essays on homelessness in america

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Why it’s so hard to end homelessness in america.

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City of Boston workers clear encampments in the area known as Mass and Cass.

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Alvin Powell

Harvard Staff Writer

Experts cite complexity of problem, which is rooted in poverty, lack of affordable housing but includes medical, psychiatric, substance-use issues

It took seven years for Abigail Judge to see what success looked like for one Boston homeless woman.

The woman had been sex trafficked since she was young, was a drug user, and had been abused, neglected, or exploited in just about every relationship she’d had. If Judge was going to help her, trust had to come first. Everything else — recovery, healing, employment, rejoining society’s mainstream — might be impossible without it. That meant patience despite the daily urgency of the woman’s situation.

“It’s nonlinear. She gets better, stops, gets re-engaged with the trafficker and pulled back into the lifestyle. She does time because she was literally holding the bag of fentanyl for these guys,” said Judge, a psychology instructor at Harvard Medical School whose outreach program, Boston Human Exploitation and Sex Trafficking (HEAT), is supported by Massachusetts General Hospital and the Boston Police Department. “This is someone who’d been initially trafficked as a kid and when I met her was 23 or 24. She turned 30 last year, and now she’s housed, she’s abstinent, she’s on suboxone. And she’s super involved in her community.”

It’s a success story, but one that illustrates some of the difficulties of finding solutions to the nation’s homeless problem. And it’s not a small problem. A December 2023 report by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development said 653,104 Americans experienced homelessness, tallied on a single night in January last year. That figure was the highest since HUD began reporting on the issue to Congress in 2007 .

Abigail Judge of the Medical School (from left) and Sandra Andrade of Massachusetts General Hospital run the outreach program Boston HEAT (Human Exploitation and Sex Trafficking).

Niles Singer/Harvard Staff Photographer

Scholars, healthcare workers, and homeless advocates agree that two major contributing factors are poverty and a lack of affordable housing, both stubbornly intractable societal challenges. But they add that hard-to-treat psychiatric issues and substance-use disorders also often underlie chronic homelessness. All of which explains why those who work with the unhoused refer to what they do as “the long game,” “the long walk,” or “the five-year-plan” as they seek to address the traumas underlying life on the street.

“As a society, we’re looking for a quick fix, but there’s no quick fix for this,” said Stephen Wood, a visiting fellow at Harvard Law School’s Petrie-Flom Center for Health Law Policy, Biotechnology and Bioethics and a nurse practitioner in the emergency room at Carney Hospital in the Dorchester neighborhood of Boston. “It takes a lot of time to fix this. There will be relapses; there’ll be problems. It requires an interdisciplinary effort for success.”

A recent study of 60,000 homeless people in Boston found the average age of death was decades earlier than the nation’s 2017 life expectancy of 78.8 years.

Illustration by Liz Zonarich/Harvard Staff

Katherine Koh, an assistant professor of psychiatry at HMS and psychiatrist at MGH on the street team for Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program, traced the rise of homelessness in recent decades to a combination of factors, including funding cuts for community-based care, affordable housing, and social services in the 1980s as well as deinstitutionalization of mental hospitals.

“Though we have grown anesthetized to seeing people living on the street in the U.S., homelessness is not inevitable,” said Koh, who sees patients where they feel most comfortable — on the street, in church basements, public libraries. “For most of U.S. history, it has not been nearly as visible as it is now. There are a number of countries with more robust social services but similar prevalence of mental illness, for example, where homelessness rates are significantly lower. We do not have to accept current rates of homelessness as the way it has to be.”

“As a society, we’re looking for a quick fix, but there’s no quick fix for this.” Stephen Wood, visiting fellow, Petrie-Flom Center for Health Law Policy, Biotechnology and Bioethics

Success stories exist and illustrate that strong leadership, multidisciplinary collaboration, and adequate resources can significantly reduce the problem. Prevention, meanwhile, in the form of interventions focused on transition periods like military discharge, aging out of foster care, and release from prison, has the potential to vastly reduce the numbers of the newly homeless.

Recognition is also growing — at Harvard and elsewhere — that homelessness is not merely a byproduct of other issues, like drug use or high housing costs, but is itself one of the most difficult problems facing the nation’s cities. Experts say that means interventions have to be multidisciplinary yet focused on the problem; funding for research has to rise; and education of the next generation of leaders on the issue must improve.

“This is an extremely complex problem that is really the physical and most visible embodiment of a lot of the public health challenges that have been happening in this country,” said Carmel Shachar, faculty director of Harvard Law School’s Center for Health Law and Policy Innovation. “The public health infrastructure has always been the poor Cinderella, compared to the healthcare system, in terms of funding. We need increased investment in public health services, in the public health workforce, such that, for people who are unhoused, are unsheltered, who are struggling with substance use, we have a meaningful answer for them.”

Kris Snibbe/Harvard Staff Photographer

Experts say that the nation’s unhoused population not only experiences poverty and exposure to the elements, but also suffers from a lack of basic health care, and so tend to get hit earlier and harder than the general population by various ills — from the flu to opioid dependency to COVID-19.

A recent study of 60,000 homeless people in Boston recorded 7,130 deaths over the 14-year study period. The average age of death was 53.7, decades earlier than the nation’s 2017 life expectancy of 78.8 years. The leading cause of death was drug overdose, which increased 9.35 percent annually, reflecting the track of the nation’s opioid epidemic, though rising more quickly than in the general population.

A closer look at the data shows that impacts vary depending on age, sex, race, and ethnicity. All-cause mortality was highest among white men, age 65 to 79, while suicide was a particular problem among the young. HIV infection and homicide, meanwhile, disproportionately affected Black and Latinx individuals. Together, those results highlight the importance of tailoring interventions to background and circumstances, according to Danielle Fine, instructor in medicine at HMS and MGH and an author of two analyses of the study’s data.

“The takeaway is that the mortality gap between the homeless population and the general population is widening over time,” Fine said. “And this is likely driven in part by a disproportionate number of drug-related overdose deaths in the homeless population compared to the general population.”

Inadequate supplies of housing

Though homelessness has roots in poverty and a lack of affordable housing, it also can be traced to early life issues, Koh said. The journey to the streets often starts in childhood, when neglect and abuse leave their marks, interfering with education, acquisition of work skills, and the ability to maintain healthy relationships.

“A major unaddressed pathway to homelessness, from my vantage point, is childhood trauma. It can ravage people’s lives and minds, until old age,” Koh said. “For example, some of my patients in their 70s still talk about the trauma that their parents inflicted on them. The lack of affordable housing is a key factor, though there are other drivers of homelessness we must also tackle.”

The number was the highest since the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development began reporting on the issue to Congress in 2007 .

Most advocates embrace a “housing first” approach, prioritizing it as a first step to obtaining other vital services. But they say the type of housing also matters. Temporary shelters are a key part of the response, but many of the unhoused avoid them because of fears of theft, assault, and sexual assault. Instead, long-term beds, including those designated for people struggling with substance use and mental health issues, are needed.

“You can either be admitted to a hospital with a substance-use disorder, or you can be admitted with a psychiatric disorder, but very, very rarely will you be admitted to what’s called a dual-diagnosis bed,” said Petrie-Flom’s Wood. “The data is pretty solid on this issue: If you have a substance-use disorder there’s likely some underlying, severe trauma. Yet, when we go to treat them, we address one but not the other. You’re never going to find success in the system that we currently have if you don’t recognize that dual diagnosis.”

Services offered to those in housing should avoid what Koh describes as a “one-size-fits-none” approach. Some might need monthly visits from a caseworker to ensure they’re getting the support they need, she said. But others struggle once off the streets. They need weekly — even daily — support from counselors, caseworkers, and other service providers.

“I have seen, sadly, people who get housed and move very quickly back out on the streets or, even more tragically, lose their life from an unwitnessed overdose in housing,” Koh said. “There’s a community that’s formed on the street so if you overdose, somebody can give you Narcan or call 911. If you don’t have the safety of peers around, people can die. We had a patient who literally died just a few days after being housed, from an overdose. We really cannot just house people and expect their problems to be solved. We need to continue to provide the best care we can to help people succeed once in housing.”

“We really cannot just house people and expect their problems to be solved.” Katherine Koh, Mass. General psychiatrist

Koh works on the street team for Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program.

Photo by Dylan Goodman

The nation’s failure to address the causes of homelessness has led to the rise of informal encampments from Portland, Maine, to the large cities of the West Coast. In Boston, an informal settlement of tents and tarps near the intersection of Massachusetts Avenue and Melnea Cass Boulevard was a point of controversy before it was cleared in November.

In the aftermath, more than 100 former “Mass and Cass” residents have been moved into housing, according to media reports. But experts were cautious in their assessment of the city’s plans. They gave positive marks for features such as a guaranteed place to sleep, “low threshold” shelters that don’t require sobriety, and increased outreach to connect people with services. But they also said it’s clear that unintended consequences have arisen. and the city’s homelessness problem is far from solved.

Examples abound. Judge, who leads Boston HEAT in collaboration with Sandra Andrade of MGH, said that a woman she’d been working with for two years, who had been making positive strides despite fragile health, ongoing sexual exploitation, and severe substance use disorder, disappeared after Mass and Cass was cleared.

Mike Jellison, a peer counselor who works on Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program’s street team, said dismantling the encampment dispersed people around the city and set his team scrambling to find and reconnect people who had been receiving medical care with providers. It’s also clear, he said, that Boston Police are taking a hard line to prevent new encampments from popping up in other neighborhoods, quickly clearing tents and other structures.

“We were out there Wednesday morning on our usual route in Charlesgate,” Jellison said in early December. “And there was a really young couple who had all their stuff packed. And [the police] just told them, ‘You’ve got to leave, you can’t stay here.’ She was crying, ‘Where am I going to go?’ This was a couple who works; they’re employed and work out of a tent. It was like 20 degrees out there. It was heartbreaking.”

Prevention as cure?

Successes in reducing homelessness in the U.S. are scarce, but not unknown. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, for example, has reduced veteran homelessness nationally by more than 50 percent since 2010.

Experts point out, however, that the agency has advantages in dealing with the problem. It is a single, nationwide, administrative entity so medical records follow patients when they move, offering continuity of care often absent for those without insurance or dealing with multiple private providers. Another advantage is that the VA’s push, begun during the Obama administration, benefited from both political will on the part of the White House and Congress and received support and resources from other federal agencies.

The city of Houston is another example. In 2011, Houston had the nation’s fifth-largest homeless population. Then-Mayor Annise Parker began a program that coordinated 100 regional nonprofits to provide needed services and boost the construction of low-cost housing in the relatively inexpensive Houston market.

Neither the VA nor Houston was able to eliminate homelessness, however.

To Koh, that highlights the importance of prevention. In 2022, she published research in which she and a team used an artificial-intelligence-driven model to identify those who could benefit from early intervention before they wound up on the streets. The researchers examined a group of U.S. service members and found that self-reported histories of depression, trauma due to a loved one’s murder, and post-traumatic stress disorder were the three strongest predictors of homelessness after discharge.

In April 2023, Koh, with co-author Benjamin Land Gorman, suggested in the Journal of the American Medical Association that using “Critical Time Intervention,” where help is focused on key transitions, such as military discharge or release from prison or the hospital, has the potential to head off homelessness.

“So much of the clinical research and policy focus is on housing those who are already homeless,” Koh said. “But even if we were to house everybody who’s homeless today, there are many more people coming down the line. We need sustainable policies that address these upstream determinants of homelessness, in order to truly solve this problem.”

The education imperative

Despite the obvious presence of people living and sleeping on city sidewalks, the topic of homelessness has been largely absent from the nation’s colleges and universities. Howard Koh, former Massachusetts commissioner of public health and former U.S. assistant secretary for Health and Human Services, is working to change that.

In 2019, Koh, who is also the Harvey V. Fineberg Professor of the Practice of Public Health Leadership, founded the Harvard T.H Chan School of Public Health’s pilot Initiative on Health and Homelessness. The program seeks to educate tomorrow’s leaders about homelessness and support research and interdisciplinary collaboration to create new knowledge on the topic. The Chan School’s course “Homelessness and Health: Lessons from Health Care, Public Health, and Research” is one of just a handful focused on homelessness offered by schools of public health nationwide.

“The topic remains an orphan,” said Koh. The national public health leader (who also happens to be Katherine’s father) traced his interest in the topic to a bitter winter while he was Massachusetts public health commissioner when 13 homeless people froze to death on Boston’s streets. “I’ve been haunted by this issue for several decades as a public health professional. We now want to motivate courageous and compassionate young leaders to step up and address the crisis, educate students, motivate researchers, and better inform policymakers about evidence-based studies. We want every student who walks through Harvard Yard and sees vulnerable people lying in Harvard Square to not accept their suffering as normal.”

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Homelessness in America

Homelessness is a condition where a family or an individual does not have permanent shelter. This is a societal issue that has existed throughout human history. In America, homelessness rose during the initial phases of American colonial settlement. After the Civil War, homelessness declined, but in the 1870s, it became a national issue. During the early 90s, the country saw jobs as the solution to homelessness, as homelessness was seen as the issue of transients moving around the country in search of a job. Homelessness was caused by mobility, leading to the wandering of tramps looking for employment and urbanization. The solution to the issue today is perceived as the availability of affordable and proper housing. The period that homeless people stay without permanent housing varies from one person to another. Researchers identified three types of individuals experiencing different amounts of time homelessness. Episodic, transient, and chronic. Since homelessness in America is increasingly becoming a critical crisis, there is a need to find a solution. Some solutions to the issues include creating a crisis response plan, increasing employment and income, and establishing affordable housing. Formulating solutions to homelessness in America requires a clear understanding of its courses so that every action is directed to address these causes. As such, homelessness in America has various reasons.

The issue of homelessness is more prevalent in urban centers compared to rural areas. This implies that urbanization has contributed to homelessness for a large number of individuals. A large number of people live in urban areas. This has exerted pressure on the existing houses, which made it difficult for some individuals to afford and find a decent place and shelter to meet their needs. The population increase experienced has made it hard for urban authorities to establish affordable and decent homes for vast numbers of individuals requiring accommodation. Many people who do not afford a decent house choose to go to the streets. As a result, the number of individuals living in America who cannot afford permanent housing increased. Research shows among the large number of people who live in American urban centers, approximately 71% of them are homeless. The homeless lack dignity due to the poor living conditions on the streets (National Law Center). This exerts pressure on them as they think of the fact that they have to survive. Therefore, the federal and state governments must develop strong participatory solutions to these challenges.

The issue of mental illness seems to cause more societal issues. Most people with mental illness have been found homeless as the mentally ill cannot find the appropriate care for their problems. Mentally ill people are vulnerable to the main factors which cause homeless, such as poverty. A mentally ill person cannot sustain employment, which makes they have little income to afford permanent housing. Behavioral problems such as the difficulty of social interaction can cause mentally unstable people to avoid friends and family who might help them get decent housing hence fewer resources to cope in times of problems (National Law Center). Mental disorders also reduce one’s ability to be resourceful as they can even turn to drug and substance abuse causing them to fail to plan for housing. Homelessness has been found as an amplifier of poor mental health. When one becomes homeless, their previous mental illness could be magnified. For instance, if a person has depression which causes withdrawal from family and friends, the stress that they are reminded of coping with homelessness can increase mental issues such as anxiety ad substance use to lift the tiredness and stress. Research shows that chronic homelessness in America constitutes 30% of the people with mental issues. According to the National Coalition for Homeless, 38% of the homeless population use alcohol (National Law Center). Therefore, it is important for the government to deal with the issues of mental illness to reduce the issue of homelessness in America.

Homelessness is associated with poverty. Poverty causes homelessness among individuals and families. When families of a person cannot get enough income to pay for food, housing, or education, they can become homeless. Although the cost of housing has been rising, wages have not been rising. Therefore, when the income is lower than the family’s needs, particularly housing, families or individuals can be thrown out of houses due to their inability to pay rent. Poverty, therefore, can make people unable to access decent houses, and even if they did, they could not sustain them. Poor people living in rural areas might have houses but not in good condition. Most people in rural areas lack employment, leading to low income for saving and keeping up with the rising cost of living. Those who lose their job are also at risk of becoming homeless. Research shows that a number of homeless people today were previously employed (National Law Center). To deal with homelessness, the government should address poverty so that people live above the poverty threshold and meet living standards.

Domestic violence is another cause of homelessness in America. Women and children are more susceptible to domestic violence. People have to leave their homes without a plan of where to go to avoid homelessness (National Law Center). Domestic violence causes trauma to the victims, which can lead to mental disorders. For this reason, those who experience domestic violence are at risk of homelessness. Poor women have limited choices, which makes it more difficult to escape violence. This makes them more vulnerable to domestic violence. Whenever they choose to leave their homes, they might face bias from landlords who are unwilling to rent those houses just because they experienced violence (O’Flaherty). If domestic violence occurs within rented houses, the residents might be chased out of different rental houses until they cannot afford better and permanent ones.

The leading cause of homelessness in America is the lack of affordable housing. Research how that approximately 90% of polled cities were not affordable. On average, the housing process has been found to be three times more than the median income. Without enough income, people cannot afford decent houses or accommodations near their places of work, making it hard to reside near work (National Law Center). The government should therefore ensure affordable prices for houses.

According to research, the number of homeless people rose by approximately 3% between 2008 and 209. This implies that if the number of homeless people in America is not addressed, there could be bigger issues in the society to deal with. Majority of American states have witnessed an increasingly high number of homeless people, with Louisiana leading in the rate of homelessness (National Law Center). The problem of homelessness is a social problem in America that the government and organizations cannot ignore. The condition deprives Americans of their dignity and value.

The number of homeless family households has increased over the years, and this has become a worrying trend. Between 2008 and 2009, homeless family households rose by more than 3200, with Mississippi recording the largest number of family households. It is worrying that 40% of homeless people in the country live in places unfit for habitation by a human because they cannot afford decent or permanent housing. These people are not secure and are vulnerable to health issues. The cold weather, rain, and sun can make them ill. They are also not in the capacity to access healthcare services due to their conditions. They are exposed to dangers as they can be easily attacked by criminals or can be easily lured to join criminal activities. This can increase the risk of social problems in the country (National Law Center). That is why failure to deal with homelessness can increase the number of issues that the government should deal with. Economic hardship experienced in the country contributed to higher cases of homelessness. The majority of citizens cannot afford proper housing, cannot access healthcare services or even education. Without education, the chances of employment are low hence lower income which might be lower than the high living standards in the country. Homeless people cannot go for routine checkups or find effective prevention for the risk of the diseases they can get in the unfit environment. The healthcare system also does not give people ways of accessing health services at a relatively lower cost. The homeless are at a risk of having chronic illness and being admitted in emergency rooms which can make them stay more in hospitals compared to people with low income as they are unable to pay for hospital bills (O’Flaherty). Their inability to attend medical checkups and get preventive care makes them take long to recover from acute diseases. There are higher mortality rate among the homeless population.

Homelessness can also force children to leave their homes due to the horrifying lifestyles they face within the family. Parents can also neglect children where these children can go to live in the streets. These children are vulnerable to depression and violence which can impact their lives as adults. Children are exposed to higher risks of violence with girls getting raped, or killed. Such girls can get pregnant which makes it impossible for them to secure jobs. Hence they are unable to care for their children and the number of children living in the streets continually rises. Children can join criminal activities making the justice system to be burdened with criminal offenses of minors. Victims of sexual harassment and violence are more likely to be violent (National Law Center). As such, there is need for social support for homeless children and families to reduce criminal cases. The government should check into the issue of homelessness as it comes along with other social issues.

Some homeless people suffer from serious substance use and alcoholism and they need counselling. Since counselling alone cannot help them stop their destructive behaviors, there is the need to provide them with shelter where they can be given the necessary health services. A combination of housing plan and health services is necessary for addicts to recover quickly. Chronic homeless individuals therefore need to be supported as soon as possible to protect them from the hazardous environment. The government should formulate homeless policies across the nation to first address the issues of homeless people so they can settle and rebuild their lives.

There are various ways of addressing the issue of homelessness. Community based organizations can assist people to accomplish their personal goals. A personality policy can be developed where the people can develop ideas on how to change and better their lives. Political policies which involve actions of the government are important in establishing policies that can eliminate the homelessness problem. The government must formulate policies and procedures which guarantee citizens a proper and affordable housing system. There should be quick re-housing plans and a mental health services which are inclusive. There is a need to develop social help as political policies alone cannot assist people to recover. State agencies have a role of creating key policies and laws with the objective of homelessness eradication (O’Flaherty). The U.S. Interagency Council of Homelessness (USICH) assessed the effectiveness of the housing programs for individual. This executive branch developed Chronic Homelessness initiative requesting governments and local authorities to formulate a 10-year plan to eradicate chronic homelessness. In 2001, the federal created a policy aiming at alleviation of homelessness through permanent house. Through collaborative efforts, the government and USICH was able to reduce homelessness in America.

The aim of homelessness policies and regulations is the elimination of homelessness. For example, the ‘No Child Left behind Act’ accepted in 2001, was to ensure no discrimination of homeless children in schools through segregation of classes. This makes it a criminal offense to discriminate against homelessness. President George Bush established the Chronic Homelessness Initiative Act with the objective of eradicating homelessness in America. To achieve the objective, the head of state in collaboration with the Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Department of Labor, formulated a plan to assist the homeless access employment and shelter though in few communities (O’Flaherty). The government, therefore, should formulate policies directed to eradicating poverty, employment and increase affordable houses.

Homelessness is a social issue that has been increasingly rising over the years. Its causes include poverty, lack of employment with low wages, mental health issues and lack of affordable housing. It is an issue that has had negative impacts on children, individuals and families. The government also struggle to deal with issues of crime rising due to homelessness. Children and families are exposed to hazardous environment without the ability to attend hospitals for checkups. As such there should be effective policies to address the issue and eradicate it. Although policy makers have tried to address the issue over the years, the cases of homelessness are still rising with issues of mental illness being magnified by these issues. As such there is need for government and other relevant authorities to collaborate and formulate policies which promise cheaper housing, social support and health services to support the homeless. Although President’s Bush regime tried to solve the issue of homelessness through prevention of discrimination and segregation, the issue is still rampant. Obama regime of no child left behind was unsuccessful at the beginning. The government should therefore improve on these regimes and take more affirmative action to ensure equality. Policy makers should consider the existing policy frameworks and develop them to solve the issue of poverty eradication.

Works Cited

National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty. “Homelessness in America: Overview of Data and Causes.” (2015).

O’Flaherty, Brendan. “Homelessness research: A guide for economists (and friends).” Journal of Housing Economics 44 (2019): 1-25.

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Essays on Homelessness

Homelessness essay topics and outline examples, essay title 1: homelessness in america: root causes, consequences, and strategies for solutions.

Thesis Statement: This essay examines the multifaceted issue of homelessness in America, identifying its underlying causes, analyzing its social and economic consequences, and proposing comprehensive strategies for addressing and preventing homelessness.

Introduction
Defining Homelessness: A Complex and Diverse Challenge
Root Causes of Homelessness: Poverty, Housing Affordability, and Mental Health
The Human Toll: Health, Safety, and Vulnerability of Homeless Individuals
Governmental and NGO Initiatives: Shelters, Services, and Support Systems
Housing First Approach: Providing Stable Housing as a Foundation for Recovery
Prevention and Advocacy: Collaborative Efforts to Combat Homelessness

Essay Title 2: Hidden in Plain Sight: Exploring the Lives of Homeless Youth and Their Struggles for Stability

Thesis Statement: This essay focuses on the often-overlooked issue of youth homelessness, delving into the unique challenges faced by homeless young people, the factors contributing to their predicament, and the importance of specialized support and intervention programs.

The Invisible Crisis: Understanding the Scope of Youth Homelessness
Causes of Youth Homelessness: Family Dynamics, LGBTQ+ Youth, and Foster Care
Survival on the Streets: Vulnerabilities and Exploitation
Education and Future Prospects: Overcoming Barriers to Stability
Innovative Solutions: Transitional Housing, Mentorship, and Education Programs
Advocacy and Awareness: Mobilizing Support for Homeless Youth

Essay Title 3: Homelessness and Mental Health: The Interplay of Vulnerabilities, Stigmatization, and Access to Care

Thesis Statement: This essay explores the intricate relationship between homelessness and mental health issues, examining the challenges faced by homeless individuals with mental illness, the stigmatization they endure, and the importance of accessible mental health services.

Homelessness as a Consequence and Contributor to Mental Illness
Stigmatization and Discrimination: The Dual Burden of Homelessness and Mental Health Challenges
Barriers to Accessing Mental Health Services: A Critical Gap in Care
Models of Integrated Care: Collaborative Approaches to Addressing Mental Health Needs
Community Support and Rehabilitation: Empowering Homeless Individuals on the Path to Recovery
Policy and Advocacy: Promoting Systemic Change and Mental Health Equity

Homelessness: Causes, Consequences, and Solutions

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Homelessness and Its Effects on Children

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The Problems Caused by Homelessness and Ways to Solve Them

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Homelessness refers to a complex societal issue characterized by individuals or families lacking stable, safe, and adequate housing. It encompasses a state of not having a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence, which often leads to individuals residing in temporary shelters, transitional housing, or public spaces not intended for human habitation.

Homelessness remains a significant issue in the United States, with a complex set of factors contributing to its prevalence today. Despite efforts to address the problem, homelessness continues to affect individuals and communities across the country. In the US, homelessness is influenced by a combination of economic, social, and systemic factors. Economic inequality, lack of affordable housing, unemployment, mental health issues, and substance abuse are among the primary contributors to homelessness. Additionally, systemic issues such as systemic racism and discrimination can disproportionately affect marginalized communities, leading to higher rates of homelessness among minority populations. Efforts to combat homelessness involve a range of strategies, including emergency shelters, transitional housing, and supportive services. Nonprofit organizations, government agencies, and community initiatives play crucial roles in providing assistance, outreach, and advocacy for the homeless population. However, challenges persist in addressing homelessness effectively. The scarcity of affordable housing, limited access to mental health services, and gaps in social support systems continue to hinder progress. Additionally, the recent economic downturns and the COVID-19 pandemic have further exacerbated the issue, leading to an increase in homelessness in certain areas.

In the early stages of civilization, homelessness was often a consequence of natural disasters, wars, or displacement due to economic or political upheavals. However, with the rise of urbanization and industrialization, homelessness took on a new dimension. The growth of cities and the widening wealth gap led to overcrowded slums and impoverished conditions, pushing many individuals and families into homelessness. During the Great Depression in the 1930s, mass unemployment and economic collapse resulted in a significant increase in homelessness. The government response to the crisis led to the establishment of social welfare programs and the construction of public housing. In subsequent decades, the deinstitutionalization of mental health facilities, the decline in affordable housing, and the impact of structural inequality further contributed to the persistence of homelessness.

Street/Homeless Shelter: This is the most visible form of homelessness, where individuals lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence. They often live in public spaces, such as streets, parks, or makeshift shelters, or rely on emergency shelters for temporary accommodation. Hidden/Homeless Families: This form of homelessness includes families or individuals who do not have a permanent home but seek temporary accommodation with friends, family, or in motels. They may double up with other households or live in overcrowded conditions. Chronic Homelessness: This category refers to individuals who experience long-term or repeated episodes of homelessness. They may struggle with multiple complex issues, such as mental health disorders, substance abuse, and lack of stable employment. Youth Homelessness: Young people who do not have a safe and stable place to live fall into this category. Veteran Homelessness: This refers to veterans who are homeless or at risk of homelessness. Factors such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), lack of social support, and difficulties transitioning to civilian life contribute to their housing instability.

1. Poverty and Lack of Affordable Housing 2. Unemployment and Low Income 3. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Issues 4. Domestic Violence 5. Family and Relationship Breakdowns 6. Systemic Factors

1. Health Challenges 2. Education and Employment Barriers 3. Social Isolation and Stigma 4. Increased Risk of Victimization 5. Economic Burden

Film: "The Pursuit of Happyness" (2006) is based on the true story of Chris Gardner, who faces homelessness while trying to provide for his young son. The film portrays the challenges faced by a single father and sheds light on the experiences of homelessness. Documentaries: "Dark Days" (2000) directed by Marc Singer captures the lives of people living in an underground tunnel in New York City. The documentary provides an intimate and raw portrayal of the daily struggles and resilience of those experiencing homelessness. News Coverage: News outlets often cover stories related to homelessness, showcasing the experiences of individuals and the impact on communities. They shed light on policy issues, challenges faced by homeless individuals, and initiatives aimed at addressing the issue. Photography: Numerous photographers have documented the lives of people living on the streets, capturing their humanity and the harsh realities they face. Notable photographers like Diane Arbus, Mary Ellen Mark, and Lee Jeffries have produced impactful images that challenge stereotypes and elicit empathy.

1. According to a report by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), on any given night, over half a million people experience homelessness in the United States. 2. Youth homelessness is a significant issue, with an estimated 4.2 million young people experiencing homelessness each year in the United States. 3. Approximately 35% of the homeless population in the U.S. consists of families with children, highlighting the impact of homelessness on families and the need for support systems. 4. Chronic homelessness, defined as long-term or repeated homelessness, affects around 25% of the overall homeless population. 5. Veterans are disproportionately affected by homelessness. On a single night in January 2020, an estimated 37,252 veterans experienced homelessness in the United States. 6. The cost of homelessness is significant. Studies have shown that providing housing and support services to individuals experiencing chronic homelessness can be more cost-effective than leaving them on the streets, as it reduces costs associated with emergency healthcare, incarceration, and other public services.

The topic of homelessness is of utmost importance to explore and address in an essay due to its profound impact on individuals, communities, and society as a whole. Understanding the causes, consequences, and potential solutions to homelessness is crucial in fostering empathy, raising awareness, and driving meaningful change. Writing an essay about homelessness allows us to shed light on the underlying factors that contribute to homelessness, such as poverty, lack of affordable housing, mental health issues, and systemic inequalities. By examining these root causes, we can challenge societal norms and advocate for social policies that address homelessness effectively. Additionally, exploring the effects of homelessness on individuals and communities helps us recognize the immense hardships faced by those experiencing homelessness, including physical and mental health challenges, social isolation, and limited access to education and employment opportunities. This understanding can cultivate compassion and inspire action to provide support, resources, and pathways to stability for those in need. Moreover, discussing the topic of homelessness encourages us to consider innovative solutions, such as affordable housing initiatives, supportive services, and community-based programs. By analyzing successful interventions and best practices, we can contribute to the ongoing efforts aimed at preventing and alleviating homelessness.

1. Lee, B. A., Tyler, K. A., & Wright, J. D. (2010). The new homelessness revisited. Annual review of sociology, 36, 501-521. (https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115940) 2. Hwang, S. W. (2001). Homelessness and health. Cmaj, 164(2), 229-233. (https://www.cmaj.ca/content/164/2/229.short) 3. Waldron, J. (1991). Homelessness and the Issue of Freedom. UCLA L. Rev., 39, 295. (https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/uclalr39&div=16&id=&page=) 4. McCarthy, B., & Hagan, J. (1991). Homelessness: A criminogenic situation?. The British Journal of Criminology, 31(4), 393-410. (https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article-abstract/31/4/393/498747) 5. Hopper, K. (2015). Reckoning with homelessness. In Reckoning with Homelessness. Cornell University Press. (https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7591/9780801471612/html?lang=en) 6. Gaetz, S., O'Grady, B., Kidd, S., & Schwan, K. (2016). Without a home: The national youth homelessness survey. (https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2237953/without-a-home/2996006/) 7. Gelberg, L., Linn, L. S., Usatine, R. P., & Smith, M. H. (1990). Health, homelessness, and poverty: a study of clinic users. Archives of Internal Medicine, 150(11), 2325-2330. (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/614142) 8. Bassuk, E. L. (2010). Ending child homelessness in America. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(4), 496. (https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-25070-006) 9. Quigley, J. M., Raphael, S., & Smolensky, E. (2001). Homeless in America, homeless in California. Review of Economics and Statistics, 83(1), 37-51. (https://direct.mit.edu/rest/article-abstract/83/1/37/57244/Homeless-in-America-Homeless-in-California) 10. Bowdler, J. E. (1989). Health problems of the homeless in America. The Nurse Practitioner, 14(7), 44-47. (https://europepmc.org/article/med/2748030)

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Homelessness in the US: Causes and Solutions Essay

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Executive Summary

Introduction and problem statement, findings and analysis, conclusions, recommendations.

Due to the income disparity, insufficient accommodations, and racial inequality, the homelessness crisis in the US has been exacerbated. Many of these issues are overlapping and cyclical, pushing the people on the bottom further down. Housing policies that increase affordable housing access through vouchers and new facilities must be developed nationwide. Adequate support to those struggling due to unemployment, poverty, mental illness, or substance use should be awarded to provide a chance to break from the cycle.

Homelessness in America is rising as poverty, lack of affordable housing and mental facilities, substance abuse, illness, and systemic racism contribute to this issue. Homeless Americans are mistreated by their compatriots and deal with pervasive prejudice and discrimination. Many homeless people find themselves stuck in a loop because they do not have the resources to help get them out of the situation. To recommend the most appropriate and effective policies, the causes should be analyzed in detail.

While housing can be defined as a human right, thousands of people in the US do not have access to it. Homelessness does not always last for extensive periods and is often hard to fully encompass given its various extents: from “literally homeless” to “precarious housing” (Shinn & Khadduri, 2020, p. 8). Hence, the accurate statistics are difficult to estimate since many surveys only account for the literally homeless; in 2017, a single-count survey yielded approximately 564,000 people (Larkin et al., 2019). Homeless populations consist of various social groups: families with children, transitional age youth, especially LGBT+ representatives, students, domestic violence escapees, immigrants, refugees, and older adults (Larkin et al., 2019). Therefore, the reasons for homelessness are just as diverse as its population, which should be considered in searching for causes and solutions.

Poverty and Unemployment

As mentioned, homelessness often affects the most vulnerable population. The US has the most significant disparity in income among the developed Western nations, with the bottom pay bracket giving 75% of their income to rent (Shinn & Khadduri, 2020). The situation is further exacerbated by stagnant incomes: a 350% increase in minimum wages since 1970 does not meet the consumer price hike of 480% (Shinn & Khadduri, 2020). As this population is already vulnerable and strained by trying to keep up with rental prices, any costly emergency may lead to housing loss. Low salaries do not allow to save up; additionally, low-wage income is often unreliable and volatile (Shinn & Khadduri, 2020). In turn, unemployment, especially if prolonged, induces homelessness, often resulting in a vicious cycle (Shinn & Khadduri, 2020). Although most homeless are ready to join the workforce, they are struggling to do so due to not looking presentable or having a permanent address (Simone, 2022). Additionally, homelessness leads many people to develop mental illnesses that limit their capacity to secure employment (Larkin et al., 2019). Thus, homelessness and poverty go hand-in-hand, with many factors perpetuating each other.

Affordable Housing

Rising housing costs are a global concern and lead many people to become homeless. Homelessness was especially strongly correlated with rental costs in larger cities like “New York, Los Angeles, Washington, DC, and Seattle,” where prices are disproportionately high (Glynn & Fox, 2019, p. 573). Coupled with the income inequality, the housing crisis continually churns homeless individuals who cannot afford these rapidly growing prices.

Addiction and Mental Health

There is a circular relationship between homeless, addiction, and mental health. Mental illness and substance abuse are among the top predictors of homelessness (Tsai et al., 2017). Concurrently, approximately 30% of homeless individuals in the US struggle with mental health issues; 38% of homeless people depend on alcohol; 26% use other substances (Larkin et al., 2019). Additionally, the incapability of finding stable housing worsens addiction and mental health issues (Shinn & Khadduri, 2020). Lastly, when most people who have been institutionalized are released, they face a heightened risk of becoming homeless since few ‘safety net’ or integrative programs exist (Simone, 2022). Therefore, an individual with an addiction or mental illness faces more difficulty finding permanent housing while being more vulnerable to being homeless.

Systemic Racial Inequality

Homelessness, racism, and social exclusion intersect to underline many of the previously discussed causes. Systematic racial inequality in the US has led racial minorities to be more prone to homelessness than the white population (Shinn & Khadduri, 2020). Race discrimination worsens issues such as income disparity, the ability to get a rental, and incarceration rates (Shinn & Khadduri, 2020). Thus, systemic racism perpetuates the already extant obstacles for struggling individuals.

The potential solutions for homelessness may be divided into two major categories: ending the current crisis and preventing the future ones. Shinn and Khadduri (2020) argue that the US has the means to end homelessness if the right policy choices are made. The community should offer reliable and long-term support to individuals housed in rental units to prevent the new instances of homelessness by developing the Housing Choice Voucher program (Shinn & Khadduri, 2020). Moreover, Simone (2022) suggests providing supportive and licensed housing for those struggling with severe mental illnesses and fighting discrimination in accommodation. All homeless people should have access to the shelter system to stand a chance for recovery (Simone, 2022). Lastly, homelessness prevention can be achieved with rental assistance and eviction prevention programs for those in precarious housing situations (Simone, 2022). Hence, first and foremost, helpful policy choices entail appropriate housing responses.

Moreover, the issue of vulnerable populations should be addressed separately. Simone (2022) states that over 40% of those “released from state prisons… were released directly to shelters” and calls for drastically rethinking institutional discharge policies (p. 45). Discharge planning should be proactive and have sufficient support to prevent people who have been released from “prisons, jails, nursing homes, and hospitals” from homelessness (Simone, 2022, p. 45). Further, homeless individuals combating substance use addiction and mental health issues should be awarded the appropriate counseling and therapeutic services (Tsai et al., 2017). In other words, institutional change is required to help those in most need by providing targeted services.

In conclusion, homelessness is a critical issue that must be addressed to avoid propagating the problem in the future. Poverty and unemployment, lack of affordable housing, addiction, and ineffective post-institutional integration, all exacerbated by pervasive racism, are the major causes of homelessness. Governments and communities have an opportunity to develop effective systems that prevent the proliferation of homelessness, but nationwide implementation is mandatory. Appropriate housing and vulnerable populations help policies are needed to provide sufficient support.

The most crucial area to address in combating homelessness is housing security. Communities must develop housing policies to withstand trials and make sure the people housed in these units are afforded mental health services, can access employment, and break from the cycle. Housing vouchers and more housing buildings should be available to those trying to leave the shelter system. Moreover, proactive policies should take care of those released from institutions and those in a precarious financial situation to prevent individuals from entering the shelter system.

Glynn, C., & Fox, E. B. (2019). Dynamics of homelessness in urban America . The Annals of Applied Statistics , 13 (1), 573–605.

Larkin, H., Aykanian, A., & Streeter, C. L. (Eds.). (2019). Homelessness prevention and intervention in social work: Policies, programs, and practices . Springer Nature Switzerland.

Shinn, M., & Khadduri, J. (Eds.). (2020). In the midst of plenty: Homelessness and what to do about it . Wiley Blackwell.

Simone, J. (2022). State of the homeless 2022: New York at a crossroads (pp. 1–51). Coalition for the Homeless.

Tsai, J., O’Toole, T., & Kearney, L. K. (2017). Homelessness is a public mental health and social problem: New knowledge and solutions. Psychological Services , 14 (2), 113–117.

Bioethics Committees: The Role in Society
Professional Sociological Associations
Homelessness and its Solutions
The Causes and Impacts of Homelessness
Approaching Homelessness in America
Individual's Sociality: Positive and Negative Consequences
Sex Workers: Discrimination and Criminalization
Society 5.0: The New Social Paradigm
The Effect of Gentrification on Low-Income Families
The Margolis Wheel Use in Community Development
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, April 7). Homelessness in the US: Causes and Solutions. https://ivypanda.com/essays/homelessness-in-the-us-causes-and-solutions/

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IvyPanda . 2023. "Homelessness in the US: Causes and Solutions." April 7, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/homelessness-in-the-us-causes-and-solutions/.

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IvyPanda . "Homelessness in the US: Causes and Solutions." April 7, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/homelessness-in-the-us-causes-and-solutions/.

‘People say all the time, “I understand.” No, you don’t.’

‘Talk to us about our wants and needs. Talk to us like adults. Like human beings.’

As this country struggles with a growing crisis of homelessness, it’s time to start listening to the people who are living it.

A Life Without A

Voices from the tents, shelters, cars, motels and couches of America.

A record number of people across the country are experiencing homelessness: the federal government’s annual tally last year revealed the highest numbers of unsheltered people since the count began in 2007. Politicians and policymakers are grappling with what can be done. But the people who are actually experiencing homelessness are rarely part of the conversation.

Lori Teresa Yearwood, a journalist who lived through years of homelessness, spoke of the ways we discount those without shelter. “Society created a new species of people, and we carefully crafted an image of them: one of broken passivity and victimhood, people in need of constant scrutiny and monitoring,” she said in a 2022 speech. “When we shift and widen the perspective of the unhoused, that’s when things radically change.” Ms. Yearwood collaborated with Times Opinion on this project before her untimely death in September. She understood what many who have not experienced homelessness ignore: that people without shelter have something to say — and often something of great worth — about what it’s like to live inside this country’s cobbled-together solutions.

That’s why we sent reporters and photographers to different parts of the country to meet with people experiencing homelessness in very different ways. We asked them to fill out surveys, take videos, use disposable cameras and have their children share drawings.

Whatever led them to homelessness, the people who spoke to The Times want a way out. As the nation debates how to help them, they shared the solutions they want to see.

Chelsie Stevens has been sleeping on friends’ couches while she attends community college.

She and her children are some of the estimated 3.7 million Americans who are doubled up, a kind of homelessness hidden in plain sight.

A Is Not a Home

By Linda Villarosa Photographs by Sasha Phyars-Burgess

Crashing at someone’s house, doubling up, couch surfing: It all conjures a rosy scenario in which someone takes in friends or family members who have fallen on hard times, offering them comfort, safety and a roof over their heads. But in reality, doubling up is a much more complicated, under-the-radar form of homelessness. It may be a temporary solution, a precursor to living in a shelter or on the street, or part of a cycle of housing instability that involves crowded living conditions and a devastating lack of privacy and safety. The Department of Housing and Urban Development doesn’t recognize doubling up as homelessness, which can mean that families and individuals who live with others — by necessity, not choice — lose out on essential government services and benefits.

Chelsie Stevens’s sons, 11 and 14, sleeping on an inflatable bed.

But we can have a sense of the size of the problem by looking at the children. Thanks to landmark 1987 legislation, children who share housing because of economic hardship or loss of their homes qualify for benefits through their public schools: dedicated liaisons, free lunch, free transportation to school even if they are living out of the district. In 2022, public schools counted 1,205,292 homeless students, 76 percent of whom were doubled up. We met with four single moms, all of whom were crashing at someone else’s house with their children.

For parents who lose stable housing, options are limited: In many areas, family shelters are few and far between, and motel rooms get expensive. But staying with others comes with its own costs.

Jackie Randolph , 34, is staying with her five children in a bedroom at her ex-partner’s place in Cincinnati : We got to be quiet. We can’t talk loud. We can’t have fun. We can’t do nothing. It’s like living in jail. We got to be sneaky because of the neighbors. They’re really set in their ways and they ain’t trying to have nobody that stay over there that don’t live there.

Chelsie Stevens, 33, has been on friends’ couches with one of her children while the others sleep at their grandparents’ house near Sarasota, Fla . : I met my current host getting cleaning jobs from him. Thankfully he understood my situation because he has been in my shoes and let me pay him $600 a month to stay with him. He makes me feel like we’re welcome to stay in his house but it’s a little uncomfortable because now that I am staying here, our relationship went from a friendship about work to some odd feeling like he likes me or wants to date me. But we have nowhere else to go.

Michelle Schultz, 52, has been staying on friends’ couches with her daughter near Waukesha, Wis. : It can cause a strain on even the best friendships. As much as it's nice that people will do that, it’s a burden for them to take up that extra space.

Lizbeth Santiago, 28, sleeps with her two children on the floor of her sister’s living room in Fort Worth : Living with my sister feels terrible. It’s very tense. My children are very loud and rambunctious while her son is quiet. My sister, having anxiety and paranoia and autism, it’s upsetting for her. So I feel quite bad.

Staying at someone’s house makes securing benefits tricky: The government often counts benefits by household instead of per individual family.

Lizbeth Santiago : I don’t have SNAP benefits or anything. My sister gets a Social Security check for my nephew because he’s autistic and that helps them a lot. If they didn’t have that, they also would not be making it. But because I live with them, I can’t apply for SNAP benefits — that would negatively affect her. And would put an even bigger strain on our relationship.

Michelle Schultz : Because state regulations want to include everybody you’re living with in their income, I had to lie this whole 10 years that I've been homeless. If they know what the household income is, I would lose food stamps. I would lose benefits to the point where I’d probably have to pay copay for doctor prescriptions. I just had to tell them I was homeless and I gave them a mailing address of a P.O. box.

Beyond their own day-to-day concerns, these parents worry about how their living conditions are affecting their children.

Chelsie Stevens : They are behaving poorly in school. My oldest is always worried about me and has a hard time focusing. The kids seem depressed more now.

Lizbeth Santiago : I know it affects her. She tries to hide it. She’s a child. I want her to be a child. I don’t want her to worry about why Mommy’s upset. Those are adult concerns. Those are things that she shouldn’t have on her mind. I wish she didn’t have to experience any of that.

Jackie Randolph : My only goal is making sure my kids stay happy so they don’t think about the situation we are in. Every time they start doubting or they get weary, I just say: “This is just going to make us stronger. It’s going to bring us closer together. You could tell your kids about this.” So they could say: “My mom, she did not give up. She did not give up. She kept fighting.” My kids is the reason why I’m not in a crazy house right now. Because I probably should have been years ago.

Jackie Randolph’s youngest daughter, Clinteria.

Chelsie Stevens’s youngest daughter, Faith.

Navigating the bureaucracy of homelessness is difficult for people who are doubled up. Here’s what they want and need.

Lizbeth Santiago : A job that pays enough. But the harsh reality is it won’t be enough. I donate plasma two times a week and I’m still going to continue to have to do that. I also go to a food pantry once a week to get food.

Jackie Randolph : Stop making the process so long. If somebody needs help today, why would you say, “Next week we’ll be here to help you” or “Give us 30 days to help you”?

Michelle Schultz : If I could have had some help with day care to be able to go and look for a job.

Chelsie Stevens : There needs to be something in place for the young kids growing up in poverty, and parents of those kids. To guide them at a young age how to not end up like I am. Not everyone is born into normalcy and structure or love. Until a person is taught, how can they know?

Like so many others experiencing homelessness, Chelsie Stevens found that her situation deteriorated the longer she was out of stable housing.

After staying at her friend’s apartment for several months, she left when her host made her feel uncomfortable. Her children slept at their grandparents’ house while she slept in her car.

Scroll to read what people living in motels, cars, encampments and shelters want others to understand about homelessness in America.

Times Opinion asked people experiencing homelessness to respond to a survey in their own writing.

How has your life changed since you became homeless?

Edward Taylor, 47, has been sleeping in his car for several months.

Chelsie Stevens, 33, sleeps on friends’ couches and in her car.

Since she lost her family home nearly a year ago, Kimberly has been living in a motel.

Terri Ann Romo, 43, sleeps in a car she shares with her elderly mother.

People like Kimberly who turn to motels for shelter are often not even counted as homeless.

By Samantha M. Shapiro Photographs by Paul D’Amato

They arrive in cars crammed with the contents of the homes they were evicted from, or by bus, weighed down by bags. They walk over, in wet socks or ruined pants, from a tent encampment nearby when the weather is too rough to be outside. They leave their kids sleeping in the queen beds when they go to work the night shift at an Amazon warehouse. Few of the guests at this airport motel arrive on a flight; most are locals in search of affordable shelter. A yellow school bus picks up children outside the lobby and police cars and outreach workers do rounds through the parking lot, but mostly the true role the motel plays is invisible and improvised by desk clerks. The capacity of shelters and subsidized housing hasn’t kept pace with the growing homelessness crisis, so New York and other cities have turned to private motels to house people, and some charities offer emergency vouchers for brief stays. During the Covid pandemic, empty hotels and motels were also temporarily converted into official homeless shelters; most of those programs have since wound down. But even in places where motels are not officially serving as homeless shelters, people who have lost their housing simply pay the rack rate when they have nowhere else to go. Motels offer an option for those who are shut out of rentals because of evictions on their records or for parents who do not want to be separated from their children, as many shelters do not accept families. We spoke with 11 people who are temporarily staying in a motel on the outskirts of Milwaukee.

Ashley and her twin children in their motel room.

Paying by the night or week is more feasible for those who struggle to put together enough cash for a security deposit and one month’s rent. But the cost of a room can vary from night to night and the monthly cost of a motel stay is often much higher than rent.

Ashley, 38, has been staying with four of her five children in a motel room for the last several months : This is my first time being displaced from housing. The first two weeks were the roughest. I didn’t know where to go. I’m used to having birthday parties at hotels for my kids — I’m really only in hotels then or if we’re on vacation. I didn’t know you can rent hotels to live. I pay daily at these hotels. It’s expensive. On a good night, it costs $51; with tax, $56. On weekends it’s $73. They usually tell me if something special is going on, because it’ll go up. For the state fair, they actually put all the homeless people out. I was back in my car for two weeks.

Kala, 32, has been battling drug addiction for years. She and her partner stay in motel rooms whenever they have enough money : You are basically on a timer that gives you anxiety and puts you on an edge. I have to figure out how to come up with another 70 bucks in less than 24 hours every day. It’s the same thing as being homeless. Yeah, I can sleep here for 12 hours but in 12 hours I got to figure something out, so I am not doing anything with that 12 hours — just stressing over how I’m going to pay for the next 12 hours. I can’t focus on what I am going to do to move forward. You can’t do that in 12 hours.

Kimberly, 53, sold the family home to a “sell for cash” group when her father became ill : I’ve been here a year in December. It’s an every day struggle trying to pay for everything. That’s why I don’t have food. Room, food, bus. I do plasma. It makes you depressed being stuck in this room 24/7.

Brenda, 53, is staying in a room with her cousin and her 19-year-old autistic son : I have more anxiety. I’m unsure of everything. I’m scared only because of my 19-year-old son. It’s hard to get inside the mind of somebody with autism, but I know one thing for certain is that when his schedule gets disrupted, it disrupts him. And then I feel badly. I tell him things are going to be better, but it’s hard. I tried and failed to make a life for myself.

Just six months after Covid-era moratoriums were lifted, eviction filings doubled in Milwaukee County. With rents rising , even two-income families can easily fall into homelessness, where a constant barrage of bills and bureaucratic hurdles keep stable housing out of reach.

Max, 47, has been staying in motel rooms with his wife and their sons for several months : Our rent went up unexpectedly. We had had a yearlong lease but then the landlord made it month to month. We couldn’t suck it up and pay. The rent was $1,400 and the next month went up to $1,900.

Kimberly : My storage alone is $260 a month because it was a house full of things we left — I even threw out two giant dumpsters — it’s all our photo albums and furniture. I’m over $1,000 behind. There’s interest, late fees. I owe the storage place on the 20th and if I don’t pay them it will go to auction. You can’t pay here at the motel and come up with money to get a place. It’s impossible. And that’s why a lot of us are stuck.

Ashley : I owe the storage unit $100 so they locked it. The twins were supposed to go to the pumpkin farm today for a school trip but the kids’ coats and boots are in there. I knew they were going to be outside all day at the pumpkin farm so I kept them at home. It’s expensive being homeless. It’s expensive being outside. I’ve applied to places, but I have an open eviction right now.

David, 63, has been homeless for about two years : I didn’t receive my benefits one month. I was fighting with the QUEST card people. You get a review every few years to keep the benefits going. Well, not living in a permanent place, I don’t receive my mail, so I missed the review. That’s why my benefits were cut off.

People living day to day in motels often are not counted as homeless by HUD, making it difficult for them to get access to the services put in place to help people experiencing homelessness.

Ashley : I called 211 and told them I was homeless and my situation. One night at 3 in the morning, they called me. They said we’re out and about at the address you gave us but we don’t see your car. I’m like, “Well, tonight we got a room” and they’re like, “Well, that’s not considered homeless. When you go back out to that spot give us a call, maybe we can come back out to that spot.” They can help with housing if they can prove that I’m in my car 24/7. But I can’t keep my kids in my car. If I have to pay for a room I will. But they’re saying, “Because you’re inside a hotel you’re not considered homeless.” This doesn’t make sense to me. I’ve never noticed how many homeless people were out here until I became one.

Scroll to read what people living in cars, encampments and shelters want others to understand about homelessness in America.

What is the biggest stress you deal with in daily life?

David, 63, sleeps in a tent behind a motel in Milwaukee.

Rob Travis Jackson, 59, stays in a shelter in Pennsylvania.

Kala, 32, has been sleeping on the street and in a motel when she can afford it.

Haven, 11, is sleeping on couches with his mom and siblings near Sarasota, Fla.

Sage and Fiona Reuscher and their son have been homeless since May.

The Reuschers are among the over 19,000 people in Los Angeles living out of their cars.

By Christopher Giamarino Photographs by Ricardo Nagaoka

When Americans lose their housing, their cars are often the first place they turn. The federal government doesn’t collect data specifically on vehicular homelessness, but recent studies show that over 40 percent of unsheltered people in Los Angeles County live in their vehicles — cars, vans, campers and R.V.s. The cold reality: Finding a safe place to park is a challenge, made worse by a web of complicated ordinances that in much of the country make sleeping and living in your car illegal , with towing and expensive tickets a constant worry. The Los Angeles area is home to the nation’s largest population of “vehicle dwellers.” One nonprofit, Safe Parking L.A. , has set up in parking lots across Los Angeles in response, allowing people to stay in their cars during the night when businesses are closed, providing amenities like restrooms, security guards and sometimes even financial services and opportunities to find shelters and housing. We spoke with people in one such parking lot, sandwiched between the Los Angeles airport runway and industrial land. The people staying there shared why they’re living in their cars, and what they need to get back into housing.

Chloe Heard by the car where she sleeps.

An empty parking lot, even one with planes blaring overhead every 90 seconds, provides a degree of safety for people who have been sleeping in their cars on streets and in parks.

Chloe Heard, 36, has been homeless since August 2020 : Before this lot, I was parking by the beach. I was really unsafe. The police were coming to my car, and I was scared. My main concerns were if someone was going to walk up to my car and bust my windows, or if the police were going to arrest me for trespassing. You don’t really rest because you’re constantly jumping up to look around to make sure you’re not going to get in trouble for being there. I’d be getting tickets for parking on streets, sleeping in my car. Sometimes, street sweeping has come before you wake up and you’ve already gotten a ticket before you noticed the person.

B.A., 52, works as a bus driver at the airport and lives out of his car : Living in my car is hard. I don’t have any electricity. I always have to run the car. That’s wasting gas. I feel like I’m not safe wherever I sleep — these lots or wherever I sleep on the street.

Edward Taylor, 47, lives in his car with his husband after they lost their apartment in 2022 : The way that parking on public streets impacted us was just sleep. Being here in a safe zone that is monitored and secluded from what’s happening on the other side of these barricades allows you to get sleep. It allows you to sleep a little bit more peacefully than if I have to worry about other homeless people. Sorry, I forgot I am homeless now.

Curtis Lynch and Edward Taylor

Juana Zabala in the car where she sleeps.

Living out of your car might seem like a good way to save money when you’ve lost your housing, but often, a vicious cycle of bills and bad credit causes a temporary sleeping situation to stretch into a months-long ordeal.

Chloe Heard : How do they expect people facing homelessness to have 700 or 800 credit scores? Or have co-signers? People don’t even trust that you can make it on your own, let alone use someone else’s assistance to get there. How in the heck could someone vouch for you to maybe help ruin their credit?

B.A. : On a big lot like this, they should just let people park there all day and all night. With Safe Parking I don’t like that you have to leave, come back, leave, come back. I want to just leave my car here and then I could just take off somewhere or walk. But instead, I got to drive, waste gas, come back. I spend more money on gas than I spend on anything.

Edward Taylor : I have an income. I have money saved. I tell people I have enough money to pay them three times the deposit. But even right now that is not acceptable because your credit score is not good or you have an eviction on your record.

The longer homelessness stretches on, the harder it is for people experiencing it to recover.

Fiona Reuscher, 43, lives in her car with her partner, Sage, and their teenage son : Once everything is taken from you, it becomes how much more do you have to give up? We’ve had shelters that have said, “We can take you, but we don’t allow dogs.” We’ve already given up everything. You’re not going to take away our best friends. These are our dogs. These are our emotional support animals. These are our protectors. They’re like our kids. You can’t do that. But they expect you to do this. They expect you to give these things up. They expect you to be happy with a doghouse because you’re in your car. No, we want housing. What’s good for you should be good for me. If it’s not good for you then why are you trying to pawn it off on me?

Edward Taylor : I am not grounded in some place to update my résumé and have access to the internet to look for jobs and network. I’m not able to access my full belongings to get into my full self to go out to places to network with people.

Chloe Heard : People think that because you don’t have a home that you’re dirty, you may stink, that you’re crazy for sleeping in a car. I told my friend that I sleep in my car. She said: “You sleep in your car? What’re you talking about?” It makes me refrain from telling people because then they’re looking at me in a judging sense like I’m lesser than. It makes me feel like less of an active citizen in society because people look down on you.

Fiona and Sage Reuscher prepare their car to sleep for the night.

The people sleeping in the lot have ideas on ways their homelessness could have been prevented, and how aid programs, including the Safe Parking program hosting them, could better meet their needs.

Curtis Lynch, 38, lives in his car with his husband, Edward : The eviction moratorium should have lasted longer. There should have been a proper system in place where the government helped pay during that process — like, pay back 30 percent of what you owe, and your eviction could be withheld. There’s a better system they should have worked with.

Terri Ann Romo, 43, lives in her car with her mom, Juana : It would be nice if you could shower. We went a whole month without showering until recently.

Frankey Daniels, 32, has two jobs and has been homeless since July : Create more housing programs for people who work and are going through homelessness. It takes some time to really figure it out and do your research when you have to go to work, and some people are working two jobs.

B.A . : At the Convention Center, they had plugs. They had bathrooms that you could walk into with a private sink and toilet. They use port-a-potties here. They need to be cleaned out every day.

Fiona Reuscher : Having weekly meetings so that the people who are the decision makers out here talk to us on the lot. We need better transparency. If you’re not talking to the people that you’re serving, then you’re not serving them.

Scroll to read what people living in encampments and shelters want others to understand about homelessness in America.

Do you think the government, or either political party, is doing enough to help you?

David, 62, with his partner, Terri. He uses a wheelchair and sleeps in a tent in Nashville.

Chloe Heard, 36, has been homeless since 2020.

Bobby Conner Jr., 29, lives in an encampment in Nashville.

Tyrese Payeton has been living in an encampment for several months.

He is one of hundreds of people living in tents and other temporary shelters in Nashville.

By Wes Enzinna Photographs by Tamara Reynolds

Less than a mile from Nashville’s bustling tourist district, the Old Tent City homeless encampment lies in a forest hidden between the banks of the Cumberland River and the shadow of a steep, dusty bluff. At the top of the bluff is a new condominium building where two-bedroom units with panoramic views of the downtown skyline sell for $1.2 million. The sprawling shantytown below is home to dozens of people who live in tents and makeshift abodes — the winners and the losers of the new Nashville economy live in one another's shadows. Tent cities, which often include other shelters like wooden sheds and R.V.s, have become a common feature in the landscape of American cities. In Nashville, one of the fastest-growing metro areas in the United States, 17 percent of people who are homeless are living on the streets and in encampments. According to service providers, there are dozens of encampments spread out across the city and the surrounding county. The people living in them often aren’t included in decisions over their fates, even as the city has made closing the camps a key part of its larger fight against homelessness for the last year. We spoke to residents of Old Tent City and four other encampments in Nashville. Most of them want to be off the streets. All of them want a system that better supports them.

Wade in his “tiny home,” a temporary shelter the size of a shed.

Some people who live in encampments worry about their safety, while others say they provide a sense of community and security hard to find elsewhere on the street.

Fred Moore , 57, has been homeless for about 12 years : I love the homeless people that’s out here. Most of them that’s new don’t know how to live being homeless. There are so many different tricks and ways around it that people just don’t know how and when you got somebody that’s already been out here, they know the ways to do things and help pass information.

Cynthia Gaddis, 35, ended up on the streets several months ago : I’ve learned you can depend more on the homeless people than you can with the people that have everything.

Bobby Conner Jr., 29, who has been homeless since he was 13, was struggling with addiction when he arrived in Old Tent City : Any time I ever need a place to come, just lay low and just crash, and need a family, I know I can always come down here. When I came down here, I looked at them, I was like: “I want off of that. I want to start my life new again . ” They were like: “You really want to do it? You’re more than welcome to bring your stuff down here. Set up your spot. We’ll make sure you stay off of it.”

Casey Guzak, 47 , became homeless two years ago after a rent increase : I don’t think Hoovertowns are appropriate unless there’s a major depression. Shantytowns accumulate hostility, disease, and everyone’s calamity is amplified.

But even as encampments provide stability to some residents, the unique challenges — financial, mental, physical — of living there can also make it harder for residents to eventually find their way out of the camps and back into housing.

New York is an Army veteran living in a tent in Old Tent City : I can afford to pay the rent. I just can’t afford the deposit. And being out here kind of messed up my credit. But now I’m paying three credit fixers to fix my credit. Nobody in my family knows I’m out here. I’m too embarrassed to reach out and say something because they’ve never seen me. When I was out there, I had an apartment and a house and had two cars. I was making good money. So it’s a pride thing.

Terri Masterson and her partner lost their home of 23 years just miles away from where they stay on the street now : I am ashamed of it. I’m ashamed that I’m ashamed, but I truly am. You know, I am an old-fashioned girl. This is not how I was raised, as my grandmother would say.

Fred Moore : It’s hard for me to hold down a job because I can’t concentrate on what I’m doing. I’ve been down here trying to get signed up on disability and try to give my brain time to rest and really see what’s going on.

Jacquelyn Manner, 61, lost her job and her home after a debilitating brain injury : I’m a pretty healthy person, but I’m also 61. I can’t eat a lot of the stuff that they have out there. I need fresh vegetables. I have food stamps, but I didn’t have a place that I could eat fresh vegetables and yogurt. It’s going to be pasta, rice. A lot of sugar and a lot of salt. It creates health problems.

Riley, 23, moved into an encampment to try to save money : I was living in a motel. I was making $600 a week doing day labor, and the motel was so expensive. I had the idea: I'll come out here and I’ll stack some money up for a few weeks. Thought I’d be able to get back up on my feet in no time. I had to be at the day-labor office at five in the morning, so I was buying Ubers, spending like 40 bucks in the morning. And then I’m getting off work at rush hour. And the prices go up. I’m spending another $30 to get home. It’s 70 bucks. I made $125 a day, so I got 55 bucks left. I got to eat, so I bought a camp stove. I just stopped going to work after three months.

Casey Guzak

Brandi and her boyfriend, Robert.

According to one nonprofit group, over the last two years at least 25 encampments in Nashville have been cleared. In July 2022, Tennessee became the first state ever to make camping on public property a felony . So far, no one has been prosecuted under the law, but numerous encampment residents say that the police have invoked it to intimidate them.

Casey Guzak : They use the landscapers to cut trees around you, expose you. Then they tell you you need to get everything in your tent — there’s too much stuff out here, too much litter. I agree! But they take your tent when you’re not there. They figure if you’re exposed, you’ll be embarrassed. We weren’t. We just sat there. You know, who are we going to be embarrassed by? Their message is, “We got to clear this place out for gentrification . ” It’s about to happen here. It’s happening all over Nashville. It’s like a war.

Wade lives in a 60-square-foot shed in an encampment in the backyard of a church : When I was homeless, and I mean homeless — no housing, no nothing, bushes and trees right behind me — the police, they say, “Oh, you can’t sleep here.” And you’re sitting there saying, “But that ain’t fair.” They don't care. If you’re not doing anything and you’re not causing any disturbance why come over and harass you? They’re not doing what the police are supposed to do. They’re supposed to protect and serve.

C.J . has lived in an encampment for four years and worries he and his fellow residents will be evicted soon : All you’re going to do is bust up a nest, and that nest is going to spread out somewhere else. When you bust it up, the ones that are scattered are going to find somewhere else and then you got another problem. … I’m going to go to another area, find another spot, set up another camp and start the process all over again.

The people living in tent cities want to have a say in the policies that affect them.

Jacquelyn Manner : I need to get permanent shelter and I need to get a good job. And I can’t do that unless I have an outfit. Unless I have a place that I can shower. Unless I can have a place where I can keep my clothes decent, and know that I can wear some decent clothes to work.

Clyde Hohn, 52, and his wife, Norvalla, have been residents of Old Tent City for about a month : We should have security guards in the encampments. We got people firing off firearms. Somebody ran a knife through my tent. There are noises all night, people arguing. A security guard would help us keep safe, help us sleep so we can go to work in the morning and get ourselves off the street. She’s a cashier at a gas station. It’d be a lot worse if she lost her job.

Mama V : A goal of ours is to find the land and make it where the homeless can have somewhere and nobody can tell them, “Hey, you’ve got to go.” I tell everybody, you never know when you're going to be one paycheck away from where we’re at right now.

Jacquelyn Manner in front of the tiny home where she sleeps.

Scroll to read what people living in shelters want others to understand about homelessness in America.

Could the government have done anything to prevent your homelessness?

Terri Ann Romo, 43, lost stable housing after an eviction in 2022.

Clyde Hohn, 52, lives in an encampment and hasn’t had stable housing since 2022.

Fiona Reuscher, 43, fell into homelessness after a workplace injury and layoff.

Cynthia Gaddis, 35, lives in an encampment in Nashville.

Levon Higgins lost his housing after expensive surgery. He lives in a shelter, sharing a room with dozens of men.

Every night, some 445,000 Americans stay in shelters like the one where he sleeps.

By Matthew Desmond Photographs by Adam Pape

The shelter comes after it all. After the pawnship and plasma donation. After the diagnosis, the divorce, the eviction, the relapse. After the final family member …

The shelter comes after it all. After the pawnship and plasma donation. After the diagnosis, the divorce, the eviction, the relapse. After the final family member says no. Emergency shelters provide a place to sleep — even if only a mat on a floor — and meals. At some, you can get clean socks, a haircut, a tooth pulled, even therapy. The shelter represents the last stop from the bottom, a bulwark from the street, but it can also represent a chance: to leave your abuser, to earn your G.E.D., to make a new start. Homelessness is highest in cities with exorbitant rents, but small cities and rural communities are not shielded from the housing crisis. Some small towns have eviction rates that rival those of big cities. Because rural America lacks many social services, like free clinics, soup kitchens and shelters, the rural homeless often make their way to places like the Water Street Mission . A Christian rescue mission in Lancaster, Pa., a city of roughly 57,000, it has been serving the hungry and homeless since 1917. We spoke with several people staying at the Water Street Mission, some of whom were there for the first time and some who had sought refuge there many times before.

James Costello

Because there is no single agency or governmental organization that oversees America’s shelter system, shelters can vary as much in funding — some private, some religious, some public — as in the kinds of services and amenities they offer.

James Costello, 58, lost a leg to diabetes complications, then his job and housing soon after : When I first came here, we were sleeping on the chapel floor here on “boats.” They were like hard things, maybe about a foot high. And you threw a mat on it and that was what we slept on. And they said: “This is not good for the people. They’re losing dignity.” That’s the one thing here. They want you to have dignity; you’ve lost everything else. So they don’t want to take that from you either. Yeah, you’re in your room with 45 other guys, but you still feel like a person. You don’t feel like cattle being shoved in and shoved out of a room.

Tamekia Gibbs, 48, arrived at Water Street after surviving domestic violence : Knowing that you have a place to lay your head and knowing you’ll have food in your mouth, that’s a good thing. It’s everything else that comes along with it, especially if you’ve never been in that predicament — sleeping in a room full of women, you just never know how strange, how stressful that is. You have to get used to different things. You got to get used to having to get used to it.

Shawna, 44, is recovering from an addiction and has been in and out of homelessness for over a decade : You don’t have to go, “Well, why are they throwing God in my face all the time?” Just sit down, listen. Maybe that lesson was meant for you and that’s why you’re getting mad. I just go, I listen. If it’s for me, I sit and listen. If not, I play with something on my phone.

The resources dedicated to helping people who have lost stable housing in rural communities are more limited, but the causes are often the same as in major cities.

Levon Higgins, 50, has been staying at Water Street for the last six months : I just couldn’t afford to live where I was. Rent went up to $1,500 a month. For a two-bedroom. I just couldn’t do it. When the pandemic first started, I had a savings account, had a SIMPLE I.R.A. Over the past year, things just got worse. Your rent just keeps going up and going up and going up.

Shawna : This is my fifth or sixth time back. This time I decided to come back just so I could get away from my drug of choice and being out on the street and not feeling safe. My daughter came here after me. This would be her second time back with my grandbabies. We stayed here a couple of times together when it was just me and her. It’s just like I’m reliving everything over again. I know something has to change.

Tamekia Gibbs : I endured a lot of physical, emotional and mental abuse. I just got to the point where I lost me completely in that relationship. I said: “This is enough. I got to find somewhere else to go.” So when I did that, of course, it got physical because they didn't want me to leave. I had my son come get me and I took what I could carry. And I’ve been homeless ever since.

Tamekia Gibbs

Rob Travis Jackson

Securing a spot in a shelter isn’t always straightforward: There are far fewer beds available than people who need them . And for those who get in, adjusting to life in the shelter is its own process.

Evelyn, 39, is a mother of two staying in the family section of the mission : When I first got here, I was so mad, so angry, so hurt that I was even put in this position. To be a single mom and have two kids and be out on the streets, it’s very worrisome because they tell you if you don’t have a place, then C.Y.S. [Children and Youth Services] can take your children. Even going to them for help it was like: “Well, if you don't have a place, then we can’t do anything for you. But legally we can take your children.” And it was like: “No, I don’t think so. You’re not taking my children.” So I was scurrying around trying to find shelter for them.

Jennifer Berrie, 45, was staying in an overnight-only shelter before Water Street : I miss little things you don't even think of. People complain like I used to about cooking, but then you can’t do it for a while and you miss it. Going to bed when you want, not having a curfew, just, you know, living your life. The freedom.

Tamekia Gibbs : There are the ladies that are talking about each other. They’re just doing a lot of backbiting, and when you have that in a community, it causes a lot of friction and tension. I try to stay away from it, I hunker down, do what I’m supposed to in my classes. I stay busy. I tell the ladies: “I came here broken. If I can do it, you can do it.”

In addition to addressing the housing crisis and deepening investments in mental health and drug treatment services, the residents of Water Street believe it is critical to treat people in their situation with dignity and empathy.

James Costello : This is a human condition. Humans have to solve it. Politics can't do that. And that’s the main problem. With the government it is not going to happen. They’re always going to be wanting money. “Where are we going to get the biggest buck?” And as long as that goes on, this problem is going to get worse.

Rob Travis Jackson, 59, became homeless after a financially draining divorce : It’s a little scary to think about what life might be like for any of us after we leave Water Street. If you’re here for a year, you’ve had three meals and three hot meals available through the seasons of the year. And what does my life look like after I leave?

Levon Higgins : Some people who come across hard times, it’s because they maybe lost a job or some mental issues that happened. But that’s not how the world sees it. When they see, they automatically assume: “He’s a drug addict. He’s an alcoholic. They don't want to work. They don't want to do nothing.” And that can’t be further from the truth. They just want some help. People get scared to ask for help because they’ve been denied so many times.

Scroll to read what people who are living through homelessness actually want.

If you were in charge, what would you do to stop homelessness?

Clyde Hohn, 52, lives in an encampment in Nashville.

Layla, 9, a fourth grader who is navigating homelessness with her mom and three siblings.

Frankey Daniels, 32, lives out of his car in Los Angeles, where he also works two jobs.

Tamekia Gibbs, 48, hasn’t had stable housing since 2016.

We kept in touch with some of the people we met through our reporting. During the months of producing this project, we heard about their triumphs and their setbacks. Fred Moore was on the verge of receiving Section 8 housing when we met him in Nashville. After 12 years of homelessness, he moved in last September. “I’m still not adjusted to it. I’m like a baby in a crib. It seems easier, but really it’s a lot harder,” he said recently. “At the apartment, I get cabin fever staying in it so much. I miss being outside a lot because you get fresh air. It gets summer time, I might throw up a tent around town and stay there a few days out of the week. It’s hard to pull away from this kind of life, being homeless.”

In October, after Mr. Moore moved into his apartment, the encampment where he had lived was razed by the city. That same month, Nashville provided transitional or permanent housing to 191 people who were once on the street— and 373 people became newly unhoused.

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