writing strategies for researching

15 Steps to Good Research

• Define and articulate a research question (formulate a research hypothesis). How to Write a Thesis Statement (Indiana University)
• Identify possible sources of information in many types and formats. Georgetown University Library's Research & Course Guides
• Judge the scope of the project.
• Reevaluate the research question based on the nature and extent of information available and the parameters of the research project.
• Select the most appropriate investigative methods (surveys, interviews, experiments) and research tools (periodical indexes, databases, websites).
• Plan the research project. Writing Anxiety (UNC-Chapel Hill) Strategies for Academic Writing (SUNY Empire State College)
• Retrieve information using a variety of methods (draw on a repertoire of skills).
• Refine the search strategy as necessary.
• Write and organize useful notes and keep track of sources. Taking Notes from Research Reading (University of Toronto) Use a citation manager: Zotero or Refworks
• Evaluate sources using appropriate criteria. Evaluating Internet Sources
• Synthesize, analyze and integrate information sources and prior knowledge. Georgetown University Writing Center
• Revise hypothesis as necessary.
• Use information effectively for a specific purpose.
• Understand such issues as plagiarism, ownership of information (implications of copyright to some extent), and costs of information. Georgetown University Honor Council Copyright Basics (Purdue University) How to Recognize Plagiarism: Tutorials and Tests from Indiana University
• Cite properly and give credit for sources of ideas. MLA Bibliographic Form (7th edition, 2009) MLA Bibliographic Form (8th edition, 2016) Turabian Bibliographic Form: Footnote/Endnote Turabian Bibliographic Form: Parenthetical Reference Use a citation manager: Zotero or Refworks

Adapted from the Association of Colleges and Research Libraries "Objectives for Information Literacy Instruction" , which are more complete and include outcomes. See also the broader "Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education."

• Harvard Library
• Research Guides
• Harvard Graduate School of Design - Frances Loeb Library

Write and Cite

• From Research to Writing
• Academic Integrity
• Using Sources and AI
• Academic Writing

Getting Started

Research support, reading and notetaking.

• GSD Writing Services
• Grants and Fellowships
• Reading, Notetaking, and Time Management
• Theses and Dissertations

Research papers are a conversation between you and other scholars. To write a successful one, you will need to hone several important skills: research, notetaking, analytical thinking, and writing.

On this page you will find resources to support each of these stages. More support is available in the library, so feel free to reach out to us if you have other questions. 

• Frances Loeb Library From the library homepage, you can access all kinds of resources and tools to help with your research.
• GSD Research Guides Start your research by utilizing our curated research guides.
• Manage Your Research Find GSD-approved tools to organize and store your research.
• Ask a Design Librarian If you have a research question and don't know who to ask, submit your question here and FLL library staff will find the answer.
• Research Consultations Meet with a GSD librarian to learn more about our collections, refine your research plan, and learn strategies for locating the sources you need.

On this page you will find resources to help you on the "front end" of your writing journey. Most of these documents and sites focus on reading and notetaking strategies to help you build a research agenda and argument. Also included are a series of resources from the GSD and Harvard for productivity and time management. 

Questions to ask before you start reading:

1. how much time do i have for this text.

If you have more to read than you can realistically complete in the time you have, you will need to be strategic about how to proceed. Powering through as fast as you can for as long as you can will not be efficient or effective. 

2. What do I most need from this text?

Knowing your purpose will help you determine how long you should spend on any one part of that text. If you are reading for class or for research, or if you are reading for background information or to explore an argument, you will use different reading strategies.

3. How can I find what I need from this text?

Once you know what you need, there are strategies for finding it quickly, like pre-reading, skimming, and scanning.

Determining your purpose

Your purpose will become clearer if you first situate the text within a larger context.

Reading for Class

Your professor had a reason for assigning the text, so first try to understand their intention. The professor might tell you their reason or provide reading questions to direct you. You can also infer the purpose from headings and groupings in the syllabus and from how the professor has approached prior readings in past lectures. Looking ahead to how you might use the text in future assignments or projects will also help you decide how much time to spend and what to focus on.

Reading for Research

For independent research, you will first need to decide if a text is even worth reading. Plan ahead by knowing what you need, like background information, theoretical underpinnings, similar arguments to engage with critically, or images and data. Check the source's date and author(s) to determine its relevance and authority. Keep your research goals in mind and try to stay focused on your immediate goals. If you discover a text that interests you but is not for this project, make a note to come back to it later. However, a source that excites your interest and changes your research goals or argument can be worth following now so long as you still have time to make that change. 

Once you decide that a source is worth your time, you will apply your choice of reading strategy based on the type of information the text contains and how you plan to use it. For instance, if you want to use a graphic or obtain biographical information, a quick search would be enough. If you want to challenge the author’s argument, you will need to read more rigorously and slowly.

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Research Process: A Step-By-Step Guide: 4d. Writing Strategies

• Getting Started
• 1a. Books and Ebooks
• 1b. Videos & Images
• 1c. Articles and Databases
• 1d. Internet Resources
• 1e. Periodical Publications
• 1f. Government and Corporate Information
• 1g. One Perfect Source?
• 2a. Know your information need
• 2b. Develop a Research Topic
• 2c. Refine a Topic
• 2d. Research Strategies: Keywords and Subject Headings
• 2e. Research Strategies: Search Strings
• 3a. The CRAAP Method
• 3b. Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• 4a. Incorporate Source Material
• 4b. Plagiarism
• 4c. Copyright, Fair Use, and Appropriation
• 4d. Writing Strategies
• 5a. MLA Formatting
• 5b. MLA Citation Examples
• 5c. APA Formatting
• 5d. APA Citation Examples
• 5e. Chicago Formatting
• 5f. Chicago Examples
• 5g. Annotated Bibliographies
• Visual Literacy

Forms of Notetaking

Use one of these notetaking forms to capture information:

• Summarize : Capture the main ideas of the source succinctly by restating them in your own words.
• Paraphrase : Restate the author's ideas in your own words.
• Quote : Copy the quotation exactly as it appears in the original source. Put quotation marks around the text and note the name of the person you are quoting.

Tips for Taking Notes by Hand

• Use index cards to keep notes and track sources used in your paper.
• Include the citation (i.e., author, title, publisher, date, page numbers, etc.) in MLA format. It will be easier to organize the sources alphabetically when creating the Work Cited page.
• Number the source cards.
• Use only one side to record a single idea, fact or quote from one source. It will be easier to rearrange them later when it comes time to organize your paper.
• Include a heading or key words at the top of the card. 
• Include the Work Cited source card number.
• Include the page number where you found the information.
• Use abbreviations, acronyms, or incomplete sentences to record information to speed up the notetaking process.
• Write down only the information that answers your research questions.
• Use symbols, diagrams, charts or drawings to simplify and visualize ideas.

Example Notecard

Tips for taking notes electronically.

• Keep a separate Work Cited file of the sources you use.
• As you add sources, put them in MLA format.
• Group sources by publication type (i.e., book, article, website).
• Number source within the publication type group.
• For websites, include the URL information.
• Next to each idea, include the source number from the Work Cited file and the page number from the source. See the examples below. Note #A5 and #B2 refer to article source 5 and book source 2 from the Work Cited file.

#A5 p.35: 76.69% of the hyperlinks selected from homepage are for articles and the catalog #B2 p.76: online library guides evolved from the paper pathfinders of the 1960's

• When done taking notes, assign keywords or sub-topic headings to each idea, quote or summary.
• Use the copy and paste feature to group keywords or sub-topic ideas together.
• Back up your master list and note files frequently!

Example Work Cited Card

Why outline.

For research papers, a formal outline can help you keep track of large amounts of information.

How to Create an Outline

To create an outline:

• Place your thesis statement at the beginning.
• List the major points that support your thesis. Label them in Roman Numerals (I, II, III, etc.).
• List supporting ideas or arguments for each major point. Label them in capital letters (A, B, C, etc.).
• If applicable, continue to sub-divide each supporting idea until your outline is fully developed. Label them 1, 2, 3, etc., and then a, b, c, etc.

How to Structure an Outline

Art History Research Paper Example

• Art History Research Paper Outline This is an outline for an art history comparison essay using the point-by-point or splitting structure.

Thesis: Federal regulations need to foster laws that will help protect wetlands, restore those that have been destroyed, and take measures to improve the damange from overdevelopment.

I. Nature's ecosystem

   A. Loss of wetlands nationally

   B. Loss of wetlands in Illinois

      1. More flooding and poorer water quality

      2. Lost ability to prevent floods, clean water and store water

II. Dramatic floods

   A, Cost in dollars and lives

      1. 13 deaths between 1988 and 1998

      2. Cost of $39 million per year

   B. Great Midwestern Flood of 1993

      1. Lost wetlands in IL

      2. Devastation in some states

   C. Flood Prevention

      1. Plants and Soils

      2. Floodplain overflow

III. Wetland laws

   A. Inadequately informed legislators

      1. Watersheds

      2. Interconnections in natural water systems

   B. Water purification

IV. Need to save wetlands

   A. New federal definition

   B. Re-education about interconnectedness

      1. Ecology at every grade level

      2. Education for politicians and developers

      3. Choices in schools and people's lives

Example taken from The Bedford Guide for College Writers (9th ed).

Writing the Paper

Writing research papers can be very challenging.

Knowing how to incorporate your research material can help.

Recommended Books

Microsoft Office Help

If not, you can also visit the  Microsoft Office  website. The site contains a wealth of information including how-to documents,  templates, and training videos.

Recommended Websites

• The Writing Lab at the Academy Resource Center (ARC) The Academy of Art University's Center for Academic Support
• Purdue University's Online Writing Lab (OWL) Includes resources and instructional materials to assist with a variety of writing projects.
• University of Wisconsin's Writing Center Includes instructional materials that were developed for teaching in the Writing Center.

Literature Review

A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes within a certain time period.  It can be a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis.

Sources included in a literature review may include: books, peer-reviewed articles, newspaper articles, videos, conference proceedings, and websites. You should only include sources that are relevant, recent and reputable.

Source: University of North Carolina's Writing Center

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Write Effectively

Writing, including publication, is critical to conveying science, and is often an important indicator of success in a c/t research career. Depending on the document you are writing – a grant, proposal, article, or another format – there are a variety of styles and approaches to consider. Explore the resources below to learn to write effectively and publish across several  mediums.

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The sections below provide strategies, organizing tips and resources to help you become a successful writer. 

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Related courses, how to design a clinical trial: principles & protocol development.

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Introduction

This textbook will help guide you through the process of writing a college-level research paper. While there are many approaches and strategies for doing so, this textbook will divide the process into four different writing projects:

• an annotated bibliography
• a research proposal
• a literature review
• a research essay

Each of these projects is a distinct genre that you will likely encounter in different academic disciplines and professions outside of a composition classroom.

Our goal is to give you a broad sense of these genres as separate but closely connected steps in the research process. Taken together, these projects will give you a strong foundation in research writing, with an eye towards how research writing skills fit within other disciplines and professions.

We hope that this textbook and the resources it gathers will help you feel more confident about your writing as you learn the steps of the research process.

I. Guiding Principles

You will notice some specific choices and themes throughout the chapters of the book. They have informed the authors, editors, librarians, and instructors who helped assemble it. In this section, we lay out those key guiding principles.

Research is a Conversation

When we engage in research, we contribute to an existing topic or discussion. According to Joseph Moxley and Grace Veach, for centuries, scholars have imagined research and argumentative writing much like a conversation (2021). A conversation is a cooperative activity between two or more people, and each conversation is unique to the people who take part in it. Conversations can go on for hours, days, or even decades among different participants who may come and go, and those conversations develop a unique tone, history, and shared knowledge and assumptions.

An essential part of the research process involves familiarizing yourself with the conversation surrounding your topic: the key voices, facts, ideas, and conventions. As you learn more about whatever topic you research, you will enter into this conversation, refining your own voice as you determine what you will contribute to that conversation.

This is one of the guiding metaphors in composition studies and a guiding principle in this book. When we write, we engage with the ideas of others by listening to what they have said before us. After getting a clear sense of what has been said, we can add something new to the ongoing conversation by placing our ideas in relation to those who have come before us. Our contribution is not the end of the conversation, but rather part of its ongoing engagement with complex ideas and issues.

Here is a short video from the Oklahoma State University Libraries that highlights the importance of thinking about research as a conversation:

Open Access is Collaborative

This book is an Open Electronic Resource, or OER. OERs are free, open access educational materials. Whether this is a text assigned for your class or an additional resource you have sought out on your own, we are committed to keeping this material free and accessible to all. Here is a link to Creative Commons , where you can learn more about open access materials.

Not only do OERs make educational material easier to access, they also encourage collaboration among students and educators. This textbook is the product of several authors, editors, librarians, and research assistants, along with feedback from countless students and instructors.

Throughout, we have included additional OER materials linked throughout the chapters and appendices, including images, infographics, and videos. Just as the research process is joining a conversation, we see the composition classroom as a collaborative space for sharing ideas, educational materials, and writing strategies. We hope you benefit from learning alongside these resources as much as we did from incorporating them into the book.

Genres are Determined by Rhetorical Expectations

This text focuses on the genres you will be writing in your courses and key components in the process of composing them. From a sociolinguistic perspective, a “genre” is defined as a communication activity with a shared goal established prior to the event. This means that the author and audience already understand the rhetorical purpose of the text before they write or read it, even if they do not know the content. In this book, we will discuss genres that inform and document, plan and persuade, review and synthesize, debate and convince.

Each genre has a set of commonly accepted forms and structures that enact its objectives, although these will vary between communities of practice such as workplaces, academic disciplines, and cultural centers. Literature reviews in an engineering journal will look very different than literature reviews in a psychology journal, although they will share a similar purpose for their audiences and the same underlying form.

It is important to note that genres are only relatively set—as different needs arise, genres evolve to fit the new goals. Scholars have described the recognizable characteristics of genres as the “visible effects of human action” (Hart-Davidson, 2016, p. 39). This text focuses on the role and purposes of a genre, and discussions of form only point out the fundamental structures needed to enact these goals—always observe your context, ask your instructor, and look at examples of the genre within your chosen discipline for needed specifics.

Language Practices are Shaped by Discourse Communities

Like genre, language and language practices also change over time. Language preferences evolve within all communities, including academic and professional ones. We all know that we change the way we speak and write depending on our audience, and academic disciplines are no exception. Different fields of studies and professions have very different expectations about language practices.

For example, a common piece of advice offered to developing writers is to avoid using the passive voice (“a question was asked ” or “a mistake was made ”). Many teachers explain that the passive voice hides who is performing the action (who asked the question or who made the mistake). In the sciences, the passive voice might be needed for that very reason. In a lab experiment, it doesn’t matter who prepared the samples or tests, because it shouldn’t matter as long as it is done properly. You’ll likely see a lot of passive voice, like “the subjects were given …” and “the results were analyzed …,” in order to make the experiment appear as objective as possible.

For these reasons, understanding and sharing in the rhetorical practices and objectives of a community of practice can lead to mutual understanding more effectively than grammar lessons. Studies of error perception show that the kinds of errors readers notice vary widely and are highly subjective in the degree to which they affect the reader’s opinion of a writer (Boetteger & Emory-Moore, 2018; Lunsford & Lunsford, 2008). You will not find prescriptive language or grammar instruction in this text. The authors of this guide uphold all students’ rights to their own choice of language practice and growth.

Writing is Knowledge-Construction and Inquiry

Writing is the tangible demonstration of thought. We don’t just write down things we know—we write to think through problems, to organize our ideas, and to make new connections and discoveries. In other words, writing is a way to create new knowledge for ourselves and others, not just a way to show others what we already understand. This is a result of the recursive nature of the research, reading, and writing process. There is a magic to discovering that a research topic even exists, that other people are interested in the same topics as you—reading the research of others helps to give our own understanding of the world balance and depth. But many people—students, teachers, folks making grocery lists, or people leaving instructions for the dog-sitter—often find that they never understand a topic as much as they do after they have written it down.

Do not always think of your writing as a quest to write perfect sentences and paragraphs; striving to make yourself understood is well and good, but don’t forget that writing is something you also do for yourself as a learner. Writing something down can inspire new ideas that lead to new research, new reading and information accumulation—and then more writing and rewriting. A part of writing is the desire to know more, to work through the logic of a problem—to inquire . When we say “Writing is Inquiry,” we invoke a conception of writing as exploration and discovery, and the writer as explorer and detective.

Library Referral: Research Is an Ongoing Conversation

(by Annie R. Armstrong)

You’ve already heard that research is a conversation. To be clear, it’s not a single, “one and done” type of conversation; it’s more ongoing. Maybe you start the conversation with a kernel of previous knowledge on the topic. You’ve looked at Wikipedia, done a quick Google search, read an article or listened to a podcast. You know just enough to start listening to the conversation. Then you talk to someone who knows a little more than you, and you realize that there are gaps that you need to fill.

So you take your research to the next level. You write down more specific questions. You turn these questions into keywords and search for articles on more specific aspects of your topic (see the link Choosing keywords for guidance). The new batch of articles leads to new ideas. You’re starting to develop your expertise. Now you need to circle back to the conversation and share what you’ve learned, or maybe even clear up some false assumptions you made earlier on. This might seem like backtracking, but you’re doing it right! The research is reforming your knowledge base and fine-tuning your questions. It’s all priming you to have a more informed conversation.

II. The Research Process

If you ask anyone what the research process is like, you’ll get different answers from each person you ask. This is because after a lot of trial and error, everyone finds a process that works especially well for them. Maybe right now you feel that you write your best work the night before it’s due, and after interacting with this book, you’ll learn that your first draft probably shouldn’t be your last. There’s really no perfect way to write other than to practice doing so. As you read through this book, look out for the various strategies and writing tips offered, and try them out to get a sense of what does and doesn’t work for you.

One thing most people will agree on is that research takes time ! For this reason, you’ll want to set goals for your writing and keep in mind that you may have to repeat steps multiple times. For example, you may decide to revisit sources throughout your research process. When you reread these sources, keep in mind that your thesis may have altered since you last read it, and your new task is to reread it with an open mind and new goals. Give yourself time to reread sources and to decide whether they’re still relevant to your work. And keep in mind that you will always have something to read—whether that be a source or your own paper when you’re making revisions.

Also, keep in mind that you’re always rereading and revising your own writing. The four writing projects described throughout the book are meant to build off one another, so you may find yourself repeating a lot of information or rephrasing in a new way. Although this can be a bit frustrating at times, think about each project like a conversation with a person who’s just not seeing your point. It’s crucial and even helpful to repeat yourself so that you can help them see your stance clearly.

Citing throughout your project is also helpful to your reader, so that they can know where your thoughts are coming from and who you’re in conversation with. Citing can take some time, so try your best to figure out whether you prefer citing as you work or leaving it as a final step. However, as you’ll see throughout this book, citing is a must across all the disciplines. Not only does it show that you know what you’re talking about, based on your own research, but it also shows that you know how to join a conversation and acknowledge other people at the table. Keep in mind that citing also helps you avoid plagiarizing someone else’s or your own work. At whichever stage of the writing process you decide to cite, leave little reminders for yourself so that you don’t forget!

As you’ll soon see, research is very messy, redundant, and technical. But it can also be very rewarding and fun to follow your thoughts into research, discover what you have to say, and consider who needs to hear it. Remember not to get lost in the recursiveness of the process, but instead to immerse yourself in it. You’ll soon learn that the strategies and moves you make in academic writing can benefit you across all the disciplines.

How to Use Sources

Evaluating the reliability of sources can be a sticky process. In this book, we address and then move beyond the simple “reliable versus unreliable” binary. We encourage you to start by asking yourself how you will use the source and for what purpose.

Are you looking for a source you can use to build a logical argument about the need for the COVID-19 vaccination or boosters, for example? The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website, which contains information written by scientists and physicians, would be an appropriate source for scientific expertise. Or are you looking for examples of how celebrities influence their followers when it comes to understanding the vaccine? Then you might want to look at Nicki Minaj’s tweet of Sept. 13th, 2021, and analyze that—not as if Minaj were a scientist who had studied infectious diseases and vaccines, but as a celebrity who has the power to quickly share her ideas with a large audience and who, it turns out, circulated inaccurate information.

This might lead you to ask a larger question about how cults of personality limit critical thinking. In that case, although the tweet itself contains inaccurate information and could be considered unreliable, you might still use it in your paper as a source. You could analyze the tweet (and the flurry of responses by fans, reporters, and government officials) as part of the larger discourse around the circulation of vaccine (dis)information. Throughout the book, we’ll ask you to think about your sources like this: not just is it reliable, but in what ways can a source be put to use?

In this text, we envision research as a conversation because it encourages you to find sources that speak to you and allow you to develop ideas that will eventually become the basis for your thesis. In other words, your job as a researcher is much more interesting and rigorous than merely gathering and presenting information. Research should not be limited to asserting your opinion and then finding evidence to support it; that’s a monologue rather than a conversation. Engaging in research as a conversation means that the sources you find inform your views. That is, you allow sources–those you consider reliably written by authorities on the subject—to modify your position.

The recursive nature of drafting and revising your writing works much the same way. Thus, you draft an assignment, participate in peer review in class, and/or take your draft to your local writing center to get feedback. Then you revise your draft because your partner’s comments and observations inform your essay. Then, perhaps, your instructor comments on your draft, which once again informs your position, and you revise.

You may repeat any number of these processes from getting peer or instructor feedback, rewriting, and researching. Repeating these steps is more common in advanced academic research and professional writing. Researchers may get feedback from colleagues or at conferences and revise their work before trying to publish it. Writers in all types of professions may need their work reviewed by team members, supervisors, technical editors, or lawyers in order to make sure they are achieving their goal.

Library Referral: Library Help

Libraries aren’t just buildings that give you access to books and articles. They house a range of employees—including librarians—who are paid to help you with any and every aspect of the research process. As a librarian myself, I spend many more hours meeting with students on Zoom, teaching research classes, and answering questions on chat and online than I do just handling books.

Talking to students about their research is what makes my job fun and interesting. Seek us out at any point of the research process: at the beginning, when you’re mulling over your topic; in the middle, when you’re starting to find sources; and towards the end, when you’re looking for more sources to fill in the gaps in your research or you need help with citations.

We don’t expect you to come to us at any particular stage of “readiness”; we’re trained to meet you where you are and figure out what might be most relevant for your research needs. We want to help make your research experience as painless and productive as we can. Most libraries offer research help both online and in person.

III. Overview of the Book

The rest of the book is divided into four chapters, one for each genre. In chapter one, you will learn about the annotated bibliography, where you will start your research and record some of your insights about the first sources you read. Chapters two and three are interchangeable: some instructors may have you switch the order of these writing projects. In chapter two, you will write a proposal, where you outline your plan to research your topic, identifying questions to ask and areas to explore. In chapter three, you will write a literature review, where you provide an overview of the main ideas, controversies, and conversations surrounding your topic.

After you have completed these three writing projects, you will have a good sense of your topic and should feel much more confident to add your own voice to the conversation by writing an argument-driven research essay. The final chapter provides strategies for structuring your argument and organizing your research for your essay. Three appendices are included at the end, with additional resources for writing, reading, and research strategies.

Each chapter has a similar structure. It provides sections that help familiarize you with the genre of each writing project:

• Rhetorical Consideratio ns spotlight aspects of the genre that may need specific attention.
• The Genre Across the Disciplines provides real examples of the genre as you might encounter it later in your academic or professional career.
• Research Strategies highlight parts of the research process essential to your writing project.
• Reading Strategies help you navigate the often-difficult texts you might encounter in your research, as well as help you think about how those texts might be put to use in your project.
• Writing Strategies offer different ways to help facilitate the writing process, giving advice about issues writers of all levels grapple with.
• Librarian Referrals give you practical advice from research librarians to help you find and evaluate sources (you’ve already seen a couple in this chapter).
• More Resources provide additional OER materials within the text to help you throughout the research and writing process. Additional OER materials can also be found in the appendices.

If you’ve never written a long research paper before, don’t worry. We’ll help guide you throughout the entire process. By the end of this book, you will be well-versed in your research topic. Whether you are still trying to find a topic to research or have a good idea of what you want to write about, this book will guide you through the research process and build confidence in your ability as a writer.

Boettger, R. & Emory-Moore, L. (2018). Analyzing error perception and recognition among professional communication practitioners and academics. Business and Professional Communication Quarterly, 81(4), 462–484. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329490618803740

Hart-Davidson, B. (2015). Genres are enacted by writers and readers. In Adler-Kassner, L., & Wardle, E. (Eds.), Naming what we know : Threshold concepts of writing studies . (Classroom edition, pp. 39-40). Boulder: University Press of Colorado.

Lunsford, A. & Lunsford, K. J. (2008). “Mistakes are a fact of life”: A national comparative study. College Composition and Communication , 59(4), 781–806.

Moxley, J. & Veach, G. (2021). “Scholarship as a Conversation.” Writing Commons. https://writingcommons.org/section/information-literacy/information-literacy-perspectives-practices/scholarship-as-a-conversation/

“Inform Your Thinking Episode 1: Research is a conversation.” (2016). Oklahoma State University. YouTube . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DmbO3JX5xvU

Writing for Inquiry and Research Copyright © 2023 by Jeffrey Kessler, Mark Bennett, and Sarah Primeau is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing for Inquiry and Research

(3 reviews)

Jeffrey Kessler, University of Illinois Chicago

Mark Bennett, University of Illinois Chicago

Sarah Primeau, University of Illinois Chicago

Charitianne Williams, University of Illinois Chicago

Virginia Costello, University of Illinois Chicago

Annie R. Armstrong, University of Illinois Chicago

Copyright Year: 2023

ISBN 13: 9781946011213

Publisher: University of Illinois Library - Urbana

Language: English

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Reviewed by Jason Parks, Professor of English, Anderson University on 9/1/24

While the introduction cited four specific writing projects covered in this book: an annotated bibliography, a research proposal, a literature review, and a research essay, the appendices and extra material at the end of each chapter provides even... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

While the introduction cited four specific writing projects covered in this book: an annotated bibliography, a research proposal, a literature review, and a research essay, the appendices and extra material at the end of each chapter provides even more than you might expect. I was immediately copying links and bookmarking pages once I read through each chapter. I would definitely use this in a first-year writing course.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

Everything is clear, up to date, and unbiased. This was clearly put together by experts who understand the practical needs of college students.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

Everything in this book is recent and applicable to students currently (Fall 2024) writing research papers. There's even some discussion of AI, though updates will be needed as we continue to figure out how to integrate new technologies into approaches to writing instruction.

Clarity rating: 5

Everything is succinct and direct. Any jargon that is used (such as metadiscourse), includes videos and explanations. The videos are especially helpful in clarifying terms.

Consistency rating: 5

Everything is cohesive and consistent in terms of framework. While each chapter has a different focus, they all work together and point toward the same objectives of helping students make sense of the research and writing process.

Modularity rating: 4

Everything is well-organized and headings are clear. The videos were easy to access and all the links were well marked. I especially liked the additional sections at the end of the chapters that linked to more textbooks and writing center resources.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Each chapter guides students through the process of compositing/creating a specific project. There were plenty of breaks between sections with charts, diagrams, and videos.

Interface rating: 5

The text was all consistent in terms of font, headings, and visuals. There were no complicated interfaces, mostly just simple scrolling through the information.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

Everything was professionally edited and clearly written.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The text was very neutral. The examples were not limited to and didn't favor any specific background, race, or ethnicity. The video links and other topics raised in the examples had plenty of variety.

I was especially impressed with the efficiency and level of expertise. Each chapter was paired down to key points and useful tips that are relevant to current research on first-year writing programs. I thought the videos were all helpful and easy to access. I also appreciated the extra links at the end of each chapter. I will definitely be using this in my first-year research courses this semester. There was only one link to the following OER resource that didn't work: Writing a Research Paper, A Potential Method for Jerry Rhodes, "The Main Steps of Research Paper Writing". Otherwise, you could share this with students right now. If I was going to write my own textbook for an introductory research course, this is definitely the kind of book I'd want to write. After 17 years of teaching first-year composition and research, I've seen the full range of first-year research and rhetoric textbooks, and I feel like this is the kind of resource that we need, although you'd definitely want to pair this with your own examples and materials, especially if you have specific themes and/or objectives for your classes. It's not prescriptive and is useful as guide/handbook for any of the individual projects, so the chapters can definitely be used separately.

Reviewed by Terry Lovern, Adjunct Instructor, Radford University on 5/27/24

The book is quite comprehensive, showcasing the experience from all the authors. The authors' interdisciplinary approach works well, adding to the text's depth and breadth. Incorporating explanatory videos in the sections is an excellent choice,... read more

The book is quite comprehensive, showcasing the experience from all the authors. The authors' interdisciplinary approach works well, adding to the text's depth and breadth. Incorporating explanatory videos in the sections is an excellent choice, which eliminates the need to add more tutorials via YouTube. It covers all the necessary steps for conducting and composing a research paper.

Although the authors leave out important topics like emergent digital technologies and plagiarism, they at least acknowledge those shortcomings as they advocate that writing is always a human-centric action. An instructor could easily supplement other materials to cover these missing topics though.

The authors focus on what they view as the most important, evergreen steps of research writing. This approach will help the text endure over time as opposed to needed constant updates for things like digital media. Technology could be supplemented with other OER texts or by the instructor.

The book is clear and concise. First-year students and instructors alike should have no problem following the text due to its well organized content.

The book has no consistency problems. The authors use a simple, easy to follow organization of topics; their accumulated experience with first-year writing keeps the content consistent.

Modularity rating: 5

The authors do an excellent job of breaking the research writing process into easy to use sections. Assigning them out of order in class would be confusing; however, an instructor could spend a week or longer on a chapter, adding anything else they feel is necessary.

Excellent organization. Each section is distinct and separate, but shows how the entire research process is connected and scaffolded. The appendices are also laid out well and organized.

No interface issues or problems with the text itself.

No discernible surface errors are in the text.

The book is fairly neutral, so any first-year student or instructor should be able to use it. The text contains nothing culturally insensitive or offensive and focuses on how to do research writing.

This would make a great text for anyone teaching the research writing component of first-year composition. The step-by-step structure makes it easy to scaffold and incorporate into a syllabus schedule. The book would also be excellent for mentoring TA's who are learning to teach the material and for new instructors who might want more structure to their course plans.

Reviewed by Angelica Rivera, Director, Northeastern Illinois University on 4/16/24

This book consists of a Preface, Introduction, Chapters I thru Chapter IV. and it also has an Appendix I to Appendix III. Chapter I covers the Annotated Bibliography, Chapter II covers the Proposal, Chapter III covers the Literature Review and... read more

This book consists of a Preface, Introduction, Chapters I thru Chapter IV. and it also has an Appendix I to Appendix III. Chapter I covers the Annotated Bibliography, Chapter II covers the Proposal, Chapter III covers the Literature Review and Chapter IV covers the Research Essay. Each section is broken down into smaller sections to break down each topic. The book is written by 3 different authors who are experts in their field and who write about different writing genres. The authors are interdisciplinary in their approach which means students in various disciplines can use the manual to begin their inquiry process and continue with their research process. This book also has short videos that provide explanations, and references after every chapter to provide additional learning resources. Appendix I covers Reading Strategies, Appendix II covers Writing Strategies and Appendix III covers Research Strategies. Appendix I and Appendix II also have additional resources for reading and writing strategies. This book will help most first year students who are transitioning from high school to college.

This book is accessible for first year students who are in English, Composition or First year experience courses. However, the authors note that there are some limits to the topics addressed as the text does not cover research methods, databases, plagiarism and emerging writing technologies. The authors believe that writing is a human based process regardless of the tools and technologies that one uses when writing.

This book is well researched and will survive the test of time as it is accessible and will serve as a reference tool for a student who is looking to develop their writing question and develop their research approach.

This book is well researched, well organized and well written.

There was consistency throughout the text as all of the authors had experience with working with first year students and/or with the writing process.

The first 3 chapters can be assigned in any order but the fourth chapter should be the 4th step as that part consists of writing the actual research essay. This book is not meant to be used by itself and thus provides additional bibliographic sources and topics to further develop one’s knowledge of the writing process.

This book is written in the logical process of developing a research question and then conducting the research. An instructor can easily assign these chapters in chronological order and it will help the student to brainstorm to create their question and then follow the steps to conduct their research.

There were no issues with the books interface.

I found this manuscript to be well written and it contained no visible grammatical errors.

I found this book to be neutral and accessible to all students irrespective of their various backgrounds.

I give this book 5 stars because it helps students and instructors break down the research process into smaller steps which can be completed in a semester-long course in research writing.

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• Chapter 1: Annotated Bibliography
• Chapter 2: Proposal
• Chapter 3: Literature Review
• Chapter 4: Research Essay
• Appendix I: Writing Strategies
• Appendix II: Reading Strategies
• Appendix III: Research Strategies

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Writing for Inquiry and Research guides students through the composition process of writing a research paper. The book divides this process into four chapters that each focus on a genre connected to research writing: the annotated bibliography, proposal, literature review, and research essay. Each chapter provides significant guidance with reading, writing, and research strategies, along with significant examples and links to external resources. This book serves to help students and instructors with a writing-project-based approach, transforming the research process into an accessible series of smaller, more attainable steps for a semester-long course in research writing. Additional resources throughout the book, as well as in three appendices, allow for students and instructors to explore the many facets of the writing process together.

About the Contributors

Jeffrey C. Kessler is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Illinois Chicago. His research and teaching interrogate the intersections of writing, fiction, and critical university studies. He has published about the works of Oscar Wilde, Henry James, Vernon Lee, and Walter Pater. He earned his PhD from Indiana University.

Mark Bennett has served as director of the University of Illinois Chicago’s (UIC) First-Year Writing Program since 2012. He earned his PhD in English from UIC in 2013. His primary research interests are in composition studies and rhetoric, with a focus on writing program administration, course placement, outcomes assessment, international student education, and AI writing.

Sarah Primeau serves as the associate director of the First-Year Writing Program and teaches first-year writing classes at University of Illinois Chicago. Sarah has presented her work at the Conference on College Composition and Communication, the Council of Writing Program Administrators Conference, and the Cultural Rhetorics Conference. She holds a PhD in Rhetoric and Composition from Wayne State University, where she focused on composition pedagogy, cultural rhetorics, writing assessment, and writing program administration.

Charitianne Williams is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Illinois Chicago focused on teaching first-year composition and writing center studies. When she’s not teaching or thinking about teaching, she’s thinking about writing.

For more than twenty years, Virginia Costello has been teaching a variety of English composition, literature, and gender studies courses. She received her Ph.D. from Stony Brook University in 2010 and is presently Senior Lecturer in the Department of English at University of Illinois Chicago. Early in her career, she studied anarcho-catholicism through the work of Dorothy Day and The Catholic Worker Movement. She completed research at the International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam and has published articles on T.S. Eliot, Emma Goldman, and Bernard Shaw. More recently, she presented her work at the Modern Studies Association conference (Portland, OR, 2022), Conference on College Composition and Communication (Chicago, Il, 2023) and Comparative and Continental Philosophy Circle (Tallinn, Estonia, 2022 and Bogotá, Columbia, 2023). Her research interests include prison reform/abolition, archē in anarchism, and Zen Buddhism.

Annie Armstrong has been a reference and instruction librarian at the Richard J. Daley Library at the University of Illinois Chicago since 2000 and has served as the Coordinator of Teaching & Learning Services since 2007. She serves as the library’s liaison to the College of Education and the Department of Psychology. Her research focuses on enhancing and streamlining the research experience of academic library users through in-person and online information literacy instruction.

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• Knowledge Base
• Starting the research process

A Beginner's Guide to Starting the Research Process

When you have to write a thesis or dissertation , it can be hard to know where to begin, but there are some clear steps you can follow.

The research process often begins with a very broad idea for a topic you’d like to know more about. You do some preliminary research to identify a  problem . After refining your research questions , you can lay out the foundations of your research design , leading to a proposal that outlines your ideas and plans.

This article takes you through the first steps of the research process, helping you narrow down your ideas and build up a strong foundation for your research project.

Table of contents

Step 1: choose your topic, step 2: identify a problem, step 3: formulate research questions, step 4: create a research design, step 5: write a research proposal, other interesting articles.

First you have to come up with some ideas. Your thesis or dissertation topic can start out very broad. Think about the general area or field you’re interested in—maybe you already have specific research interests based on classes you’ve taken, or maybe you had to consider your topic when applying to graduate school and writing a statement of purpose .

Even if you already have a good sense of your topic, you’ll need to read widely to build background knowledge and begin narrowing down your ideas. Conduct an initial literature review to begin gathering relevant sources. As you read, take notes and try to identify problems, questions, debates, contradictions and gaps. Your aim is to narrow down from a broad area of interest to a specific niche.

Make sure to consider the practicalities: the requirements of your programme, the amount of time you have to complete the research, and how difficult it will be to access sources and data on the topic. Before moving onto the next stage, it’s a good idea to discuss the topic with your thesis supervisor.

>>Read more about narrowing down a research topic

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So you’ve settled on a topic and found a niche—but what exactly will your research investigate, and why does it matter? To give your project focus and purpose, you have to define a research problem .

The problem might be a practical issue—for example, a process or practice that isn’t working well, an area of concern in an organization’s performance, or a difficulty faced by a specific group of people in society.

Alternatively, you might choose to investigate a theoretical problem—for example, an underexplored phenomenon or relationship, a contradiction between different models or theories, or an unresolved debate among scholars.

To put the problem in context and set your objectives, you can write a problem statement . This describes who the problem affects, why research is needed, and how your research project will contribute to solving it.

>>Read more about defining a research problem

Next, based on the problem statement, you need to write one or more research questions . These target exactly what you want to find out. They might focus on describing, comparing, evaluating, or explaining the research problem.

A strong research question should be specific enough that you can answer it thoroughly using appropriate qualitative or quantitative research methods. It should also be complex enough to require in-depth investigation, analysis, and argument. Questions that can be answered with “yes/no” or with easily available facts are not complex enough for a thesis or dissertation.

In some types of research, at this stage you might also have to develop a conceptual framework and testable hypotheses .

>>See research question examples

The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It involves making decisions about the type of data you need, the methods you’ll use to collect and analyze it, and the location and timescale of your research.

There are often many possible paths you can take to answering your questions. The decisions you make will partly be based on your priorities. For example, do you want to determine causes and effects, draw generalizable conclusions, or understand the details of a specific context?

You need to decide whether you will use primary or secondary data and qualitative or quantitative methods . You also need to determine the specific tools, procedures, and materials you’ll use to collect and analyze your data, as well as your criteria for selecting participants or sources.

>>Read more about creating a research design

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Finally, after completing these steps, you are ready to complete a research proposal . The proposal outlines the context, relevance, purpose, and plan of your research.

As well as outlining the background, problem statement, and research questions, the proposal should also include a literature review that shows how your project will fit into existing work on the topic. The research design section describes your approach and explains exactly what you will do.

You might have to get the proposal approved by your supervisor before you get started, and it will guide the process of writing your thesis or dissertation.

>>Read more about writing a research proposal

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

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Encyclopedia for Writers

Writing with artificial intelligence, the ultimate blueprint: a research-driven deep dive into the 13 steps of the writing process.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - Professor of English - USF

This article provides a comprehensive, research-based introduction to the major steps , or strategies , that writers work through as they endeavor to communicate with audiences . Since the 1960s, the writing process has been defined to be a series of steps , stages, or strategies. Most simply, the writing process is conceptualized as four major steps: prewriting , drafting , revising , editing . That model works really well for many occasions. Yet sometimes you'll face really challenging writing tasks that will force you to engage in additional steps, including, prewriting , inventing , drafting , collaborating , researching , planning , organizing , designing , rereading , revising , editing , proofreading , sharing or publishing . Expand your composing repertoire -- your ability to respond with authority , clarity , and persuasiveness -- by learning about the dispositions and strategies of successful, professional writers.

Table of Contents

Like water cascading to the sea, flow feels inevitable, natural, purposeful. Yet achieving flow is a state of mind that can be difficult to achieve. It requires full commitment to the believing gam e (as opposed to the doubting game ).

What are the Steps of the Writing Process?

Since the 1960s, it has been popular to describe the writing process as a series of steps or stages . For simple projects, the writing process is typically defined as four major steps:

• drafting  

This simplified approach to writing is quite appropriate for many exigencies–many calls to write . Often, e.g., we might read an email quickly, write a response, and then send it: write, revise, send.

However, in the real world, for more demanding projects — especially in high-stakes workplace writing or academic writing at the high school and college level — the writing process involve additional  steps,  or  strategies , such as 

• collaboration
• researching
• proofreading
• sharing or publishing.  

Related Concepts: Mindset ; Self Regulation

Summary – Writing Process Steps

The summary below outlines the major steps writers work through as they endeavor to develop an idea for an audience .

1. Prewriting

Prewriting refers to all the work a writer does on a writing project before they actually begin writing .

Acts of prewriting include

• Prior to writing a first draft, analyze the context for the work. For instance, in school settings students may analyze how much of their grade will be determined by a particular assignment. They may question how many and what sources are required and what the grading criteria will be used for critiquing the work.
• To further their understanding of the assignment, writers will question who the audience is for their work, what their purpose is for writing, what style of writing their audience expects them to employ, and what rhetorical stance is appropriate for them to develop given the rhetorical situation they are addressing. (See the document planner heuristic for more on this)
• consider employing rhetorical appeals ( ethos , pathos , and logos ), rhetorical devices , and rhetorical modes they want to develop once they begin writing
• reflect on the voice , tone , and persona they want to develop
• Following rhetorical analysis and rhetorical reasoning , writers decide on the persona ; point of view ; tone , voice and style of writing they hope to develop, such as an academic writing prose style or a professional writing prose style
• making a plan, an outline, for what to do next.

2. Invention

Invention is traditionally defined as an initial stage of the writing process when writers are more focused on discovery and creative play. During the early stages of a project, writers brainstorm; they explore various topics and perspectives before committing to a specific direction for their discourse .

In practice, invention can be an ongoing concern throughout the writing process. People who are focused on solving problems and developing original ideas, arguments , artifacts, products, services, applications, and  texts are open to acts of invention at any time during the writing process.

Writers have many different ways to engage in acts of invention, including

• What is the exigency, the call to write ?
• What are the ongoing scholarly debates in the peer-review literature?
• What is the problem ?
• What do they read? watch? say? What do they know about the topic? Why do they believe what they do? What are their beliefs, values, and expectations ?
• What rhetorical appeals — ethos (credibility) , pathos (emotion) , and logos (logic) — should I explore to develop the best response to this exigency , this call to write?
• What does peer-reviewed research say about the subject?
• What are the current debates about the subject?
• Embrace multiple viewpoints and consider various approaches to encourage the generation of original ideas.
• How can I experiment with different media , genres , writing styles , personas , voices , tone
• Experiment with new research methods
• Write whatever ideas occur to you. Focus on generating ideas as opposed to writing grammatically correct sentences. Get your thoughts down as fully and quickly as you can without critiquing them.
• Use heuristics to inspire discovery and creative thinking: Burke’s Pentad ; Document Planner , Journalistic Questions , The Business Model Canvas
• Embrace the uncertainty that comes with creative exploration.
• Listen to your intuition — your felt sense — when composing
• Experiment with different writing styles , genres , writing tools, and rhetorical stances
• Play the believing game early in the writing process

3. Researching

Research refers to systematic investigations that investigators carry out to discover new  knowledge , test knowledge claims , solve  problems , or develop new texts , products, apps, and services.

During the research stage of the writing process, writers may engage in

• Engage in customer discovery interviews and  survey research  in order to better understand the  problem space . Use  surveys , interviews, focus groups, etc., to understand the stakeholder’s s (e.g., clients, suppliers, partners) problems and needs
• What can you recall from your memory about the subject?
• What can you learn from informal observation?
• What can you learn from strategic searching of the archive on the topic that interests you?
• Who are the thought leaders?
• What were the major turns to the conversation ?
• What are the current debates on the topic ?
• Mixed research methods , qualitative research methods , quantitative research methods , usability and user experience research ?
• What citation style is required by the audience and discourse community you’re addressing? APA | MLA .

4. Collaboration

Collaboration  refers to the act of working with others to exchange ideas, solve problems, investigate subjects ,  coauthor   texts , and develop products and services.

Collaboration can play a major role in the writing process, especially when authors coauthor documents with peers and teams , or critique the works of others .

Acts of collaboration include

• Paying close attention to what others are saying, acknowledging their input, and asking clarifying questions to ensure understanding.
• Expressing ideas, thoughts, and opinions in a concise and understandable manner, both verbally and in writing.
• Being receptive to new ideas and perspectives, and considering alternative approaches to problem-solving.
• Adapting to changes in project goals, timelines, or team dynamics, and being willing to modify plans when needed.
• Distributing tasks and responsibilities fairly among team members, and holding oneself accountable for assigned work.
• valuing and appreciating the unique backgrounds, skills, and perspectives of all team members, and leveraging this diversity to enhance collaboration.
• Addressing disagreements or conflicts constructively and diplomatically, working towards mutually beneficial solutions.
• Providing constructive feedback to help others improve their work, and being open to receiving feedback to refine one’s own ideas and contributions.
• Understanding and responding to the emotions, needs, and concerns of team members, and fostering a supportive and inclusive environment .
• Acknowledging and appreciating the achievements of the team and individual members, and using successes as a foundation for continued collaboration and growth.

5. Planning

Planning refers to

• the process of planning how to organize a document
• the process of managing your writing processes

6. Organizing

Following rhetorical analysis , following prewriting , writers question how they should organize their texts. For instance, should they adopt the organizational strategies of academic discourse or workplace-writing discourse ?

Writing-Process Plans

• What is your Purpose? – Aims of Discourse
• What steps, or strategies, need to be completed next?
• set a schedule to complete goals

Planning Exercises

• Document Planner
• Team Charter

7. Designing

Designing refers to efforts on the part of the writer

• to leverage the power of visual language to convey meaning
• to create a visually appealing text

During the designing stage of the writing process, writers explore how they can use the  elements of design  and  visual language to signify , clarify , and simplify the message.

Examples of the designing step of the writing process:

• Establishing a clear hierarchy of visual elements, such as headings, subheadings, and bullet points, to guide the reader’s attention and facilitate understanding.
• Selecting appropriate fonts, sizes, and styles to ensure readability and convey the intended tone and emphasis.
• Organizing text and visual elements on the page or screen in a manner that is visually appealing, easy to navigate, and supports the intended message.
• Using color schemes and contrasts effectively to create a visually engaging experience, while also ensuring readability and accessibility for all readers.
• Incorporating images, illustrations, charts, graphs, and videos to support and enrich the written content, and to convey complex ideas in a more accessible format.
• Designing content that is easily accessible to a wide range of readers, including those with visual impairments, by adhering to accessibility guidelines and best practices.
• Maintaining a consistent style and design throughout the text, which includes the use of visuals, formatting, and typography, to create a cohesive and professional appearance.
• Integrating interactive elements, such as hyperlinks, buttons, and multimedia, to encourage reader engagement and foster deeper understanding of the content.

8. Drafting

Drafting refers to the act of writing a preliminary version of a document — a sloppy first draft. Writers engage in exploratory writing early in the writing process. During drafting, writers focus on freewriting: they write in short bursts of writing without stopping and without concern for grammatical correctness or stylistic matters.

When composing, writers move back and forth between drafting new material, revising drafts, and other steps in the writing process.

9. Rereading

Rereading refers to the process of carefully reviewing a written text. When writers reread texts, they look in between each word, phrase, sentence, paragraph. They look for gaps in content, reasoning, organization, design, diction, style–and more.

When engaged in the physical act of writing — during moments of composing — writers will often pause from drafting to reread what they wrote or to reread some other text they are referencing.

10. Revising

Revision  — the process of revisiting, rethinking, and refining written work to improve its  content ,  clarity  and overall effectiveness — is such an important part of  the writing process  that experienced writers often say  “writing is revision” or “all writing is revision.”  

For many writers, revision processes are deeply intertwined with writing, invention, and reasoning strategies:

• “Writing and rewriting are a constant search for what one is saying.” — John Updike
• “How do I know what I think until I see what I say.” — E.M. Forster

Acts of revision include

• Pivoting: trashing earlier work and moving in a new direction
• Identifying Rhetorical Problems
• Identifying Structural Problems
• Identifying Language Problems
• Identifying Critical & Analytical Thinking Problems

11. Editing

Editing  refers to the act of  critically reviewing  a  text  with the goal of identifying and rectifying sentence and word-level problems.

When  editing , writers tend to focus on  local concerns  as opposed to  global concerns . For instance, they may look for

• problems weaving sources into your argument or analysis
• problems establishing  the authority of sources
• problems using the required  citation style
• mechanical errors  ( capitalization ,  punctuation ,  spelling )
• sentence errors ,  sentence structure errors
• problems with  diction ,  brevity ,  clarity ,  flow ,  inclusivity , register, and  simplicity

12. Proofreading

Proofreading refers to last time you’ll look at a document before sharing or publishing the work with its intended audience(s). At this point in the writing process, it’s too late to add in some new evidence you’ve found to support your position. Now you don’t want to add any new content. Instead, your goal during proofreading is to do a final check on word-level errors, problems with diction , punctuation , or syntax.

13. Sharing or Publishing

Sharing refers to the last step in the writing process: the moment when the writer delivers the message — the text — to the target audience .

Writers may think it makes sense to wait to share their work later in the process, after the project is fairly complete. However, that’s not always the case. Sometimes you can save yourself a lot of trouble by bringing in collaborators and critics earlier in the writing process.

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Murray, Donald M. (1980). Writing as process: How writing finds its own meaning. In Timothy R. Donovan & Ben McClelland (Eds.), Eight approaches to teaching composition (pp. 3–20). National Council of Teachers of English.

Murray, Donald M. (1972). “Teach Writing as a Process Not Product.” The Leaflet, 11-14

Perry, S. K. (1996).  When time stops: How creative writers experience entry into the flow state  (Order No. 9805789). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304288035). https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/when-time-stops-how-creative-writers-experience/docview/304288035/se-2

Rohman, D.G., & Wlecke, A. O. (1964). Pre-writing: The construction and application of models for concept formation in writing (Cooperative Research Project No. 2174). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.

Rohman, D. G., & Wlecke, A. O. (1975). Pre-writing: The construction and application of models for concept formation in writing (Cooperative Research Project No. 2174). U.S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

Sommers, N. (1980). Revision Strategies of Student Writers and Experienced Adult Writers. College Composition and Communication, 31(4), 378-388. doi: 10.2307/356600

Brevity - Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence - How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Flow - How to Create Flow in Writing

Inclusivity - Inclusive Language

The Elements of Style - The DNA of Powerful Writing

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Featured Articles

Ten Tips for Effective Research Writing

Many assessments engage students in research writing. Depending on their level of experience and the difficulty of the task, students may need some guidance on how best to engage in this process. It is helpful to remind them that writing processes vary depending, in part, on personal preference and disciplinary expectations. Although there is no single recipe for success, here are some practical suggestions to share with your learners when they begin a research writing project.

• Create a Plan : Establish deadlines for yourself when it comes to data collection, analysis, and the actual writing phase. Aim to meet or exceed these deadlines.
• Determine Audience : What are the expectations, assumptions, and existing knowledge of your audience? Consider writing for readers with less background knowledge than your actual target audience, as this can help improve your clarity.
• Style: Carefully analyze the writing style of articles in your target publication and emulate that style. Ensure that all ideas are properly cited based on your disciplinary norms.
• Research process and methodology : Simply tell readers what you did. Keep your discussions of various alternative methods to a minimum and avoid excessive detail.
• Keep it direct and simple: Avoid clichés and re-examine any uses of discipline-specific jargon that might be unclear to your reader. Strive for clear, straightforward sentences. The simplest form is best. Recognize that revision will be necessary.
• Outline: Decide which of your findings are important and give them a prominent place. For the sake of clarity, be prepared to relegate some of your findings to the appendices.
• Presenting your Data: Be prepared to struggle with the presentation of statistics. Remember that tables should speak for themselves. Readers should not have to dig through the main text to make sense of them.
• Peer Review: Share your writing with readers of various levels. Their input can prove illuminating. The Writing Centre is a great place to receive support.
• Copy Edit: Always proofread a hard copy of your writing. If possible, work with a partner and read your prose out loud, punctuation and all.

Common myths:  Good writing …

• Must be perfect, the first time – Expecting your first draft to be your final product is unrealistic and demands perfectionism that can be paralyzing.
• Requires me to know exactly what I think before I even start writing – Writing is a process of discovery. Attempting to write in a linear fashion can be overwhelming and often results in procrastination. Outlining is an excellent first step and is much less daunting.
• Emerges spontaneously because of inspiration – Waiting for the muse to strike is a common pitfall that can lead to procrastination and self-doubt.
• Should proceed quickly and effortlessly – Perpetuated by impatience, this myth can result in frustration and binge writing. Expect to spend time making necessary revisions and spread the writing process out over a reasonable amount of time. Good writing takes work.
• Comes from extensive training or an innate “gift” – There is no secret formula for writing success; although, much like physical exercise, the more writing you do, the easier it gets.
• Requires large blocks of time – Whole days of uninterrupted writing time are hard to come by, so this myth can result in procrastination and anxiety.
• Must be all consuming – Devoting all your time and attention to your writing is unrealistic and unnecessary.

Working towards productive writing

• Make writing part of your regular routine. For example, consider writing 250 words a day. Even though this does not seem like a lot, it will add up quickly and reduce writing anxiety.
• Set realistic goals for each session. Divide large projects into a set of smaller tasks. This practice helps support consistency long term and prevent writing burnout.
• Write at a time of day that works best for you. You’re more likely to be productive when feeling energized and alert. Know your own peak periods and work with them rather than against them.
• Be task specific and plan ahead. Take a few minutes near the end of each session to gauge your progress and map out your next steps so you can easily pick up where you left off.

If you would like support applying these tips to your own teaching, CTE staff members are here to help.  View the  CTE Support  page to find the most relevant staff member to contact.

• Booth, W.C., Colomb, G.G., & Williams, J.M. (1995)   The craft of research . University of Chicago Press.
• Delamont, S., Atkinson P., & Parry, O. (eds.). (2004)  Supervising the doctorate: A guide to success . McGraw-Hill Education.
• OSiochrú, C. (2023). Student guide to writing research reports, papers, theses and dissertations . Routledge.
• University of Waterloo Library: Research Paper Assignment Planner
• Wang, G. T., & Park, K. (2016). Student Research and Report Writing: From Topic Selection to the Complete Paper . John Wiley & Sons.
• Writing and Communication Centre Online Resources

This Creative Commons license  lets others remix, tweak, and build upon our work non-commercially, as long as they credit us and indicate if changes were made. Use this citation format:  Ten Tips for Effective Research Writing . Centre  for Teaching Excellence, University of Waterloo .

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Developing Your Writing Practice

Looking for new perspectives and strategies to cultivate a more successful and sustainable writing practice? Check out “Working on It” our resource guide for writers seeking out strategies and techniques that can augment, refine, and streamline their writing process. Explore the graphic to find information, suggestions, and commentary from fellow graduate student writers. Looking for something specific? Browse all of the “Working on It” collection of strategies and techniques below.

Writing practice strategies and techniques:

• Habitual writing
• Writing in community
• Timed writing sessions
• Reflective writing notes
• Visual revision techniques

Writing Strategies

If you may need some helpful tips before you start writing, these strategies will help no matter what stage of the writing process you are in: 

By  Harvard University  &  Princeton University

"Good reading is about asking questions of your sources. Keep the following in mind when reading primary sources. Even if you believe you can’t arrive at the answers, imagining possible answers will aid your comprehension. Reading primary sources requires that you use your historical imagination. This process is all about your willingness and ability to ask questions of the material, imagine possible answers, and explain your reasoning." Patrick Rael - How to Read a Primary Source Source: Reading, Writing, and Researching for History Click to Read More

• Active Reading Strategies
• How to do a Close Reading
• Interrogating Texts

Thesis Statements

by the  Purdue Online Writing Laboratory (OWL)

• Tips For Writing Your Thesis Statement

By the  University of Kansas Writing Center & the  Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL)

• Prewriting Strategies
• Developing an Outline
• Creating a Working Outline

Sentence Variety

By the  Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL)

• Strategies for Variation

Transitions

By the  Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL)

• Writing Transitions

By the  University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Writing Center

• Revising Guidelines & Strategies

Proof Reading

By the  Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL)

• Proofreading Strategies
• Proofreading for Errors
• Suggestions for Proofreading

Graduate Writing Center

Address: 528 Building, Suite 162

Phone: 212-678-3789 Email: writingcenter@tc.edu

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Writing & research strategies

University or academic writing (AW) describes the professional writing that is particular to universities and colleges.

There are many distinct forms or genres of writing within academe, but some common element include:

• a thesis statement (or in science, a hypothesis) and/or a research question
• sound, well-developed argumentation
• citations—references to other sources—to help justify and support the arguments
• attention to concise and correct expression, along with uses of discipline-specific terms.

Your writing assignments prepare you for membership in a discipline.

The goal is to let you communicate your knowledge effectively to those within, and sometimes outside, your field.

TIP: Take time to read and re-read the instructions for a writing assignment, and highlight/underline key words that signal your reader’s expectations.

Here are some typical verbs in academic writing assignments, with their general meanings:

• Analyze: to discover essential features or meaningful patterns; to ask how or why
• Evaluate: to determine significance
• Respond: to formulate an opinion and support it
• Synthesize: to examine, closely study, and evaluate how individual text elements work together Summarize: to convey main points as concisely as possible in your own words
• Define: to determine the essential quality of something; to state meaning and identify qualities
• Explain: to relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident (why? how?)
• Describe: to provide specific characteristics and features

Not sure what to write about or how to focus a broad topic? Create claims and ask questions.

If an assignment invites you to pick your own topic, start by writing down your own interests and things you’re curious about. Talk to people and surf the net (incl. blogs) just to get a preliminary idea of what others are saying. This is not formal research, just priming the pump.

If an assignment topic or your own initial idea is too broad, write the broad idea as a complete sentence whose verb expresses an action or relationship: for example, conflict, describe, continue, develop. These verbs help turn your topic into a claim--a simple position or argument that you can develop.

Try generating researchable questions from this basic argument: what? how? why? when? Also consider asking a question that disagrees with your own main argument; this could generate fruitful ideas.

Ask a MOTIVATING question . The basic issue is—“So what?” Why does this topic or question matter? Why is it interesting? To whom is it interesting?

When looking for evidence to support your claims, go beyond Google or Wikipedia.

The library has many resources and services to help you find the kinds of research sources you will need to use for academic writing. The library has resources (books, databases, and more) for all sorts of subjects as well as research guides that divide all the resources along subject lines. Start by looking at the research guide for your subject.

 Use the best possible sources for your assignments.

Consider what kind of information you need. Did your professor ask you to reference peer-reviewed articles? Have you been asked to use websites or g   overnment statistics? In most cases you will need to incorporate scholarly literature into your research process. Regardless, always ensure that you are evaluating your resources.

TIP: When evaluating websites ask questions around the material’s authority, relevance, purpose, currency, and accuracy. For further help visit: Evaluating resources.

Cite your sources.

Once you have incorporated sources into your writing, you need to reference them properly. This is all part of maintaining your academic integrity. Just as you wouldn’t cheat on an exam, you do not want to be stuck in a situation where you are caught plagiarizing. The library has a number of resources to help you properly attribute the sources you use in your paper.

TIP: Take the SFU Library plagiarism tutorial .

A thesis sentence (statement) expresses the position you’re taking about your topic and indicates supporting arguments or points.

For this reason, a thesis generally takes shape after the research is done and you have a sense of how you will organize your material. Because a thesis statement also forecasts for the reader the main elements your paper will cover, in many papers it’s placed near the beginning.

2 tips to build your thesis:

• Organize your most important pieces of evidence to create a logical pattern.
• When drafting your thesis, avoid stating the obvious or rewording the beliefs or viewpoints of your sources.

Use your thesis and evidence to organize your paper.

As you formulate your thesis, you will start to see the main points of your paper. From those points, create an outline. This often makes it easier to write the first draft.

Drafting and revising is an essential part of writing

Your first draft puts flesh on a skeleton of ideas, points, and information, but it’s not yet finished. When planning your assignment, allow time for several drafts. Never hand in an unedited draft, not even for in-class writing or an essay test.

Writing under pressure? 

• Leave a few minutes near the end of the test for a complete read-through.
• Make sure your introduction sets out your position and forecasts your main points, your paragraphs develop each point, and your conclusion answers “So what?”
• Look for missing or wrong words, major misspellings, incomplete or illogical sentences, or grammar errors that could affect meaning.

Want to learn more about editing your own writing? The Student Learning Commons can assist you.

Know where to find help when you need it!

The Student Learning Commons offers writing consultations and other support.

The Library offers help with research strategies, proper citation, locating resources, and more.

You can find the online presentation at prezi.com : enter “Writing & Research Success” in the Search field.

• Tips for Reading an Assignment Prompt
• Asking Analytical Questions
• Introductions
• What Do Introductions Across the Disciplines Have in Common?
• Anatomy of a Body Paragraph
• Transitions
• Tips for Organizing Your Essay
• Counterargument
• Conclusions
• Strategies for Essay Writing: Downloadable PDFs
• Brief Guides to Writing in the Disciplines

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Expert Commentary

Research strategy guide for finding quality, credible sources

Strategies for finding academic studies and other information you need to give your stories authority and depth

Republish this article

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License .

by Keely Wilczek, The Journalist's Resource May 20, 2011

This <a target="_blank" href="https://journalistsresource.org/home/research-strategy-guide/">article</a> first appeared on <a target="_blank" href="https://journalistsresource.org">The Journalist's Resource</a> and is republished here under a Creative Commons license.<img src="https://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/cropped-jr-favicon-150x150.png" style="width:1em;height:1em;margin-left:10px;">

Knowing how to conduct deeper research efficiently and effectively is a critical skill for journalists — especially in the information age. It is, like other facets of the profession such as interviewing, a matter of practice and establishing good habits. And once you find a successful routine for information-gathering, it will pay dividends time and again.

Journalists need to be able to do many kinds of research. This article focuses on creating a research strategy that will help you find academic studies and related scholarly information. These sources can, among other things, give your stories extra authority and depth — and thereby distinguish your work. You can see examples of such studies — and find many relevant ones for your stories — by searching the Journalist’s Resource database . But that is just a representative sample of what exists in the research world.

The first step is to create a plan for seeking the information you need. This requires you to take time initially and to proceed with care, but it will ultimately pay off in better results. The research strategy covered in this article involves the following steps:

Get organized

Articulate your topic, locate background information.

• Identify your information needs

List keywords and concepts for search engines and databases

Consider the scope of your topic, conduct your searches, evaluate the information sources you found, analyze and adjust your research strategy.

Being organized is an essential part of effective research strategy. You should create a record of your strategy and your searches. This will prevent you from repeating searches in the same resources and from continuing to use ineffective terms. It will also help you assess the success or failure of your research strategy as you go through the process. You also may want to consider tracking and organizing citations and links in bibliographic software such as Zotero . (See this helpful resource guide about using Zotero.)

Next, write out your topic in a clear and concise manner. Good research starts with a specific focus.

For example, let’s say you are writing a story about the long-range health effects of the explosion at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant based on a study published in Environmental Health Perspectives titled, “The Chernobyl Accident 20 Years On: An Assessment of the Health Consequences and the International Response.” (The study is summarized in Journalist’s Resource here .)

A statement of your topic might be, “Twenty years after the Chernobyl disaster, scientists are still learning the affects of the accident on the health of those who lived in the surrounding area and their descendants.”

If you have a good understanding of the Chernobyl disaster, proceed to the next step, “Identify the information you need.” If not, it’s time to gather background information. This will supply you with the whos and the whens of the topic. It will also provide you with a broader context as well as the important terminology.

Excellent sources of background information are subject-specific encyclopedias and dictionaries, books, and scholarly articles, and organizations’ websites. You should always consult more than one source so you can compare for accuracy and bias.

For your story about Chernobyl, you might want to consult some of the following sources:

• Frequently Asked Chernobyl Questions , International Atomic Agency
• Chernobyl Accident 1986 , World Nuclear Association
• Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment , New York Academy of Sciences, 2009.
• “Chernobyl Disaster,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last updated 2013.

Identify the information you need

What information do you need to write your story? One way to determine this is to turn your overall topic into a list of questions to be answered. This will help you identify the type and level of information you need. Some possible questions on consequences of the Chernobyl accident are:

• What are the proven health effects?
• What are some theorized health effects?
• Is there controversy about any of these studies?
• What geographic area is being studied?
• What are the demographic characteristics of the population being studied?
• Was there anything that could have been done at the time to mitigate these effects?

Looking at these questions, it appears that scientific studies and scholarly articles about those studies, demographic data, disaster response analysis, and government documents and publications from the Soviet Union and Ukraine would be needed.

Now you need to determine what words you will use to enter in the search boxes within resources. One way to begin is to extract the most important words and phrases from the questions produced in the previous step. Next, think about alternative words and phrases that you might use. Always keep in mind that different people may write or talk about the same topic in different ways. Important concepts can referred to differently or be spelled differently depending on country of origin or field of study.

For the Chernobyl health story, some search keyword options are: “Chernobyl,” “Chornobyl”; “disaster,” “catastrophe,” “explosion”; “health,” “disease,” “illness,” “medical conditions”; “genetic mutation,” “gene mutation,” “germ-line mutation,” “hereditary disease.” Used in different combinations, these can unearth a wide variety of resources.

Next you should identify the scope of your topic and any limitations it puts on your searches. Some examples of limitations are language, publication date, and publication type. Every database and search engine will have its own rules so you may need to click on an advanced search option in order to input these limitations.

It is finally time to start looking for information but identifying which resources to use is not always easy to do. First, if you are part of an organization, find out what, if any, resources you have access to through a subscription. Examples of subscription resources are LexisNexis and JSTOR. If your organization does not provide subscription resources, find out if you can get access to these sources through your local library. Should you not have access to any subscription resources appropriate for your topic, look at some of the many useful free resources on the internet.

Here are some examples of sources for free information:

• PLoS , Public Library of Science
• Google Scholar
• SSRN , Social Science Research Network
• FDsys , U.S. Government documents and publications
• World Development Indicators , World Bank
• Pubmed , service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine

More quality sites, and search tips, are here among the other research articles at Journalist’s Resource.

As you only want information from the most reliable and suitable sources, you should always evaluate your results. In doing this, you can apply journalism’s Five W’s (and One H):

• Who : Who is the author and what are his/her credentials in this topic?
• What: Is the material primary or secondary in nature?
• Where: Is the publisher or organization behind the source considered reputable? Does the website appear legitimate?
• When: Is the source current or does it cover the right time period for your topic?
• Why: Is the opinion or bias of the author apparent and can it be taken into account?
• How: Is the source written at the right level for your needs? Is the research well-documented?

Were you able to locate the information you needed? If not, now it is time to analyze why that happened. Perhaps there are better resources or different keywords and concepts you could have tried. Additional background information might supply you with other terminology to use. It is also possible that the information you need is just not available in the way you need it and it may be necessary to consult others for assistance like an expert in the topic or a professional librarian.

Keely Wilczek is a research librarian at the Harvard Kennedy School. Tags: training

About The Author

Keely Wilczek

Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Four Strategies for Effective Writing Instruction

• Share article

(This is the first post in a two-part series.)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What is the single most effective instructional strategy you have used to teach writing?

Teaching and learning good writing can be a challenge to educators and students alike.

The topic is no stranger to this column—you can see many previous related posts at Writing Instruction .

But I don’t think any of us can get too much good instructional advice in this area.

Today, Jenny Vo, Michele Morgan, and Joy Hamm share wisdom gained from their teaching experience.

Before I turn over the column to them, though, I’d like to share my favorite tool(s).

Graphic organizers, including writing frames (which are basically more expansive sentence starters) and writing structures (which function more as guides and less as “fill-in-the-blanks”) are critical elements of my writing instruction.

You can see an example of how I incorporate them in my seven-week story-writing unit and in the adaptations I made in it for concurrent teaching.

You might also be interested in The Best Scaffolded Writing Frames For Students .

Now, to today’s guests:

‘Shared Writing’

Jenny Vo earned her B.A. in English from Rice University and her M.Ed. in educational leadership from Lamar University. She has worked with English-learners during all of her 24 years in education and is currently an ESL ISST in Katy ISD in Katy, Texas. Jenny is the president-elect of TexTESOL IV and works to advocate for all ELs:

The single most effective instructional strategy that I have used to teach writing is shared writing. Shared writing is when the teacher and students write collaboratively. In shared writing, the teacher is the primary holder of the pen, even though the process is a collaborative one. The teacher serves as the scribe, while also questioning and prompting the students.

The students engage in discussions with the teacher and their peers on what should be included in the text. Shared writing can be done with the whole class or as a small-group activity.

There are two reasons why I love using shared writing. One, it is a great opportunity for the teacher to model the structures and functions of different types of writing while also weaving in lessons on spelling, punctuation, and grammar.

It is a perfect activity to do at the beginning of the unit for a new genre. Use shared writing to introduce the students to the purpose of the genre. Model the writing process from beginning to end, taking the students from idea generation to planning to drafting to revising to publishing. As you are writing, make sure you refrain from making errors, as you want your finished product to serve as a high-quality model for the students to refer back to as they write independently.

Another reason why I love using shared writing is that it connects the writing process with oral language. As the students co-construct the writing piece with the teacher, they are orally expressing their ideas and listening to the ideas of their classmates. It gives them the opportunity to practice rehearsing what they are going to say before it is written down on paper. Shared writing gives the teacher many opportunities to encourage their quieter or more reluctant students to engage in the discussion with the types of questions the teacher asks.

Writing well is a skill that is developed over time with much practice. Shared writing allows students to engage in the writing process while observing the construction of a high-quality sample. It is a very effective instructional strategy used to teach writing.

‘Four Square’

Michele Morgan has been writing IEPs and behavior plans to help students be more successful for 17 years. She is a national-board-certified teacher, Utah Teacher Fellow with Hope Street Group, and a special education elementary new-teacher specialist with the Granite school district. Follow her @MicheleTMorgan1:

For many students, writing is the most dreaded part of the school day. Writing involves many complex processes that students have to engage in before they produce a product—they must determine what they will write about, they must organize their thoughts into a logical sequence, and they must do the actual writing, whether on a computer or by hand. Still they are not done—they must edit their writing and revise mistakes. With all of that, it’s no wonder that students struggle with writing assignments.

In my years working with elementary special education students, I have found that writing is the most difficult subject to teach. Not only do my students struggle with the writing process, but they often have the added difficulties of not knowing how to spell words and not understanding how to use punctuation correctly. That is why the single most effective strategy I use when teaching writing is the Four Square graphic organizer.

The Four Square instructional strategy was developed in 1999 by Judith S. Gould and Evan Jay Gould. When I first started teaching, a colleague allowed me to borrow the Goulds’ book about using the Four Square method, and I have used it ever since. The Four Square is a graphic organizer that students can make themselves when given a blank sheet of paper. They fold it into four squares and draw a box in the middle of the page. The genius of this instructional strategy is that it can be used by any student, in any grade level, for any writing assignment. These are some of the ways I have used this strategy successfully with my students:

* Writing sentences: Students can write the topic for the sentence in the middle box, and in each square, they can draw pictures of details they want to add to their writing.

* Writing paragraphs: Students write the topic sentence in the middle box. They write a sentence containing a supporting detail in three of the squares and they write a concluding sentence in the last square.

* Writing short essays: Students write what information goes in the topic paragraph in the middle box, then list details to include in supporting paragraphs in the squares.

When I gave students writing assignments, the first thing I had them do was create a Four Square. We did this so often that it became automatic. After filling in the Four Square, they wrote rough drafts by copying their work off of the graphic organizer and into the correct format, either on lined paper or in a Word document. This worked for all of my special education students!

I was able to modify tasks using the Four Square so that all of my students could participate, regardless of their disabilities. Even if they did not know what to write about, they knew how to start the assignment (which is often the hardest part of getting it done!) and they grew to be more confident in their writing abilities.

In addition, when it was time to take the high-stakes state writing tests at the end of the year, this was a strategy my students could use to help them do well on the tests. I was able to give them a sheet of blank paper, and they knew what to do with it. I have used many different curriculum materials and programs to teach writing in the last 16 years, but the Four Square is the one strategy that I have used with every writing assignment, no matter the grade level, because it is so effective.

‘Swift Structures’

Joy Hamm has taught 11 years in a variety of English-language settings, ranging from kindergarten to adult learners. The last few years working with middle and high school Newcomers and completing her M.Ed in TESOL have fostered stronger advocacy in her district and beyond:

A majority of secondary content assessments include open-ended essay questions. Many students falter (not just ELs) because they are unaware of how to quickly organize their thoughts into a cohesive argument. In fact, the WIDA CAN DO Descriptors list level 5 writing proficiency as “organizing details logically and cohesively.” Thus, the most effective cross-curricular secondary writing strategy I use with my intermediate LTELs (long-term English-learners) is what I call “Swift Structures.” This term simply means reading a prompt across any content area and quickly jotting down an outline to organize a strong response.

To implement Swift Structures, begin by displaying a prompt and modeling how to swiftly create a bubble map or outline beginning with a thesis/opinion, then connecting the three main topics, which are each supported by at least three details. Emphasize this is NOT the time for complete sentences, just bulleted words or phrases.

Once the outline is completed, show your ELs how easy it is to plug in transitions, expand the bullets into detailed sentences, and add a brief introduction and conclusion. After modeling and guided practice, set a 5-10 minute timer and have students practice independently. Swift Structures is one of my weekly bell ringers, so students build confidence and skill over time. It is best to start with easy prompts where students have preformed opinions and knowledge in order to focus their attention on the thesis-topics-supporting-details outline, not struggling with the rigor of a content prompt.

Here is one easy prompt example: “Should students be allowed to use their cellphones in class?”

Swift Structure outline:

Thesis - Students should be allowed to use cellphones because (1) higher engagement (2) learning tools/apps (3) gain 21st-century skills

Topic 1. Cellphones create higher engagement in students...

Details A. interactive (Flipgrid, Kahoot)

B. less tempted by distractions

C. teaches responsibility

Topic 2. Furthermore,...access to learning tools...

A. Google Translate description

B. language practice (Duolingo)

C. content tutorials (Kahn Academy)

Topic 3. In addition,...practice 21st-century skills…

Details A. prep for workforce

B. access to information

C. time-management support

This bare-bones outline is like the frame of a house. Get the structure right, and it’s easier to fill in the interior decorating (style, grammar), roof (introduction) and driveway (conclusion). Without the frame, the roof and walls will fall apart, and the reader is left confused by circuitous rubble.

Once LTELs have mastered creating simple Swift Structures in less than 10 minutes, it is time to introduce complex questions similar to prompts found on content assessments or essays. Students need to gain assurance that they can quickly and logically explain and justify their opinions on multiple content essays without freezing under pressure.

Thanks to Jenny, Michele, and Joy for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

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GEOL 291: Writing and Communicating in the Geosciences

• Types of Sources
• Search Strategies
• CAAMP-PADL: Source Evaluation
• Private Zotero groups and Zotero Bibliography instructions just for this class
• Google Scholar
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Science & Math Librarian

Developing a Research Question

Develop your research question 

You should form a research question before you begin researching. Reframing your research topic into a defined and searchable question will make your literature search more specific and your results more relevant. 

Decide the topic of your search

You should start by deciding the topic of your search. This means identifying the broad topic, refining it to establish which particular aspect of the topic interests you, and reframing that topic as a question . As you search, you might need to make small revisions to your specific research question. This is a normal part of the research process!

Broad topic → Main focused topic → Topic stated as a question → Research → Revise research question as needed

Identify the main concepts in your question

Once you have a searchable question, identify the major concepts . It may be useful to create a concept map . First identify the major concepts within your question and then appropriate minor concepts . Listing major and minor concepts will help you to generate good keywords for your research question.

Search Strategy Techniques

What is a search strategy.

A search strategy is an organized search of the literature using the major concepts and keywords related to your topic. Each database works differently so you need to adapt your search strategy for each database. It is a good idea to test your strategies and refine them after you have reviewed the search results.

Choose keywords

Major and minor concepts can be expressed in different ways. For example, “____” is also known as “____.” Your aim is to consider each of your concepts and come up with a list of the different ways they could be expressed. These are the keywords that you will use in your database searches.

To find additional keywords or phrases for your concepts try the following:

• Use a thesaurus or dictionary to identify synonyms.
• Examine relevant abstracts or articles for additional words, phrases, and subject headings

As you search, scan articles, and read abstracts, you may discover different key terms to enhance your search strategy. Keep a running list of the words and short phrases that align with your research question. 

Search for exact phrases

To search for an exact phrase , meaning that the words appear next to one another, you must wrap the phrase in quotation marks: e.g., “climate change.” Phrase searching decreases the number of results because your terms are more specific, which will make your results more relevant .

Use Boolean logic to combine keywords

Boolean operators (AND, OR and NOT) allow you to try different combinations of search terms or subject headings.

The three Boolean operators are:

• AND - used to find articles that mention both of the searched topics.
• OR - used to find articles that mention either of the topics you search for.
• NOT - excludes a search term or concept. It should be used with caution as you may inadvertently exclude relevant references.

When using Boolean operators in a single search bar, you will need to wrap your OR keywords in a set of parentheses ( ). If using an advanced search feature with numerous search bars, you can omit the parenthesis because each bar serves as a bracket for those terms. Example :

(“climate change” OR “global warming”) AND (glaciers OR “sea level*”)

Truncation searches

You can use truncated searches to find variations of your search term. Truncation is useful for finding singular and plural forms of words and variant endings. Many databases use an asterisk (*) as their truncation symbol. Check the database help section if you are not sure which symbol to use. For example, “therap*” will find therapy, therapies, therapist or therapists… 

Ways to restrict and widen your search

If your search only finds a few references, or most of the references are irrelevant to your research topic, consider the following:

• Check spelling: databases will not usually auto-correct, so they only find what you type.
• Broaden your search.
• Do you need to search more databases?
• Could you add more search terms? Look for variations in spelling and alternative words .  

If you have too many results, you may have to focus your search and make it more specific. Ask yourself:

• Have you used Boolean operators correctly?
• Could you limit it by date range?
• What other, more specific keywords should I use?

Use search limiters

Each database offers a different range of limiters. Many databases allow you to limit your searches by publication year, language, and publication type. Apply limits one at a time so you can see what effect they have on your resu lts .

Additional Resources & Citations

Every database employees its own controlled vocabulary, search syntax, and/ or artificial intelligence aided searches. When using a new database, ding the database's Help feature, which will provide information on how to optimize searches within the database. For example, the following Help guides are for several popular databases:

• EBSCO Databases Search Support This handout covers search strategies specific to EBSCO databases.
• PubMed Database Search Support This FQA covers search strategies specific to the PubMed database.
• ProQuest Database Search Support This search guide covers search strategies specific to ProQuest databases.
• Scopus Search Guide This search guide covers search strategies specific to the Scopus. Scopus assumes an AND between all keywords, and to search for an exact phrase, you should use curly brackets { }. You can search for loose phrases by using quotation marks " ".

A full text handout of this search strategies page is available:  

• Search Strategies Handout This handout outlines the research process.

This guide was adapted from the following sources:  

1. Adapted from The University of Leeds. (2021). Literature searching explained . 

2.  Adapted from content created by Alyssa Young

3. Adapted from content created by Kathryn Eckler.

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8 Research-Based Writing Strategies for Elementary Students 

In my experience, there is not one simple formula for teaching writing. We must employ a range of effective writing strategies for elementary students , to guide them in their writing and build their skills. These strategies, according to research , should include plenty of practice, feedback, and revision. Think of the following activities and resources as tools in your teacher toolbox!

Instructional Strategies for Teaching Writing to Elementary Students

From my teacher toolbox to yours: these are the elementary writing strategies I've found to be the most effective over the years.

1. Set Aside Daily Writing Time

Get your students writing every day! Writing is such a great way for students to “show what they know” about a particular topic or even a way for us to read about what they did over the weekend. What’s wonderful about writing is that students can do it across all disciplines, both formally and informally.

Each day of the week could be a different writing prompt or activity. I know some teachers who like to post “Do Now” writing activities for students as they settle into the classroom at the beginning of the day.

Some examples of a “Do Now” include:

• What is your favorite subject in school? What do you like most about it?
• Describe three things you like to do on a rainy day.
• Imagine you find a magic wand! What would you use it to build? Why?

Others may have themed days. For example, on Mondays they may do “Weekend News” and on Tuesdays students will write sentences using their vocabulary words. Teachers in upper elementary grades may even have designated days for more in-depth writing blocks. No matter which way you fit writing into your plans, make sure your students do it every day!

2. Make Use of Mentor Texts

While mentor texts can be picture books for elementary students, they are not just any “old” read-aloud! There is so much knowledge and insight that students gain from a mentor text. And it can have a huge impact on their writing.

I like to think of a mentor text as an interactive read-aloud. It allows for students to be engaged in the story through teacher prompting. A teacher plays the role of a moderator, using guided questions such as, “What are the descriptive words the author is using to describe the tree?” and “How is the writer making the story interesting for readers on this page?”

Even before diving into the story, after only reading the title of Alexander and the Terrible, No Good, Very Bad Day by Judith Viorst, I ask my students, “What kind of day do we already know Alexander is going to have?” Their responses should pull directly from the title–”terrible, no good, and very bad.”

Examples of mentor texts for particular writing lessons:

•   I Don’t Want to Be a Frog by Devorah Petty is an engaging and silly story to introduce opinion writing.
• Scaredy Squirrel Makes a Friend by Melanie Watt is a fun story that shows a surprisingly procedural way to make a friend. This book is perfect for a how-to writing unit.
•   I Need My Monster by Rita Moreno has wonderful descriptive words on nearly every page. It is great for modeling descriptive writing and also reviewing how adjectives can enhance storytelling.
• The True Story of the 3 Little Pigs by Jon Scieszka not only provides a new perspective on a traditional story but also helps to teach point-of-view in writing.

3. Create Anchor Charts

Anchor charts are a visual way to increase student confidence as they complete a writing assignment. Think of it as a giant reminder for them. It allows students to independently seek out support when they need a refresher regarding the writing task at hand. Anchor charts are meant to be informative yet easy to read for students to reference as needed.

Anchor charts are one of my most favorite “teacher tools.” I almost exclusively make anchor charts with my whole class. It serves as the medium that I put our ideas on when brainstorming a topic or to convey any pertinent information needed to help students be successful in their independent work. Students will likely remember working on the anchor chart altogether, more so than seeing a previously created poster that is then read to them.

When I introduce a personal narrative writing project with my students, I like to sit down after reading our mentor texts and pull apart the text to find the elements of what exactly is a personal narrative. Together, the class and I make a list of those elements, like focusing on a small moment from your life, and including a beginning, middle, and end. The chart reminds students what we need to include in our writing in order to create our own personal narrative. This is all displayed on an anchor chart that is then displayed on our wall for the remainder of the writing unit. As we get deeper into the unit, students will be prompted to return to the anchor chart, using it as a checklist of sorts as we continue to develop personal narratives.

First-grade teacher Katie Risolo Radovich creates anchor charts, like the one shown above on personal narratives, with the help of her class. She says it's important for students to participate in the process as it helps them remember the concepts better than if she displayed a premade chart. Students can then use the chart as a giant checklist that they refer to again and again with each writing assignment.

4. Break Down the Writing Process

Elementary school is when students are starting to think of themselves as writers. It is critical that the writing process is not only taught, but also practiced for every writing unit and even every grade level. Students are learning about the way writing develops over time. From teacher modeling, reviewing each step together as students work toward the final publication, they will have thorough practice of the different steps in writing.

Below is a brief list of my most commonly used approaches for each step of the writing process:

• Brainstorming/Planning : I love to use sticky notes. It’s a physical way for students to see and move their thoughts around. When introducing how to use sticky notes in writing, I explain that while they are sticky, they do not get stuck. In other words, nothing is set in stone. Letters, words, and sentences can be added and removed. The use of sticky notes is a discernible tool in writing.
• Drafting : For each writing unit, I provide a variety of sentence starters and sentence frames for students to use and plug in their own words. The purpose is not to have students’ writing to appear more uniform. Rather, it actually makes it easier for them to understand what is being asked of them to write, especially when it comes to different units in writing. Sentence starters allow for students of all different writing abilities to organize their thoughts while still having ownership over their words since they are able to pick which sentence starters and sentence frames they feel is best for their draft.  Examples of sentence starters include:   My favorite outdoor activity is __________. I was surprised when __________. I like reading books about __________. I am thankful for  __________.
• Revising : At this stage of the process, I teach the acronym ARMS: A dd sentences and words. R emove unnecessary words and sentences. M ove sentences and words around. S ubstitute words or sentences with new ones.

Then, I have students read their drafts out loud to themselves and work through each stage of the acronym. Lastly, I have students do this again but in a one-on-one conference with me.

• Editing : I introduce the acronym CUPS: C apitals: beginning of sentences, I, names, months, places and titles U nderstanding: Does it make sense? P unctuation S pelling (write the sounds you hear, spell known words and what is on the word wall correctly) Spaces (leave appropriate space between every word)

I typically have students work in pairs at this step. It is an awesome way to get students working together. I call it an “I Spy” game to encourage engagement and cooperation.

• Publishing : In my class, students will have a handwritten, final copy in their neatest handwriting for most assignments. However, some writing units may require use of the computer for students to type up their work. This is my favorite step of the process because there are so many ways to have students publish and share.  Some ideas include: a handwritten story book; poster project; digital presentation; e-book; or mini movie.

I have vivid memories of my 3 rd grade writing celebration from when I was a student. I can still feel the sense of accomplishment when I got to stand at the microphone and read my short story in front of the class and our families. I wish I could have a writing celebration at the end of every writing assignment. Still, I do allow students time to share their writing and interdisciplinary projects with one another at the completion of each unit. Then, we have a writing celebration in the spring with our class and families to show off their accomplishments in writing.

5. Use Graphic Organizers

As teachers, we know that in each class, we are teaching to all different strengths. Just like our students, graphic organizers come in all different styles! They give structure for their thoughts and ideas. Realistically, you can use graphic organizers for all steps of the writing process.

Examples of graphic organizers :

•   K-W-L : A three-column chart that is a great tool that students can use to organize ideas—what they know (K), what they want to know (W), and what they have learned (L)—about a topic of exploration
• Story Map :  A chart that helps students break down the elements of a story, including the setting, characters, problem, and resolution
• Venn Diagram : A chart used to note similarities and differences on a particular topic 
• Sandwich Chart :  A chart shaped like a sandwich with each ingredient representing a part of an essay, such as the opening sentence, supporting details, and closing sentence
• Step-by-Step : A chart that helps students describe the steps it takes to complete an activity or process
• 5 W's : A chart that guides information gathering by asking students to answer the who, what, where, when, and why of a topic they're exploring

6. Provide Writing Rubrics

Rubrics lay out the framework students need to work within. It is a clear way to explain what exactly you are looking for in their writing. Rubrics help students learn expectations. Additionally, it allows for self-assessment. Depending upon the assignment, rubrics will look different. Nevertheless, the basic commonalities should include explicitly what the goal of the writing assignment is, along with a rating scale. I suggest you provide student access to the rubric from the beginning of the unit. They should be familiar with the rubric by the time they start writing since they'll need to refer to it throughout the writing process.

7. Schedule Peer Conferences

Even at the first-grade level, there is so much a student can get out of working with a peer. Students do not often get to practice learned concepts together. Teachers should detail and model the expectations of peer conferencing. In my classroom, I do this by implementing “Glow and Grow” feedback. As a class, we go through the different sentence starters and sentence frames I give them to use as they navigate this time with their writing buddy. I use my own draft that they have worked with me to develop throughout the unit to model giving compliments (“glow”) and providing suggestions and corrections (“grow”).

8. Provide Feedback

Any list of strategies to teach writing in elementary, or any grade for that matter, would not be complete without mentioning the importance of teacher feedback. And remember, feedback should not just come at the end of the writing assignment. I spend much of the writing block checking in with students as they are working. Realistically, it can be difficult to meet with students every day or every time we are working on writing. If I am not walking around the room to work with students, oftentimes I am pulling students over to my table to work with them one on one or in a small-group setting. As much as I can, I am reading students' work, listening to them read their work to me, and then offering scaffolded support. I know how essential feedback is for students to develop as writers. I use the rubric for the writing assignment that we are frequently referring back to as the guide for my feedback. I also refer to anchor charts we have used throughout the writing process to help students be successful.

Elementary school is the time when teachers lay the groundwork for their students to become writers. Each year, students dive deeper into the writing process. At the same time, they're working on foundational skills like sentence structure, letter formation, and punctuation. Writing instruction is rather complex and can feel daunting. Applying research-based writing strategies for elementary students supports their writing and puts tools in their writer toolboxes!

Try Writable for Grades 3–12 to support your ELA curriculum, district benchmarks, and state standards. The program provides more than 1,000 customizable writing assignments and rubrics, plus AI-generated feedback and originality check that will save teachers time while boosting student skills.

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“The Power of a Slave Narrative.” “Connecting” section of JAEPL: Journal of the Assembly of Expanded Perspectives on Learning . Joonna Smitherman Trapp and Brad Peters, editors. Vol. 21 : Issue. 1, Article 1. http://trace.tennessee.edu/jaepl/vol21/iss1/1  

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Unlocking the core revision of writing assessment: EFL learner’ emotional transformation from form focus to content orientation

• Yuguo Ke 1 &
• Xiaozhen Zhou 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  472 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

The process of revising writing has provided valuable insights into both learners’ written output and their cognitive processes during revision. Research has acknowledged the emotional dimension of writing revision, yet no studies have delved into models that connect all of these domains. Given the interplay between these domains, it is crucial to explore potential associations between writing revision and writing quality in terms of emotions.

This study aims to shed light on the emotional shifts that occur as learners transition from a focus on form to an emphasis on content, refining fundamental aspects of writing revision, and investigating potential challenges and strategies.

A total of 320 Chinese-speaking learners (188 female and 132 male) participated in weekly writing classes. We used subsequent investigation aimed to probe the specific writing revision practices contributing to both form and content revisions and semi-structured interview from collection, representation, marking, and stimulated recall to elicit participants’ perspectives on various aspects, including the number of writing revisions, recurring errors, emotional processes, efficacy of writing revision, cognition of writing revision, attitudes towards writing revision, and emotional changes.

The findings reveal a positive correlation between writing revision and the quality of writing. EFL learners’ rationale for revising centered on the imperative need to address new structural nuances or incorporate additional elements such as vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation. Additionally, form revision garnered significantly lower scores compared to content revision. Finally, EFL learners deduced the form revision governing target content through repeated revisions of the manuscript throughout the time points.

Conclusions

The results indicate that the outcomes of form-focused revision or content-oriented approaches are linked to the quality of writing and contribute to the development of writing skills. Moreover, psychological processes assist English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in enhancing their self-efficacy in language acquisition.

Implications

This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by highlighting the importance of understanding the emotional dimensions of writing revision. The practical implications of these findings extend to both learners and educators, offering insights into how to enhance self-efficacy in language learning and teaching.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Writing revision (WR) has uncovered key insights into both learners’ written products and their cognitive processes during revision [ 1 ]. Increasingly, it is thought that studies in language testing suggest that psychologically engaging in writing revision can enhance English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ understanding of form-focused assessment [ 2 , 3 ]. Writing revision has been identified as a significant factor in improving the overall quality of writing [ 1 , 4 ] and and a particular focus has been placed on the quality of writing revision. It is argued that broader investigations into writing revision have highlighted significant enhancements in learners’ form revision, which encompasses superficial aspects such as spelling, vocabulary usage, diction, and grammatical accuracy [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. In line with this theory are findings that independent qualitative inquiries have explored content orientation, which encompasses deeper aspects such as critical thinking, cultural involvement, and the use of representative evidence [ 7 ], as well as learners’ strategies to regulate language in their writing [ 8 ], and challenges encountered during the processing of written corrective feedback, which influence language writing accuracy and cognitive revision [ 9 ].

In the context of emotional aspects of writing processes, emotional dimension of writing revision has become a key target in psychological process of WR [ 10 , 11 , 12 ], yet no studies have delved into models that connect all of these domains. In this regard, it is not hypothesized that given the interplay between these domains, it is crucial to explore potential associations between writing revision and writing quality in terms of emotions. Additionally, as many higher-quality writing manuscripts rely on multiple rounds of WR, it is essential to support learners by identifying their strengths and providing specific assistance in areas where they encounter difficulties in WR. Thus, research on writing revision is deemed important both theoretically and pedagogically to uncover emotional conditions that facilitate learners’ writing improvement, particularly in psychological processes of WR contexts [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. While promising in enhancing learners’ writing, these findings often overlook important factors such as revision patterns, sequences, emotions, and orientations. In the context of WR, enhancing the quality of WR has become a central objective in language output. In this regard, while quantitative studies on writing revision shed light on its potential within language assessment, previous studies offer limited insight into its complexities [ 16 ], including the emotional transformations experienced by learners as they refine their writing [ 6 , 17 , 18 ]. Investigating the interactive dynamics of writing revision, learners’ responses to cognitive revision, and the impact of feedback can enhance writing quality [ 12 , 19 ].

Incorporating emotional considerations into WR is expected to yield significant insights and outcomes by providing a more comprehensive understanding of language learning tailored to individual learner needs. Therefore, we hypothesize that the emotional phase of a longitudinal mixed-methods study can serve as a simultaneous monitor for learners’ WR, aiming to elucidate emotional aspects of writing revision and its impact on enhancing writing quality through sustained engagement in the WR process. Building upon quantitative findings [ 20 ], which demonstrated improvements in four groups compared to controls, particularly emotional changes in form focus and content orientation, this qualitative inquiry aims to deepen understanding. Furthermore, we predict that only through follow-up qualitative inquiries can we grasp how learners engage in WR [ 21 , 22 ] and identify factors interacting with treatment to refine WR precision [ 23 ]. Given that many learners focus on the form revision, ignoring the emotional changes of writing processes, this study aims to illuminate emotional transformations as learners shift from form focus to content orientation, refining core aspects of writing revision, and exploring potential obstacles and strategies encountered during the process.

Theoretical literature

Theoretical backgrounds.

One line of research has delved into the theoretical and emotional transformations brought about by writing revision, addressing questions regarding the timing, manner, and motivation behind writing revision, as well as learners’ attitudes towards it and the psychological shifts they undergo during the process that do not meet the threshold of psychological processes of WR [ 12 , 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Studies suggest that the more majority of EFL learners primarily focus on superficial aspects of writing revision, as evidenced by [ 24 ]’s exploration into whether learners’ EFL proficiency levels affect their revisions. Also, this investigation was reported to have poorer structural and pragmatic WR than those who considers emotions, revisions, and consolidations during WR. Additionally, past research indicates that EFL learners generally demonstrate weaker WR skills [ 23 ]. Furthermore, previous studies have often concentrated solely on the process of WR itself, significantly overlooking the emotional dimension that establishes form-focused connections triggered by recognizing and processing specific writing outputs. Revision involves refining these connections in response to further writing assessments, while consolidation refers to enhancing the quality of writing revision through repeated retrieval and deeper processing after drafting a manuscript. By integrating [ 26 ]’s computational framework of WR processing with the development of form and content emotions in writing revision [ 27 ], explored whether children and adults employ different strategies to detect and revise superficial elements such as word spelling, erroneous grammatical agreements, diction, and appropriateness of tones. Broadly, research in the general population suggests that children may employ a slower algorithmic procedure while adults utilize a faster automatized one. They also advocate for gathering similar WR to evaluate hypothesis precision and, ultimately, revision skills and principles. Furthermore [ 28 ], proposed the use of a computer-mediated communication (CMC) interface to enable EFL writing learners in classes at two universities to provide each other with anonymous peer feedback on essay-writing assignments responding to selected news stories. Similarly [ 29 ], suggest that the evidence EFL learners include should be connected to their claims. Many learners paraphrased the evidence, added a brief conclusion, or explained generally how the evidence supports their claims (not how this was instantiated in their writing). The psychological factors of WR were significant predictors of teaching argument writing and for designing a WR system that supports learners in successfully revising their essays are discussed [ 30 , 31 ]. theorized language learning experience from a positive psychology (PP) lens. Analytical primacy is given to how various dimensions of the experience contributed to language other than EFL learners’ motivational development.

Empirical studies of EFL writing revision

The critique of recasts as a feedback method highlights several key limitations, particularly regarding their visibility and their potential for ambiguity. As argued by [ 32 ], writers often seek and benefit from more thoughtful commentary, making the appropriation of learners’ writings less effective in this regard. Learners require feedback that empowers them to refine their writing skills and effectively convey their intended message. Furthermore [ 33 ], suggests that learners may conflate longer-form recasts with the original problematic utterances, leading to potential misinterpretations as responses to content rather than as corrective feedback. Although previous research has primarily examined recasts as a form of spoken corrective feedback, positioning them as implicitly negative, a study by [ 34 ] offers a different perspective. This study indicates that recasts, when utilized as a means of error correction, can indeed facilitate improvement in learners’ writing skills. Additionally [ 35 ], delves into the efficacy of two types of interactional feedback: recasts and elicitations, shedding further light on the nuanced dynamics of corrective approaches in language learning contexts. Furthermore, a separate body of research in WR has identified that studies in this area have been guided by two overarching frameworks: EFL writing testing development and EFL writing revision development [ 22 ]. Within testing studies (e.g [ 32 ]), it was found that most indirect WR and content-focused comments were effectively integrated into subsequent or terminal drafts during revisions, although their impact on subsequent writings remained unmeasured. Furthermore, preceding these, longitudinal studies (e.g [ 36 , 37 ]). , found no significant disparity in writing accuracy development in content revision. However, criticisms of their methodological approaches prompted researchers to undertake controlled focused WR studies. These investigations, grounded in cognitive perspectives of writing revision, suggested that targeting singular structures (e.g [ 32 ]). , or two/three structures (e.g [ 29 ]). , could lead to enhanced accuracy in WR [ 28 ]. According to [ 35 ], “learners can internalize and consolidate their explicit knowledge as a result of explicit information provided in WR in form revision.” Despite subsequent conflicting results [ 27 ], the primary critique against focused WR studies pertained to their narrow scope, deviating from typical assessment practices, thereby compromising ecological validity [ 20 ].

In numerous studies on WR, participants generally recognized the emotional significance of self-correction or self-reflection, particularly on both form revision and content improvement [ 31 ], as well as WR itself [ 11 , 22 ]. However, certain studies (e.g [ 17 , 18 ]). , highlighted challenges in interpreting revision assessment. Emotional-driven inquiries delved into the depth of core WR processing, indicating that factors such as the culture of WR coverage, logical levels, and duration of thinking influence the thoroughness of revision. While some studies suggested that WR methods foster superficial revision such as spelling, grammatical structure, diction (form revision) [ 31 , 33 ], others favored core writing revision (content orientation) [ 32 , 34 ]. Subsequent studies on WR effectiveness (e.g [ 11 ]). , emphasized the value of content orientation during WR [ 31 ]. , for instance, demonstrated whether and how feedback, when provided in different assessment modes, affects learners’ text revisions, continuing to be important questions for research [ 38 ]. investigated the extent to which learner differences in receptive and productive vocabulary sizes, as well as differences in their language aptitude (measured by the LLAMA test), mediated the effects of using models as a written corrective feedback tool. Other studies (e.g [ 2 , 3 , 39 ]). , explored the interplay between form revision and content orientation during WR [ 37 ]. explored the ways that dyadic functioning was associated with the functions of reader/writer comments and feedback focus produced during synchronous interactions among dyads of a Korean-U.S. collaborative project and subsequent uptake of feedback in revisions. However, subsequent WR studies, such as those by [ 38 ], mainly reported an exploratory study of Chinese-speaking undergraduate learners’ experiences of receiving and reflecting on online peer feedback for text revision in an EFL writing classroom at a northeastern-Chinese university. Notably, few longitudinal mixed-methods inquiries have delved into emotional transformation from form revision to content orientation to elucidate EFL WR development from EFL learners. A lack of follow-up emotional changes aimed at enhancing writing quality through WR further underscores the need for comprehensive exploration of EFL learners’ utilization of WR in deciphering assessment directives and applying them in subsequent writing assessment. Additionally [ 38 ], concluded that neurophysiological mechanisms, as reflected in modulations of neuronal oscillations, may act as a fundamental basis for bringing together and enriching the fields of language and cognition.

Based on previous findings, we expected that the current emotional phase of a mixed-methods study delves into how second language (EFL) learners enhance and retain their writing revisions, particularly focusing on the emotional transformation from form revision to content orientation. Past research has typically focused on examining writing learning, writing teaching, writing assessment, ignoring the importance of WR for a good writing manuscript. However, this may have cascading effects to elevate the quality of writing by addressing the necessity of writing revision (WR). Additionally, this endeavor builds upon quantitative findings to offer a comprehensive understanding of the significance, standards, methods, and orientations of writing revision. Therefore, the study aims to explore “the intrinsic emotions of, and the factors influencing, the potential of writing revision,” thereby bridging theoretical and pedagogical aspects [ 34 ] [ 40 ]. have underscored the significance of scaffolding EFL learners’ text revision practices through the reception and reflection upon learners’ emotional feedback [ 40 ]. Furthermore [ 41 ], integrating both positive and negative emotions into language learning led to the most significant positive shift in learners’ motivation, anxiety levels, and language proficiency. However, it’s noteworthy that the anticipated impact of psychology on language education frequently surpasses the actual outcomes. There’s often a tendency to overestimate the effectiveness of emerging technologies compared to established methods, without adequately considering the variations in associated pedagogical approaches.

Informed by theoretical frameworks, empirical discussions, and quantitative findings, the study operationalizes its objectives through the following three hypotheses centered on writing revision:

Hypothesis 1: The process of writing revision contributes to the consolidation of writing quality.

Hypothesis 2: The outcomes of form revision or content orientation are associated with writing quality in terms of writing development.

Hypothesis 3: Psychological processes aid EFL learners in improving self-efficacy in language acquisition.

To shed light on these hypotheses, the text initially summarizes quantitative findings primarily related to the accuracy of writing revision.

Participants

A total of 320 learners (188 female and 132 male), all Chinese speakers, participated in weekly writing classes. These participants were novice learners, embarking on their first EFL writing endeavor, similar to the study conducted by Bonilla López et al. (2018). Their ages ranged from 18 to 21 years, with a mean age of 20.3 years. The study aimed to determine whether four groups of EFL learners demonstrated emotional improvement in writing quality, with a specific focus on form revision and content revision. The groups included those engaged in form revision (FR Group, n  = 80), writing revision on content revision (CR Group, n  = 80), multilateral revision (MR Group, n  = 80), and no revision (NF Group, n  = 80). Each student revised an article of 200/250 words within 20 min. To streamline the revision process and avoid overwhelming learners, the study targeted specific revision categories commonly associated with lower-proficiency learners, such as form revision (e.g., tense, voice, word form, prepositions, subject-verb agreement, plurality, articles, pronouns, and possessive adjectives) and content revision (logic, culture, thinking, cognition). We conducted a cross-sectional investigation involving a survey and interviews with the Chinese youth population. To ensure representativeness, we engaged three different schools to gather data. Employing quota sampling, participants were recruited based on specific criteria: being adults (aged 18 and above), proficient in English, and permanent residents of the People’s Republic of China. To minimize biases, we established exclusion criteria pertaining to study participation. All measures were presented in a randomized order, and two attention checks were incorporated into the semi-structured interview. Participants failing to complete the interview, finishing the survey in under five minutes, or not passing the attention checks were excluded from the analysis. Data collection was facilitated through the inputlog software platform and Chaoxing Learning Pass (CLP) within online courses.

The investigation phase

To thoroughly explore the nuanced impact of writing revision conditions on four key revision constructs across three distinct time points, qualitative findings were presented in isolation. This subsequent investigation sought to delve into the specific writing revision practices that influence both form and content revisions from an emotional perspective, drawing on The Social Emotional Assessment (SEA; [ 37 ]). The objective was to comprehend how the implementation of writing revision (WR) influenced writing quality, potentially resulting in core writing revision benefits, as suggested by [ 38 ], which emphasized theoretical frameworks, empirical discussions, and quantitative findings. The inquiry delved into how writing revision influenced the establishment of writing revision rules and standards, as well as the connection between the revision process and the enhancement of writing quality. Each item was evaluated on a three-level scale: 0 = “significant emotional fluctuations,” 1 = “somewhat emotional fluctuations,” and 2 = “no emotional fluctuations,” aligning with the research objectives. Regarding writing revision, the study investigated whether and how revision, guided by writing standards, prompted various types of revisions, encompassing both form and content revisions. Concerning content revision, it explored learners’ ability to internalize the underlying rules of prominent and complex revision categories, enabling them to apply these rules accurately. This inquiry aimed to enrich the conceptual frameworks of EFL writing revision put forth by scholars such as [ 34 ] and [ 39 ]. To obtain comprehensive insights, the study conducted over 5 h of semi-structured interviews with a cohort of 320 participants, generating text-specific explanations derived from individualized revision scripts. The scale exhibited robust reliability and validity, with Cronbach’s α for internal consistency ranging from 0.89 to 0.92 and test-retest reliability coefficients ranging from 0.82 to 0.94 [ 37 ].

Semi-structured interview

After completing writing revisions in Week 8, participants were invited to participate in semi-structured interviews during Week 9. Fifty participants from each group were selected based on the interview protocol outlined below, resulting in a total sample size of N  = 35, consisting of 20 female and 15 male participants. The instruments used included measures of revision attitude, writing revision, and emotional changes [ 40 ]. The interview protocol comprised four stages:

EFL learners were instructed to maintain their revision scripts in a personal folder for reference during revision.

Representation

Interviewees were selected from volunteers, ensuring representation from both high-achieving and low-achieving individuals, participants with varying levels of enthusiasm towards writing revision, both genders, and all groups.

Prior to the interview, interviewees were prompted to review their writing revision scripts and mark segments they wished to discuss in response to interview questions.

Stimulated recall

Interviewees were instructed to bring their writing revision scripts to the interview and encouraged to support their perspectives on each question using cues from their scripts. Additionally, the teacher implemented a grading system, assessing the students’ writings on a scale of 0 to 5, occasionally providing positive feedback such as “good job,” “well done,” or “keep it up.” This grading approach aimed to reassure learners that their efforts were recognized and their progress closely monitored [ 40 ], fostering an understanding that enhancing writing quality in subsequent assignments could lead to higher average scores.

The interview questions aimed to gather participants’ perspectives on various aspects, including the frequency of writing revisions, recurring errors, emotional processes, efficacy and cognition of writing revision, attitudes towards writing revision, and emotional changes. Conducted in Chinese and audio-recorded, the interviews ranged from 3 to 5 min in duration, with an average length of 4 min and 16 s.

Data coding

Grounded theory [ 41 ] was employed for meticulous data coding and analysis, aligning with [ 42 ]’s framework to delve into the underlying emotions. During the open coding phase, broad categories emerged from a comprehensive review of revision transcripts. Drawing from Dornyei’s guiding questions, such as “What is this data illustrating?” and “What emotional shifts are at play here?” pertinent data underwent thorough analysis, leading to the assignment of numerical codes.

Axial coding ensued to establish logical connections between writing quality and the process of revision. This iterative approach unearthed finalized categories, encompassing aspects like the frequency of revisions, revision techniques, metalinguistic practices, and the extrapolation of learned principles beyond writing contexts. Following [ 40 ]’s methodology, selective coding aimed at identifying a central category with the requisite abstraction to encapsulate other findings. This was accomplished through the development of memos and in-depth exploration of emerging themes, further substantiated during axial coding. As the ensuing discussion will elucidate, the core writing revision, identified as the central category, suggests that EFL learners actively engage in discerning underlying revisions, encompassing both structural and content-oriented aspects, which are subsequently applied during the core writing revision process.

Data analysis

The research primarily focused on EFL learners enrolled in various grades at a university in Zhejiang Province. The research team of the National Social Science Fund of China (A Study on the Validity Argument Model of L2 Writing Assessment Empowered by Digital Humanities) and the 12 teachers teaching writing courses conducted the study. These learners were categorized based on placement tests, error type, and frequency of Writing Revision (WR) [ 31 ]. Each term, learners attended 36 forty-minute periods, advancing to the next level upon achieving a passing score of 60%.

Form revision was assessed using the percentage of revisions and the number of revisions at four time points: Week 1 (pre-revision), Week 5 (while-revision 1), Week 9 (while-revision 2), and Week 13 (delayed post-revision). Results from the two-way repeated measures ANOVA indicated that only the groups engaged in content-focused revision demonstrated significant improvements in form revision from Time 1 to Time 2, which were sustained at Time 3, with mostly medium to large effect sizes. Specifically, the CR group exhibited a substantial increase in writing quality at Time 2 (Cohen’s d = 0.91) and a moderate increase at Time 3 (Cohen’s d = 0.82), along with a decrease in MR at both Time 2 (Cohen’s d = 0.90) and Time 3 (Cohen’s d = 0.58). Similarly, the MR group displayed improvements in the percentage of revisions at Time 2 (Cohen’s d = 0.46) and Time 3 (Cohen’s d = 0.70), coupled with a reduction in the number of revisions at both Time 2 (Cohen’s d = 0.64) and Time 3 (Cohen’s d = 0.60). In contrast, the CR group saw a non-significant decrease in the percentage of revisions at both time points, although their NF declined significantly at Time 3 (Cohen’s d = 0.22). The NF group showed no significant changes at either time point. Regarding other writing revision constructs, only the CR and MR groups exhibited significant improvements in content and form revision.

To mitigate the impact of outliers on the dataset, the authors employed Robust Principal Component Analysis (RPCA), a method that decomposes multivariate data into low-rank and sparse components. The process entailed several steps:

Data preprocessing

The authors standardized or normalized each variable in the writing revision scripts dataset, ensuring a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. This step aimed to prevent variables with disparate scales from skewing the analysis.

RPCA application

Utilizing an RPCA algorithm, the authors decomposed the multivariate dataset into its low-rank and sparse components. One commonly used algorithm is the Robust PCA algorithm introduced by Candes et al. (2009), which minimizes the sum of the nuclear norm of the low-rank component and the l1 norm of the sparse component.

Outlier identification

Following decomposition, the authors focused on the sparse component derived from investigation and interviews. This component signifies outliers or noise within the data. Data points with significant coefficients in the sparse component are indicative of outliers.

Outlier visualization

The authors visually represented the identified outliers by plotting their coefficients in the sparse component. Scatter plots or histograms were employed to visualize the distribution of outlier coefficients, aiding in the identification of patterns or clusters.

Outlier handling

Depending on the analysis’s context and objectives, the authors addressed the identified outliers by removing them from the dataset, treating them separately in the analysis, or employing data transformation techniques to minimize their impact.

The findings encapsulate and cite representative perspectives from participants, primarily focusing on their emotional transformation from a form-focused approach to a content-oriented one during the core Writing Revision (WR). Pseudonyms were utilized to ensure the anonymity of participants.

Writing revision: learning and pedagogical self-reflection

Research Question 1 (RQ1) investigated how the process of writing revision contributes to enhancing writing quality. When queried about the adequacy of their writing efforts, the majority advocated for additional revision time, emphasizing the necessity of at least 5 extra minutes. EFL learners’ rationale for revising centered on the imperative need to address new structural nuances or incorporate additional elements such as vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation (i.e., NR, FR, CR, MR, are 11.23, 15.12, 20.16, 24.23 respectively). In terms of time points, the mean scores at different stages are 12.15, 17.24, and 24.11. They emphasized the significance of receiving revision traces on newly surfaced errors, perpetuating a cycle of trial and refinement, employing freshly acquired linguistic tools, grappling with novel linguistic hurdles, exploring uncharted thematic territories, or simply craving more comprehensive revision sessions. An emergent outcome of their initial forays into writing, regardless of the extent of revision, was the cultivation of burgeoning confidence in their writing prowess. This was palpable in their ability to surmount the apprehension and tension associated with articulating ideas in English on paper, particularly in the absence of external support within the classroom setting.

The outcomes of form revision or content orientation focus on writing revision concerning the development of writing revision

Form revision and content orientation emerged as critical factors in the progression of EFL learners towards achieving writing quality (RQ2). EFL learners acknowledged the pivotal role of writing revision in enhancing the quality of their writing, a stage often overlooked but one they deemed essential. Without engaging in individualized writing revision points, they recognized that their attention to detail would have been lacking. All revisions, encompassing both form revision and content orientation, are delineated in Table  1 . The emotional journey associated with writing revisions for both form and content is vividly portrayed. Notably, form revision (i.e., 6.23, 7.14, 7.82, 6.45, 7.56) garnered significantly lower scores compared to content revision (i.e., 7.21, 7.26, 6.25, 6.75, 6.27). Furthermore, they demonstrated fewer advancements in deeper revisions, such as intra-sentential processing (6.25), inter-sentential processing (6.75), and cultural processing (6.27), indicating a collective deficiency among participants in central revision compared to peripheral revision.

Emotional changes influencing on EFL learners undergo when engaging in form or content revision

The insights gleaned from EFL learners highlight the profound emotional journey they experience during the process of revising both form and content in their writing (RQ3). This journey typically begins with a positive realization of the importance of revision as a whole (e.g., points 246, 265, 152, and 43), but gradually evolves to encompass recognition of areas needing improvement (e.g., points 74, 55, 168, and 277). Many learners also observed that repeated revision exercises helped them to identify and focus on critical elements (e.g., points 236, 241, 172, and 61), thereby aiding in the successful correction and mastery of these aspects. Furthermore, the true significance of various revision points often only becomes clear after thorough internalization (e.g., points 137, 177, 103, and 162) and subsequent externalization (e.g., points 183, 143, 217, and 158).

Positive effects of WR: EFL learners’ revision decision-making

RQ3 delved into the potential emotional fluctuations experienced by EFL learners as they engaged in the process of revising their writing manuscripts, as well as the strategies they employed during revision. One notable emotional aspect identified was the prevalence of recurring errors, which were brought to light both within and beyond the learners’ awareness. These errors, such as the misuse of ‘s’ (as in the third person plural or possessive apostrophe), ‘a’ (as an article), and ‘-ed’ (as a past-tense marker), were consistently highlighted across the four groups. Despite some learners considering these errors as trivial or minor, they persisted throughout revisions. One learner suggested that the apparent insignificance of these errors might stem from their small size, rendering them less conspicuous. EFL learners recognized that such persistent errors often resulted from lapses in attention or an excessive focus on form rather than content. An important aspect of writing revision was identified as the mitigation of these recurring errors. Some learners noted that regular exposure to revision heightened their awareness of these common mistakes, leading them to consciously make efforts to avoid them in their writing.

The correlations between writing revision and writing quality are depicted in Table  2 . It becomes evident from the table that both Content Revision (CR) and Mechanical Revision (MR) exhibit associations with writing quality, as measured by Pearson correlations, with medium and small effect sizes, respectively (i.e., 0.81 for CR and 0.74 for MR). However, the traits of the WR score were found to have no significant relationship with Narrative Revision (NR) (0.12), Fluency Revision (FR) (0.42), and Mechanical Revision (MR) (0.64).

The Pearson Correlations have enabled a deeper exploration of the associations between different types of writing revision, shedding light on the underlying mechanisms guiding decision-making regarding the need for revision and how to execute it. For example, Tomas (CR) expressed skepticism regarding the positive impact of EFL learners on “the supporting evidence,” prompting her to experiment with cohesive devices in cultural and representative contexts “to ultimately gauge their persuasiveness.” Tim (CR) elaborated on this process, stating, “A mark indicating the error would serve as a sufficient reminder for me. If left uncorrected, I might become uncertain about its accuracy.” .

Emotional transformation from form to content to consolidate writing revision: resolving ambiguity embedded in WR

The study also investigated how EFL learners went through emotional transformation from form to content to consolidate writing revision (see Fig.  1 ). When asked about their ability to generalize the emotional transformation from the four time points, a significant number of EFL learners highlighted their emotional changes regarding content orientation. They aimed to deduce the form revision governing target content through repeated revisions of the manuscript throughout the time points, showing an ascending trend (CR: 33, 51, 91, 126) and a descending trend (FR: 162, 147, 109, 76).

Emotional transformations through different time points during writing revision

Drawing from the emotional evolution experienced during writing revision, EFL learners can be seen as the pivotal influence shaping the outcome of revised drafts. This conceptualization was substantiated by the experiences of EFL learners in the study, which remained consistent across various stages [ 39 , 43 ]. For instance, Alice, an EFL learner, noted, “In my revised writings, I found myself readjusting my approach to writing revision, placing greater emphasis on content revision throughout the four rounds of revisions.“.

The current study sought to examine the association between emotional aspects of WR and the quality of writing. We hypothesized that the process of writing revision contributes to the consolidation of writing quality and the outcomes of form revision or content orientation are associated with writing quality concerning the development of writing development. We found that when asked about their ability to generalize the emotional transformation from the four time points, a significant number of EFL learners highlighted their emotional changes regarding content orientation. The following section discusses the three hypothesis respectively.

Hypothesis 1: The process of writing revision contributes to the consolidation of writing quality

The outcomes of learners’ writing revisions provide some support for possible the manner in which the process of writing revision contributes to the enhancement of writing quality among EFL learners, facilitated by the consolidation of their emotional engagement with writing revision. Table  3 illustrates various orientation outcomes of writing revision, presenting an interactive model of EFL writing revision for developmental purposes. In particular, a significant finding, particularly pertinent for lower-proficiency EFL learners, is the importance of continuous writing revision in enhancing the quality of their writing manuscripts, fostering ongoing revision reformulation towards revision design, and fostering the consolidation of writing skills for EFL development. Likewise, as depicted in Table  3 , the process initiates with learners composing writing samples in four groups (NR), the accuracy of which interacts with the frequency of revisions, represented by various revision traces within the writing revision domain. The second pattern entails learners engaging in writing revision, wherein they refine writing scripts based on various patterns (FR), serving as “the necessary sculpting that refines EFL learners’ cognitive processing and self-efficacy in writing” [ 1 ]. Learners in FR may have fewer opportunities to develop psychological changes during writing processes in CR. This finding aligns with [ 27 ]’s WR-oriented perspective, emphasizing the iterative nature of writing revision for triggering reflection. The third pattern encompasses the Mechanical Revision (MR) domain, involving a multi-step revision process that encapsulates EFL learners’ emotional processes during writing revision. This includes how they revise their writing manuscripts with a balanced distribution of form revision and content orientation; their affective involvement during writing revision, reflecting their attitudes toward the process; and their cognitive engagement in improvement, depicting how they navigate the improvement process step by step during writing revision [ 24 ].

When warranted, writing revision begins with EFL learners revising specific points in the writing manuscript and corresponding writing traces simultaneously. They may employ either a “local writing revision processing strategy,” where they iteratively analyze the commented/revised segments of their writing manuscript and the writing revision, or a “deep writing revision processing strategy,” where they review the entire text in this manner [ 42 ]. This prompts gap noticing (pattern 1 in Shintani et al.’s model) and, if comprehensible (pattern 2), engages learners with the targeted writing revision emotionally and cognitively. However, non-targeted revising patterns may go unnoticed (CR).

Crucially, when EFL learners are acquainted with the four patterns of writing revision, their emotional involvement may transition from form revision to content revision [ 24 ], mirroring pattern 4 of the writing revision model, denoting progressive writing revision formation with emotional engagement. This longitudinal approach to writing revision entails iterative revising aimed at grasping a writing revision point and its underlying revising standard, offering pedagogical opportunities beyond mechanically substituting writing segments with revisions. Similarly [ 26 ], observed that EFL learners’ emotional growth during writing revision bolstered their focus on content, seeking the essence of writing revision, and employing metacognitive and motivational regulation strategies to enhance writing quality.

Another aspect of emotional engagement for lower-level learners may emerge after several iterations at different time points: arriving at a decision-making stage to address a deeper understanding of writing revision (e.g., thought processes, logic, cultural nuances), which are significant yet not overly complex. While most EFL learners are cognizant of associated form revisions, they may inaccurately apply them due to lapses in attention during the writing revision process. As such, Persistent writing revision signals the necessity for decision-making/actions against prominent errors, a process that could be facilitated by content-revision notes informing EFL learners of revision cues.

Conversely, emotional engagement with writing revision “necessitates EFL learners to employ cognitive and metacognitive strategies to assess the impact of writing revision on their writing and monitor their revisions” [ 5 ]. This involves the fundamental processing of writing revision, wherein learners endeavor to align with the revised standard, followed by writing evaluation, i.e., applying self-efficacy principles in the subsequent writing revision phase, indicative of a deeper content-oriented strategy, facilitated by the extended processing time during writing revision [ 17 ]. The iterative nature of the writing revision process allows EFL learners to repeatedly scrutinize their attempted revisions, discard inaccurately formulated ones, devise new ones (Time 4), construct sentences based on the outcomes of the three preceding stages, and then revise them through writing revision. Through the iterations of this writing revision process, most prominent errors, as well as some complex ones, tend to diminish, contributing to the consolidation of the targeted writing manuscript.

Hypothesis 2: The outcomes of form revision or content orientation are associated with writing quality concerning the development of writing development

RQ2 investigated the ramifications of prioritizing form revision or content orientation during the process of writing revision, particularly in relation to the advancement of writing skills. A detailed scrutiny of writing revision practices revealed that despite efforts to engage with form revision or content orientation, learners frequently encountered challenges in fully grasping the underlying principles of writing revision. Certain form revisions, notably those involving functional variability (e.g., articles like “the”), lower frequency occurrences (e.g., omission of “s” in compound adjectives), or specific rule applications (e.g., “affect on” vs. “effect on”), proved especially intricate for some learners. This variability necessitated the application of different writing revision rules within form revision, posing difficulties for learners with limited metalinguistic awareness, even when employing content orientation across various contexts of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning.

Furthermore, some form revisions, characterized by the manifestation of a single function (e.g., affixation) in writing revision processes, could not be easily mastered through a limited number of revisions or a single revision pattern (e.g., Content Revision or Form Revision). For instance, achieving proficiency in distinguishing between “success” and “successful” may not immediately translate into accuracy in spelling checks, word additions, deletions, complexity adjustments, or grammar checks (e.g., “hard” instead of “hardly”) elsewhere due to the multifaceted nature of morphological processes involving suffixation. This deficiency in form revision impeded the transferability of learning across different contexts, contrasting with more straightforward form revisions such as possessive adjectives.

Scholars like [ 33 ] argue that engaging with form is indispensable for EFL learners to develop revision awareness, necessitating numerous trial-and-error attempts before consolidating writing quality. However, even with extended opportunities for revision, some learners may struggle to accurately revise towards certain complex structures, a finding corroborated by [ 44 ]’s meta-analysis. Engaging EFL learners in multiple writing revision modes, as advocated by [ 10 ], can facilitate successful processing of writing revision focused on content orientation. Moreover, employing additional student-friendly revision techniques such as error labeling and metalinguistic explanations can assist in navigating complex writing revision tasks and mitigate the risk of learners merely replicating form revisions without comprehending the underlying principles of writing revision.

In their endeavor to refine their writing skills, EFL learners often concentrate on developing a deeper understanding of the writing revision (WR) process. When initial revision attempts fail to yield desired improvements, learners may resort to repeated iterations of revising content, hoping to glean insights into effective revision strategies. This iterative approach, elucidated by [ 35 ], entails building upon previous revisions and engaging in self-reflection to inform subsequent revisions. By consistently reflecting on their writing and revising both form and content, learners significantly enhance the quality of their manuscripts.

Engagement in sustained WR fosters emotional and cognitive involvement with the revision process, prompting learners to actively consider new phases of writing. The differentiation between revising form and content, as underscored by [ 12 , 34 ], holds significant importance. EFL learners immersed in WR processes don’t merely superficially revise their writing to meet testing requirements; instead, they delve into the core principles of WR, striving to comprehend underlying concepts and apply them autonomously. This concept of “writing revision for acquisition,” proposed by [ 35 ], underscores the iterative nature of WR. Over time, consistent engagement in WR builds upon previous reflections, potentially strengthening learners’ self-efficacy in writing revision, as observed in [ 18 ]’s research. This underscores the potential of prolonged, content-driven WR.

Contrary to the assertion by [ 27 ] regarding the inefficacy of WR in promoting deep processing of target writing, our findings indicate that learners deeply engage with WR. These findings are supported statistically by the presentation of numerous text-specific examples illustrating learners’ comprehension of WR complexity. Throughout the WR process, learners frequently read and re-read the entire writing segment under scrutiny, aiming to gain deeper insights for independently enhancing the quality of their writing. This finding aligns with the work of [ 24 ], suggesting that while WR may prompt a restructuring of writing, continuous testing and refining of iterative improvements enhance emotional engagement with the WR process. Therefore, to ascertain the association of these effects with greater certainty, future research should delve into causal mechanisms with more longitudinal data.

Hypothesis 3: Psychological processes help EFL learners improve the self-efficacy in language acquisition

RQ3 delves into the emotional transitions experienced by EFL learners during form or content revision in their language development journey. Figure  2 illustrates the iterative process EFL learners undergo when prompted to self-correct their writing regularly. The emotional shifts reveal that lower-level EFL learners may detect linguistic errors during self-revision, consistent with the findings of [ 12 , 17 ], indicating successful amendments when learners possess sufficient understanding of identified errors. Furthermore, we found a spectrum of positive psychological experiences among EFL learners during writing, including enjoyment, satisfaction, and excitement, which motivate sustained language-learning efforts. These findings offer support for previous research, such as [ 26 ], which underscores the role of positive psychological states in broadening attention and driving action, serving as potent motivational forces [ 30 , 32 ]. However, few studies have examined the nuanced impact of negative psychological states on EFL learners’ motivation. While anxiety and burnout can diminish enthusiasm and reduce engagement with writing activities, as suggested by recent literature (e.g [ 30 , 34 , 35 ]). , , their effects on motivation are multifaceted. Previous research has primarily focused on examining writing quality from revision, but the effective utilization of external psychological factors, such as self-revision, may be largely ignored, especially when addressing errors that necessitate form revision.

Emotional attitudes towards writing revision

Regarding the present findings on limited linguistic proficiency among learners, this outcome contrasts with the findings of [ 26 ], as learners may struggle with revisions due to frustration or fear of making errors, potentially introducing new errors. Learners express minimal confidence in successful yet unverified self-revision, inhibiting learning due to uncertainty and avoidance regarding the accuracy of their revisions [ 30 ]. Additionally, these findings bolster self-efficacy among EFL learners in error identification, reflecting positive, negative, significant, and insignificant trends in content-oriented form revision, fostering either confidence or fear of risk-taking during writing. Moreover, these results align with prior research linking writing revision efforts to writing quality, as shown in Table  2 .

Regarding the significance of addressing writing revision alongside broader emotional transformations, as depicted in Fig.  1 , this study found a novel finding fraught with complex psychological dynamics. Despite lower proficiency, the pedagogical outcomes of EFL learners’ engagement in the writing revision process during the writing phase yield marginal improvements, diverging from past findings [ 38 ], suggesting that despite ongoing psychological changes and metacognitive processes during revision attempts, enhancements in writing quality remain elusive. To our knowledge, the current study is the first to examine the association between psychological processes of writing revision and quality of writing, and as such, these results offer novel insights into the relations between these two variables.

Exploring the impact of content revision on writing quality through the lens of emotional transformation has significant implications for language teaching and assessment. Firstly, this study can facilitate a novel approach to writing assessment for educators and teachers by considering the emotional processes inherent in language learning. By dynamically observing learners’ psychological changes during writing revision, it assists in understanding learners’ internal emotional needs and identifying sources of subtle learning anxiety, thus improving teacher-learner interaction. Secondly, in the context of language learning, it is crucial to prioritize understanding learners’ psychological states, especially in ESL (English as a Second Language) contexts, and the psychological shifts associated with language testing, rather than solely focusing on superficial measures of performance. Thirdly, by emphasizing content focus, this study offers a perceptual pathway for simultaneously examining the methodologies used to analyze internal and external factors influencing the effectiveness of language learning and teaching. Fourthly, this study aids in assessing language learning both quantitatively and qualitatively, enabling simultaneous observation and cognitive bootstrapping, which facilitates teachers in adjusting their teaching practices effectively. Fifthly, evaluating learners’ emotional changes is valuable for gaining a deeper understanding of their conceptualization process during language learning, which is crucial for accurately observing learners’ progress. Therefore, this research opens a new avenue for exploring EFL perspectives in terms of emotional considerations and provides valuable insights for enhancing language instruction and practice.

Limitations and future studies

The current study examined the emotional evolution of 320 EFL learners engaged in writing revision, specifically transitioning from form-focused revisions to content-oriented ones, over a sixteen-week period. The primary aim was to enhance the quality of writing through fundamental revisions. However, it’s important to note a limitation in the experiment, namely the exclusion of comprehensive writing revision, which ideally should encompass various aspects such as content, vocabulary, and organization [ 45 ]. Theoretically, a comprehensive approach to EFL writing revision should integrate these facets to provide a holistic view of EFL development and enhance self-efficacy in writing quality, departing from established models of EFL development (for further discussion, refer to [ 35 ] for an in-depth exploration of the relationship between writing revision and writing quality).

[ 31 ]’s model suggests that writing revision involves cognitive and affective processes leading to form-focused revisions, distinct from content-oriented ones. The writing revision process might require simultaneous adjustments, especially if future studies investigate proceduralization across different proficiency levels and writing revision conditions, such as those involving multiple rewriting, as seen in the studies by [ 27 ] and [ 20 ]. It’s conceivable that the transition from form-focused revisions to content-oriented ones could occur more rapidly for higher-proficiency learners unless additional complex writing revisions are introduced. Conversely, the writing revision process might resemble the patterns observed in the current study if lower-proficiency learners undergo writing revision over an extended period.

Methodologically, future mixed-methods studies should strive for complementarity, exploring various layers of the writing revision process in EFL writing, alongside triangulation. Regarding core writing revision, an incremental approach may be beneficial, gradually shifting focus to deeper patterns (e.g., paraphrasing; coherence between form revisions and content orientation) once specific patterns of writing revision are identified, as demonstrated in studies such as [ 10 , 46 ] and [ 23 ], promoting a more ecologically valid approach to writing revision. In terms of the writing revision process, future studies could investigate strategy training by instructing learners to utilize diverse learning materials and draw from previous experiences for autonomous, self-initiated revisions.

By eliciting the perspectives of EFL learners on the emotional implications of WR, spanning from form-focused revisions to content-oriented ones, the present study sheds light on how the process of writing revision contributes to the enhancement of writing quality. As the number of writing revisions increases, there arises a need for an expanded scope of writing revision tailored to the proficiency levels of EFL learners. The cyclical approach to writing revision proposed in this study draws heavily on current perspectives in writing learning and teaching [ 18 , 33 ], which provide cognitive insights into the transition from form-focused revisions to content-oriented ones. However, the WR process also highlights the writing-specific processes of EFL development, which differ from those of writing output. A notable manifestation of this disparity in WR lies in how EFL learners navigate between form-focused revisions and content-oriented ones. In this context, EFL learners consider their emotional responses when undertaking form or content revisions, gradually broadening their repertoire of writing forms or content and engaging in self-reflection on WR principles through longitudinal revisions. Future empirical studies should explore additional quantitative aspects of WR, such as cultural factors, representative evidence, critical thinking, and the impact of writing assessment beyond specific written revisions. Such studies can contribute to the development of a comprehensive theory of second language writing, informed by the concurrent processes of writing revision.

Data availability

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation. All research data can be open-shared free in Dataverse ( https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi%3A10.7910%2FDVN%2F31UMTY&version=DRAFT ).

Abbreviations

• Writing revision

English as a foreign language

English as a second language

The Social Emotional Assessment

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Acknowledgements

The authors are very grateful to Yang Zhou for providing technical support for the manuscript.

National Social Science Fund of China (A Study on the Validity Argument Model of L2 Writing Assessment Empowered by Digital Humanities, 23BYY162) provided the necessary funds for the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript.

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Ke, Y., Zhou, X. Unlocking the core revision of writing assessment: EFL learner’ emotional transformation from form focus to content orientation. BMC Psychol 12 , 472 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01977-2

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