critical thinking skills and learning styles

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• J Adv Med Educ Prof
• v.2(3); 2014 Jul

The role of critical thinking skills and learning styles of university students in their academic performance

Zohre ghazivakili.

1 Emergency medical services department, Paramedical school, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran;

ROOHANGIZ NOROUZI NIA

2 Educational Development Center, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran;

FARIDE PANAHI

3 Nursing and midwifery school, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran;

MEHRDAD KARIMI

4 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Public Health School, Tehran, Iran;

HAYEDE GHOLSORKHI

5 Medical school, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran;

ZARRIN AHMADI

6 Amirkabir University of Technology(Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran

Introduction: The Current world needs people who have a lot of different abilities such as cognition and application of different ways of thinking, research, problem solving, critical thinking skills and creativity. In addition to critical thinking, learning styles is another key factor which has an essential role in the process of problem solving. This study aimed to determine the relationship between learning styles and critical thinking of students and their academic performance in Alborz University of Medical Science.

Methods: This cross-correlation study was performed in 2012, on 216 students of Alborz University who were selected randomly by the stratified random sampling. The data was obtained via a three-part questionnaire included demographic data, Kolb standardized questionnaire of learning style and California critical thinking standardized questionnaire. The academic performance of the students was extracted by the school records. The validity of the instruments was determined in terms of content validity, and the reliability was gained through internal consistency methods. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was found to be 0.78 for the California critical thinking questionnaire. The Chi Square test, Independent t-test, one way ANOVA and Pearson correlation test were used to determine relationship between variables. The Package SPSS14 statistical software was used to analyze data with a significant level of p<0.05.

Results: Our findings indicated the significant difference of mean score in four learning style, suggesting university students with convergent learning style have better performance than other groups. Also learning style had a relationship with age, gender, field of study, semester and job. The results about the critical thinking of the students showed that the mean of deductive reasoning and evaluation skills were higher than that of other skills and analytical skills had the lowest mean and there was a positive significant relationship between the students’ performance with inferential skill and the total score of critical thinking skills (p<0.05). Furthermore, evaluation skills and deductive reasoning had significant relationship. On the other hand, the mean total score of critical thinking had significant difference between different learning styles.

Conclusion: The results of this study showed that the learning styles, critical thinking and academic performance are significantly associated with one another. Considering the growing importance of critical thinking in enhancing the professional competence of individuals, it's recommended to use teaching methods consistent with the learning style because it would be more effective in this context.

Introduction

The current world needs people with a lot of capabilities such as understanding and using different ways of thinking, research, problem solving, critical thinking and creativity. Critical thinking is one of the aspects of thinking that has been accepted as a way to overcome the difficulties and to facilitate the access to information in life ( 1 ).

To Watson and Glizer, critical thinking is a combination of knowledge, attitude, and performance of every individual. They also believe that there are some skills of critical thinking such as perception, assumption recognition deduction, interpretation and evaluation of logical reasoning. They argue that the ability of critical thinking, processing and evaluation of previous information with new information result from inductive and deductive reasoning of solving problems. Watson and Glizer definition of critical thinking has been the basis of critical thinking tests that are widely used to measure the critical thinking today ( 2 ).

World Federation for Medical Education has considered critical thinking one of the medical training standards so that in accredited colleges this subject is one of the key points. In fact, one of the criteria for the accreditation of a learning institute is the measurement of critical thinking in its students ( 3 ).

In addition to critical thinking, learning style, i.e. the information processing method, of the learners, is an important key factor that has a major role in problem solving. According to David Kolb’s theory, learning is a four-step process that includes concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. This position represents two dimensions: concrete experience versus abstract thinking, and reflective observation to active experimentation. These dimensions include four learning styles: divergent, convergent, assimilate, and accommodate. According to Kolb and Ferry, the learner needs four different abilities to function efficiently: Learning styles involve several variables such as academic performance of learner, higher education improvement; critical thinking and problem solving ( 4 ).

Due to the importance of learning styles and critical thinking in students' academic performance, a large volume of educational research has been devoted to these issues in different countries. Demirhan, Besoluk and Onder (2011) in their study on critical thinking and students’ academic performance from the first semester to two years later have found that contrary to expectations the students’ critical thinking level reduced but the total mean of students’ scores increased. This is due to the fact that the students are likely to increase adaptive behavior with environment and university and reduce the stress during their education ( 1 ).

In another study over 330 students in Turkey, the students who had divergent learning style, had lower scores in critical thinking in contrast with students who have accommodator learning style ( 5 ).

Also Mahmoud examined the relationship between critical thinking and learning styles of the Bachelor students with their academic performance in 2012. In this study all the nursing students of the university in the semesters four, six and eight were studied. The results did not show any significant relationship between critical thinking and learning styles of nursing students with their academic performance ( 6 ).

Another research by Nasrabadi in 2012 showed a positive relationship between critical thinking attitudes and student's academic achievement. The results showed that there was a significant difference between the levels of critical thinking of assimilating and converge styles. Also converging, diverging, assimilating and accommodating styles had the highest level of critical thinking, respectively ( 4 ). Among other studies we can refer to Sharma’s study in 2011 whose results suggested a relationship between the academic performance and learning styles ( 7 ).

Today university students should not only think but also should think differently and should not only remember the knowledge in their mind but also should research the best learning style among different learning styles. Therefore, the study on the topic of how the students think and how they learn has received great emphasis in recent years. In this regard, with the importance of the subject, researchers attempted to doa research in this area to determine the relationship between critical thinking and learning styles with academic performance of the students at Alborz University of Medical Sciences.

This study is a descriptive-analytic, cross sectional study and investigates the relationship between critical thinking and learning styles with students’ academic performance of Alborz University of Medical Science in 2012. After approval and permission from university’s authorities and in coordination with official faculties, the critical thinking and learning styles questionnaire was given to the undergraduate students in associate degree, bachelor, medicine (second semester and after that). The total number of participants in the study was 216 students with different majors such as medical, nursing and midwifery, and health and medical emergency students. The tool to collect the data was a two-part questionnaire of Kolb's learning styles and California's critical thinking skills test (form B). The Kolb's questionnaire has two parts. The first part asks for demographic information and the second part includes 12 multiple choice questions. The participants respond to the questions with regard to how they learn, and the scores of respondents are ranked from 1 to 4 in which 4 is most consistent with the participants’ learning style 3 to some extent, 2 poorly consistent and 1 not consistent To find the participants’ learning styles, the first choice of all 12 questions were added together and this was repeated for other choices. Thus, four total scores for the four learning styles were obtained, the first for concrete experience learning style, the second for reflective observation of learning style, the third for abstract conceptualization learning style and the forth for active experimentation learning style. The highest score determined the learning style of the participant. The California critical thinking skills test (form B) includes 34 multiple choice questions with one correct answer in five different areas of critical thinking skills, including evaluation, inference, analysis, inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. The answering time was 45 minutes and the final score is 34 and the achieved score in each section of the test varies from 0 to 16. In the evaluation section, the maximum point is 14, in analysis section 9, in inference section 11, in inductive reasoning 16 and in deductive reasoning the maximum point was 14. So there were 6 scores for each participant, which included a critical thinking total score and 5 score for critical thinking skills. Dehghani, Jafari Sani, Pakmehr and Malekzadeh found that the reliability of the questionnaire was 78% in a research. In the study of Khalili et al., the confidence coefficient was 62% and construct validity of all subscales with positive and high correlation were reported between 60%-65%. So this test was reliable for the research. Collecting the information was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, the questionnaires were given to the students and the objectives and importance of the research were mentioned. In the next stage, the students' academic performance was reviewed. After data collection, the data were coded and analyzed, using the SPSS 14 ( SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL, USA) software. To describe the data, descriptive statistics were used such as mean and standard deviation for continues variables and frequency for qualitative variables. Chi Square test, Independent t-test, one way ANOVA and Pearson correlation test were used to determine the relationship between variables at a significant level of p<0.05.

Research hypothesis

• There is a relationship between Alborz University of Medical Sciences students’ learning styles and their demographic information. 
• There is a relationship between Alborz University of Medical Sciences students’ critical thinking and their demographic information. 
• There is a relationship between Alborz University of Medical Sciences students’ academic performance and their demographic information. 
• There is a relationship between Alborz University of Medical Sciences students’ learning styles and their academic performance. 
• There is a relationship between Alborz University of Medical Sciences students’ learning styles and their critical thinking. 

225 questionnaires were distributed of which 216 were completely responded (96%). The age range of the participants was from 16 to 45 with the mean age of (22.44±3.7). 52.8% of participants (n=114) were female, 83.3% (n=180) were single, 30.1% of participants’ (n=65) major was pediatric anesthesiology of OR, 35.2% of participants (n=76) were in fourth semester, 74.5% (n=161) were unemployed and 48.6 % (n=105) had Persian ethnicity.

The range of participants’ average grade points, which were considered as their academic performance, were from 12.51 to 19.07 with a mean of (16.75±1.3). According to Kolbs' pattern, 42.7% (n=85) had the convergent learning style (the maximum percentage) followed by 33.2 % (n= 66) with the assimilating style and only 9.5%, (n= 19) with the accommodating style (the minimum percentage).

Among the 5 critical thinking skills, the maximum mean score belonged to deductive reasoning skill (3.38±1.58) and the minimum mean score belonged to analysis skill (1.67±1.08).

Table 1 shows the frequency distribution and demographic variables and the academic performance of the students. According to the Chi-square (Χ 2 ) p-value, there was a significant relationship between gender and learning style (p=0.032), so that nearly 50 percent of males had the assimilating learning style and nearly 52 percent of the females had the convergent learning style.

The relationship between demographic variable and student’s academic performance with learning styles

The relationship between employment, major and semester of studying with the learning style was significant at a p-value of 0.049, 0.006, 0.009 and 0.001, respectively. The mean and standard deviation of age and students' academic performance in the four learning styles are reported in Table 1 .

Using the one way analysis of variance (One way ANOVA) and comparing the mean age of four groups, we found a significant relation between age and academic performance with learning style (p=0.049).

The students with convergent learning style had a better academic performance than those with other learning styles and in the performance of those with the assimilating learning style the weakest.

Table 2 shows the relationship between the total score of critical thinking skills and each of the demographic variables and academic performance. The results of the t-test and one way ANOVA variance analysis are reported to investigate the relationship between each variable with skills below the mean standard deviation.

Relationships between CCT Skills and demographic variables Using t-test and ANOVA. Pearson Correlation coefficient between age and Student's performance with CCT Skills was reported

* Significant in surface 0.05 

** Significant in surface 0.01

Based on the t-test and ANOVA, p-value of t and F, the mean of total score of critical thinking skills had only significant relationship with students’ major (p=0.020). Also a significant relationship was found between the major of students and gender with inference skill; semester of study with deductive reasoning skill, and ethnicity with 2 skills of inference and deductive reasoning (p<0.05).

Also regarding the relationship between age and the student academic performance with each of the critical thinking skills, the Pearson correlation coefficient results indicated a significant positive relationship but a negative relationship between age and analysis skill, i.e. with the increase of age, the score of analysis skill was reduced (p<0.05). Academic performance of the students had a direct significant relationship with critical thinking total score and inference skill; the more the score, the better the academic performance of students (p<0.05).

Table 3 shows the mean and standard deviation of learning styles score in the 4 groups of learning style. Using ANOVA one way ANOVA, the relationship between learning style and critical thinking skills and the comparison of the mean score for each skill in four styles are reported in the last column of the Table 3 .

The Relationship between critical thinking styles with learning styles

Based on the p-value of ANOVA, the mean of evaluation skill and inductive reasoning skill had a significant difference and the relationship between these two skills with learning style was significant (p<0.05). Also the mean of critical thinking’s total score was significantly different in the four groups and the relationship between total score with learning style was significant, too (p<0.05).

The mean and confidence interval of university students’ performance in four learning  styles

The mean and confidene interval of critical thinking skills

The study findings showed that the popular learning style among the students was the convergent style followed by the assimilating style which is consistent with Kolb's theory stating that medical science students usually have this learning style ( 8 ). This result was consistent with the results of other studies ( 9 , 10 ). In Yenice's study in which the student of training teacher were the target of the project, the most frequent learning styles were divergent and assimilating styles and these differences originate from the different target group of study in 2012 ( 11 ).

This study showed a significant relationship between learning style and gender, age, semester and employment. Meyari et al. did not find any significant relationship between learning style, age and gender of the freshman but for the fifth semester students, a significant relationship with age and gender was found ( 10 ). Also in Yenice's study, no relationship with learning style, gender, semester and age was found.

Furthermore, in the first semester divergent style, in the second semester assimilating style and in the third and fourth semester divergent style were accounted for the highest percentage. Also in the group age of 17-20 years the assimilating style and the age of 21-24 years the divergent style were dominant styles ( 11 ).

In the present study, it was found a significant positive relationship between convergent learning style and academic performance. Also in the study of Pooladi et al. the majority of the students had convergent style and they also found a significant relationship between learning style, total mean score and the mean of practical courses ( 12 ). Nasrabadi et al. found that students with the highest achievement were those with convergent style with a significant difference with those with divergent style ( 4 ). But the results are inconsistent to Meyari et al.’s ( 10 ).

In this study, the obtained mean score from the critical thinking questionnaire was (7.15±2.41) that was compared with that in the study of Khalili and Hoseinzadeh which was to validate and make reliable the critical thinking skills questionnaire of California (form B) in the Iranian nursing students; the mean of total score was about the 11th percentile of this study ( 13 ).

In other words, the computed score for critical thinking of the students participating was lower than 11 score that is in the 50th percentile and of course is lower than normal range.

Hariri and Bagherinezhad had shown that the computed score for Bachelor and Master students of Health faculty was also lower than the norm in Iran ( 14 ). Also Mayer and Dayer came to a similar conclusion in critical thinking skill in the Agricultural university of Florida’s students in 2006 ( 15 ).

But in Gharib et al.’s study, the total score of critical thinking test among the freshman and senior of Health-care management was in normal range ( 16 ). Wangensteen et al., found that the critical thinking skills of the newest graduate nursing students were relatively high in Sweden in 2010 ( 17 ).

In this study, students of all levels (Associate, Bachelor and PhD) with various fields of study participated but other studies have been limited to certain graduate courses that may explain the differences in levels of special critical thinking skills score in this study. In this study we found a significant relationship between total score of critical thinking and major of the students. This result is consistent with Serin et al. ( 18 ).

It was found a significant relationship between major of participants, gender and inference skill, semester and deductive reasoning skill, ethnicity and both inference and deductive reasoning skills.

In the Yenice's study significant relationship between critical thinking, group of age, gender and semester was seen ( 11 ). In Wangensteen et al.’s ( 17 ) study in the older age group, the level of critical thinking score increased. In Serin et al.’s ( 18 ) study the level of communication skills in girls was better than that in boys. And also a significant relationship was found between critical thinking and academic semester, but in Mayer and Dayer’s study no significant relationship between critical thinking levels and gender was found ( 4 , 15 ).

The results also showed that the total score of critical thinking and analytical skills of students and their performance had a significant relationship. Nasrabady et al.’s study also showed that there was a positive relationship between critical thinking reflection attitude and academic achievement ( 4 ). This is contradictory with what Demirhan, Bosluk and Ander found ( 6 , 15 ).

The results of the relationship between learning style and critical thinking indicated that the relationship between evaluation and inductive reasoning was significant to learning style (p<0.05). The relationship of critical thinking total score with learning style was also significant (p<0.05). Thus the total score for those with the conforming style of critical skills was more than that with other styles. But in the subgroup of inference skills, those with the convergent style had a higher mean than those with other styles.

Yenice found a negative relationship between critical thinking score and divergent learning style and a positive relation between critical thinking score and accommodating style ( 11 ).

Siriopoulos and Pomonis in their study compared the learning style and critical thinking skills of students in two phases: at the beginning and end of education and came to this conclusion that the learning style of students changed in the second phase.

For example, the divergent, convergent and accommodating styles languished and the assimilating style (combination of abstract thinking and reflective observation) was noticeably strengthened. However, those with converging learning style had higher levels of critical thinking.

The level of students’ critical thinking was lower in all international standards styles. Perhaps it was because of widely used teacher-centered teaching methods (lectures) in that university ( 19 ).

The results in the study of Nasrabady et al. showed that there was a significant difference between the level of learners’ critical thinking and divergent and assimilating styles ( 4 ).

Those with converging, diverging, assimilating and accommodating styles had the highest level of critical thinking, respectively.

Also there was a positive significant relationship between the reflective observation method and critical thinking and also a negative significant relationship between the abstract conceptualization method and critical thinking ( 4 ). But in another study that Mahmud has done in 2012, he did not find any significant relationship between learning style, critical thinking and students’ performance ( 6 ).

The results of this study showed that the students’ critical thinking skills of this university aren't acceptable. Also learning styles, critical thinking and academic performance have significant relationship with each other. Due to the important role of critical thinking in enhancing professional competence, it is recommend using teaching methods which are consistent with the learning styles.

Acknowledgment

This study is based on a research project that was approved in Research Deputy of Alborz University of Medical sciences. We sincerely appreciate all in Research Deputy of Alborz University of Medical sciences who supported us financially and morally and all students and colleagues who participated in this study.

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

References:

• Corpus ID: 9862155

The role of critical thinking skills and learning styles of university students in their academic performance

• Z. Ghazivakili , Roohangiz Norouzi Nia , +3 authors Z. Ahmadi
• Published in Journal of Advances in… 1 July 2014

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What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally, understanding the logical connection between ideas.  Critical thinking has been the subject of much debate and thought since the time of early Greek philosophers such as Plato and Socrates and has continued to be a subject of discussion into the modern age, for example the ability to recognise fake news .

Critical thinking might be described as the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking.

In essence, critical thinking requires you to use your ability to reason. It is about being an active learner rather than a passive recipient of information.

Critical thinkers rigorously question ideas and assumptions rather than accepting them at face value. They will always seek to determine whether the ideas, arguments and findings represent the entire picture and are open to finding that they do not.

Critical thinkers will identify, analyse and solve problems systematically rather than by intuition or instinct.

Someone with critical thinking skills can:

Understand the links between ideas.

Determine the importance and relevance of arguments and ideas.

Recognise, build and appraise arguments.

Identify inconsistencies and errors in reasoning.

Approach problems in a consistent and systematic way.

Reflect on the justification of their own assumptions, beliefs and values.

Critical thinking is thinking about things in certain ways so as to arrive at the best possible solution in the circumstances that the thinker is aware of. In more everyday language, it is a way of thinking about whatever is presently occupying your mind so that you come to the best possible conclusion.

Critical Thinking is:

A way of thinking about particular things at a particular time; it is not the accumulation of facts and knowledge or something that you can learn once and then use in that form forever, such as the nine times table you learn and use in school.

The Skills We Need for Critical Thinking

The skills that we need in order to be able to think critically are varied and include observation, analysis, interpretation, reflection, evaluation, inference, explanation, problem solving, and decision making.

Specifically we need to be able to:

Think about a topic or issue in an objective and critical way.

Identify the different arguments there are in relation to a particular issue.

Evaluate a point of view to determine how strong or valid it is.

Recognise any weaknesses or negative points that there are in the evidence or argument.

Notice what implications there might be behind a statement or argument.

Provide structured reasoning and support for an argument that we wish to make.

The Critical Thinking Process

You should be aware that none of us think critically all the time.

Sometimes we think in almost any way but critically, for example when our self-control is affected by anger, grief or joy or when we are feeling just plain ‘bloody minded’.

On the other hand, the good news is that, since our critical thinking ability varies according to our current mindset, most of the time we can learn to improve our critical thinking ability by developing certain routine activities and applying them to all problems that present themselves.

Once you understand the theory of critical thinking, improving your critical thinking skills takes persistence and practice.

Try this simple exercise to help you to start thinking critically.

Think of something that someone has recently told you. Then ask yourself the following questions:

Who said it?

Someone you know? Someone in a position of authority or power? Does it matter who told you this?

What did they say?

Did they give facts or opinions? Did they provide all the facts? Did they leave anything out?

Where did they say it?

Was it in public or in private? Did other people have a chance to respond an provide an alternative account?

When did they say it?

Was it before, during or after an important event? Is timing important?

Why did they say it?

Did they explain the reasoning behind their opinion? Were they trying to make someone look good or bad?

How did they say it?

Were they happy or sad, angry or indifferent? Did they write it or say it? Could you understand what was said?

What are you Aiming to Achieve?

One of the most important aspects of critical thinking is to decide what you are aiming to achieve and then make a decision based on a range of possibilities.

Once you have clarified that aim for yourself you should use it as the starting point in all future situations requiring thought and, possibly, further decision making. Where needed, make your workmates, family or those around you aware of your intention to pursue this goal. You must then discipline yourself to keep on track until changing circumstances mean you have to revisit the start of the decision making process.

However, there are things that get in the way of simple decision making. We all carry with us a range of likes and dislikes, learnt behaviours and personal preferences developed throughout our lives; they are the hallmarks of being human. A major contribution to ensuring we think critically is to be aware of these personal characteristics, preferences and biases and make allowance for them when considering possible next steps, whether they are at the pre-action consideration stage or as part of a rethink caused by unexpected or unforeseen impediments to continued progress.

The more clearly we are aware of ourselves, our strengths and weaknesses, the more likely our critical thinking will be productive.

The Benefit of Foresight

Perhaps the most important element of thinking critically is foresight.

Almost all decisions we make and implement don’t prove disastrous if we find reasons to abandon them. However, our decision making will be infinitely better and more likely to lead to success if, when we reach a tentative conclusion, we pause and consider the impact on the people and activities around us.

The elements needing consideration are generally numerous and varied. In many cases, consideration of one element from a different perspective will reveal potential dangers in pursuing our decision.

For instance, moving a business activity to a new location may improve potential output considerably but it may also lead to the loss of skilled workers if the distance moved is too great. Which of these is the more important consideration? Is there some way of lessening the conflict?

These are the sort of problems that may arise from incomplete critical thinking, a demonstration perhaps of the critical importance of good critical thinking.

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In Summary:

Critical thinking is aimed at achieving the best possible outcomes in any situation. In order to achieve this it must involve gathering and evaluating information from as many different sources possible.

Critical thinking requires a clear, often uncomfortable, assessment of your personal strengths, weaknesses and preferences and their possible impact on decisions you may make.

Critical thinking requires the development and use of foresight as far as this is possible. As Doris Day sang, “the future’s not ours to see”.

Implementing the decisions made arising from critical thinking must take into account an assessment of possible outcomes and ways of avoiding potentially negative outcomes, or at least lessening their impact.

• Critical thinking involves reviewing the results of the application of decisions made and implementing change where possible.

It might be thought that we are overextending our demands on critical thinking in expecting that it can help to construct focused meaning rather than examining the information given and the knowledge we have acquired to see if we can, if necessary, construct a meaning that will be acceptable and useful.

After all, almost no information we have available to us, either externally or internally, carries any guarantee of its life or appropriateness.  Neat step-by-step instructions may provide some sort of trellis on which our basic understanding of critical thinking can blossom but it doesn’t and cannot provide any assurance of certainty, utility or longevity.

Continue to: Critical Thinking and Fake News Critical Reading

See also: Analytical Skills Understanding and Addressing Conspiracy Theories Introduction to Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)

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The Relationship Between Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Styles and Academic Achievement of Nursing Students

Affiliation.

• 1 PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
• PMID: 30676427
• PMCID: PMC6641090
• DOI: 10.1097/jnr.0000000000000307

Background: Academic achievement is one of the most important indicators in evaluating education. Various factors are known to affect the academic achievement of students.

Purpose: This study was performed to assess the relationship between critical thinking skills and learning styles and the academic achievement of nursing students.

Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 139 sophomores to senior-year nursing students were selected using a simple random sampling method. The data were gathered using a three-part questionnaire that included a demographic questionnaire, the Kolb's Learning Style Standard Questionnaire, and the California Critical Thinking Skills Questionnaire. The previous semester's grade point average of the students was considered as a measure of academic achievement. The data were analyzed using descriptive and analytical statistics in SPSS 20.

Results: The mean score for critical thinking skills was 6.75 ± 2.16, and the highest and lowest scores among the critical thinking subscales related to the evaluation and analysis subscales, respectively. No relationship between critical thinking and academic achievement was identified. "Diverging" was the most common learning style. The highest mean level of academic achievement was earned by those students who adopted the "accommodating" style of learning. A significant relationship was found between learning style and academic achievement (p < .001).

Conclusions: According to the findings, the critical thinking skills score of students was unacceptably low. Therefore, it is essential to pay more attention to improving critical thinking in academic lesson planning. As a significant relationship was found between learning style and academic achievement, it is suggested that instructors consider the dominant style of each class in lesson planning and use proper teaching methods that take into consideration the dominant style.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Cite this article as: Shirazi, F., & Heidari, S. (2019). The relationship between critical thinking skills and learning styles and academic achievement of nursing students. The Journal of Nursing Research , 27 (4), e38. https://doi.org/10.1097/jnr.0000000000000307

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The Relationship Between Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Styles and Academic Achievement of Nursing Students

Shirazi, Fatemeh; Heidari, Shiva 2∗

1 PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

2 MSN, Instructor, Department of Nursing, Urmia Branch, Islamic Azad University, Urmia, Iran.

Accepted for publication: July 10, 2018

∗Address correspondence to: Shiva HEIDARI, Urmia Islamic Azad University, Urmia-Salmas Rd., Urmia City, West Azerbaijan Province 57169-63896, Iran. Tel: +98 91 43458284; Fax: +98 44 32622738; E-mail: [email protected]

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.Cite this article as: Shirazi, F., & Heidari, S. (2019). The relationship between critical thinking skills and learning styles and academic achievement of nursing students. The Journal of Nursing Research , 27 (4), e38. https://doi.org/10.1097/jnr.0000000000000307

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CCBY) , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Background: 

Academic achievement is one of the most important indicators in evaluating education. Various factors are known to affect the academic achievement of students.

Purpose: 

This study was performed to assess the relationship between critical thinking skills and learning styles and the academic achievement of nursing students.

Methods: 

In this cross-sectional study, 139 sophomores to senior-year nursing students were selected using a simple random sampling method. The data were gathered using a three-part questionnaire that included a demographic questionnaire, the Kolb's Learning Style Standard Questionnaire, and the California Critical Thinking Skills Questionnaire. The previous semester's grade point average of the students was considered as a measure of academic achievement. The data were analyzed using descriptive and analytical statistics in SPSS 20.

Results: 

The mean score for critical thinking skills was 6.75 ± 2.16, and the highest and lowest scores among the critical thinking subscales related to the evaluation and analysis subscales, respectively. No relationship between critical thinking and academic achievement was identified. “Diverging” was the most common learning style. The highest mean level of academic achievement was earned by those students who adopted the “accommodating” style of learning. A significant relationship was found between learning style and academic achievement ( p < .001).

Conclusions: 

According to the findings, the critical thinking skills score of students was unacceptably low. Therefore, it is essential to pay more attention to improving critical thinking in academic lesson planning. As a significant relationship was found between learning style and academic achievement, it is suggested that instructors consider the dominant style of each class in lesson planning and use proper teaching methods that take into consideration the dominant style.

Introduction

Academic achievement is crucial to the future success of students, and lack of attention to this basic issue and subsequent academic failure may cause a decrease in academic accomplishment and an increase in the costs of education ( Jayanthi, Balakrishnan, Ching, Latiff, & Nasirudeen, 2014 ). Academic achievement, the level to which students attain predetermined educational goals, depends on family and individual, socioeconomic, education, training, and psychological factors ( Farooq, Chaudhry, Shafiq, & Berhanu, 2011 ). Assessing these factors and determining the contribution of each to academic achievement are critical to developing strategies for identifying the factors that contribute to academic success and failure and help educational planners focus on promoting the positive factors and reducing the impact of negative factors ( Gordon, Williams, Hudson, & Stewart, 2010 ). Critical thinking is one of the contributing factors in academic achievement as well as an essential component in clinical decision making, nursing practice, and education ( Fero et al., 2010 ).

There are many reasons for nurses to learn critical thinking skills. The first reason is that thinking is the key component in problem solving, and nurses without these proficiencies become part of the problem. In addition, nurses should be capable of making major decisions independently and quickly in critical situations. Critical thinking skills enable them to identify essential data and distinguish between problems that require urgent intervention and those that are not life-threatening. Thus, nurses should be able to reflect on their actions and consider the possible consequences of each action to make precise and proper decisions ( Eslami & Maarefi, 2010 ).

Various investigations have suggested that it is necessary to design educational strategies that are based on student learning style to improve students' critical thinking. In addition to critical thinking, the learning styles of students are an important factor that plays a fundamental role in the process of problem solving and learning. Learning style describes the method used to process information, which differs from person to person. Identifying the methods that students use to process information and their learning styles allows educators to assist them to advance toward the higher goals of training and achieve broader critical thinking and problem-solving skills ( Lau & Yuen, 2010 ). Perhaps, the best definition of learning styles was provided by Kolb, who defined learning styles as an individual's method of emphasizing certain learning abilities over other abilities. Kolb's experiential learning theory is the result of the combination of three templates from the experiential learning process, including Lewin's practical and laboratory model, Dewey's learning model, and Piaget's pattern of learning and cognitive development. Kolb believed learning to be the result of resolving the conflicts among these three models ( Kolb & Kolb, 2005 ). Many studies have investigated the relationships between learning styles and other variables. The academic achievement of learners is one of the key variables to be studied with regard to its relationship with learning style ( Zainol Abidin, Rezaee, Abdullah, & Singh, 2011 ). Most of these studies have shown thinking to be the combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. This combination empowers thoughtful persons to become wiser and more competent in different sciences and technologies and, consequently, gives them momentum along the path to success ( Can, 2009 ). The study of Aripin, Mahmood, Rohaizad, Yeop, and Anuar (2008) showed that paying attention to students' learning styles and matching these with a learning framework significantly improved students' academic performance, whereas a mismatch between learning styles and curriculum reduced performance levels. Other studies that surveyed the relationship between critical thinking and its subdomains and different learning styles obtained different results ( Ghazivakili et al., 2014 ; Noohi, Salahi, & Sabzevari, 2014 ).

The review of studies highlighted conflicting results in the relationship between critical thinking, learning styles, and academic achievement. Some studies have emphasized a positive relationship ( Ashoori, 2014 ; Ghazivakili et al., 2014 ), whereas others have found a negative relationship ( Aghaei, Souri, & Ghanbari, 2012 ) or an absence of a significant relationship. These conflicting results may be caused by differences among individual student characteristics and their educational culture ( Abdollahi Adli Ansar, FathiAzar, & Abdollahi, 2015 ). On the basis of these differences in results and the diversity of students and educational systems in different academic contexts, this study was designed to determine the relationship between critical thinking skills and learning styles and the academic achievement of nursing students studying at Urmia Islamic Azad University.

In this cross-sectional study, 139 nursing students between their sophomore and senior years were selected randomly out of 360 nursing students studying at Islamic Azad University in Urmia, Iran. The students were divided into three groups according to their years of education, and each group was random sampled using a table of random numbers. The researcher delivered the questionnaires and consent forms to the selected students. After explaining how to answer the questions, the completed questionnaires were collected 2 days later. Data collection lasted from October to December 2015.

This study was approved by the research council and the ethics committee of the Urmia branch of Islamic Azad University, Urmia, Iran (Code: 27827). A three-part questionnaire was used for data collection. The first part of the questionnaire assessed demographic information such as age, marital status, and educational level. Besides that, the grade point average (GPA) of each student for the previous semester was recorded as a measure of academic achievement. The second part of the questionnaire was California Standardized Critical Thinking Skills Test, Form B, published by Facione and Facione in 1994 . This test contains 34 multiple (4–5)-choice questions with one correct answer each. These questions address the five domains of the cognitive skills of critical thinking (deductive, inductive, assessment, analysis, and inference). One score is assigned for each correct answer, and the total test score is obtained by summing the number of correct answers. The minimum and maximum possible scores are 0 and 34, respectively. The midpoint score of the scale is 15.98, indicating that lower scores represent relatively weak critical thinking and higher scores represent relatively strong critical thinking. The reliability of this questionnaire was reported as .86 by Hariri ( Hariri & Bagherinejad, 2012 ). In this study, the reliability of the test was checked using test–retest, with an earned score of .79.

The third part of the questionnaire was Kolb's Learning Styles Inventory, which includes 12 sentences. Each sentence includes four parts that respectively measure reflective observation, concrete experience, active experimentation, and abstract conceptualization. The four scores obtained from the sum of these four parts in the 12 questions of the questionnaire indicate the four styles of learning. Two scores are obtained from two-by-two subtraction of these styles, that is, the subtraction of abstract conceptualization from concrete experience and active experimentation from reflective observation. These two scores are placed on the axis, which constitutes the four quarters of a square, identified by the four learning styles as diverging, converging, assimilating, and accommodating ( Kolb & Kolb, 2005 ). Emamipour reported the alpha coefficients of abstract conceptualization, concrete experience, active experimentation, and reflective observation as .49, .51, .47, and .53, respectively ( Emamipour & Shams Esfandabad, 2007 ).

After collecting the completed questionnaires, the data were analyzed using SPSS software Version 20 with descriptive and analytical statistical tests such as Student t test, one-way analysis of variance, chi-square, and correlation test.

The data analysis showed that all of the participants were female, with a mean age of 21.88 ± 2.09 years and an age range of 19–29 years. Most (85.6%) were single ( Table 1 ). The mean GPA of the students was 15.78 ± 1.35, ranging from 12 to 18.79.

The mean score of critical thinking was 6.75 ± 2.16, and the highest and lowest mean critical thinking skill subdomain scores were for evaluation skill (6.75 ± 2.16) and analysis skill (1.58 ± 1.85), respectively. No significant relationship between critical thinking and academic achievement was found. Moreover, the critical thinking subdomains were not significantly related to academic achievement. In addition, no significant relationship was found between the total score and the subscales of critical thinking and marital status, age, or educational level. However, a significant relationship was found between the total score of critical thinking and educational level. Therefore, the senior students in this study earned a higher mean score for critical thinking than their lower-grade peers ( p = .04; Table 2 ).

Most participants (55.4%) used a “diverging” learning style, whereas 0.7% used a “converging” style. There was a significant relationship between learning styles and academic achievement, with academic achievement (represented by GPA) highest in the accommodating learning style subgroup followed by the diverging, converging, and assimilating learning-style subgroups.

Whereas no significant relationship was found between learning style and either age or educational level, a significant relationship was found between learning style and marital status ( Table 3 ).

Using one-way analysis of variance, the relationship between learning style and critical thinking skills and also the comparison of the mean score for each skill in four styles are reported in Table 4 . The findings showed no statistically significant relationship between learning style and critical thinking or its subscales ( Table 4 ).

Finally, a significant relationship was found between academic achievement and educational level, which meant that senior students had the highest level of academic achievement ( p = .01). However, academic achievement had no significant relationship with other variables such as age and marital status ( Table 5 ).

This study found no significant relationship between any of the demographic variables such as age and marital status and academic achievement. However, years of education were associated positively with academic achievement. This finding is consistent with that of Edraki, Rambod, and Abdoli (2011) . Fewer courses in higher academic grades, familiarization with the university atmosphere, and the stronger emphasis on clinical courses during the years of education may help students to effectively increase their GPA and improve their academic achievements.

The mean score for critical thinking in this study was 6.75 ± 2.16. Similar to the results of this study, Taghavi Larijani, Mardani Hmouleh, Rezaei, Ghadiriyan, and Rashidi (2014) reported a mean score for critical thinking of 9.33 ± 3.33. In addition, a study conducted in the United States found that most students earned relatively low scores for critical thinking ( Shinnick & Woo, 2013 ). On the contrary, a 2010 study in Norway found that participants earned good scores for critical thinking ( Wangensteen, Johansson, Björkström, & Nordström, 2010 ). Researchers believe that the multiple, intertwining factors involved in decreasing critical thinking scores include educational failure, focusing on rote memorization, presenting concepts in manners that do not require deep questioning/consideration, emphasis on multiple-choice examinations, lack of appropriate mental or psychological security for questioning and answering between the students and instructors, and poor development of critical thinking abilities ( Hosseini, 2009 ). The low critical thinking score of the students in this research as well as in other studies conducted in Iran compared with the scores of students in other countries suggests that current education methods in Iran do not effectively strengthen the critical thinking of students and thus should be revised ( Azodi, Jahanpoor, & Sharif, 2010 ).

In addition, in this study, the maximum and minimum subdomain scores for critical thinking were for assessment and analysis, respectively. Similarly, Ghazivakili et al. found that the minimum score for critical thinking was in the dimension of analysis ( Ghazivakili et al., 2014 ). On the basis of the findings of this study, no significant relationship was observed between the critical thinking and the academic achievement of the students, which is consistent with the results of Azodi et al. (2010) . Furthermore, the findings of Ghazivakili et al. suggested a relationship between critical thinking skills and the previous semester's GPA as a criterion for determining academic achievement. In the study of Ghazivakili et al., the mean GPA score of the students was increased by increasing the understanding skill of critical thinking ( Ghazivakili et al., 2014 ).

This study did not show any relationship between critical thinking and either age or marital status. However, Azodi et al.'s study showed a positive relationship between age and critical thinking ( Azodi et al., 2010 ). Age is an important demographic variable that is often correlated with critical thinking. This relationship is based on the assumption that critical thinking improves with age ( Babamohammadi, Esmaeilpour, Negarande, & Dehghan Nayeri, 2011 ).

The relationship between the total score for critical thinking and educational level was significant. Thus, the total score for critical thinking increased with the number of years of enrollment. However, no relationship was observed between the subdomains of critical thinking and educational level, which is consistent with the findings of Noohi et al. (2014) .

The results showed that diverging, assimilating, accommodating, and converging were, respectively, the most-to-least used learning styles of the participants in this study. This ranking of students' learning styles differs from those of other studies that were conducted domestically and outside Iran. Most participants adopted the assimilating learning style in the research of Tulbure (2012) , whereas Orhun (2012) found that most participants preferred the converging learning style. This variation may reflect differences in educational settings and/or educational methods.

It seems that the diverging learning style is more appropriate for the field of nursing due to the nature of the field and the career prospects of nursing and midwifery students ( Ahanchian, Mohamadzadeghasr, Garavand, & Hosseini, 2012 ). This learning style encourages students to be holistic and sociable; to use their ingenuity and thoughts in social situations and communication, especially with patients; and to be creative learners. These students develop and implement creative, workable, and effective solutions when dealing with complex patient issues and instill strong problem-solving capabilities. Thus, it is better to select those students who have diverging and accommodating learning styles for the field of nursing ( Mohammadi, Sayehmiri, Tavan, & Mohammadi, 2013 ).

In determining the relationship between learning style and academic achievement, the results showed a significant relationship between these two variables. Thus, the highest average of academic achievement was earned, in rank order, by students who used accommodating, diverging, converging, and assimilating learning styles. A relationship between learning styles and academic achievement has also been suggested by Ahadi, Abedsaidi, Arshadi, and Ghorbani (2010) and Ghazivakili et al. (2014) , but not by Farmanbar, Hosseinzadeh, Asadpoor, and Yeganeh (2013) . The accommodating learning style is created from the combination of active experimentation and concrete experience. Users of this style learn and enjoy through practical work, work on projects, and engage in new tasks and controversial experiences. Preferred methods for accommodators include role playing and computer simulations. Accommodators have a tendency to engage in experimental work and to use various methods to achieve a goal ( Pazargadi &Tahmasebi, 2010 ).

From the perspective of Kolb, learning style is a combination of cognitive, affective, and psychological properties. People advance their knowledge based on their learning style that has a significant role in their academic achievement. People have their own style of learning. Therefore, if the learning strategies of an individual match his or her learning style, performance is expected to improve ( Panahi, Kazemi, & Rezaie, 2012 ).

Comprehending the learning styles of students is crucial for teachers, because each learning style requires the provision of appropriate educational materials ( Gurpinar, Alimoglu, Mamakli, & Aktekin, 2010 ). The alignment of instructors' teaching styles to students' learning styles results in improved student understanding ( Mlambo, 2011 ).

In surveying the relationship between critical thinking and learning styles, the critical thinking score was not statistically different among the four learning-style groups. Nevertheless, the results showed that the mean scores for critical thinking skill were found, from highest to lowest, in the diverging, assimilating, accommodating, and converging learning-style groups. In terms of the subscales, the highest average score was “assessment” in the diverging style group. The results of Noohi et al. also showed a higher score for critical thinking among converging people than among assimilating, accommodating, and diverging people ( Noohi et al., 2014 ). Unlike the finding of this study, Ghazivakili et al. found that the total score of critical thinking differed among the four learning-style groups and that two of the subscales of critical thinking (evaluation and inductive reasoning) were positively related to learning styles ( Ghazivakili et al., 2014 ).

Whereas no significant relationship was observed between learning style and either age or educational level in this study, significant relationships were found in the study of Ghazivakili et al. (2014) . Furthermore, whereas both this study and Ahadi et al.'s (2010) study found a positive relationship between marital status and learning styles, Ghazivakili et al. reported no relationship with these two variables.

Conclusions

The findings show that the mean scores of critical thinking skills and its subdomains were low among the nursing students who were surveyed for this study. Some strategies that may be used to improve critical thinking in this population include frequent use of individual and group active learning strategies, empowering instructors to prepare tests that target high levels of cognitive domain and present probing questions, encouraging students and instructors to participate in problem analysis and discussions, providing different ideas and opinions, and promoting self-directed learning ( Shirazi, Sharif, Molazem, & Alborzi, 2016 ). It is hoped that the findings of this research attract the attention of instructors and managers regarding the importance of critical thinking evaluation in students. In addition, obtaining information about the dominant learning styles of students may encourage and enable nursing instructors to create appropriate learning environments and prepare the areas for academic achievement of the students. Learning outcomes improve when training matches the learning styles of the students.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the Research Department of Islamic Azad University, Urmia Branch, and all of the students who participated in this study. In addition, the authors wish to thank the Research Consultation Center at the Shiraz University of Medical Sciences for their invaluable assistance in editing this article.

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The role of critical thinking skills and learning styles of university students in their academic performance

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• Supporting Texas Students in Becoming Tech-Strong: Expert Strategies

by mdespain | Aug 22, 2024 | Blogs

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The rapidly evolving technological landscape means students must develop robust digital skills to thrive in future careers. Texas recognizes this through its substantial educational framework, the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for Technology Applications (TA-TEKS). These curriculum guidelines aim to equip students with the competencies required to navigate and innovate within the digital domain

Understanding the TA-TEKS

The TA-TEKS standards, established by the Texas Education Agency (TEA), outline the knowledge and skills students should acquire at each grade level. These standards encompass a wide range of technology applications, including digital literacy , computational thinking, and practical technology use. The ultimate goal of TA-TEKS is to ensure that students are not only consumers of technology but also adept creators and problem-solvers in a tech-centric world.

The TA-TEKS guidelines are structured around four strands: Foundations, Information Acquisition, Work in Solving Problems, and Communication. Each strand is designed to build on the previous one, creating a cohesive learning progression from kindergarten through high school. By the end of their K-12 education, students should possess a deep understanding of digital tools, cybersecurity, ethical use of technology, and the ability to apply technology in real-world scenarios.

Creating a Tech-Strong Education

In today’s rapidly evolving digital landscape, equipping Texas students with robust technological skills is essential for their future success. Strong technological proficiency not only enhances their employability but also fosters critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity. By integrating technology into the educational curriculum, schools can better prepare students to adapt to and excel in an ever-changing world, ensuring they are not just consumers of technology but also innovators who can contribute meaningfully to society.

Supporting schools in this endeavor requires a multifaceted approach, including up-to-date hardware and robust software, professional development, and communication. Here’s what to consider.

1. Integrate Technology Across the Curriculum

Integrating technology across multiple curriculum subjects significantly enhances students’ technological proficiency by embedding digital literacy into their everyday learning experiences. When technology is used not just in computer science classes but also in subjects like math, science, language arts, and social studies, students become more adept at using various tools and platforms to solve problems, conduct research, and present information. This interdisciplinary approach helps students see the relevance of technology in diverse fields, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of its applications and benefits. As they encounter and use technology in different contexts, they develop a more nuanced and versatile skill set that prepares them for the complexities of the modern workforce.

Technology integration across subjects also promotes critical thinking and creativity. For example, students can use data analysis software in science classes to interpret experimental results, digital storytelling tools in language arts to create engaging narratives, or simulation programs in social studies to explore historical events interactively. These experiences encourage students to think outside the box and approach problems from multiple angles. By collaborating on technology-driven projects, students also build essential soft skills such as teamwork, communication, and project management. This holistic approach not only strengthens their technical abilities but also cultivates a well-rounded, adaptable mindset that is crucial for thriving in a technology-driven world.

2. Provide Professional Development for Educators

Professional development for educators is crucial in fostering tech-strong students in Texas schools because it equips teachers with the knowledge and skills necessary to effectively integrate technology into their classrooms. This professional development should be not only for technology teachers, but for teachers across all disciplines. With the rapid advancement of digital tools and platforms, teachers must stay updated on the latest educational technologies to provide relevant and engaging learning experiences. 

Professional development programs offer training on how to use these tools, incorporate them into lesson plans, and address common challenges. By becoming proficient in technology, teachers can better facilitate student learning, guide digital projects, and inspire a culture of innovation and curiosity in their classrooms.

Training can include methods for differentiating instruction with technology, using data to inform teaching practices, and creating inclusive learning environments that support students with varying abilities and backgrounds. This is particularly important in a state as large and diverse as Texas, where schools serve students from a wide range of socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. By investing in professional development, Texas schools can ensure that teachers are prepared to harness the power of technology to enhance learning outcomes, close achievement gaps, and prepare all students for success in a digital world.

3. Foster a Growth Mindset

Fostering a growth mindset in education is essential for developing tech-strong students in Texas because it encourages resilience, adaptability, and a love of learning—all critical qualities in the ever-evolving field of technology. A growth mindset, as opposed to a fixed mindset, is the belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and hard work. When students embrace this mindset, they are more likely to tackle technological challenges with perseverance and creativity, viewing failures and setbacks as opportunities for growth rather than insurmountable obstacles. This attitude is particularly important in technology, where constant innovation and rapid changes require students to continuously learn and adapt.

Promoting a growth mindset also helps create an educational environment in which students feel confident exploring new technologies and experimenting with digital tools. When students understand that their abilities can improve over time with effort and practice, they are more likely to engage deeply with complex technological concepts and projects. This encourages a culture of innovation and experimentation, where students are not afraid to take risks and try new approaches.

In a diverse state like Texas, where students come from varied backgrounds and have different levels of access to technology, fostering a growth mindset ensures that all students, regardless of their starting point, believe in their potential to succeed in the tech world. This inclusive approach not only helps build a robust foundation of technological skills but also prepares students to be lifelong learners and problem-solvers in an increasingly digital society.

4. Ensure Access to Technology

Ensuring access to technology is integral to helping Texas students become tech-strong because it provides them with the tools and resources necessary for developing essential digital skills. By providing equitable access to computers, high-speed internet, and modern educational software, schools can ensure that all students, regardless of their socioeconomic background, have the opportunity to engage with and learn from these resources. This access enables students to complete assignments, conduct research, and collaborate on projects, thereby integrating technology into their everyday learning experiences and building their competency.

Equitable access to technology also helps to bridge the digital divide that can exacerbate educational inequalities. In states like Texas, disparities in technology access can create significant gaps in student achievement. Students from under-resourced communities may fall behind their peers if they lack the necessary tools to participate fully in a tech-driven curriculum. By investing in technology infrastructure and providing devices and internet access to all students, Texas schools can level the playing field, ensuring that every student has the chance to develop strong technological skills. This inclusivity is crucial for preparing a workforce that is well-versed in technology, capable of innovation, and ready to meet the demands of a rapidly changing digital landscape.

5. Choose the Right Technology Programs for Students

Choosing the right technology literacy programs for students is crucial for Texas schools aiming to create tech-strong students, and Learning.com’s TechApps for Texas stands out in this field. This comprehensive program is specifically designed to align with Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) standards, ensuring that it meets state educational requirements.

TechApps for Texas provides a structured curriculum that covers a wide range of digital literacy skills, from basic computer operations to more advanced topics such as coding, digital citizenship, and data analysis. By meeting 100% of K-8 TA-TEKS, this program ensures that students gain relevant and standardized technology education, preparing them effectively for both academic and professional success.

TechApps for Texas also offers flexibility and adaptability, which are critical for addressing the diverse needs of Texas schools. The program is designed to be used across various grade levels, allowing for a seamless integration of technology education from elementary through high school. This continuity ensures that students build upon their skills progressively, reinforcing their learning at each stage. TechApps for Texas includes a variety of instructional materials, such as interactive lessons, assessments, and project-based activities, which cater to different learning styles and can be easily adapted by teachers to fit their classroom needs. This adaptability makes it easier for educators to implement the program effectively, regardless of their prior experience with technology.

Equally importantly, TechApps for Texas emphasizes professional development for educators, a key component in creating tech-strong students. The program provides comprehensive training and ongoing support for teachers, equipping them with the necessary skills and confidence to deliver technology instruction effectively. This focus on educator empowerment ensures that teachers are not only familiar with the latest technological tools and trends but also proficient in integrating these into their teaching practices. By investing in professional development, TechApps for Texas helps create a sustainable model for technology education, where both teachers and students continually grow and adapt to the evolving digital landscape. This holistic approach makes TechApps for Texas an ideal choice for schools committed to fostering a tech-savvy and future-ready student population.

The Future of Tech-Strong Education in Texas

As technology continues to advance, the need for tech-strong education becomes increasingly critical. The integration of the TA-TEKS and Learning.com’s TechApps for Texas helps prepare students for a digitally-driven future. By equipping students with the knowledge and skills outlined in TA-TEKS, and providing a comprehensive, engaging curriculum through TechApps for Texas, we can ensure that Texas students are well-prepared to excel in the 21st century.

To learn more about TechApps for Texas and its alignment with the TA-TEKS, click the button below.

Learning.com Team

Staff Writers

Founded in 1999, Learning.com provides educators with solutions to prepare their students with critical digital skills. Our web-based curriculum for grades K-12 engages students as they learn keyboarding, online safety, applied productivity tools, computational thinking, coding and more.

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The Journal of Nursing Research

August 2019, Volume :27 Number 4 , page e38 - e38 [Free]

Join NursingCenter to get uninterrupted access to this Article

academic achievement , critical thinking skills , learning styles , nursing student

• Shirazi, Fatemeh

Background: Academic achievement is one of the most important indicators in evaluating education. Various factors are known to affect the academic achievement of students.

Purpose: This study was performed to assess the relationship between critical thinking skills and learning styles and the academic achievement of nursing students.

Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 139 sophomores to senior-year nursing students were selected using a simple random sampling method. The data were gathered using a three-part questionnaire that included a demographic questionnaire, the Kolb's Learning Style Standard Questionnaire, and the California Critical Thinking Skills Questionnaire. The previous semester's grade point average of the students was considered as a measure of academic achievement. The data were analyzed using descriptive and analytical statistics in SPSS 20.

Results: The mean score for critical thinking skills was 6.75 +/- 2.16, and the highest and lowest scores among the critical thinking subscales related to the evaluation and analysis subscales, respectively. No relationship between critical thinking and academic achievement was identified. "Diverging" was the most common learning style. The highest mean level of academic achievement was earned by those students who adopted the "accommodating" style of learning. A significant relationship was found between learning style and academic achievement ( p < .001).

Conclusions: According to the findings, the critical thinking skills score of students was unacceptably low. Therefore, it is essential to pay more attention to improving critical thinking in academic lesson planning. As a significant relationship was found between learning style and academic achievement, it is suggested that instructors consider the dominant style of each class in lesson planning and use proper teaching methods that take into consideration the dominant style.

Article Content

Introduction.

Academic achievement is crucial to the future success of students, and lack of attention to this basic issue and subsequent academic failure may cause a decrease in academic accomplishment and an increase in the costs of education ( Jayanthi, Balakrishnan, Ching, Latiff, & Nasirudeen, 2014 ). Academic achievement, the level to which students attain predetermined educational goals, depends on family and individual, socioeconomic, education, training, and psychological factors ( Farooq, Chaudhry, Shafiq, & Berhanu, 2011 ). Assessing these factors and determining the contribution of each to academic achievement are critical to developing strategies for identifying the factors that contribute to academic success and failure and help educational planners focus on promoting the positive factors and reducing the impact of negative factors ( Gordon, Williams, Hudson, & Stewart, 2010 ). Critical thinking is one of the contributing factors in academic achievement as well as an essential component in clinical decision making, nursing practice, and education ( Fero et al., 2010 ).

There are many reasons for nurses to learn critical thinking skills. The first reason is that thinking is the key component in problem solving, and nurses without these proficiencies become part of the problem. In addition, nurses should be capable of making major decisions independently and quickly in critical situations. Critical thinking skills enable them to identify essential data and distinguish between problems that require urgent intervention and those that are not life-threatening. Thus, nurses should be able to reflect on their actions and consider the possible consequences of each action to make precise and proper decisions ( Eslami & Maarefi, 2010 ).

Various investigations have suggested that it is necessary to design educational strategies that are based on student learning style to improve students' critical thinking. In addition to critical thinking, the learning styles of students are an important factor that plays a fundamental role in the process of problem solving and learning. Learning style describes the method used to process information, which differs from person to person. Identifying the methods that students use to process information and their learning styles allows educators to assist them to advance toward the higher goals of training and achieve broader critical thinking and problem-solving skills ( Lau & Yuen, 2010 ). Perhaps, the best definition of learning styles was provided by Kolb, who defined learning styles as an individual's method of emphasizing certain learning abilities over other abilities. Kolb's experiential learning theory is the result of the combination of three templates from the experiential learning process, including Lewin's practical and laboratory model, Dewey's learning model, and Piaget's pattern of learning and cognitive development. Kolb believed learning to be the result of resolving the conflicts among these three models ( Kolb & Kolb, 2005 ). Many studies have investigated the relationships between learning styles and other variables. The academic achievement of learners is one of the key variables to be studied with regard to its relationship with learning style ( Zainol Abidin, Rezaee, Abdullah, & Singh, 2011 ). Most of these studies have shown thinking to be the combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. This combination empowers thoughtful persons to become wiser and more competent in different sciences and technologies and, consequently, gives them momentum along the path to success ( Can, 2009 ). The study of Aripin, Mahmood, Rohaizad, Yeop, and Anuar (2008) showed that paying attention to students' learning styles and matching these with a learning framework significantly improved students' academic performance, whereas a mismatch between learning styles and curriculum reduced performance levels. Other studies that surveyed the relationship between critical thinking and its subdomains and different learning styles obtained different results ( Ghazivakili et al., 2014 ; Noohi, Salahi, & Sabzevari, 2014 ).

The review of studies highlighted conflicting results in the relationship between critical thinking, learning styles, and academic achievement. Some studies have emphasized a positive relationship ( Ashoori, 2014 ; Ghazivakili et al., 2014 ), whereas others have found a negative relationship ( Aghaei, Souri, & Ghanbari, 2012 ) or an absence of a significant relationship. These conflicting results may be caused by differences among individual student characteristics and their educational culture ( Abdollahi Adli Ansar, FathiAzar, & Abdollahi, 2015 ). On the basis of these differences in results and the diversity of students and educational systems in different academic contexts, this study was designed to determine the relationship between critical thinking skills and learning styles and the academic achievement of nursing students studying at Urmia Islamic Azad University.

In this cross-sectional study, 139 nursing students between their sophomore and senior years were selected randomly out of 360 nursing students studying at Islamic Azad University in Urmia, Iran. The students were divided into three groups according to their years of education, and each group was random sampled using a table of random numbers. The researcher delivered the questionnaires and consent forms to the selected students. After explaining how to answer the questions, the completed questionnaires were collected 2 days later. Data collection lasted from October to December 2015.

This study was approved by the research council and the ethics committee of the Urmia branch of Islamic Azad University, Urmia, Iran (Code: 27827). A three-part questionnaire was used for data collection. The first part of the questionnaire assessed demographic information such as age, marital status, and educational level. Besides that, the grade point average (GPA) of each student for the previous semester was recorded as a measure of academic achievement. The second part of the questionnaire was California Standardized Critical Thinking Skills Test, Form B, published by Facione and Facione in 1994 . This test contains 34 multiple (4-5)-choice questions with one correct answer each. These questions address the five domains of the cognitive skills of critical thinking (deductive, inductive, assessment, analysis, and inference). One score is assigned for each correct answer, and the total test score is obtained by summing the number of correct answers. The minimum and maximum possible scores are 0 and 34, respectively. The midpoint score of the scale is 15.98, indicating that lower scores represent relatively weak critical thinking and higher scores represent relatively strong critical thinking. The reliability of this questionnaire was reported as .86 by Hariri ( Hariri & Bagherinejad, 2012 ). In this study, the reliability of the test was checked using test-retest, with an earned score of .79.

The third part of the questionnaire was Kolb's Learning Styles Inventory, which includes 12 sentences. Each sentence includes four parts that respectively measure reflective observation, concrete experience, active experimentation, and abstract conceptualization. The four scores obtained from the sum of these four parts in the 12 questions of the questionnaire indicate the four styles of learning. Two scores are obtained from two-by-two subtraction of these styles, that is, the subtraction of abstract conceptualization from concrete experience and active experimentation from reflective observation. These two scores are placed on the axis, which constitutes the four quarters of a square, identified by the four learning styles as diverging, converging, assimilating, and accommodating ( Kolb & Kolb, 2005 ). Emamipour reported the alpha coefficients of abstract conceptualization, concrete experience, active experimentation, and reflective observation as .49, .51, .47, and .53, respectively ( Emamipour & Shams Esfandabad, 2007 ).

After collecting the completed questionnaires, the data were analyzed using SPSS software Version 20 with descriptive and analytical statistical tests such as Student t test, one-way analysis of variance, chi-square, and correlation test.

The data analysis showed that all of the participants were female, with a mean age of 21.88 +/- 2.09 years and an age range of 19-29 years. Most (85.6%) were single ( Table 1 ). The mean GPA of the students was 15.78 +/- 1.35, ranging from 12 to 18.79.

The mean score of critical thinking was 6.75 +/- 2.16, and the highest and lowest mean critical thinking skill subdomain scores were for evaluation skill (6.75 +/- 2.16) and analysis skill (1.58 +/- 1.85), respectively. No significant relationship between critical thinking and academic achievement was found. Moreover, the critical thinking subdomains were not significantly related to academic achievement. In addition, no significant relationship was found between the total score and the subscales of critical thinking and marital status, age, or educational level. However, a significant relationship was found between the total score of critical thinking and educational level. Therefore, the senior students in this study earned a higher mean score for critical thinking than their lower-grade peers ( p = .04; Table 2 ).

Most participants (55.4%) used a "diverging" learning style, whereas 0.7% used a "converging" style. There was a significant relationship between learning styles and academic achievement, with academic achievement (represented by GPA) highest in the accommodating learning style subgroup followed by the diverging, converging, and assimilating learning-style subgroups.

Whereas no significant relationship was found between learning style and either age or educational level, a significant relationship was found between learning style and marital status ( Table 3 ).

Using one-way analysis of variance, the relationship between learning style and critical thinking skills and also the comparison of the mean score for each skill in four styles are reported in Table 4 . The findings showed no statistically significant relationship between learning style and critical thinking or its subscales ( Table 4 ).

Finally, a significant relationship was found between academic achievement and educational level, which meant that senior students had the highest level of academic achievement ( p = .01). However, academic achievement had no significant relationship with other variables such as age and marital status ( Table 5 ).

This study found no significant relationship between any of the demographic variables such as age and marital status and academic achievement. However, years of education were associated positively with academic achievement. This finding is consistent with that of Edraki, Rambod, and Abdoli (2011) . Fewer courses in higher academic grades, familiarization with the university atmosphere, and the stronger emphasis on clinical courses during the years of education may help students to effectively increase their GPA and improve their academic achievements.

The mean score for critical thinking in this study was 6.75 +/- 2.16. Similar to the results of this study, Taghavi Larijani, Mardani Hmouleh, Rezaei, Ghadiriyan, and Rashidi (2014) reported a mean score for critical thinking of 9.33 +/- 3.33. In addition, a study conducted in the United States found that most students earned relatively low scores for critical thinking ( Shinnick & Woo, 2013 ). On the contrary, a 2010 study in Norway found that participants earned good scores for critical thinking ( Wangensteen, Johansson, Bjorkstrom, & Nordstrom, 2010 ). Researchers believe that the multiple, intertwining factors involved in decreasing critical thinking scores include educational failure, focusing on rote memorization, presenting concepts in manners that do not require deep questioning/consideration, emphasis on multiple-choice examinations, lack of appropriate mental or psychological security for questioning and answering between the students and instructors, and poor development of critical thinking abilities ( Hosseini, 2009 ). The low critical thinking score of the students in this research as well as in other studies conducted in Iran compared with the scores of students in other countries suggests that current education methods in Iran do not effectively strengthen the critical thinking of students and thus should be revised ( Azodi, Jahanpoor, & Sharif, 2010 ).

In addition, in this study, the maximum and minimum subdomain scores for critical thinking were for assessment and analysis, respectively. Similarly, Ghazivakili et al. found that the minimum score for critical thinking was in the dimension of analysis ( Ghazivakili et al., 2014 ). On the basis of the findings of this study, no significant relationship was observed between the critical thinking and the academic achievement of the students, which is consistent with the results of Azodi et al. (2010) . Furthermore, the findings of Ghazivakili et al. suggested a relationship between critical thinking skills and the previous semester's GPA as a criterion for determining academic achievement. In the study of Ghazivakili et al., the mean GPA score of the students was increased by increasing the understanding skill of critical thinking ( Ghazivakili et al., 2014 ).

This study did not show any relationship between critical thinking and either age or marital status. However, Azodi et al.'s study showed a positive relationship between age and critical thinking ( Azodi et al., 2010 ). Age is an important demographic variable that is often correlated with critical thinking. This relationship is based on the assumption that critical thinking improves with age ( Babamohammadi, Esmaeilpour, Negarande, & Dehghan Nayeri, 2011 ).

The relationship between the total score for critical thinking and educational level was significant. Thus, the total score for critical thinking increased with the number of years of enrollment. However, no relationship was observed between the subdomains of critical thinking and educational level, which is consistent with the findings of Noohi et al. (2014) .

The results showed that diverging, assimilating, accommodating, and converging were, respectively, the most-to-least used learning styles of the participants in this study. This ranking of students' learning styles differs from those of other studies that were conducted domestically and outside Iran. Most participants adopted the assimilating learning style in the research of Tulbure (2012) , whereas Orhun (2012) found that most participants preferred the converging learning style. This variation may reflect differences in educational settings and/or educational methods.

It seems that the diverging learning style is more appropriate for the field of nursing due to the nature of the field and the career prospects of nursing and midwifery students ( Ahanchian, Mohamadzadeghasr, Garavand, & Hosseini, 2012 ). This learning style encourages students to be holistic and sociable; to use their ingenuity and thoughts in social situations and communication, especially with patients; and to be creative learners. These students develop and implement creative, workable, and effective solutions when dealing with complex patient issues and instill strong problem-solving capabilities. Thus, it is better to select those students who have diverging and accommodating learning styles for the field of nursing ( Mohammadi, Sayehmiri, Tavan, & Mohammadi, 2013 ).

In determining the relationship between learning style and academic achievement, the results showed a significant relationship between these two variables. Thus, the highest average of academic achievement was earned, in rank order, by students who used accommodating, diverging, converging, and assimilating learning styles. A relationship between learning styles and academic achievement has also been suggested by Ahadi, Abedsaidi, Arshadi, and Ghorbani (2010) and Ghazivakili et al. (2014) , but not by Farmanbar, Hosseinzadeh, Asadpoor, and Yeganeh (2013) . The accommodating learning style is created from the combination of active experimentation and concrete experience. Users of this style learn and enjoy through practical work, work on projects, and engage in new tasks and controversial experiences. Preferred methods for accommodators include role playing and computer simulations. Accommodators have a tendency to engage in experimental work and to use various methods to achieve a goal ( Pazargadi &Tahmasebi, 2010 ).

From the perspective of Kolb, learning style is a combination of cognitive, affective, and psychological properties. People advance their knowledge based on their learning style that has a significant role in their academic achievement. People have their own style of learning. Therefore, if the learning strategies of an individual match his or her learning style, performance is expected to improve ( Panahi, Kazemi, & Rezaie, 2012 ).

Comprehending the learning styles of students is crucial for teachers, because each learning style requires the provision of appropriate educational materials ( Gurpinar, Alimoglu, Mamakli, & Aktekin, 2010 ). The alignment of instructors' teaching styles to students' learning styles results in improved student understanding ( Mlambo, 2011 ).

In surveying the relationship between critical thinking and learning styles, the critical thinking score was not statistically different among the four learning-style groups. Nevertheless, the results showed that the mean scores for critical thinking skill were found, from highest to lowest, in the diverging, assimilating, accommodating, and converging learning-style groups. In terms of the subscales, the highest average score was "assessment" in the diverging style group. The results of Noohi et al. also showed a higher score for critical thinking among converging people than among assimilating, accommodating, and diverging people ( Noohi et al., 2014 ). Unlike the finding of this study, Ghazivakili et al. found that the total score of critical thinking differed among the four learning-style groups and that two of the subscales of critical thinking (evaluation and inductive reasoning) were positively related to learning styles ( Ghazivakili et al., 2014 ).

Whereas no significant relationship was observed between learning style and either age or educational level in this study, significant relationships were found in the study of Ghazivakili et al. (2014) . Furthermore, whereas both this study and Ahadi et al.'s (2010) study found a positive relationship between marital status and learning styles, Ghazivakili et al. reported no relationship with these two variables.

Conclusions

The findings show that the mean scores of critical thinking skills and its subdomains were low among the nursing students who were surveyed for this study. Some strategies that may be used to improve critical thinking in this population include frequent use of individual and group active learning strategies, empowering instructors to prepare tests that target high levels of cognitive domain and present probing questions, encouraging students and instructors to participate in problem analysis and discussions, providing different ideas and opinions, and promoting self-directed learning ( Shirazi, Sharif, Molazem, & Alborzi, 2016 ). It is hoped that the findings of this research attract the attention of instructors and managers regarding the importance of critical thinking evaluation in students. In addition, obtaining information about the dominant learning styles of students may encourage and enable nursing instructors to create appropriate learning environments and prepare the areas for academic achievement of the students. Learning outcomes improve when training matches the learning styles of the students.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the Research Department of Islamic Azad University, Urmia Branch, and all of the students who participated in this study. In addition, the authors wish to thank the Research Consultation Center at the Shiraz University of Medical Sciences for their invaluable assistance in editing this article.

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A novel methodological approach for learning cybersecurity topics in primary schools

• 1241: Cyber Security Education for Industry and Academia
• Published: 24 August 2024

Cite this article

• Maja Videnovik   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9859-5051 1 ,
• Sonja Filiposka   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0034-2855 2 &
• Vladimir Trajkovik   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8103-8059 2  

Teaching cybersecurity in primary education can equip students with the knowledge and skills to maintain online safety and establish positive digital behaviours from an early age. Traditional teaching methods are not effective in engaging students in this subject. Hence it is important to adopt innovative, interactive techniques that can sustain students' attention, participation, and openness to discussions. This paper aims to introduce a new method for teaching cybersecurity in primary schools that blends peer learning with game-based learning. This combination of approaches can provide an engaging, interactive, and dynamic learning experience for students, promoting communication and collaboration, and making the learning process more enjoyable. The effectiveness of our approach was evaluated in five elementary schools, where students from 6th to 9th grade were divided into two groups. The upper-grade students (8th and 9th) demonstrated improvement in their cybersecurity knowledge and skills through their active involvement in creating educational materials, such as lectures and games that were used to teach the lower-grade students (6th and 7th). The evaluation of the approach indicated that students enhanced their cybersecurity understanding and developed critical thinking, communication, and teamwork skills.

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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Maja Videnovik, Sonja Filiposka and Vladimir Trajkovik. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Maja Videnovik and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Videnovik, M., Filiposka, S. & Trajkovik, V. A novel methodological approach for learning cybersecurity topics in primary schools. Multimed Tools Appl (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-024-20077-2

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Received : 04 October 2023

Revised : 11 May 2024

Accepted : 11 August 2024

Published : 24 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-024-20077-2

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