AMANDA (Windows, OS X, Linux)
A Glossary of Special Terms
Term | Meaning |
---|---|
EPUB | A standardized format for digital books. |
FTP | FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a protocol used to transfer files from one computer to another via a wired or wireless network. |
Gantt chart | A type of bar chart used for project schedules, in which the tasks to be completed are shown as bars on the vertical axis, and time is shown on the horizontal axis, with the width of a given bar indicating the length of a given task. This facilitates planning by automating the tracking of milestone schedules and dependencies. |
GTD | GTD stands for Getting Things Done. It is a productivity method created by productivity consultant David Allen that allows users to focus on those tasks that should be addressed in a given context and at the right timescale of planning, from current activities to life-long goals. |
IP | IP stands for Intellectual Property, such as inventions and work products that are often patented or copyrighted. |
Linux | Linux is a family of open-source operating systems created by Linus Torvalds in 1991, serving as an alternative to the commercial ones. |
MTA | MTA stands for Materials Transfer Agreement—contracts that govern the transfer of research materials (e.g., DNA plasmids, cell lines) across institutions. |
MySQL | MySQL is an open-source database management system, consisting of a server back end that houses the data and a front end that allows users to query the database in very flexible ways. |
OCR | OCR stands for Optical Character Recognition—a process by which text is automatically recognized in an image, for example, converting a FAX or photo of a document into an editable text file. |
PDF stands for Portable Document Format, which serves as a standard format for many different types of devices and operating systems to be able to display (and sometimes edit) documents. | |
PMID | PMID stands for PubMed ID—the unique identifier used in the PubMed database to refer to published papers. |
SFTP | SFTP stands for SSH File Transfer Protocol but is often also referred to as Secure File Transfer Protocol. Its purpose is to transfer data over a network, similarly to FTP, but with added security (encryption). |
SSH | SSH stands for Secure Shell. This allows a remote user to connect to the operating system of their computer via a terminal-like interface. |
SSD | SSD stands for Solid State Drive. An SSD is a type of storage device for a computer that uses flash memory instead of a spinning disk, as in a typical hard drive. Compared with spinning hard drives, these are smaller, require less power, generate less heat, are less likely to break during routine use, and, crucially, enable vastly faster read and write speeds. |
TB | TB stands for Terabyte—a unit of measuring file size on a computer. One terabyte is equivalent to one thousand gigabytes, one million megabytes, or one trillion bytes. |
VNC | VNC stands for Virtual Network Computing—a desktop sharing system that transmits video signal and commands from one computer to another, allowing a user to interact with a remote computer the same way as if it were the computer they were currently using. |
VPN | VPN stands for Virtual Private Network. A virtual private network allows connections to internet-based resources with high security (encryption of data). |
WYSIWYG | WYSIWYG stands for What You See Is What You Get. This refers to applications where the output of text or other data being edited appears the same on-screen as it will when it is a finished project, such as a sheet of paper with formatted text (Microsoft Word and Scrivener are such, whereas LaTeX is not). |
Windows | Windows refers to the operating system Microsoft Windows. It is one of the most common operating systems in use today and is compatible with the vast majority of applications and hardware. |
XML | XML stands for Extensible Markup Language. Extensible Markup Language is a markup language used to encode documents such that they are readable by both humans and a variety of software. |
Although there is a huge variety of different types of scientific enterprises, most of them contain one or more activities that can be roughly subsumed by the conceptual progression shown in Figure 1 . This life cycle progresses from brainstorming and ideation through planning, execution of research, and then creation of work products. Each stage requires unique activities and tools, and it is crucial to establish a pipeline and best practices that enable the results of each phase to effectively facilitate the next phase. All of the recommendations given below are designed to support the following basic principles:
The Life Cycle of Research Activity
Various projects occupy different places along a typical timeline. The life cycle extends from creative ideation to gathering information, to formulating a plan, to the execution for the plan, and then to producing a work product such as a grant or paper based on the results. Many of these phases necessitate feedback to a prior phase, shown in thinner arrows (for example, information discovered during a literature search or attempts to formalize the work plan may require novel brainstorming). This diagram shows the product (end result) of each phase and typical tools used to accomplish them.
These basic principles can be used as the skeleton around which specific strategies and new software products can be deployed. Whenever possible, these can be implemented via external administration services (i.e., by a dedicated project manager or administrator inside the group), but this is not always compatible with budgetary constraints, in which case they can readily be deployed by each principal investigator. The PIs also have to decide whether they plan to suggest (or insist) that other people in the group also use these strategies, and perhaps monitor their execution. In our experience, it is most essential for anyone leading a complex project or several to adopt these methods (typically, a faculty member or senior staff scientist), whereas people tightly focused on one project and with limited concurrent tasks involving others (e.g., Ph.D. students) are not essential to move toward the entire system (although, for example, the backup systems should absolutely be ensured to be implemented among all knowledge workers in the group). The following are some of the methods that have proven most effective in our own experience.
Several key elements should be pillars of your Information Technology (IT) infrastructure ( Figure 2 ). You should be familiar enough with computer technology that you can implement these yourself, as it is rare for an institutional IT department to be able to offer this level of assistance. Your primary disk should be a large (currently, ∼2TB) SSD drive or, better, a disk card (such as the 2TB SSD NVMe PCIe) for fast access and minimal waiting time. Your computer should be so fast that you spend no time (except in the case of calculations or data processing) waiting for anything—your typing and mouse movement should be the rate-limiting step. If you find yourself waiting for windows or files to open, obtain a better machine.
Schematic of Data Flow and Storage
Three types of information: data (facts and datasets), action plans (schedules and to-do lists), and work product (documents) all interact with each other in defining a region of work space for a given research project. All of this should be hosted on a single PC (personal computer). It is accessed by a set of regular backups of several types, as well as by the user who can interact with raw files through the file system or with organized data through a variety of client applications that organize information, schedules, and email. See Table 2 for definitions of special terms.
One key element is backups—redundant copies of your data. Disks fail—it is not a question of whether your laptop or hard drive will die, but when. Storage space is inexpensive and researchers' time is precious: team members should not tolerate time lost due to computer snafus. The backup and accessibility system should be such that data are immediately recoverable following any sort of disaster; it only has to be set up once, and it only takes one disaster to realize the value of paranoia about data. This extends also to laboratory inventory systems—it is useful to keep (and back up) lists of significant equipment and reagents in the laboratory, in case they are needed for the insurance process in case of loss or damage.
The main drive should be big enough to keep all key information (not primary laboratory data, such as images or video) in one volume—this is to facilitate cloning. You should have an extra internal drive (which can be a regular disk) of the same size or bigger. Use something like Carbon Copy Cloner or SuperDuper to set up a nightly clone operation. When the main disk fails (e.g., the night before a big grant is due), boot from the clone and your exact, functioning system is ready to go. For Macs, another internal drive set up as a Time Machine enables keeping versions of files as they change. You should also have an external drive, which is likewise a Time Machine or a clone: you can quickly unplug it and take it with you, if the laboratory has to be evacuated (fire alarm or chemical emergency) or if something happens to your computer and you need to use one elsewhere. Set a calendar reminder once a month to check that the Time Machine is accessible and can be searched and that your clone is actually updated and bootable. A Passport-type portable drive is ideal when traveling to conferences: if something happens to the laptop, you can boot a fresh (or borrowed) machine from the portable drive and continue working. For people who routinely install software or operating system updates, I also recommend getting one disk that is a clone of the entire system and applications and then set it to nightly clone the data only , leaving the operating system files unchanged. This guarantees that you have a usable system with the latest data files (useful in case an update or a new piece of software renders the system unstable or unbootable and it overwrites the regular clone before you notice the problem). Consider off-site storage. CrashPlan Pro is a reasonable choice for backing up laboratory data to the cloud. One solution for a single person's digital content is to have two extra external hard drives. One gets a clone of your office computer, and one is a clone of your home computer, and then you swap—bring the office one home and the home one to your office. Update them regularly, and keep them swapped, so that should a disaster strike one location, all of the data are available. Finally, pay careful attention (via timed reminders) to how your laboratory machines and your people's machines are being backed up; a lot of young researchers, especially those who have not been through a disaster yet, do not make backups. One solution is to have a system like CrashPlan Pro installed on everyone's machines to do automatic backup.
Another key element is accessibility of information. Everyone should be working on files (i.e., Microsoft Word documents) that are inside a Dropbox or Box folder; whatever you are working on this month, the files should be inside a folder synchronized by one of these services. That way, if anything happens to your machine, you can access your files from anywhere in the world. It is critical that whatever service is chosen, it is one that s ynchronizes a local copy of the data that live on your local machine (not simply keeps files in the cloud) —that way, you have what you need even if the internet is down or connectivity is poor. Tools that help connect to your resources while on the road include a VPN (especially useful for secure connections while traveling), SFTP (to transfer files; turn on the SFTP, not FTP, service on your office machine), and Remote Desktop (or VNC). All of these exist for cell phone or tablet devices, as well as for laptops, enabling access to anything from anywhere. All files (including scans of paper documents) should be processed by OCR (optical character recognition) software to render their contents searchable. This can be done in batch (on a schedule), by Adobe Acrobat's OCR function, which can be pointed to an entire folder of PDFs, for example, and left to run overnight. The result, especially with Apple's Spotlight feature, is that one can easily retrieve information that might be written inside a scanned document.
Here, we focus on work product and the thought process, not management of the raw data as it emerges from equipment and experimental apparatus. However, mention should be made of electronic laboratory notebooks (ELNs), which are becoming an important aspect of research. ELNs are a rapidly developing field, because they face a number of challenges. A laboratory that abandons paper notebooks entirely has to provide computer interfaces anywhere in the facility where data might be generated; having screens, keyboards, and mice at every microscope or other apparatus station, for example, can be expensive, and it is not trivial to find an ergonomically equivalent digital substitute for writing things down in a notebook as ideas or data appear. On the other hand, keeping both paper notebooks for immediate recording, and ELNs for organized official storage, raises problems of wasted effort during the (perhaps incomplete) transfer of information from paper to the digital version. ELNs are also an essential tool to prevent loss of institutional knowledge as team members move up to independent positions. ELN usage will evolve over time as input devices improve and best practices are developed to minimize the overhead of entering meta-data. However, regardless of how primary data are acquired, the researcher will need specific strategies for transitioning experimental findings into research product in the context of a complex set of personal, institutional, and scientific goals and constraints.
The pipeline begins with ideas, which must be cultivated and then harnessed for subsequent implementation ( Altshuller, 1984 ). This step consists of two components: identifying salient new information and arranging it in a way that facilitates novel ideas, associations, hypotheses, and strategic plans for making impact.
For the first step, we suggest an automated weekly PubCrawler search, which allows Boolean searches of the literature. Good searches to save include ones focusing on specific keywords of interest, as well as names of specific people whose work one wants to follow. The resulting weekly email of new papers matching specific criteria complements manual searches done via ISI's Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PubMed. The papers of interest should be immediately imported into a reference manager, such as Endnote, along with useful Keywords and text in the Notes field of each one that will facilitate locating them later. Additional tools include DevonAgent and DevonSphere, which enable smart searches of web and local resources, respectively.
Brainstorming can take place on paper or digitally (see later discussion). We have noticed that the rate of influx of new ideas is increased by habituating to never losing a new idea. This can be accomplished by establishing a voicemail contact in your cell phone leading to your own office voicemail (which allows voice recordings of idea fragments while driving or on the road, hands-free) and/or setting up Endnote or a similar server-synchronized application to record (and ideally transcribe) notes. It has been our experience that the more one records ideas arising in a non-work setting, the more often they will pop up automatically. For notes or schematics written on paper during dedicated brainstorming, one tool that ensures that nothing is lost is an electronic pen. For example, the Livescribe products are well integrated with Evernote and ensure that no matter where you are, anything you write down becomes captured in a form accessible from anywhere and are safe no matter what happens to the original notebook in which they were written.
Enhancing scientific thought, creative brainstorming, and strategic planning is facilitated by the creation of mind maps: visual representations of spatial structure of links between concepts, or the mapping of planned activity onto goals of different timescales. There are many available mind map software packages, including MindNode; their goal is to enable one to quickly set down relationships between concepts with a minimum of time spent on formatting. Examples are shown in Figures 3 A and 3B. The process of creating these mind maps (which can then be put on one's website or discussed with the laboratory members) helps refine fuzzy thinking and clarifies the relationships between concepts or activities. Mind mappers are an excellent tool because their light, freeform nature allows unimpeded brainstorming and fluid changes of idea structure but at the same time forces one to explicitly test out specific arrangements of plans or ideas.
Mind Mapping
(A and B) The task of schematizing concepts and ideas spatially based on their hierarchical relationships with each other is a powerful technique for organizing the creative thought process. Examples include (A), which shows how the different projects in our laboratory relate to each other. Importantly, it can also reveal disbalances or gaps in coverage of specific topics, as well as help identify novel relationships between sub-projects by placing them on axes (B) or even identify novel hypotheses suggested by symmetry.
(C) Relationships between the central nervous system (CNS) and regeneration, cancer, and embryogenesis. The connecting lines in black show typical projects (relationships) already being pursued by our laboratory, and the lack of a project in the space between CNS and embryogenesis suggests a straightforward hypothesis and project to examine the role of the brain in embryonic patterning.
It is important to note that mind maps can serve a function beyond explicit organization. In a good mapped structure, one can look for symmetries (revealing relationships that are otherwise not obvious) between the concepts involved. An obvious geometric pattern with a missing link or node can help one think about what could possibly go there, and often identifies new relationships or items that had not been considered ( Figure 3 C), in much the same way that gaps in the periodic table of the elements helped identify novel elements.
The input and output of the feedback process between brainstorming and literature mining is information. Static information not only consists of the facts, images, documents, and other material needed to support a train of thought but also includes anything needed to support the various projects and activities. It should be accessible in three ways, as it will be active during all phases of the work cycle. Files should be arranged on your disk in a logical hierarchical structure appropriate to the work. Everything should also be searchable and indexed by Spotlight. Finally, some information should be stored as entries in a data management system, like Evernote or DevonThink, which have convenient client applications that make the data accessible from any device.
Notes in these systems should include useful lists and how-to's, including, for example:
Each note can have attachments, which include manuals, materials safety sheets, etc. DevonThink needs a little more setup but is more robust and also allows keeping the server on one's own machine (nothing gets uploaded to company servers, unlike with Evernote, which might be a factor for sensitive data). Scientific papers should be kept in a reference manager, whereas books (such as epub files and PDFs of books and manuscripts) can be stored in a Calibre library.
A special case of static information is email, including especially informative and/or actionable emails from team members, external collaborators, reviewers, and funders. Because the influx of email is ever-increasing, it is important to (1) establish a good infrastructure for its management and (2) establish policies for responding to emails and using them to facilitate research. The first step is to ensure that one only sees useful emails, by training a good Bayesian spam filter such as SpamSieve. We suggest a triage system in which, at specific times of day (so that it does not interfere with other work), the Inbox is checked and each email is (1) forwarded to someone better suited to handling it, (2) responded quickly for urgent things that need a simple answer, or (3) started as a Draft email for those that require a thoughtful reply. Once a day or a couple of times per week, when circumstances permit focused thought, the Draft folder should be revisited and those emails answered. We suggest a “0 Inbox” policy whereby at the end of a day, the Inbox is basically empty, with everything either delegated, answered, or set to answer later.
We also suggest creating subfolders in the main account (keeping them on the mail server, not local to a computer, so that they can be searched and accessed from anywhere) as follows:
Incoming emails belonging to those categories (for example, an email from an NIH program officer acknowledging a grant submission, a collaborator who emailed a plan of what they will do next, or someone who promised to answer a specific question) should be sorted from the Inbox to the relevant folder. Every couple of weeks (according to a calendar reminder), those folders should be checked, and those items that have since been dealt with can be saved to a Saved Messages folder archive, whereas those that remain can be Replied to as a reminder to prod the relevant person.
In addition, as most researchers now exchange a lot of information via email, the email trail preserves a record of relationships among colleagues and collaborators. It can be extremely useful, even years later, to be able to go back and see who said what to whom, what was the last conversation in a collaboration that stalled, who sent that special protocol or reagent and needs to be acknowledged, etc. It is imperative that you know where your email is being stored, by whom, and their policy on retention, storage space limits, search, backup, etc. Most university IT departments keep a mail server with limited storage space and will delete your old emails (even more so if you move institutions). One way to keep a permanent record with complete control is with an application called MailSteward Pro. This is a front-end client for a freely available MySQL server, which can run on any machine in your laboratory. It will import your mail and store unlimited quantities indefinitely. Unlike a mail server, this is a real database system and is not as susceptible to data corruption or loss as many other methods.
A suggested strategy is as follows. Keep every single email, sent and received. Every month (set a timed reminder), have MailSteward Pro import them into the MySQL database. Once a year, prune them from the mail server (or let IT do it on their own schedule). This allows rapid search (and then reply) from inside a mail client for anything that is less than one year old (most searches), but anything older can be found in the very versatile MailStewardPro Boolean search function. Over time, in addition to finding specific emails, this allows some informative data mining. Results of searches via MailStewardPro can be imported into Excel to, for example, identify the people with whom you most frequently communicate or make histograms of the frequency of specific keywords as a function of time throughout your career.
With ideas, mind maps, and the necessary information in hand, one can consider what aspects of the current operations plan can be changed to incorporate plans for new, impactful activity.
A very useful strategy involves breaking down everything according to the timescales of decision-making, such as in the Getting Things Done (GTD) philosophy ( Figure 4 ) ( Allen, 2015 ). Activities range from immediate (daily) tasks to intermediate goals all the way to career-scale (or life-long) mission statements. As with mind maps, being explicit about these categories not only force one to think hard about important aspects of their work, but also facilitate the transmission of this information to others on the team. The different categories are to be revisited and revised at different rates, according to their position on the hierarchy. This enables you to make sure that effort and resources are being spent according to priorities.
Scales of Activity Planning
Activities should be assigned to a level of planning with a temporal scale, based on how often the goals of that level get re-evaluated. This ranges from core values, which can span an entire career or lifetime, all the way to tactics that guide day-to-day activities. Each level should be re-evaluated at a reasonable time frame to ensure that its goals are still consistent with the bigger picture of the level(s) above it and to help re-define the plans for the levels below it.
We also strongly recommend a yearly personal scientific retreat. This is not meant to be a vacation to “forget about work” but rather an opportunity for freedom from everyday minutiae to revisit, evaluate, and potentially revise future activity (priorities, action items) for the next few years. Every few years, take more time to re-map even higher levels on the pyramid hierarchy; consider what the group has been doing—do you like the intellectual space your group now occupies? Are your efforts having the kind of impact you realistically want to make? A formal diagram helps clarify the conceptual vision and identify gaps and opportunities. Once a correct level of activity has been identified, it is time to plan specific activities.
A very good tool for this purpose, which enables hierarchical storage of tasks and subtasks and their scheduling, is OmniFocus ( Figure 5 ). OmniFocus also enables inclusion of files (or links to files or links to Evernote notes of information) together with each Action. It additionally allows each action to be marked as “Done” once it is complete, providing not only a current action plan but a history of every past activity. Another interesting aspect is the fact that one can link individual actions with specific contexts: visualizing the database from the perspective of contexts enables efficient focus of attention on those tasks that are relevant in a specific scenario. OmniFocus allows setting reminders for specific actions and can be used for adding a time component to the activity.
Project Planning
This figure shows a screenshot of the OmniFocus application, illustrating the nested hierarchy of projects and sub-projects, arranged into larger groups.
The best way to manage time relative to activity (and to manage the people responsible for each activity) is to construct Gantt charts ( Figure 6 ), which can be used to plan out project timelines and help keep grant and contract deliverables on time. A critical feature is that it makes dependencies explicit, so that it is clear which items have to be solved/done before something else can be accomplished. Gantt charts are essential for complex, multi-person, and/or multi-step projects with strict deadlines (such as grant deliverables and progress reports). Software such as OmniPlanner can also be used to link resources (equipment, consumables, living material, etc.) with specific actions and timelines. Updating and evaluation of a Gantt chart for a specific project should take place on a time frame appropriate to the length of the next immediate phase; weekly or biweekly is typical.
Timeline Planning
This figure shows a screenshot of a typical Gantt chart, in OmniPlan software, illustrating the timelines of different project steps, their dependencies, and specific milestones (such as a due date for a site visit or grant submission). Note that Gantt software automatically moves the end date for each item if its subtasks' timing changes, enabling one to see a dynamically correct up-to-date temporal map of the project that adjusts for the real-world contingencies of research.
In addition to the comprehensive work plan in OmniFocus or similar, it is helpful to use a Calendar (which synchronizes to a server, such as Microsoft Office calendar with Exchange server). For yourself, make a task every day called “Monday tasks,” etc., which contains all the individual things to be accomplished (which do not warrant their own calendar reminder). First thing in the morning, one can take a look at the day's tasks to see what needs to be done. Whatever does not get done that day is to be copied onto another day's tasks. For each of the people on your team, make a timed reminder (weekly, for example, for those with whom you meet once a week) containing the immediate next steps for them to do and the next thing they are supposed to produce for your meeting. Have it with you when you meet, and give them a copy, updating the next occurrence as needed based on what was decided at the meeting to do next. This scheme makes it easy for you to remember precisely what needs to be covered in the discussion, serves as a record of the project and what you walked about with whom at any given day (which can be consulted years later, to reconstruct events if needed), and is useful to synchronize everyone on the same page (if the team member gets a copy of it after the meeting).
Writing, to disseminate results and analysis, is a central activity for scientists. One of the OmniFocus library's sections should contain lists of upcoming grants to write, primary papers that are being worked on, and reviews/hypothesis papers planned. Microsoft Word is the most popular tool for writing papers—its major advantage is compatibility with others, for collaborative manuscripts (its Track Changes feature is also very well implemented, enabling collaboration as a master document is passed from one co-author to another). But Scrivener should be seriously considered—it is an excellent tool that facilitates complex projects and documents because it enables WYSIWYG text editing in the context of a hierarchical structure, which allows you to simultaneously work on a detailed piece of text while seeing the whole outline of the project ( Figure 7 ).
Writing Complex Materials
This figure shows a screenshot from the Scrivener software. The panel on the left facilitates logical and hierarchical organization of a complex writing project (by showing where in the overall structure any given text would fit), while the editing pane on the right allows the user to focus on writing a specific subsection without having to scroll through (but still being able to see) the major categories within which it must fit.
It is critical to learn to use a reference manager—there are numerous ones, including, for example, Endnote, which will make it much easier to collaborate with others on papers with many citations. One specific tip to make collaboration easier is to ask all of the co-authors to set the reference manager to use PMID Accession Number in the temporary citations in the text instead of the arbitrary record number it uses by default. That way, a document can have its bibliography formatted by any of the co-authors even if they have completely different libraries. Although some prefer collaborative editing of a Google Doc file, we have found a “master document” system useful, in which a file is passed around among collaborators by email but only one can make (Tracked) edits at a time (i.e., one person has the master doc and everyone makes edits on top of that).
One task most scientists regularly undertake is writing reviews of a specific subfield (or Whitepapers). It is often difficult, when one has an assignment to write, to remember all of the important papers that were seen in the last few years that bear on the topic. One method to remedy this is to keep standing document files, one for each topic that one might plausibly want to cover and update them regularly. Whenever a good paper is found, immediately enter it into the reference manager (with good keywords) and put a sentence or two about its main point (with the citation) into the relevant document. Whenever you decide to write the review, you will already have a file with the necessary material that only remains to be organized, allowing you to focus on conceptual integration and not combing through literature.
The life cycle of research can be viewed through the lens of the tools used at different stages. First there are the conceptual ideas; many are interconnected, and a mind mapper is used to flesh out the structure of ideas, topics, and concepts; make it explicit; and share it within the team and with external collaborators. Then there is the knowledge—facts, data, documents, protocols, pieces of information that relate to the various concepts. Kept in a combination of Endnote (for papers), Evernote (for information fragments and lists), and file system files (for documents), everything is linked and cross-referenced to facilitate the projects. Activities are action items, based on the mind map, of what to do, who is doing what, and for which purpose/grant. OmniFocus stores the subtasks within tasks within goals for the PI and everyone in the laboratory. During meetings with team members, these lists and calendar entries are used to synchronize objectives with everyone and keep the activity optimized toward the next step goals. The product—discovery and synthesis—is embodied in publications via a word processor and reference manager. A calendar structure is used to manage the trajectory from idea to publication or grant.
The tools are currently good enough to enable individual components in this pipeline. Because new tools are continuously developed and improved, we recommend a yearly overview and analysis of how well the tools are working (e.g., which component of the management plan takes the most time or is the most difficult to make invisible relative to the actual thinking and writing), coupled to a web search for new software and updated versions of existing programs within each of the categories discussed earlier.
A major opportunity exists for software companies in the creation of integrated new tools that provide all the tools in a single integrated system. In future years, a single platform will surely appear that will enable the user to visualize the same research structure from the perspective of an idea mind map, a schedule, a list of action items, or a knowledge system to be queried. Subsequent development may even include Artificial Intelligence tools for knowledge mining, to help the researcher extract novel relationships among the content. These will also need to dovetail with ELN platforms, to enable a more seamless integration of project management with primary data. These may eventually become part of the suite of tools being developed for improving larger group dynamics (e.g., Microsoft Teams). One challenge in such endeavors is ensuring the compatibility of formats and management procedures across groups and collaborators, which can be mitigated by explicitly discussing choice of software and process, at the beginning of any serious collaboration.
Regardless of the specific software products used, a researcher needs to put systems in place for managing information, plans, schedules, and work products. These digital objects need to be maximally accessible and backed up, to optimize productivity. A core principle is to have these systems be so robust and lightweight as to serve as an “external brain” ( Menary, 2010 )—to maximize creativity and deep thought by making sure all the details are recorded and available when needed. Although the above discussion focused on the needs of a single researcher (perhaps running a team), future work will address the unique needs of collaborative projects with more lateral interactions by significant numbers of participants.
We thank Joshua Finkelstein for helpful comments on a draft of the manuscript. M.L. gratefully acknowledges support by an Allen Discovery Center award from the Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group (12171) and the Barton Family Foundation.
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Back to Journals » Psychology Research and Behavior Management » Volume 17
Authors Muhammad Khir S , Wan Mohd Yunus WMA , Mahmud N , Wang R , Panatik SA , Mohd Sukor MS , Nordin NA
Received 22 September 2023
Accepted for publication 15 January 2024
Published 1 February 2024 Volume 2024:17 Pages 345—365
DOI https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S437277
Checked for plagiarism Yes
Review by Single anonymous peer review
Peer reviewer comments 3
Editor who approved publication: Dr Gabriela Topa
Syazwina Muhammad Khir, 1 Wan Mohd Azam Wan Mohd Yunus, 1– 3 Norashikin Mahmud, 1 Rui Wang, 1 Siti Aisyah Panatik, 1 Mohammad Saipol Mohd Sukor, 1 Nor Akmar Nordin 1 1 Department of Psychology, School of Human Resource Development and Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia; 2 INVEST Research Flagship, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; 3 Research Centre for Child Psychiatry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland Correspondence: Syazwina Muhammad Khir, Email [email protected] Background: The rise in the prevalence of mental health problems among adults worldwide has raised concerns, highlighting the critical need for evidence-based mental health interventions that are accessible, comprehensive, and effective. Previous research suggests that Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) is a promising intervention widely used to reduce mental health problems. Nevertheless, the current literature on the efficacy of PMR among adults globally is fragmented, indicating a potential gap in this research area. Hence, this paper aims to systematically compile the research evidence on the efficacy of PMR in adults for stress, anxiety, and depression. Methods: The Scopus, Web of Sciences, PubMed, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched from the earliest available evidence to 28th March 2023. The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses) guidelines were followed, and the protocol was registered on the Open Science Framework. Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal Tools were used to assess the quality of the included studies. Results: A total of forty-six (46) publications from sixteen (16) countries covering more than 3402 adults were included in the review. The results show that PMR are effective in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression in adults. When PMR is combined with other interventions, the combined techniques have also consistently exhibited enhanced efficacy. Moreover, findings also indicate that the efficacy of PMR is heightened when implemented in conjunction with other interventions, surpassing its standalone efficacy. Funding and Registration: This research was supported/funded by the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) (FRGS/1/2020/SS0/UTM/02/23). The review was registered on Open Science Framework (OSF) on the 7th of March 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/U2HZP . Keywords: progressive muscle relaxation, stress, anxiety, depression
There is more to mental health than the absence of mental disorders. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 1 the term “mental health” refers to a state of psychological well-being that allows individuals to successfully manage the challenges of life, recognize their strengths, participate in study and work, and make significant contributions to the communities. There is a broad continuum of mental health that is experienced differently by each individual. It carries diverse levels of challenges and distress as well as possibly highly distinct social and psychological impacts. Being typically capable of thinking, feeling, and acting in a way that satisfies one’s desires in life is a sign of good mental health. However, if one has experienced a phase of poor mental health such as stress, anxiety, and depression, they will likely find everyday life as challenging or even impossible to deal with the frequent thoughts, feelings, or responses. These poor conditions could lead to more serious psychiatric disorders or conditions such as clinical anxiety, depression, bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, or even suicide. 2–4 The aforementioned statement emphasizes the critical need to swiftly address stress, anxiety, and depression as these are major contributors to the wider range of mental health issues that people may encounter.
Stress may not be typical of the person or the environment; rather, it is a complex system formed by the interplay of specific psychological and physiological elements with the surroundings, 5 while anxiety is a mental condition characterized by unpleasant emotions, unease, anxiety about the future, or dread of reacting to the present without a clear trigger. 6 According to World Health Organization, 7 depression is a widespread mental health condition that impacts over 300 million individuals globally. Depression is commonly characterized by symptoms like poor mood, interest loss, changes in weight or appetite, sleep difficulties, psychomotor changes, guilt feelings, lack of focus, and suicidal thoughts or attempts in the past. 8 An earlier research conducted among adult population in 2020 revealed that nearly half of the study sample (48.1%) were affected with mild to extremely severe stress, anxiety, and depression. 9 These figures are very alarming since they could trigger negative affect, which includes erratic feelings and apathy 10 among the adults.
To address those mental health issues, experts have suggested several recommendations like maintaining physical well-being, partaking in recreational activities, staying positive, socializing, and learning relaxation exercises 11 Relaxation exercises have been found to be effective for a person’s physical and mental well-being by enabling one’s breathing to calm down, decreasing blood pressure, easing stress, and minimizing muscle spasm. 12 , 13 Moreover, there are emerging studies on the use of relaxation exercises as part of an interdisciplinary prevention or intervention approach for stress, anxiety, and depression, 14–17 and relaxation techniques like progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) are capable of successfully tensing and relaxing different muscle groups. 18
Of all the relaxation techniques, the PMR technique is the most straightforward to understand and to be used as it is accessible, affordable, self-induced, and offers no adverse impacts. 19 Utilizing PMR is particularly effective in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. By differentiating between sensations of tension (a purposeful tensing of the muscles) and relaxation (a conscious, deliberate release of the muscles’ tension), PMR makes it easier to identify muscles or muscle groups that are persistently tense. 18 , 20
Systematic reviews on PMR by previous scholars have focused on the impact of the exercises on patients with serious illnesses such as cancer patients, schizophrenic patients, and those who are undergoing surgery 14 , 21 , 22 in reducing their mental health problems. However, to our knowledge, there are no systematic reviews that assess the efficacy of PMR interventions on stress, anxiety, and depression of the general adult population, thus contributing to the current body of knowledge.
The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guided the present study. PRISMA was developed to assist reviewers in clearly describing their studies’ purpose, methods, and findings. 23 Using this guideline, the reviewers developed pertinent research questions based on the PICO framework. This framework aids reviewers in structuring research questions by dividing them into four main parts: Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome. 24 Based on the framework, one research question is formulated: Does Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) effectively reduce stress, anxiety, and depression among adults? In this review, adults are defined as those who are 18 years of age or older. 25 The review’s objectives, inclusion criteria, and methods of analysis were pre-specified and documented in a protocol filed on Open Science Framework (OSF) on the 7th March 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/U2HZP .
The Search Terms |
This review includes publications that fit two distinct criteria: (1) Those that explore the effects of PMR on stress, anxiety, and depression in adults, either as a standalone intervention or in combination with additional intervention approaches; and (2) Studies that implement rigorous methodologies, utilizing either a Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) or a Quasi-Experimental Design (QED). For this review, the inclusion criteria necessitate studies to includes all studies that investigate the efficacy of PMR on stress, anxiety, and/or depression symptoms, focus on experimental research, look at non-clinical cases among adults, and have been published in English language from earliest time until 28th March 2023. Conversely, the review excludes all meta-analysis papers, systematic review papers, students’ thesis, or unauthorized or unrecognized dissertations, any non-experimental research, all clinical cases, and non-English articles or studies.
The research procedure includes a methodical flow that starts with a thorough database search, followed by exporting the identified articles into the reference management software EndNote X7. After that, duplicates were removed and both the titles and abstracts were screened for relevancy. The process continued by retrieving the full texts of the publications that had been shortlisted. Some articles were unable to be retrieved due to access restrictions on databases, full-text not available, limited database archive, and is a conference abstracts. Finally, a thorough evaluation of these full texts was done to determine which articles are most significant based on the aforementioned criteria. The process was carried out independently by two different reviewers, who then met to compare their findings and reach a consensus. In cases where a consensus was elusive, the reviewers engaged a senior researcher for guidance and resolution.
Following the screening procedure, two (2) reviewers used revised Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal Tools 26 , 27 to complete the quality assessment on all the selected papers. The reviewers used two (2) different checklists from the revised JBI critical appraisal tools.
The first tool was a checklist called the “Revised Randomized Controlled Trial Checklist”. This checklist was used to review papers that used the Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) design. The checklist provided a thorough, standardized methodology for evaluating many components of RCTs, including internal validity, all types of bias checklists, statistical conclusion validity, randomization protocols, blinding methods, and attrition rates, among other crucial variables. 26 This tool examines thirteen (13) significant components for the systematic review. The checklists consist of four distinct responses: Yes, No, Unclear, and Not Applicable. 28 For this checklist, each of the items received a score for adherence. Items marked with a “Yes” earn a score of one (1), signifying adherence to the checklist criterion, whilst any other replies - “No”, “Unclear”, or “Not Applicable”, receive a score of zero (0), suggesting a lack of assurance or non-relevance to the specific criterion. Previous research on the JBI critical appraisal tool confirms that the attribution of cut-off values or scores that identify a study as being of low, moderate, or high quality is best selected by the systematic reviewers themselves. 29 The aforementioned approach enables reviewers to determine these thresholds based on the specific requirements and circumstances of their assessment, resulting in a more personalized and precise evaluation process. For the current review, the reviewers opted to implement the scoring system from earlier studies. 30 , 31 Under the assessment criteria, studies obtaining 70% or more of the maximum attainable score were classified as “high quality”, those scoring between 50% and 70% were classified as “moderate quality”, while studies with scores falling below the 50% threshold were classified as “poor quality”. Moreover, for this checklist, those earning ten (10) points or more were classified as “high quality”, those that scored between seven (7) and ten (10) points were deemed “moderate quality”, and articles that accrued six (6) points or less were categorized as “poor quality”.
The second tool was the “Revised Checklist for Quasi-Experimental Studies”. This checklist functioned as an evaluative measure for all studies that used a quasi-experimental design (QED), offering a formal framework for examining the robustness and dependability of the procedures used, how they were carried out, and the subsequent validity of the results. 26 This tool examines nine (9) significant components for the systematic review. Similar to RCT tool, this checklist consists of four distinct responses: Yes, No, Unclear, and Not Applicable. Each of the items received a score for adherence. Items marked with a “Yes” earn a score of one (1), signifying adherence to the checklist criterion, whilst any other replies - “No”, “Unclear”, or “Not Applicable”, receive a score of zero (0), suggesting a lack of assurance or non-relevance to the specific criterion. Moreover, studies obtaining 70% or more of the maximum attainable score were classified as “high quality”, those scoring between 50% and 70% were classified as “moderate quality”, while studies with scores falling below the 50% threshold were classified as “poor quality”. 30 , 31 Those earning seven (7) points or more were classified as “high quality”, those that scored between five (5) and seven (7) points were deemed “moderate quality”, and articles that received four (4) points or less were categorized as “poor quality”.
The quality assessment instructs reviewers to include articles with high and moderate qualities only. Two reviewers made decisions on the study’s eligibility and quality. All possible disagreements were settled through discussion. If no conclusion was achieved, a third reviewer who is a senior researcher is brought in to assist in reaching a final decision. The careful assessments ensured that the research included in the review met a high standard of methodological quality. Next, two independent reviewers extracted the data, and the findings are provided in the next section.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) |
Progressive Muscle Relaxation with Other Interventions |
List of Countries Involved (16 Countries). |
PRISMA flow diagram for the included and excluded studies. : PRISMA figure adapted fromPage MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, Shamseer L, Tetzlaff JM, Akl EA, Brennan SE, Chou R. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. International journal of surgery. 2021 Apr 1;88:105906. Creative Commons. |
Two independent reviewers conducted a quality assessment of each included study. As a results, twenty-four (24) studies were rated as high quality, whereas twenty-two (22) studies were rated as moderate quality. The quality of the studies is presented in the extraction tables from high to moderate quality ( Table 2 and Table 3 ).
Progressive muscle relaxation (pmr) studies.
The Efficacy of PMR on Stress, Anxiety and Depression. |
Using the “Revised Randomized Controlled Trial Checklist”, 28 the reviewers found three (3) studies of high quality, 43 , 54 , 57 and seven (7) studies of moderate quality. 59–62 , 64 , 66 , 68
Following an exhaustive review, major findings demonstrated a significant trend in three (3) studies 43 , 59 , 64 that reported a substantial decrease in stress outcomes among adult volunteers, nurses and university students at posttest compared to pretest within the PMR group. Moreover, one (1) study 64 among university students discovered the potential efficacy of PMR, finding a substantial decrease in stress outcomes in the PMR group compared to the control group at the posttest evaluations. Nonetheless, one (1) study 59 found no significant reduction in stress levels among adult volunteers in the PMR group when compared to the control group at the post-test intervention stage.
For the anxiety outcomes, the systematic review’s key findings revealed that six (6) studies 43 , 57 , 59 , 62 , 66 , 68 showed a significant reduction in anxiety levels on adult volunteers, nurses, and university students at posttest compared to pretest within the PMR group. Additionally, two (2) studies 59 , 62 further underscored the potential efficacy of PMR on anxiety among adult volunteers, and nursing students, respectively, finding a significant outcome in the PMR group in comparison to the control group at the posttest assessments.
In terms of depression, the key outcomes revealed that in four (4) studies 54 , 59–61 among adult volunteers, caregivers of elders, and elderly women, there was a significant decrease in depression post-test compared to pretest within the PMR group. Two (2) studies, 60 , 61 which further support the evidence for PMR, found a significant decrease in depressive outcomes in the PMR group compared to the control group among the caregivers of elders, and elderly women at the post-test measurement. However, a notable exception was observed in one (1) study 59 where there is no significant reduction in depression levels among adult volunteers in the PMR group compared to the control group at the post-test stage, adding a layer of complexity to the overall findings. The researcher points out, emphasizing the implications of the study’s findings, that the PMR intervention may lack the requisite potency to effectively improve depression outcomes, underscoring the need for more comprehensive or integrated procedures. These results emphasize the potential of PMR as an effective relaxation training in the therapy for stress, anxiety, and depression. In numerous studies, the consistent reduction in stress, anxiety, and depression produces in the PMR group indicates its efficacy as a relaxing technique on adults’ population.
Using the “Revised Checklist for Quasi-Experimental Studies”, 28 the reviewers identified fifteen (15) studies of high quality, 34 , 36 , 38 , 40–42 , 45–47 , 49–53 , 56 and six (6) studies of medium quality. 44 , 58 , 67 , 69 , 71 , 72
Following a thorough assessment, nine (9) studies 38 , 40 , 41 , 45 , 46 , 51 , 52 , 58 , 67 revealed noteworthy insights, indicating a discernable pattern of considerable drop in stress outcomes posttest in contrast to pretest within the PMR group among the female health care workers, nurses, university students and employees. Moreover, two (2) more studies 36 , 72 reported a significant reduction in stress outcomes in the PMR group compared to the control group among the athletes and female clerical workers, adding weight to the information at hand.
Next, when anxiety outcomes were analyzed, seven (7) studies 42 , 44 , 50 , 52 , 56 , 69 , 71 reported a significant decrease in levels of anxiety among university students, and nurses at posttest compared to pretest in the PMR group, highlighting the effective role of PMR in anxiety reduction. Besides, two (2) further studies 36 , 56 supported the discussion for PMR by demonstrating a substantial reduction in anxiety outcomes among athletes, and nursing students in the PMR group compared to the control group in the posttest phase. Interestingly, two (2) studies 42 , 50 conducted among university students and nurses, respectively, found a significant reduction in anxiety in the control group, a finding that calls for more research to uncover the underlying causes. However, in contrast to the great majority of the findings, three (3) studies 34 , 49 , 51 found no significant reduction in anxiety levels among university students, beginner athletes, and female nurses, respectively, at posttest compared to pretest in the PMR group.
Lastly, in analyzing depression outcomes, three (3) studies 47 , 51 , 53 found a notable decrease in depression levels among the elders, and female nurses’ posttest compared to pretest in the PMR group, showing PMR’s potential efficacy in battling depression. In addition, one (1) study among elders 47 reported a significant reduction in depression outcomes in the PMR group compared to the control group at the posttest stage. PMR has significant potential for cultivating mental well-being as a non-drug-based intervention, particularly or adults dealing with stress, anxiety, and depression.
Overall, the comprehensive analysis of the PMR studies in this review reveals a spectrum of Cohen’s d effect sizes, spanning from d=0.29 to d=4.57 for stress, suggesting a range from small to large impact. Similarly, the effect sizes for anxiety fall between d=0.25 and d=2.54, indicative of a spectrum from small to large, while for depression, the range of d=0.58 to d=1.95 suggests a medium-to-large effect size. The effect sizes for each PMR studies are displayed in Table 2 .
The Efficacy of PMR combined with other interventions on Stress, Anxiety and Depression. |
Using the “Revised Randomized Controlled Trial Checklist”, 28 the reviewers found eight (8) studies of moderate quality. 66 , 68 , 80 , 81 , 83 , 85 , 86 , 89
Upon the completion of an in-depth review, three (3) different research 80 , 81 , 85 evaluating stress outcomes found a significant decrease in stress levels among nursing students, general adults, and caregivers’ posttest compared to pretest in the group receiving PMR paired with music therapy (MT), mindfulness meditation (MM), and deep breathing (DB), respectively. Furthermore, two (2) additional studies 80 , 83 found a significant reduction in stress outcomes in the PMR group, where PMR was combined with MT, when compared to the control group among nursing students, and nurses, respectively, at the posttest stage, adding to the evidence for the integrative approach.
When it comes to anxiety outcomes, three (3) studies 66 , 68 , 86 clearly demonstrate a significant decrease in levels of anxiety among university students, and caregivers following posttest compared to pretest within the group receiving PMR when coupled with nature sound (NS), MT, and guided imagery (GI), respectively, reinforcing the efficacy of this combined therapeutic approach in managing anxiety. In addition, a study among caregivers of patients 89 found a substantial reduction in anxiety outcomes in the group receiving PMR paired with health education (HE), when compared to the control group at posttest, lending credence to these findings. Nonetheless, one (1) study 81 found no statistically significant decrease in levels of anxiety among general adults at posttest compared to pretest in the group that received PMR alongside MM, highlighting the complexity and variability of coping with anxiety.
In terms of depressive outcomes, only one (1) study 89 demonstrating a significant reduction in depressive outcomes among caregivers of patients at the posttest stage in the group receiving PMR in combination with HE, when compared to the control group.
Using the “Revised Checklist for Quasi-Experimental Studies”, 28 the reviewers identified six (6) studies of high quality, 73 , 74 , 76–79 and one (1) study of moderate quality. 88
Following an extensive assessment, five (5) studies 73 , 74 , 76 , 79 , 88 found a substantial decline in levels of stress among elderlies, general adults, unemployed individuals, male automotive workers, and caregivers, respectively, at the posttest stage compared to pretest in groups receiving PMR alongside relaxation therapy (RT): music, physical exercise and laughter therapy, stress control (SC), counseling services (CS), and DB, respectively, highlighting the significant efficacy of this integrated approach in alleviating stress. Furthermore, three (3) other studies 76 , 77 , 79 strengthen these findings, indicating a significant reduction in stress outcomes among nursing students, unemployed individuals, and male automotive workers at the posttest phase in groups where PMR was administered in conjunction with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), CS, and DB, respectively, when compared to the control group.
In terms of anxiety outcomes, four (4) studies 73 , 74 , 76 , 78 reported a substantial reduction in levels of anxiety among elderlies, general adults, unemployed individuals, and caregivers, respectively, in the posttest as compared to the pretest in groups receiving a combination of PMR with RT: music, physical exercise and laughter therapy, SC, CS, and stress management skills (SMS), respectively. Besides, three (3) further papers 76–78 found a substantial reduction in depressive outcomes among unemployed individuals, nursing students, and caregivers at posttest in the group receiving PMR paired with CS, CBT, and SMS, respectively, when compared to the control group. However, one (1) study 79 contradicted the dominant discoveries, presenting a lack of significant decrease in levels of anxiety among male automotive workers at posttest compared to pretest, and also when compared with the control group, in the group that received PMR combined with DB, indicating the need for a more comprehensive investigation of this therapeutic approach.
When analyzing depression outcomes, reports from three (3) studies 73 , 76 , 78 revealed a significant reduction in levels of depression among elderlies, unemployed individuals, and caregivers, respectively, at the posttest compared to the pretest within the group that received PMR in combination with RT: music, physical exercise and laughter therapy, CS, and SMS, respectively. Along with the previous findings, another two (2) studies 76 , 78 have reported a substantial reduction in depressive outcomes among unemployed individuals, and caregivers, respectively, at the posttest stage in the group that got PMR integrated with CS, and SMS, respectively, when compared to the control group. Two (2) studies, 74 , 79 however, deviated from the majority of outcomes, presenting no significant decrease in symptoms of depression among general adults and male automotive workers, respectively, at posttest compared to pretest in the group receiving PMR alongside SC, and DB, respectively, and also when compared with the control group. Unexpectedly, one (1) study 78 found a significant increase in levels of depression among adults in the wait-list control group at posttest, where no interventions were provided. It is a finding that warrants additional investigation to determine the underlying causes, and therefore highlighting the need for further studies.
Overall, for the PMR combined with other intervention studies, the Cohen’s d effect sizes are ranging from d=0.40 to d=2.24 for stress, signifying an impact spectrum spanning from small to large. Similarly, the effect sizes for anxiety, falling between d=0.15 and d=2.10, indicate a spectrum from small to large impact. In the case of depression, the range of d=0.27 to d=0.74 suggests a small-to-medium effect size. The effect sizes for each study are displayed in Table 3 .
This paper presents a systematic literature review on the efficacy of Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) in adults for stress, anxiety, and depression. Our review identified 46 studies, from sixteen (16) countries, covering 3402 total sample. This review is a pioneering endeavor in that it is the first to systematically assembled and report findings relating to the efficacy of PMR and PMR combined with other interventions among general adult, thus contributing to the current body of knowledge. Furthermore, this review is notable for its comprehensive approach, providing studies employing Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) and Quasi-Experimental Design (QED) research designs. As a result, it provides a thorough view of the many approaches used to examine the efficacy of PMR. This comprehensive approach not only broadens the spectrum of evidence reviewed but also allows for the analysis of a diverse variety of study designs, resulting in a deeper comprehension of PMR’s conceivable effect. Besides, this review attempted to look at the impact of PMR as a stand-alone intervention as well as those that explore PMR in combination with other interventions. By presenting in this way, this review promotes a broad knowledge of PMR’s efficacy in various therapeutic conditions by offering evidence from both methods. The comparison of PMR itself versus PMR paired with various interventions may aid in identifying potential synergistic benefits, directing future study and potential therapeutic application.
Based on the outcome measures, overall, PMR has been demonstrated to be beneficial in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression in adults. When PMR is combined with other interventions, the combined techniques have also consistently exhibited enhanced efficacy, particularly for stress (n=10) and anxiety (n=9). There are a total of 24 studies that support PMR’s efficacy in reducing stress, 21 studies in reducing anxiety, and 11 studies in reducing depression, either on its own or in combination with other interventions.
There is a consistent trend in this review that emerges where the majority of studies using Jacobson’s Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) exercise show that it is beneficial in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression in adults, whether used in its original form 18 or as adapted by later research. 35 , 37 , 55 , 63 , 70 , 90 In our review, we discovered that when people engaged in PMR exercises on their own in private spaces, the lengths of the sessions varied, with the lowest session lasting 5 minutes 45 and the longest lasting 28 minutes. 54 , 61 When combining with other interventions or variables, the shortest duration becomes 15 minutes, 74 while the longest is 37 minutes. 85 In our analysis, we observed that the duration of the PMR exercises, whether shorter or longer, did not significantly influence the outcome measures. Our study shows that there was a pervasive pattern of decreasing mental health outcomes across time. Moreover, our findings show that the regularity, whether daily or only a few days a week, does not significantly change the outcomes when analyzing the frequency of PMR implementation. Regardless of the exact frequency of PMR sessions, the overall trend in the majority of studies consistently demonstrates a reduction in outcome measures.
When delving deeper into individual outcome measures, for stress, one (1) study 59 found no significant reduction in stress level when compared to the control group at posttest. For anxiety, there are five (5) studies 34 , 49 , 51 , 79 , 81 reported no reduction in anxiety at the posttest. Interestingly, there are two (2) studies 42 , 50 that show a significant reduction of anxiety in the control group which calls for more research to uncover the underlying causes. Lastly, the majority of the studies on depression involved elderly people and those who looked after patients and senior citizens. There are three studies 59 , 74 , 79 revealed no significant reduction compared to control groups. Alarmingly, one study 78 even indicated an increase in depression levels post-intervention of a wait-list control group.
For the record, we found an interesting pattern in our thorough review. It seems that statistically insignificant results tend to occur when PMR is explored in the context of a general adult population, without defining or focusing on specific subgroups. 59 , 74 , 81 This recurring trend of non-significant results in wider adult populations raises the possibility that the efficacy of PMR may depend on particular demographic, psychographic, or clinical traits that are unusually absent from a generalized group. However, it does not reduce PMR’s potential benefit in specific therapeutic applications, where its efficacy can be clearly seen. Future studies should investigate the efficacy of PMR in specific demographics or under predetermined circumstances to identify where its advantages are most noticeable.
When measuring the efficacy of PMR combined with other interventions versus PMR as a standalone relaxation technique, there are two (2) studies in this review 66 , 68 that found combining PMR with other variables to be more effective compared to the PMR training alone in their respective study. Korkut, Ülker, Çidem, Şahin 66 found combining PMR with nature sound to be more effective in reducing anxiety among the nursing students, while Robb 68 highlighted that combination of PMR with music to be more effective in reducing anxiety among the university students compared to PMR alone.
Because of its diverse approach, PMR and its combination with other therapies appear to be viable interventions for stress, anxiety, and depression in adults. Combining PMR with different interventions may simultaneously access several relaxing mechanisms. Moreover, additional interventions might concentrate on other psychological or physiological aspects in addition to PMR, which can only alleviate muscular tension and relaxation. Compared to employing PMR alone, this holistic approach may provide a more comprehensive course of relaxation that potentially results in increased efficacy. With the assistance of an increasing amount of evidence and research, 66 , 74 , 76 , 79 these interventions provide an approachable and well-researched way to manage stress, anxiety, and depression.
There is certain limitation to the current review that could be addressed in future research. First, while this research provides invaluable findings, it is crucial to highlight that due to limited resource, it only included studies in English from English-language databases. This linguistic and database limitation may unintentionally exclude important studies published in different languages or databases. Future reviews may thereby strengthen the extent of coverage and generalizability of data by including papers in other languages and expanding the search to non-English databases. This will ensure a more thorough understanding of the efficacy of PMR among adults for stress, anxiety, and depression in varied cultural and language areas.
In conclusion, there has been large amount of evidence that supports the efficacy of PMR in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression among adults. Studies also shows that PMR combined with other interventions are more effective compared when applied by itself. Given these findings, researchers could find it beneficial to consider combining or integrating PMR with other interventions to enhance its potential in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. Future research could also expand on the current review’s findings by incorporating a more targeted goal such as focusing PMR interventions among the wider working population, rather than to mostly health care workers, which may further refine our knowledge of PMR’s potential advantages and appropriate implementation in diverse circumstances.
Authors acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) for funding under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) (FRGS/1/2020/SS0/UTM/02/23).
The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.
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Assessment of mental stress in isolation and confined environment.
Dr. Hasan Al-Nashash, Dr. Fares Al-Shargie and Dr. Usman Tariq
Department of Electrical Engineering
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Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Which of the following approaches to psychology focuses on how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems?, Dr. Grant is conducting research on stress management. Group A received progressive relaxation training prior to test taking, while Group B received no training.
This is an example of, Dr. Grant is conducting research on stress management. Group A received progressive relaxation training prior to test taking, while Group B received no training. Group A is the _____, while Group B is the _____., Dr. Steinguard wants to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between stress and memory.
The reviewers conduct a comprehensive search of five electronic databases; Scopus, Web of Sciences, PubMed, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. ... music, physical exercise and laughter therapy, SC, CS, and stress management skills (SMS), respectively. Besides, ... for funding under the Fundamental Research Grant ...
Question: Dr. Grant is conducting research on stress management. Group A received progressive relaxation training prior to test taking, while Group B received no treatment. Both groups took the test and their scores were analyzed and reported. The independent variable is _____, while the dependent variable is the _____.
Psychology questions and answers. Dr. Grant is conducting research on stress management Group A received progressive relaxation training prior to test taking, while Group B received no training. Group A is the while Group B is the ---- treatment group/placebo group experimental group/control group control group/treatment group placebo group ...
Work stress is a generic term that refers to work-related stimuli (aka job stressors) that may lead to physical, behavioral, or psychological consequences (i.e., strains) that affect both the health and well-being of the employee and the organization. Not all stressors lead to strains, but all strains are a result of stressors, actual or perceived.
Dr. Grant is conducting research on stress management. Group A received relaxation training prior to test taking, while Group B received no treatment. Group A is the _____, while Group B is the _____. B. experimental group / control group 5. Sonja believes the pill her doctor gave her has cured her of her anxiety disorder, even though the pill ...
Dr. Grant conducts research on stress management. Group A receives progressive relaxation training prior to taking the test, while Group B receives no training. Group A is the _____, while Group B is the _____. ... When conducting an experiment on time management, Jamie assigns everyone who arrives before noon to the experimental group and ...
Dr.Grant is conducting research on stress management.Group A received progressive relaxation training prior to test taking, while Group B received no training.Group A is the _____, while Group B is the _____. A)treatment group/placebo group B)experimental group/control group C)control group/treatment group D)placebo group/control group
Another challenge in treating depressed patients is the chronic nature of the disease that often necessitates lifelong drug treatment and, thus, the management of side effects, which may further contribute to the development of certain somatic problems in MDD patients, including type-2 diabetes in TCA-treated patients (Wang et al. 2021) and ...
Nonetheless, the aetiology and pathophysiology of MDD has been the subject of extensive research and there is a vast body of the latest literature that points to new mechanisms for this disorder. Here, we overview the key mechanisms, which include neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, insulin receptor signalling and abnormal myelination.
Question: Dr. Grant conducts research on stress management. Group A receives progressive relaxation training prior to taking the test, while Group B receives no training. Group A is the while Group B is the reve 08 .29 2019_CC_CS-176689Select one:a. treatment group; placebo groupb. experimental group; control groupc.
Dr. Grant conducts research on stress management. Group A receives progressive relaxation training prior to taking the test, while Group B receives no training. Group A is the _____, while Group B is the _____. a. treatment group; placebo group b. experimental group; control group c. control group; treatment group d. placebo group; control group
Managing Ideas, People, and Projects
Selection Criteria. This review includes publications that fit two distinct criteria: (1) Those that explore the effects of PMR on stress, anxiety, and depression in adults, either as a standalone intervention or in combination with additional intervention approaches; and (2) Studies that implement rigorous methodologies, utilizing either a Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) or a Quasi ...
Psy CQ1 Flashcards
The objective of this experiment is to assess mental stress during long-term confinement using multiple neuroimaging modalities with simultaneous subjective and behavioral data. Methods. Brain neural activity reflect cognitive functions. It can be measured directly from the changes in the electrical field or indirectly from blood oxygenation.
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