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Global Assessment of Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is a chemical degradation process that consumes fertile soils, with implications for global food security and human health. Soil pollution hampers the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including achieving zero hunger, ending poverty, ensuring healthy lives and human well-being, halting and reversing land degradation and biodiversity loss, and making cities safe and resilient. Most contaminants originate from human activities and enter into the environment because of unsustainable production chains, consumption patterns or inappropriate waste disposal practices.
In May 2018, FAO and its Global Soil Partnership (GSP), the World Health Organization (WHO), the Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Convention and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) organized the Global Symposium on Soil Pollution (GSOP18) to bring together science and policy to understand the status, causes, impacts and solutions to soil pollution. The Outcome document of the symposium, ‘ Be the solution to soil pollution ’ paved the way to the implementation of a coordinated set of actions to # StopSoilPollution .
This report considers both point source contamination and diffuse pollution, and detail also the risks and impacts of soil pollution on human health, the environment and food security, without neglecting soil degradation and the burden of disease resulting from exposure to polluted soil.
The Global Assessment of Soil Pollution report and its Summary for Policy makers will be launched on 4th June are a response to this request and as part of the World Environment Day celebrations and the launch of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. This report and its summary, coordinated by the FAO’s GSP, the ITPS, and UNEP, are the product of an inclusive process involving scientists from all regions.
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Soil Pollution and Remediation
Jorge paz-ferreiro.
1 School of Engineering, RMIT University, GP.O. Box 2476, Melbourne VIC 3001, Australia; [email protected]
2 Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Remediation, RMIT University, GP.O. Box 2476, Melbourne VIC 3001, Australia
Gabriel Gascó
3 Departamento de Producción Agraria, E.T.S.I. Agronómica, Alimentaria y de Biosistemas, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria, 28004 Madrid, Spain; [email protected]
Ana Méndez
4 Departamento de Ingeniería Geológica y Minera, E.T.S.I. Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, C/Ríos Rosas No. 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain; [email protected]
Suzie M. Reichman
Industrialized economies and developing countries are affected by soil pollution originating from mining, industrial activities, improper disposal of waste, and mechanized agriculture. Soil pollution could lead to impacts on crop productivity and human health. Investigating the sources, fate and occurrence of soil pollution, and the risks posed to human health has thus been an important area of research.
An increasing amount of research has been devoted to finding innovative and sustainable solutions for the remediation of contaminated land. The multiple challenges associated with the remediation of polluted soils have been overcome by the use of soil amendments, thermal desorption, soil washing, electrokinetic remediation, and bioremediation.
This Special Issue collects research papers aimed at a wide range of soil remediation topics, presenting an integrated view of the trends in solving the problems associated with the obtaining successful soil remediation. This special issue contains eleven articles that have been selected as emerging studies dealing with the above-mentioned topics.
Two of the articles presented in this special issue were directly devoted to assisted phytoremediation. Phytoremediation has been increasingly used in recent years as it has significant co-benefits, including providing a plant cover to the soil which contributes to reduced erosion. The success of phytoremediation approaches depends ultimately on plant growth and the concentration of the element of interest absorbed by the plant. Thus, Radziemska et al. [ 1 ] used different materials for assisted phytostabilization, including diatomites, halloysite, and chalcedonite. They found the last two to be more effective when combined with Brassica napus . Huang et al. [ 2 ] pyrolyzed organic matter, a technique which can contribute to reduce waste streams while producing a material with better characteristics for soil addition called biochar. Biochar has been used as a soil amendment due to its ability to immobilise heavy metals, including Zn [ 3 ] and Cd [ 4 ], while contributing to carbon sequestration [ 5 ]. Huang et al. [ 2 ] produced three biochars with different characteristics which were then trialled for assisted phytostabilization using Cassia alata , of a mine tailing contaminated with several heavy metals. Their biochar improved plant growth and generally enhanced the root uptake of several elements. However, the risk of As release was observed at higher biochar doses.
The addition of innovative materials to the soil was also a focus of Jiang et al.’s study [ 6 ]. A nanometallic aluminium/calcium oxide dispersion mixture was shown to be highly efficient for the dechlorination of hexachlorobenzene. The material prepared by these authors has the potential to result in a more cost-effective remediation than the more commonly utilised Ca/CaO dispersion mixtures.
Structural differences in pollution patterns were a focus of several articles in this special issue. Skala et al. [ 7 ] studied the contribution of organochlorine pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and polychlorinated biphenyls to human health risks in floodplains. Health risk assessment was also a focus of the study by Retamel-Salgado et al. [ 8 ]. In this case, the health risk posed by the consumption of maize growing in three soils with contrasting characteristics polluted with cadmium was evaluated.
Wang and Zhang [ 9 ] studied the influence of soil properties, vegetation, and road age on heavy metal concentrations in roadside soils in Hangzhou. Hu et al [ 10 ] and Jia et al. [ 11 ] studied the spatial variability of heavy metals in soils using geostatistics. Zhou et al. [ 12 ] studied the variability of chromate in a topsoil and its corresponding subsoil concentrations.
Yang et al. [ 13 ] used composted sewage sludge as an additive to an urban garden soil. Total concentrations, nonresidual fractions, and bioaccessibility of Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn increased after addition of composted sewage sludge to the soil.
Zhu et al. [ 14 ] studied Ni toxicity to barley and correlated it with a single EDTA extraction and three sequential extractions with EDTA. They found that multiple extractions improved the prediction of the toxicity models.
This body of work presented in this special issue shows the potential for assessing and remediating polluted soils. The work showcased to stakeholders how innovative systems can be integrated into traditional soil remediation
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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- CORRESPONDENCE
- 26 February 2019
- Correction 28 March 2019
Soil pollution — speed up global mapping
- Deyi Hou 0 &
- Yong Sik Ok 1
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Korea University, Seoul, South Korea.
Too few countries are investing in national surveys of soil pollution. A global map is urgently needed, not least to prevent international trading of contaminated produce and the migration of persistent organic pollutants across borders. We urge all member states at next month’s fourth session of the UN Environment Assembly (UNEA) to speed up their assessments.
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Nature 566 , 455 (2019)
doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-00669-x
Updates & Corrections
Correction 28 March 2019 : An earlier version of this Correspondence erroneously stated that the fifth UNEA session will take place in 2020.
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Pollution from pesticides and heavy metals came out ahead of climate change and invasive species as having the biggest impact on life in soils. © kryzhov/ Shutterstock.
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Pollution revealed as the greatest threat to healthy soils
Food security and biodiversity are threatened by the chemicals contaminating our soils.
Earthworms, insects and mites are all at risk from soil pollution, and scientists are worried that we know very little about the damage it’s causing.
Toxic metals and the overuse of pesticides are threatening subterranean life around the world.
New research published in the journal iScience found that soil pollution was the leading cause of declines among organisms living underground. The finding has surprised scientists, who expected farming intensification and climate change to have much greater impacts.
Dr Victoria Burton , a co-author of the new research based at the Natural History Museum, says that the findings are “concerning”.
“Above ground, land use, climate change and invasive species have the greatest impact on biodiversity, so we assumed that this would be similar below ground,” Victoria says. “Our results show, however, that this isn’t the case.”
“Instead, we found that pesticide and heavy metal pollution caused the most damage to soil biodiversity. This is worrying, as there hasn’t been a lot of research into the impacts of soil pollution, so its effects might be more widespread than we know.”
“Amid concern over soil degradation, we need to investigate what impacts other sources of pollution, such as microplastics , hydrocarbons and persistent chemicals, are having on the life beneath our feet.”
Soil organisms can live anywhere from the surface to much deeper below the soil, from millipeds like Polydesmus to insects and microbes. © The Trustees of the Natural History Museum, London and Harry Taylor
The secret life of soils
Compared to life above ground, what’s living in soils is relatively unknown. This is because, in addition to the difficulty in finding the organisms that live down there, soil is actually made up of multiple habitats all sitting on top of each other.
“Soil isn’t just a homogenous lump of dirt,” Victoria says. “It’s a complex environment containing many different structures, nutrients and minerals. While the majority of life is found within 10 centimetres of the surface, some organisms can live much deeper .”
“But with so few specialists who can identify subterranean organisms, we know much less about life below than above ground.”
This means that when it comes to finding out how soil communities are faring, there are a lot of open questions. While it’s known that habitat destruction and persecution are some of the biggest impacts for above ground biodiversity , only a few studies have tried to tackle their subterranean equivalents.
To try and account for this in their new research, the team performed what is known as a meta-analysis. This is where scientists take data from many existing studies and re-analyse them to answer new questions that the original research didn’t focus on.
For this meta-analysis, Victoria and the rest of her team reused the data of more than 600 studies, including thousands of different datapoints, to see what the greatest impacts humans were having on the health of soils globally.
Organic fertilisers and mulch provide benefits to worms, who feed on the nutrients they contain. © kckate16/ Shutterstock.
Digging into soil research
Based on their results, wildlife above and below ground generally respond very differently to the same issues.
While the loss of a forest above ground might be devastating to the plants and animals that live there, the researchers’ predictions that subterranean organisms would also be affected weren’t proven. Instead, it seemed that the soil provided a buffer, helping its organisms to be more resilient to certain changes.
“Soils can store moisture and nutrients, which can help life living underground to withstand changes, at least in the short term,” Victoria explains. “For instance, while climate change is affecting more and more species on the surface, its underground impacts appear to be limited for now.”
“However, the effect of these impacts in the long-term is less well-known , meaning this buffering effect may only provide temporary relief for soil communities.”
While the majority of the changes, like rising temperatures or chemical pollution, were negative for soil biodiversity, there were a few positives. The most important was the use of organic fertilisers and mulch, which introduces more carbon into the soil. This is especially beneficial for earthworms, which feed on the nutrients and cycle them in the soil.
Though this study has provided a deeper insight into the changes affecting soils, it’s still barely scratched the surface. The team hope that future research will focus on how the interactions between factors like climate change and pollution, might enhance or limit their joint impacts
They also hope to get more people looking into soils. Victoria is keen to inspire the next generation of researchers while working with students as part of the National Education Nature Park , which is being led by the Natural History Museum.
“I’m excited to include soil biodiversity work within the National Education Nature Park,” Victoria says. “It’s a good opportunity to get young people excited about the life under their feet, and to get them interested in the life cycles of animals like craneflies and beetles which they might not know about.”
“It’s not just an opportunity to inspire them, but to do some important science that is currently being overlooked.”
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- Climate change
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- Read the paper in full published in iScience .
- Find out what Victoria is working on .
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Soil pollution surpasses climate change as top threat to underground biodiversity, study finds
by James Ashworth, Natural History Museum
Earthworms, insects and mites are all at risk from soil pollution, and scientists are worried that we know very little about the damage it's causing.
New research published in the journal iScience found that soil pollution was the leading cause of declines among organisms living underground. The finding has surprised scientists, who expected farming intensification and climate change to have much greater impacts.
Dr. Victoria Burton, a co-author of the new research based at the Natural History Museum, says that the findings are "concerning."
"Above ground, land use, climate change and invasive species have the greatest impact on biodiversity, so we assumed that this would be similar below ground," Victoria says. "Our results show, however, that this isn't the case."
"Instead, we found that pesticide and heavy metal pollution caused the most damage to soil biodiversity. This is worrying, as there hasn't been a lot of research into the impacts of soil pollution, so its effects might be more widespread than we know."
"Amid concern over soil degradation , we need to investigate what impacts other sources of pollution, such as microplastics, hydrocarbons and persistent chemicals, are having on the life beneath our feet."
The secret life of soils
Compared to life above ground, what's living in soils is relatively unknown. This is because, in addition to the difficulty in finding the organisms that live down there, soil is actually made up of multiple habitats all sitting on top of each other.
"Soil isn't just a homogenous lump of dirt," Victoria says. "It's a complex environment containing many different structures, nutrients and minerals. While the majority of life is found within 10 centimeters of the surface, some organisms can live much deeper ."
"But with so few specialists who can identify subterranean organisms, we know much less about life below than above ground."
This means that when it comes to finding out how soil communities are faring, there are a lot of open questions. While it's known that habitat destruction and persecution are some of the biggest impacts on aboveground biodiversity, only a few studies have tried to tackle their subterranean equivalents.
To try and account for this in their new research, the team performed what is known as a meta-analysis. This is where scientists take data from many existing studies and re-analyze them to answer new questions that the original research didn't focus on.
For this meta-analysis , Victoria and the rest of her team reused the data of more than 600 studies, including thousands of different datapoints, to see what impact humans were having on the health of soils globally.
Digging into soil research
Based on their results, wildlife above and below ground generally respond very differently to the same issues.
While the loss of a forest above ground might be devastating to the plants and animals that live there, the researchers' predictions that subterranean organisms would also be affected weren't proven. Instead, it seemed that the soil provided a buffer, helping its organisms to be more resilient to certain changes.
"Soils can store moisture and nutrients, which can help life living underground to withstand changes, at least in the short term," Victoria explains. "For instance, while climate change is affecting more and more species on the surface, its underground impacts appear to be limited for now."
"However, the effect of these impacts in the long-term is less well-known, meaning this buffering effect may only provide temporary relief for soil communities."
While the majority of the changes, like rising temperatures or chemical pollution, were negative for soil biodiversity, there were a few positives. The most important was the use of organic fertilizers and mulch, which introduces more carbon into the soil. This is especially beneficial for earthworms, which feed on the nutrients and cycle them in the soil.
Though this study has provided a deeper insight into the changes affecting soils, it's still barely scratched the surface. The team hope that future research will focus on how the interactions between factors like climate change and pollution, might enhance or limit their joint impacts
They also hope to get more people looking into soils. Victoria is keen to inspire the next generation of researchers while working with students as part of the National Education Nature Park, which is being led by the Natural History Museum.
"I'm excited to include soil biodiversity work within the National Education Nature Park," Victoria says. "It's a good opportunity to get young people excited about the life under their feet, and to get them interested in the life cycles of animals like craneflies and beetles which they might not know about."
"It's not just an opportunity to inspire them, but to do some important science that is currently being overlooked."
Journal information: iScience
Provided by Natural History Museum
This story is republished courtesy of Natural History Museum. Read the original story here .
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Surfactant-based chemical washing to remediate oil-contaminated soil: the state of knowledge.
1. Introduction
2. soil oil pollution, 2.1. the sources of oil in soil, 2.2. the harm of oil to soil ecosystems, 3. remediation of oil-contaminated soil, 4. soil washing, 4.1. surfactant, 4.1.1. mechanism of surfactant cleaning of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil, 4.1.2. classification and selection of surfactants, cationic surfactants, anionic surfactants, nonionic surfactants, amphoteric surfactants, gemini surfactants, biosurfactants, 4.2. influencing factors of soil washing, 4.2.1. detergent configuration, the combination of surfactants, auxiliary agents, 4.2.2. factors influencing the chemical washing process, temperature, mixing mode, other conditions, 4.2.3. factors related to soil properties, 4.2.4. parameters of oil, 5. conclusions and future perspectives, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
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Click here to enlarge figure
| Remediation Technique | Technical Features | Process Details | Contaminant Conc. | Soil Characteristics | Process Duration | Maximum Efficiency Reported | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bioremediation | Environmentally friendly, low cost; highly time-consuming, low efficiency, greatly affected by environmental factors. | Composting stage (75 days) + vermiremediation stage (60 days); contaminated soil, lombricompost, rice hulls, and wheat stubbles (60:20:15:5% w/w); earthworm species Eisenia fetida and Amynthas morrisi | Diesel/3425 ± 50 mg/kg | Clay 20.5%; silt 59.5%; sand 20.0%; OM 1.5 ± 0.1%; ashes 0.8 ± 0.1%; TN 0.09 ± 0.01%; C/N 10; pH 6.0 ± 0.02 | 75 d + 60 d | 60.81% | [ ] |
| Pinus densiflora, Thuja orientalis, and Populus tomentiglandulosa amended with microbial consortium and commercial compound fertilizer (NPK 21-17-17) | Diesel/6000 mg/kg | pH 5.65; EC 0.03 dS/m; OM 0.8%; CEC 1.9 cmol/kg | 150 d | 86.80% | [ ] | ||
| Chemical oxidation | Highly efficient, low-cost, and easy to operate; potential risks and secondary pollution. | Oxidant: PMS; satalyst: nZVI; five serial applications of the 0.3% PMS/0.2% nZVI system | Diesel/6625 ± 115 mg/kg | Clay 8%; silt 10%; sand 82%; pH 4.2 ± 0.03; textural classes: loam; OM 4.51%; CEC 12.0 cmol/kg; EC 130.1 μS/cm; water content (w/w) 4.05%; TN 510 mg/kg | 10 h | 96.00% | [ ] |
| Oxidant: H O , persulfate; catalyst: Fe (FeSO ); mechanical stirring with continuous addition of H O of various concentrations using a peristaltic pump at ambient temperatures | Diesel/5000 mg/kg | Clay 12%; silt 47%; sand 41%; pH 5.7; textural classes: loam; OM 7.5% | 40 h | 80% | [ ] | ||
| Oxidant: H O ; catalyst: zero-valent iron; mechanical stirring at 180 rpm in shaking water bath at 22 °C | Diesel/5030 ± 120 mg/kg | Clay 4.9%; silt 75.1%; sand 20.0%; pH 6.3; minerals: quartz, feldspar, kaolinite, goethite | 3 h | 90% | [ ] | ||
| Electrokinetic remediation | High efficiency, low power consumption, strong controllability; not environmentally friendly, time-consuming. | Electric field: 1.0 V/cm, 2.0 V/cm; graphite electrode chambers 4 L using 0.03 mol/L citric acid | Commercial diesel fuel/11,680 mg/kg | Clay 47.24%; silt 42.44%; sand 3.17%; gravel 7.15%; TOC 1.70%; moisture 46.59%; EC 12.40 mS/cm; pH 7.8; carbonate < 0.1 mg/kg | 15 d | 73% | [ ] |
| Solvent extraction | High efficiency, less time-consuming, wide applicability; a large amount of solvent consumption, potential hazards, and secondary pollution. | Anionic lipopeptide (LT) and nonionic sophorolipid (SL); concentration 100 mg/L; temperature 55 °C; ratio of sludge/liquid 1:3; stirring speed 300 rpm | Crude oil/17.79 wt% | Oily sludge; oil 17.79 wt%; water 3.54 wt%; solids 78.67 wt% | 3 h | 85% | [ ] |
| Rhamnolipid and sophorolipid; concentration 500 mg/L; temperature 45 °C; ratio of sludge/liquid 4:1; stirring speed 300 r/min; washing four times | Crude oil/45.66% | Oily sludge; water 42.37%; oil 45.66% | 3 h | 95.66% | [ ] | ||
| Thermal desorption | High efficiency, fast, reliable; high cost, producing greenhouse gases, affected by high moisture content. | Microwave frequency heating; heating time of 30 min in a modified domestic microwave oven (power: 600 W; frequency 2.45 GHz; temperature: up to 275 °C) | Diesel fuel/1900 mg/kg | Fine sand; moisture content 10%; OM 3.55%; porosity 32.5%; pH 8.72; soil mineral: silica sand | 1 h | 90% | [ ] |
| Combined remediation | Integrating the advantages of a variety of single techniques, the ideal remediation effect can be achieved; complex technological processes. | Current: 569 ± 2 mA/cm ; bottle-type dual-chamber MFC reactors with carbon fiber brush as anode and titanium wire mesh at 22 ± 2 °C for 140 days | Crude oil/24,085 mg/kg | Clay loam; pH 7.27 ± 0.08; EC 0.61 ± 0.01 mS/cm; sand 69.4%; silt 20.0%; clay 10.6%; TOC 28.5 ± 2.56 g/kg; TPHs 11.34 ± 3.26 g/kg; nitrate 1.90 ± 0.07 mg/kg; phosphate 1.91 ± 0.03 mg/kg; sulfate < 40 mg/kg | 140 d | 76.00% | [ ] |
| Predominant species of bacteria: Pontibacillus, Sediminimonas, Georgenia; Power: 132 ± 17 mW/m ; A cylindrical soil MFC with carbon cloth anode and activated carbon cathode for 182 days | Petroleum hydrocarbon/83,060 mg/kg | pH 8.26 ± 0.04; EC 5.45 ± 0.07 mS/cm; TN 93.11 ± 2.39 mg/kg; NH -N 1.60 ± 0.13 mg/kg; NO -N 1.19 ± 0.06 mg/kg; alkanes 48,751 ± 591 mg/kg; aromatics 27,947 ± 278 mg/kg; DON 21.60 ± 0.45 mg/kg; DOC 469.35 ± 0.15 mg/kg | 182 d | 52% | [ ] | ||
| Pyrolysis temperature of 400 °C and residence time of 30 min; N flow: 1 L/min continuous high purity (>99.999%); Additive: Fe O , Al O , K CO , CaO, HZSM-5, and red mud | Petroleum hydrocarbon/119 ± 5 g/kg | Sand 94.8%; silt 4.6%; clay 0.6% | 30 min | >91.6% | [ ] | ||
| Mixed biosurfactant (surfactin + rhamnolipid) of 0.6 g/L, soil/water ratio of 20% w/v, temperature of 30 °C, and washing time of 24 h; the effluent was efficiently biotreated in the bioprocess with 5 g/L acclimate biomass daily stimulated with 0.1 mM H O | Petroleum hydrocarbon/32 g/kg | Clay loam; clay 32%; silt 38%; sand 30%; permeability 1.5 cm/h; moisture 4.63%; pH 7.2; TN 0.11%; TP 242.5 ppm; organic content 1.11%; density 1.96 g/cm | 18 d | 99% | [ ] |
| Type | Surfactant Conc. | Operating Condition | Contaminant Conc. | Soil Characteristics | Maximum Efficiency Reported | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nonionic | Triton X-100/150 mg/L | Mechanical stirring 160 rpm; liquid/solid 10:1; washing time 30 min; temperature 60 °C | Crude oil/20,000 mg/L | Clay soil; clay 13–24%; quartz 13–15% | 68.00% | [ ] |
| Tween 80/4000 mg/L | Flow rate 0.01 mL/s; total amount of leachate 2000 mL | o-dichlorobenzene and p-dichlorobenzene/537.36 mg/kg | pH 7.87; TOC 20.17 g/kg; CEC 17.52 cmol/kg; specific gravity 1.98; sand 80.38%; silt 14.70%; clay 4.92% | 68.00% | [ ] | |
| 0.75 wt% APG1214, 0.1 wt% Na P O , 0.06 wt% Na CO , and 0.04 wt% Na SiO | Mechanical stirring 350 rpm; temperature 80 °C; washing time 30 min; solution/soil ratio 10 mL/g | Crude oil/123 mg/g | Clay 6%; silt 16%; sand 78%; pH 8.1; TOC 6.33% | 97.00% | [ ] | |
| Triton X-100/2.5% v/v; NaM-si/2.5% w/v; MWCNT/0.04% w/w | Mechanical stirring 220 rpm; washing time 7 days | Engine oil | Clay 18%; silt 75%; sand 7% | 91.83% | [ ] | |
| Tween20/30 mg/L | Mechanical stirring 160 rpm; liquid/solid 10:1; washing time 30 min; temperature 60 °C | Crude oil/20,000 mg/L | Clay soil; clay 13–24%; quartz 13–15% | 91.30% | [ ] | |
| Polyoxyethylene sorbitol hexaoleate/12 mg/L in phosphate buffer 960 mg/L | Mechanical stirring 275 rpm 48 h | PAH (C10–C24)/95 mg/kg | Sand 83%; silt 14%; clay 3% | 50.00% | [ ] | |
| APG/4000 mg/L | Flow rate 0.01 mL/s; total amount of leachate 2000 mL | o-dichlorobenzene and p-dichlorobenzene/537.36 mg/kg | pH 7.87; TOC 20.17 g/kg; CEC 17.52 cmol/kg; specific gravity 1.98; sand 80.38%; silt 14.70%; clay 4.92% | 69.00% | [ ] | |
| Anionic | SDS/2.5% v/v; NaM-si/2.5% w/v; MWCNT/0.04% w/w | Mechanical stirring 220 rpm; washing time 7 days | Engine oil | clay 18%; silt 75%; sand 7% | 92.22% | [ ] |
| Dodecyl methylnaphthalene sulfonates/400 mg/L | Mechanical stirring 160 rpm; liquid/solid 10:1; washing time 30 min; temperature 60 °C | Crude oil/20,000 mg/L | Clay soil; clay 13–24%; quartz 13–15% | 86.30% | [ ] | |
| Cationic | CTAB/300 mg/L | Mechanical stirring 160 rpm; liquid/solid ratio 10:1; washing time 30 min; temperature 60 °C | Crude oil/20,000 mg/L | Clay soil; clay 13–24%; quartz 13–15% | <50% | [ ] |
| Biosurfactant | Saponin/0.2 g/L | Water/soil ratio 10:1; temperature 45 °C; magnetic stirrer 340 rev/min; washing time 15 min | Diesel oil | pH 7.28; CEC 93.7 mol/kg; organic carbon 2.48%; sand 15.74%; clay 4.51%; silt 76.28% | 61.70% | [ ] |
| Saponin/4 g/L | Flow rate 0.01 mL/s; total amount of leachate 2000 mL | o-dichlorobenzene and p-dichlorobenzene/537.36 mg/kg | pH 7.87; TOC 20.17 g/kg; CEC 17.52 cmol/kg; specific gravity 1.98; sand 80.38%; silt 14.70%; clay 4.92% | p-dichlorobenzene 76.34%; p-dichlorobenzene 80.43% | [ ] | |
| Saponin/4000 mg/L | Flow rate 0.01 mL/s; total amount of leachate 2000 mL | o-dichlorobenzene and p-dichlorobenzene/537.36 mg/kg | pH 7.87; TOC 20.17 g/kg; CEC 17.52 cmol/kg; specific gravity 1.98; sand 80.38%; silt 14.70%; clay 4.92% | 80.00% | [ ] | |
| Anionic lipopeptide (LT) and nonionic sophorolipid (SL)/100 mg/L | Temperature 55 °C; ratio of sludge/liquid 1:3; stirring speed 300 rpm; washing time 3 h | Crude oil/17.79 wt% | Oily sludge; oil 17.79 wt%; water 3.54 wt%; solids 78.67 wt% | 85% | [ ] | |
| Rhamnolipid and sophorolipid/500 mg/L | Temperature 45 °C; ratio of sludge/liquid 4:1; stirring speed 300 r/min; washing four times; washing time 3 h | Crude oil/45.66% | Oily sludge; water 42.37%; oil 45.66% | 95.66% | [ ] |
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Zhao, Y.; Sun, Y.; Sun, H.; Zuo, F.; Kuang, S.; Zhang, S.; Wang, F. Surfactant-Based Chemical Washing to Remediate Oil-Contaminated Soil: The State of Knowledge. Toxics 2024 , 12 , 648. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090648
Zhao Y, Sun Y, Sun H, Zuo F, Kuang S, Zhang S, Wang F. Surfactant-Based Chemical Washing to Remediate Oil-Contaminated Soil: The State of Knowledge. Toxics . 2024; 12(9):648. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090648
Zhao, Yanxin, Yuhuan Sun, Haihan Sun, Fang Zuo, Shaoping Kuang, Shuwu Zhang, and Fayuan Wang. 2024. "Surfactant-Based Chemical Washing to Remediate Oil-Contaminated Soil: The State of Knowledge" Toxics 12, no. 9: 648. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090648
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Optimizing Plant Biomonitoring for Cd Pollution
- Published: 28 August 2024
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- ilknur Zeren Cetin ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3908-0370 nAff1
Cadmium (Cd), a significant environmental pollutant, is highly toxic to humans, animals, and plants. Its harmful effects are notable even at low concentrations, and it persists in biological systems for extended periods. Given its classification as a type I carcinogen, monitoring changes in the Cd concentration in the air is highly important. This study explored the variation in Cd concentrations in specific plant species and plant organs at different vehicular traffic densities to identify the most effective species and organs for the biomonitoring of Cd concentrations in the air. The Cd concentration changes in different organs of five plant species were analyzed at various vehicular traffic densities. The findings suggest that among the species examined, Nerium oleander is most suitable for use as a biomonitor for Cd, with unwashed organs being recommended for biomonitoring purposes.
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ilknur Zeren Cetin
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Ilknur Zeren Cetin: Processing analysis, interpretation, original draft, data curation. Ilknur Zeren Cetin designed the study and performed the experiments; Ilknur Zeren Cetin performed the experiments, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript, Ilknur Zeren Cetin: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Resources, Software, Validation, Formal Analysis, Writing- Reviewing and Editing, Visualization, Investigation, Supervision.
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