven Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 483-4025 through 4028 FAX: [1] (202) 232-7181 email address and website: [email protected] https://slembassyusa.org/new/ consulate(s) general: Los Angeles, New York

Diplomatic representation from the US

chief of mission: Ambassador Alaina B. TEPLITZ (since 1 November 2018); note - also accredited to Maldives embassy: 210 Galle Road, Colombo 03 mailing address: 6100 Colombo Place, Washington DC  20521-6100 telephone: [94] (11) 249-8500 FAX: [94] (11) 243-7345 email address and website: [email protected] https://lk.usembassy.gov/

Flag description

yellow with two panels; the smaller hoist-side panel has two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and orange; the other larger panel depicts a yellow lion holding a sword on a maroon rectangular field that also displays a yellow bo leaf in each corner; the yellow field appears as a border around the entire flag and extends between the two panels; the lion represents Sinhalese ethnicity, the strength of the nation, and bravery; the sword demonstrates the sovereignty of the nation; the four bo leaves - symbolizing Buddhism and its influence on the country - stand for the four virtues of kindness, friendliness, happiness, and equanimity; orange signifies Sri Lankan Tamils, green Sri Lankan Moors, and maroon the Sinhalese majority; yellow denotes other ethnic groups; also referred to as the Lion Flag

National symbol(s)

lion, water lily; national colors: maroon, yellow

National anthem

name: "Sri Lanka Matha" (Mother Sri Lanka) lyrics/music: Ananda SAMARKONE note: adopted 1951

Economic overview

Sri Lanka is attempting to sustain economic growth while maintaining macroeconomic stability under the IMF program it began in 2016. The government's high debt payments and bloated civil service, which have contributed to historically high budget deficits, remain a concern. Government debt is about 79% of GDP and remains among the highest of the emerging markets. In the coming years, Sri Lanka will need to balance its elevated debt repayment schedule with its need to maintain adequate foreign exchange reserves.

In May 2016, Sri Lanka regained its preferential trade status under the European Union’s Generalized System of Preferences Plus, enabling many of its firms to export products, including its top export garments, tax free to the EU. In 2017, Parliament passed a new Inland Revenue Act in an effort to increase tax collection and broaden the tax base in response to recommendations made under its IMF program. In November 2017, the Financial Action Task Force on money laundering and terrorist financing listed Sri Lanka as non-compliant, but reported subsequently that Sri Lanka had made good progress in implementing an action plan to address deficiencies.

Tourism has experienced strong growth in the years since the resolution of the government's 26-year conflict with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. In 2017, the government promulgated plans to transform the country into a knowledge-based, export-oriented Indian Ocean hub by 2025.

Real GDP (purchasing power parity)

$274.8 billion note: data are in 2017 dollars (2020 est.) $284.97 billion note: data are in 2017 dollars (2019 est.) $278.68 billion note: data are in 2017 dollars (2018 est.) note: data are in 2010 dollars

Real GDP growth rate

2.29% (2019 est.) 3.32% (2018 est.) 3.58% (2017 est.)

Real GDP per capita

$12,500 note: data are in 2017 dollars (2020 est.) $13,100 note: data are in 2017 dollars (2019 est.) $12,900 note: data are in 2017 dollars (2018 est.) note: data are in 2010 dollars

GDP (official exchange rate)

$84.016 billion (2019 est.)

Inflation rate (consumer prices)

4.3% (2019 est.) 4.2% (2018 est.) 6.5% (2017 est.)

Credit ratings

Fitch rating: CCC (2020) Moody's rating: Caa1 (2020) Standard & Poors rating: CCC+ (2020)

GDP - composition, by sector of origin

agriculture: 7.8% (2017 est.) industry: 30.5% (2017 est.) services: 61.7% (2017 est.)

GDP - composition, by end use

household consumption: 62% (2017 est.) government consumption: 8.5% (2017 est.) investment in fixed capital: 26.3% (2017 est.) investment in inventories: 10.2% (2017 est.) exports of goods and services: 21.9% (2017 est.) imports of goods and services: -29.1% (2017 est.)

Agricultural products

rice, coconuts, sugar cane, plantains, milk, tea, cassava, maize, poultry, coir

processing of rubber, tea, coconuts, tobacco and other agricultural commodities; telecommunications, insurance, banking; tourism, shipping; clothing, textiles; cement, petroleum refining, information technology services, construction

Industrial production growth rate

4.6% (2017 est.)

Labor force

8 million (2020 est.)

Labor force - by occupation

agriculture: 27% industry: 26% services: 47% (31 December 2016)

Unemployment rate

4.83% (2019 est.) 4.44% (2018 est.)

Population below poverty line

4.1% (2016 est.)

Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income

39.8 (2016 est.) 46 (1995)

Household income or consumption by percentage share

lowest 10%: 3% highest 10%: 32.2% (2012 est.)

revenues: 12.07 billion (2017 est.) expenditures: 16.88 billion (2017 est.)

Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-)

-5.5% (of GDP) (2017 est.)

Public debt

79.1% of GDP (2017 est.) 79.6% of GDP (2016 est.) note: covers central government debt and excludes debt instruments directly owned by government entities other than the treasury (e.g. commercial bank borrowings of a government corporation); the data includes treasury debt held by foreign entities as well as intragovernmental debt; intragovernmental debt consists of treasury borrowings from surpluses in the social funds, such as for retirement; sub-national entities are usually not permitted to sell debt instruments

Taxes and other revenues

13.8% (of GDP) (2017 est.)

Fiscal year

calendar year

Current account balance

-$10 million (2019 est.) -$17 million (2018 est.)

$19.41 billion note: data are in current year dollars (2019 est.) $20.26 billion note: data are in current year dollars (2018 est.) $15.166 billion (2017 est.)

Exports - partners

United States 24%, India 8%, United Kingdom 7%, Germany 7% (2019)

Exports - commodities

clothing and apparel, tea, used tires, rubber products, precious stones, cinnamon (2019)

$24.56 billion note: data are in current year dollars (2019 est.) $26.84 billion note: data are in current year dollars (2018 est.) $26.063 billion (2017 est.)

Imports - partners

India 24%, China 23%, Singapore 7%, United Arab Emirates 6%, Malaysia 5% (2019)

Imports - commodities

refined petroleum, textiles, gold, cars, broadcasting equipment (2019)

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold

$7.959 billion (31 December 2017 est.) $6.019 billion (31 December 2016 est.)

Debt - external

$55.332 billion (2019 est.) $52.567 billion (2018 est.)

Exchange rates

Sri Lankan rupees (LKR) per US dollar - 185.8 (2020 est.) 181.2 (2019 est.) 178.545 (2018 est.) 135.86 (2014 est.) 130.57 (2013 est.)

Electricity access

electrification - total population: 100% (2019)

Electricity - production

13.66 billion kWh (2016 est.)

Electricity - consumption

12.67 billion kWh (2016 est.)

Electricity - exports

0 kWh (2016 est.)

Electricity - imports

Electricity - installed generating capacity.

3.998 million kW (2016 est.)

Electricity - from fossil fuels

52% of total installed capacity (2016 est.)

Electricity - from nuclear fuels

0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)

Electricity - from hydroelectric plants

42% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)

Electricity - from other renewable sources

6% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)

Crude oil - production

0 bbl/day (2018 est.)

Crude oil - exports

0 bbl/day (2015 est.)

Crude oil - imports

33,540 bbl/day (2015 est.)

Crude oil - proved reserves

0 bbl (1 January 2018 est.)

Refined petroleum products - production

34,210 bbl/day (2017 est.)

Refined petroleum products - consumption

116,000 bbl/day (2016 est.)

Refined petroleum products - exports

3,871 bbl/day (2015 est.)

Refined petroleum products - imports

66,280 bbl/day (2015 est.)

Natural gas - production

0 cu m (2017 est.)

Natural gas - consumption

Natural gas - exports, natural gas - imports, natural gas - proved reserves.

0 cu m (1 January 2014 est.)

Communications

Telephones - fixed lines.

total subscriptions: 2,428,957 (2020) subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 11.34 (2020 est.)

Telephones - mobile cellular

total subscriptions: 29,730,465 (2020) subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 138.8 (2020 est.)

Telecommunication systems

general assessment: telephone services have improved significantly; strong growth anticipated as Sri Lanka is lagging behind other Asian telecoms; increase in mobile broadband penetration; govt. funds telecom sector to expand fiber and LTE networks and growing investment in 5G services (2020) domestic: fixed-line 11 per 100 and mobile-cellular 139 per 100; national trunk network consists of digital microwave radio relay and fiber-optic links; fixed wireless local loops have been installed; competition is strong in mobile cellular systems and mobile cellular subscribership is increasing (2020) international: country code - 94; landing points for the SeaMeWe -3,-5,  Dhiraagu-SLT Submarine Cable Network, WARF Submarine Cable, Bharat Lanka Cable System and the Bay of Bengal Gateway submarine cables providing connectivity to Asia, Africa, Southeast Asia, Australia, the Middle East, and Europe; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) (2019) note: the COVID-19 pandemic continues to have a significant impact on production and supply chains globally; since 2020, some aspects of the telecom sector have experienced downturn, particularly in mobile device production; many network operators delayed upgrades to infrastructure; progress towards 5G implementation was postponed or slowed in some countries; consumer spending on telecom services and devices was affected by large-scale job losses and the consequent restriction on disposable incomes; the crucial nature of telecom services as a tool for work and school from home became evident, and received some support from governments

Broadcast media

government operates 5 TV channels and 19 radio channels; multi-channel satellite and cable TV subscription services available; 25 private TV stations and about 43 radio stations; 6 non-profit TV stations and 4 radio stations

Internet country code

Internet users.

total: 10.9 million (2021 est.) percent of population: 35% (2020 est.)

Broadband - fixed subscriptions

total: 1,992,429 (2020) subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 9.3 (2020 est.)

Transportation

National air transport system.

number of registered air carriers: 3 (2020) inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 34 annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 5,882,376 (2018) annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 436.2 million mt-km (2018)

Civil aircraft registration country code prefix

total: 18 (2020)

Airports - with paved runways

total: 11 over 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 4 (2020)

Airports - with unpaved runways

total: 7 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 3 under 914 m: 2 (2020)

7 km refined products

total: 1,562 km (2016) broad gauge: 1,562 km 1.676-m gauge (2016)

total: 114,093 km (2010) paved: 16,977 km (2010) unpaved: 97,116 km (2010)

160 km (primarily on rivers in southwest) (2012)

Merchant marine

total: 90 by type: bulk carrier 6, general cargo 13, oil tanker 11, other 60 (2021)

Ports and terminals

major seaport(s): Colombo container port(s) (TEUs): Colombo (7,228,337) (2019)

Military and Security

Military and security forces.

Sri Lanka Army (includes National Guard and the Volunteer Force), Sri Lanka Navy (includes Marine Corps), Sri Lanka Air Force, Sri Lanka Coast Guard; Civil Security Department (Home Guard); Sri Lanka National Police: Special Task Force (counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency) (2021)

Military expenditures

2% of GDP (2020 est.) 1.9% of GDP (2019) 1.9% of GDP (2018) 2.1% of GDP (2017) 2.2% of GDP (2016)

Military and security service personnel strengths

the Sri Lankan military has approximately 250,000 total personnel (180,000 Army; 40,000 Navy; 30,000 Air Force); approximately 11,000 Special Task Force (2021)

Military equipment inventories and acquisitions

the Sri Lankan military inventory consists mostly of Chinese and Russian-origin equipment; since 2010, China, India, and the US have been the leading suppliers of arms to Sri Lanka (2021)

Military deployments

110 Central African Republic (MINUSCA); 125 Lebanon (UNIFIL); 240 Mali (MINUSMA) (Sep 2021)

Military service age and obligation

18-22 years of age for voluntary military service; no conscription (2021)

Military - note

Sri Lanka traditionally has had close security ties to India; India participated in the counter-insurgency war against the LTTE from 1987-1991, losing over 1,000 soldiers in the conflict; as of 2021, the Sri Lankan and Indian militaries continued to conduct exercises together, and India trains over 1,000 Sri Lankan soldiers per year; however, since the end of the war with LTTE, Sri Lanka has also increased military ties with China, including acquiring military equipment, hosting naval port calls, and sending personnel to China for training

Terrorist group(s)

Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS); Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) note: details about the history, aims, leadership, organization, areas of operation, tactics, targets, weapons, size, and sources of support of the group(s) appear(s) in Appendix-T

Transnational Issues

Disputes - international, refugees and internally displaced persons.

IDPs: 27,000 (civil war; more than half displaced prior to 2008; many of the more than 480,000 IDPs registered as returnees have not reached durable solutions) (2020)

Trafficking in persons

current situation: Sri Lanka is primarily a source and, to a much lesser extent, a destination country for men, women, and children subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking; the majority of trafficking cases involve traffickers forcing Sri Lankan workers into labor overseas; men, women, and children are subjected to forced labor in the Middle East, Asia, Europe, and the United States in construction, garment manufacturing, and domestic service; authorities have identified labor trafficking victims among Sri Lankan female migrant workers who seek employment in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Japan, and South Korea; traffickers force children, individuals with physical deformities, and those from socially vulnerable groups to beg or engage in criminal activity in Sri Lanka’s largest cities tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List — Sri Lanka does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking but is making significant efforts to do so; efforts include convicting traffickers under its trafficking statute, identifying victims, and working on anti-trafficking training and raising awareness; however, some officials reportedly complicit in trafficking are inadequately investigated; fewer victims were identified in country and abroad; social and legal assistance for victims remained inadequate and inconsistent; the Sri Lankan Bureau of Foreign Employment did not refer potential trafficking cases to police for criminal investigation; police continued to arrest  trafficking victims for prostitution, vagrancy, and immigration offenses; child sex trafficking victims remained in government detention centers (2020)

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The Culture of Sri Lanka: Wikiwand’s Summary Presentation

Wikiwand …. http://www.wikiwand.com/en/culture_of_sri_lanka#/festivals_and_holidays.

The culture of Sri Lanka mixes modern elements with traditional aspects and is known for its regional diversity. Sri Lankan culture has long been influenced by the heritage of Theravada Buddhism passed on from India, and the religion’s legacy is particularly strong in Sri Lanka’s southern and central regions. South Indian cultural influences are especially pronounced in the northernmost reaches of the country. The history of colonial occupation has also left a mark on Sri Lanka’s identity, with Portuguese , Dutch , and British elements having intermingled with various traditional facets of Sri Lankan culture. Additionally, Indonesian cultural elements have also had an impact on certain aspects of Sri Lankan culture. Culturally, Sri Lanka, particularly the Sinhalese people, possesses strong links to both India and Southeast Asia . [1] 

The country has a rich artistic tradition, with distinct creative forms that encompass music , dance , and the visual arts . Sri Lankan culture is internationally associated with cricket , a distinct cuisine , an indigenous holistic medicine practice, religious iconography such as the Buddhist flag , and exports such as tea , cinnamon , and gemstones , as well as a robust tourism industry. Sri Lanka has longstanding ties with the Indian subcontinent that can be traced back to prehistory. Sri Lanka’s population is predominantly Sinhalese with sizable Sri Lankan Moor , Sri Lankan Tamil , and Indian Tamil minorities. [2]

Sri Lanka has a documented history of over 2,000 years, mainly due to ancient historic scriptures like Mahawamsa , [3] and with the first stone objects dating back to 500,000 BC. [4] Several centuries of intermittent foreign influence has transformed Sri Lankan culture to its present form. Nevertheless, the ancient traditions and festivals are still celebrated on the island, together with other minorities that make up the Sri Lankan identity. The Tamils, primarily Hindus, claimed the northern section of the island and the Sinhalese, who are predominantly Buddhists, controlled the south. [5]

One very important aspect that differentiates Sri Lankan history is its view on women. Women and men in Sri Lanka have been viewed equal for thousands of years from ruling the country to how they dress. Both men and women had the chance to rule the land (Which is true for even today. The world’s first female prime minister, Sirimavo Bandaranaike , was from Sri Lanka.

Even though clothing today is very much westernized and modest dressing has become the norm for everyone, ancient drawings and carvings such as ‘ Sigiriya art ‘, Isurumuniya Lovers show how the pre-colonial Sri Lankans used to dress, which shows identical amount of clothing and status for men and women.

Visual arts

Architecture.

The architecture of Sri Lanka displays a rich variety of architectural forms and styles. Buddhism had a significant influence on Sri Lankan architecture, since it was introduced to the island in 3rd Century BCE . [6] Techniques and styles developed in India, China and later Europe, transported via colonialism, have also played a major role in the architecture of Sri Lanka. [7]

Arts and crafts

Many forms of Sri Lankan arts and crafts take inspiration from the Island’s long and lasting Buddhist culture which in turn has absorbed and adopted countless regional and local traditions. In most instances Sri Lankan art originates from religious beliefs, and is represented in many forms such as painting , sculpture , and architecture . One of the most notable aspects of Sri Lankan art are caves and temple paintings, such as the frescoes found at Sigiriya , and religious paintings found in temples in Dambulla and Temple of the Tooth Relic in Kandy . Other popular forms of art have been influenced by both natives as well as foreign settlers. For example, traditional wooden handicrafts and clay pottery are found around the hilly regions while Portuguese-inspired lacework and Indonesian-inspired Batik are also notable.

Performing arts

Sri Lanka is home to a variety of dance styles including classical, folk and dance drama.

The two single biggest influences on Sri Lankan music are from Buddhism and Portuguese colonizers. Buddhism arrived in Sri Lanka after the Buddha’s visit in 300 BC, while the Portuguese arrived in the 15th century, bringing with them cantiga ballads , the ukulele , and guitars , along with African slaves, who further diversified the musical roots of the island. These slaves were called kaffrinha , and their dance music was called baila . Traditional Sri Lankan music includes the hypnotic Kandyan drums – drumming was and is very much a part of music in both Buddhist and Hindu temples in Sri Lanka. Most western parts of Sri Lanka follow western dancing and music.

The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The broken promise), produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of treasures, 1962) marked the transition cinema from black-and-white to color. In recent years, Sri Lankan cinema has featured subjects such as family melodrama , social transformation, and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE . Their cinematic style is similar to Bollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high, but a gradual downfall has been recorded since then. Undoubtedly, the most influential and revolutionary filmmaker in the history of Sri Lankan cinema is Lester James Peiris , who has directed a number of movies which received global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of destiny, 1956), Gamperaliya (The changing village, 1964), Nidhanaya (The treasure, 1970), and Golu Hadawatha (Cold Heart, 1968.)There are many cinemas in the city areas.

Media and technology

Radio and tv.

The cuisine of Sri Lanka is primarily influenced by that of Southern India , Indonesia and the Netherlands . [8] Rice is a staple and usually consumed daily, and it can be found at any special occasion, while spicy curries are favourite dishes for lunch and dinner. A very popular alcoholic drink is toddy or arrack , both made from palm tree sap. Rice and curry refers to a range of Sri Lankan dishes. Sri Lankans also eat hoppers (Aappa, Aappam,) which can be found anywhere in Sri Lanka.

Much of Sri Lanka’s cuisine consists of boiled or steamed rice served with spicy curry. Another well-known rice dish is kiribath , meaning milk rice . Curries in Sri Lanka are not just limited to meat or fish-based dishes, there are also vegetable and even fruit curries. A typical Sri Lankan meal consists of a “main curry” ( fish , chicken , or mutton ), as well as several other curries made with vegetable and lentils . Side-dishes include pickles , chutneys and “sambols” which can sometimes be fiery hot. The most famous of these is the coconut sambol, made of scraped coconut mixed with chili peppers , dried Maldivian fish and lime juice . This is ground to a paste and eaten with rice, as it gives zest to the meal and is believed to increase appetite.

In addition to sambols, Sri Lankans eat “mallung”, chopped leaves mixed with grated coconut and red onions . Coconut milk is found in most Sri Lankan dishes and it gives the cuisine its unique flavor.

As noted above many of Sri Lanka’s urban areas are host to American fast food corporations and many of the younger generation have started to take a liking to this new style of cuisine, although it is rejected by many, particularly the more traditional elder members of the community.

Restaurants serving Indian and Chinese cuisine are popular and found throughout the country. [9]

Sri Lanka has long been renowned for its spices . The best known is cinnamon which is native to Sri Lanka. In the 15th and 16th centuries, spice and ivory traders from all over the world brought their native cuisines to the island, resulting in a rich diversity of cooking styles and techniques. Lamprais rice boiled in stock with a special curry , accompanied by frikkadels ( meatballs ), all of which is then wrapped in a banana leaf and baked as a Dutch-influenced Sri Lankan dish. Dutch and Portuguese sweets also continue to be popular. British influences include roast beef and roast chicken . Also, the influence of the Indian cooking methods and food have played a major role in what Sri Lankans eat.

Sri Lankans use spices liberally in their dishes and typically do not follow an exact recipe: thus, every cook’s curry will taste slightly different. Furthermore, people from different regions of the island (for instance, hill-country dwellers versus coastal dwellers) traditionally cook in different ways. Sri Lankan cuisine is known to be among the world’s spiciest, due to the high use of different varieties of chili peppers referred to as amu miris (Green chilli), kochchi miris , and maalu miris” (capsicum) and in Tamil Milakaai, among others. It is generally accepted for tourists to request that the food is cooked with a lower chili content to cater for the more sensitive Western palette. Food cooked for public occasions typically uses less chili than food cooked at homes, where the food is cooked with the chili content preferable to the occupants.

Tea culture

Many Sri Lankans drink at least three cups a day. Tea is served whenever a guest arrives, it is served at festivals and gatherings or ordinarily consumed with breakfast. [ citation needed ]

Festivals and holidays

The Sinhalese and Tamil New Year (“Aluth Avurudhu” in Sinhala, “Puthiyathandu” in Tamil) is a very large cultural event on the island. The festival takes place in April (also known as the month of Bak ) when the sun moves from the Meena Rashiya (House of Pisces) to the Mesha Rashiya (House of Aries). Unusually, both the end of one year and the beginning of the next occur not at midnight but at separate times determined by astrologers with a period of some hours between (the “nona gathe” or neutral period) being a time where one is expected to refrain from all types of work and instead engage solely in relaxing religious activities and traditional games. During the New Year festivities, both children and adults will often dress in traditional outfits. But the clothes must be washed and very clean because it should be pure.

List of holidays

* Public holiday, † Bank holiday, # Mercantile holiday All full-moon days are Buddhist holidays referred to as Poya. The actual date on which a particular Poya day will fall changes every year.

Sri Lanka’s culture also revolves around religion. The Buddhist community of Sri Lanka observe Poya Days, once per month according to the Lunar calendar . The Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. Sri Lankans are very religious because the history of the island has been involved with religion numerous times. There are many Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka which date back to antiquity. In the middle of the temple, there is an old Boho tree. It is known that once lord Buddha had meditated here, so in honour of Lord Buddha, people walk around the tree with pure water. After 4 rounds, they pour the water on the tree where Lord Buddha meditated. When they walk around the tree, they pray. The trees are worshipped heavily. The religious preference of an area could be determined by the number of religious institutions in the area. The Northern and Eastern parts of the island have several notable Hindu temples due to the fact that the majority of the population living in these areas are Tamil . Ethnic conflict has severely affected other communities living in these areas during the times of LTTE strife. Many churches can be found along the southern coastline because of former Roman Catholic and Protestant colonial heritage. Buddhists reside in all parts of the island, but especially in the south, the upcountry, and the western seaboard. Buddhists are the largest religious group in Sri Lanka.

Languages of Sri Lanka

While the Sinhalese people speak Sinhala as their mother tongue, the Tamil people speak Tamil. English is also widely spoken.

Sinhala is spoken by about 17 million people in Sri Lanka, more than 14 million of whom are native speakers. It is one of the constitutionally recognized official languages of Sri Lanka, along with Tamil.

Sports plays a very important part in Sri Lankan culture. Since the society is rich with educated people, the people find playing a sport to be an important aspect of life.

The most popular sport in Sri Lanka is cricket , and as such, there are many cricket fields scattered across the island for children and adults to play the sport. The biggest pastime of the Sri Lankan population, after playing cricket , is watching the Sri Lankan national team play. It is common for businesses to shut down when very important matches are televised. This was the case in 1996, when the Sri Lankan team beat Australia in the finals to win the Cricket World Cup . The whole country was shut down, although there was a curfew imposed upon the whole island.

After the 1996 Cricket World Cup triumph of the Sri Lanka national cricket team , the sport became the most watched in the country. However, in recent years, the politicians and the businessmen getting into the sport has raised many concerns.

Volleyball is the national game of Sri Lanka but it is not as popular as cricket.

Birds in Sri Lankan Culture

In the Sri Lankan culture Birds are very special. Almost every home in villages keeps a nest for home sparrows . They are considered as bring luck when residing in your home. The most popular bird in Sri Lanka is the peacock , the sacred bird of the God Kataragama.

Gira Sandeshaya ( Parrot Message), Hansa Sandeshaya ( Swan message), Mayura Sandeshaya (Peacock Message), Salalihini Sandeshaya (Myna Message) are ancient literature works.

There are many stories about birds, society and people. Birds were always considered as sacred and people believed that local gods travel on them.

The King Ravana story involve a wooden air craft call Dandu Monara (Wodden Peacock), in which he flew to India to abduct Seetha causing a huge war among Rama and Rawana.

Most of the Ancient flags represented symbols of birds. some of them are,

• Two Swans Flag Dalada Maligawa , Kandy
• Walapane Disawa Gangaramaya, Kandy
• Maha Vishnu Dewala Flag Kandy

There are the Art and craft focused on birds. and some of them are,

• Sewul Kodiya Kundasale Vihare, Kandy
• Birds in Kandyan Dress
• Birds in Sandakada Pahana Rock Carving
• Ancient temple Painting
• A Special Brass Kendiya Made in the Shape of Bird used in Marriage Ceremonies

National symbols

The National symbols of Sri Lanka are the symbols that represent the country and its people within Sri Lanka and abroad, and these also represent the country’s traditions, culture, history and geography. The national symbols of Sri Lanka are national anthem, national flag, national emblem, national flower, national tree, national bird, national butterfly, national gemstone and national sport. They were picked up and officially and announced at various times. There are also several other symbols that do not have official acknowledgment or announced as national symbols, but are considered as national symbols at local level. [10] [11]

Tourism and Cultural Change in Sri Lanka

Tourist numbers are high in Sri Lanka- in March 2014 133,000 tourists visited. [12]

As with any influx of tourism there are of course a number of negative influences that can arise. Sri Lanka’s natural areas have, for instance, been affected by increased pollution with discharges into the sea and natural habitat loss, as well as the depletion of natural resources, which have arisen because of excessive water use in hotels, golf courses and swimming pools – which consume unnaturally large amounts of water. In response to this, the Department of Forest Conservation (Sri Lanka) and the Department of Wildlife Conservation (Sri Lanka) have instigated a number of protected areas of Sri Lanka – there are currently 32 forests under their protection – and in total – a little over 25% of the island is now a protected area. Emerging trends in the tourism industry in Sri Lanka points the way to tourists seeking more traditional experiences over conventional ideals such as tours and resorts. Consequently, these tourists seek out cheaper accommodation where they can be exposed to authentic villages and richer and more rustic experiences – this gives indigenous identities a chance to be preserved and not overtaken as tourism takes hold in the more remote areas, with Sri Lankan indigenous people taking their place as a part of the attraction for tourists and are thus protected and provided with support. [12]

Part of Sri Lanka’s post-conflict development process is to build on the ever-growing tourism industry – this has meant refurbishing hotels, building new hotels and the country-wide revival of traditional handicraft industries, as well as traditional cultural displays – such as traditional dances of Sri Lanka , like the Kandyan Dances (Uda Rata Natum), Low Country Dances (Pahatha Rata Natum), Devil Dance, and Folk Dances which are now a common sight in hotels and villages that are keen to entertain tourists with traditional and ‘authentic’ cultural displays. Because of this, much of the modernization of the tourist industry is taking place in and around the capital Colombo , with one-thirds of the estimated 9000 new hotel rooms being built in Sri Lanka in 2013, concentrated in the Colombo area.

This kind of construction comes at a cost though – with a number of environmental concerns – the most pressing of which is Deforestation in Sri Lanka . In the 1920s, the island was almost 50% (49%) covered by trees but by 2005 this number had already fallen by 20%. The most badly hit area is the northern tip of the island – largely due to pre-existing environmental protection schemes in the south of the island. This is not all because of tourism, but also because of making way for new developments – hotels and resorts, and much of Sri Lanka’s forests have been removed to make way for agricultural land and plantations (especially tea plantations, which require a substantial amount of land) to provide fuel and timber. An area where excessive building of hotels has already shown negative impacts is the Yala area – where there are serious concerns about too many visits of the Yala National Park . Though a more positive side to the influx of tourists can be seen at the Esala Perahera festival in Kandy – which has grown substantially in size over the years, incorporating colorful parades and processions into what was already one of Asia’s most prolific religious festivals. Traditional cultural dress is also rising in popularity – with chic hotels using formalized versions of traditional costume for their hotel staff, and foreigners marrying in Sri Lanka are incorporating traditional dress codes into their wedding attire. [13]

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