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What is Physical Education? Meaning, Define, Objective, Importance

The objective of physical education classes is to acquaint understudies with the essential components of exercise that will prompt a sound way of life. Understudies can get exercise and increment their psychomotor capacities by playing an assortment of conventional games like ball and soccer, and by partaking in practice exercises, for example, lifting loads and high impact exercise.

In this article, we have explained what is physical education, its history, objectives, and fact about career opportunities in physical education.

► What is Physical Education?

Physical Education is a learning cycle that spotlights information, perspectives, and practices that are basic for understudies to embrace a way of life of wellbeing and wellness.

Through these cycles, understudies figure out how to accomplish day-by-day actual work and customized degrees of wellness, foster actual abilities, and accomplish information for carrying on with a sound life.

Probably the best open door to impact the country’s well-being and increment active work is to turn into an actual teacher.

Educators can emphatically affect both the quality and amount of an understudy’s life as they are shown the essential abilities that are expected to take on an existence of well-being and wellness.

◉ Physical Education Meaning

Physical education is a process that uses physical activity as a means to help people acquire skills, fitness, knowledge, and attitudes that contribute to their optimal development and well-being.
Physical education is a short-term statement of specific outcomes that build cumulatively to reach a goal.
Physical Education contributes to the development of the whole person.

◉ Definition of Physical Education

“Physical education is an education of and through human movement where many of educational objectives are achieved by means of big muscle activities involving sports, games, gymnastic, dance and exercise.”

“Physical education is an integral part of the total education learning process and has as its aims the development of physically, mentally, socially and emotionally fit citizens, through the medium of physical activities that have been selected and planned to achieve specific outcomes.”

Physical education is the sum of those experiences which come to the individual through movements. – Oberteuffer

Physical education is the sum of man’s physical activities selected as to kind and conducted as to outcomes. – J.F. Williams & C.L. Brownell

Physical education is that phase of the whole field of education that deals with big muscle activities – J.B. Nash

Physical education is the sum of changes in the individual caused by experiences centering on motor activity. – Cassidy

Physical education is education. It is the education through physical activities for the development of the total personality of the child to its fullness and perfection in body, mind, and spirit. – (Central Advisory Board of Physical Education and Recreation, India)

► History of Physical Education

The historical backdrop of Physical education traces back to antiquated Greece, where contest and power were natural. During this time, physical education ended up being significant because it was a need in preparing both Greek warriors and competitors.

For kids, Physical education would start when they were around seven years of age, with the objective being to ultimately have them be well-gifted in exercises like boxing, and chariot races, from there, the sky is the limit.

For this to occur, they expected to comprehend their body and what went into active work, hence body and mind health education assumed an enormous part in the movement of the Greek society.

By the mid-nineteenth century, physical education would be advanced in the United States. The thinking was like that of what the Greeks were involved in, which was to both teach and train troopers for the inevitable fight.

Notwithstanding, throughout the natural process of everything working out, actual instruction would form into something considerably more amazing.

Schools the nation over would start to treat wellbeing-related themes more seriously, both on the jungle gym and in the homeroom, and courses designated toward actual improvement would be offered more consideration.

Universities would follow after accordingly also, and schools all around the United States would ultimately offer an assortment of courses that would assist with developing the actual capacity, give a genuine comprehension of the human body, and increment certainty in America’s childhood.

Initially, actual instruction programs in the United States saw young ladies generally associated with vaulting, while the young men would participate in harsher exercises.

Nonetheless, over the long haul, both male and female people would become instructed on components like body piece, adaptability, nourishment, and perseverance.

► Objectives of Physical Education

Following are the main objectives of physical education:

Physical development
Mental development
Social development
Neuro Muscular Co-ordination
Emotional development
Improvement of Health

✔ 1. Physical development

Development of organ frameworks like the Circulatory framework, sensory system, strong framework, stomach-related framework, and so on.

✔ 2. Mental development

Physical exercises require readiness of the brain, profound focus, and determined development. This goal is connected with the psychological advancement of a person.

✔ 3. Social development

This goal is connected 1o the advancement of social attributes, which are fundamental for better change throughout everyday life. It is a superior hotspot for accomplishing the characteristics. Co-activity, fair play sportsmanship, 1olerance, and compassion.

✔ 4. Neuro Muscular Co-ordination

This goal is focused on a superior connection between the sensory system. Instruction gives plentiful open doors to actual neuromuscular coordination.

✔ 5. Emotional development

The enthusiastic improvement of an individual is likewise one of the significant targets of actual schooling. Each individual has different kinds of feelings viz. Joy, trust envy, contempt misery, dread, sorrow, outrage, wonder, desire, forlornness, and so forth.

✔ 6. Improvement of Health

This creates solid related propensities through wellbeing instruction. This likewise gives schooling about the counteraction of transferable illnesses.

► Importance of Physical Education

Support sportsmanship in all parts of rivalry.
Broaden every understudy’s dining experience and satisfaction.
Make energy for dynamic amusement and game.
Help understudies in arriving at their actual potential in an assortment of wearing conditions.
Actual schooling is helpful for both the bodies and psyches of understudies.
By being more dynamic, understudies will likewise benefit by having the option to more readily keep away from injury, they will have more certainty, and they can see work on psychological wellness.
It’s vital to teach understudies the advantages of the jungle gym and in-school active work and educate them on issues connected with the human body and other wellbeing-related issues to provide them with a superior comprehension of how their body functions.

► Types of Physical Education

Physical education is classified into many activities including mental and physical exercises. Physical activity simply means the movement of the body that uses energy.

The three main types of physical activities are as follows;

Muscle & Bone strengthening

◉ 1. Aerobic activities : Benefits your heart and lungs Running Walking Swimming Cycling Dancing

◉ 2. Muscle & Bone strengthening : Improve your muscles and bones by Push-ups, curl-ups weight lifts Climbing stairs Digging in the Garden or field

◉ 3. Stretching : Improves your flexibility of joints Yoga Different stretching exercises

► Facts about Physical education as a Career

Educational Requirement
Licensure/Certification
Career Outlook

◉ Educational Requirement

Actual instruction educators are expected to have an unhitched male’s or alternately graduate degree in actual training, contingent upon the school locale.

These projects can show you the essential exercises of actual schooling classes and the science behind active work. You’ll likewise have the option to get a lot of commonsense understudy showing experience, which is expected to acquire an education permit.

By and large, graduate degree programs in actual schooling contain more inside and out instruction hypotheses and science parts than four-year college education programs. Classes might incorporate mishap avoidance, kinesiology, and assessment of actual wellness

◉ Licensure/Certification

To work in a government-funded school as an actual training instructor, you should be authorized. Licensure fluctuates by state, however, ordinarily expects you to hold a four-year certification in a field of schooling and complete a particular number of long stretches of directed understudy instructing.

You should likewise breeze through an overall showing accreditation assessment and one in your particular field of study. Educators should likewise finish proceeding with instructions to keep up with their permits, as indicated by the U.S. Agency of Labor Statistics (BLS).

◉ Career Outlook

The BLS predicts just a 4% development in the number of occupations for secondary school, center teachers, and primary teachers from 2019-2029.

Accessible open doors do differ by branch of knowledge and area. More positions might be accessible in country and metropolitan schools than in rural areas.

► Conclusion

Youngsters are becoming overweight because of the way that they don’t partake in sports activities or know the significance of physical education.

Since kids are becoming overweight guardians need to have their kids take an interest in physical activities from birth because P. Education will be educated to their kids when they begin going to class.

Educators that show physical education will show understudies how to deal with themselves appropriately.

This is significant because when somebody is taught regard to the significance of their well-being then it will make them carry on with a solid way of life.

So, guardians, educators, and different grown-ups need to stress the importance of Physical Edu. in schools.

What Are the Goals of Physical Education?

In recent years, physical education has been falling out of its position as a staple of the traditional school day. Research not only connects regular PE classes with improved academic performance but also suggests that lack of activity could damage the cardiovascular health of young students. Despite the scientific evidence, the modern curriculum continues to impede physical education in favor of more time spent in the classroom, placing additional pressure on physical educators and school departments to optimize the time allotted towards achieving crucial fitness goals.

Three Goals of Teaching Physical Education

In schools for all ages, the physical education program is responsible for helping students learn the value of activity for health, recreation, social interaction, and more. Here’s what you should aim for when outlining goals as a physical educator or organizing a school PE department.

1. Teaching Essential Body Management Skills

The most well-known goal of any physical education class is to promote movement, but there’s more needed to help students break out of a sedentary lifestyle. PE classes teach children skills that they will use throughout their entire lives.

For many younger children, physical education classes offer their first chance to learn about the relationships between nutrition, exercise, and health while acquiring basic body management skills such as:

The ability to stop and start on signal
Spatial awareness
Body part identification
Balance and control

Though these skills may not seem as crucial as literacy and numeracy, their absence can result in sedentary children who feel too “clumsy” to engage in any regular activity. After time, the inability to develop mature motor skills can cultivate sedentary adults who struggle to achieve career goals or lack self-confidence.

2. Promoting Physical Fitness as Fun

Quality instruction from dedicated educators helps children develop fundamental motor patterns. But its also important for teaching students that being active can be a fun, natural habit.

The more young students consider physical fitness a natural part of their daily schedule, the more likely they are to be engaged in fitness as they age, leading to a healthier lifestyle. Sedentary childhoods and overuse of screen time have led to an increase in overweight and obese children in America , and youngsters who enjoy physical activity are the ones most likely to be active in the future.

While physical education isn’t the only factor helping children get active, it can be a useful way to help them uncover new skills and discover activities they enjoy. By exploring a range of sports and fitness solutions, from gymnastics to running and climbing, physical educators give students a chance to find the activity that appeals most to them, giving children their own personal tool in the fight against obesity.

3. Developing Teamwork, Sportsmanship, and Cooperation

Physical education allows children to experience healthy social interactions , as it teaches cooperation through group activities and encourages teamwork through identification as one part of a team. These social skills stay with children throughout their lives, increasing the chance they’ll become involved in their communities, take leadership roles, and build lasting relationships. Social skills develop confidence while contributing to academic performance and mental health.

When stressed, students struggle to focus and manage their emotions properly. Physical activity relieves stress by promoting positive mental health and enhanced learning aptitude. Although reduced time for physical education is often justified as a way to help students spend more time in the classroom, studies have shown that regular activity during the school day links to higher concentration levels, more composed behavior, and happier students.

Setting Goals is Crucial

In a physical education setting, the right goals will:.

Engage students in PE class.
Attract the attention of distracted learners.
Create an environment that cultivates movement.
Teach the values of health and exercise.

Establishing goals within physical education can also help students learn the value of setting personal and achievable goals in relation to their favorite activities. Teach kids about goal-setting by recording each child’s best sprint time and showing them how they improve through the year, or encouraging students with a particular interest to take their skills to the next level.

From developing motor skills for younger children to creating an environment where students can cultivate a positive attitude towards physical fitness, well-designed physical education goals will not only boost kids education, but prepare them for an active, healthy, and productive lifestyle.

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What Is Physical Education? & Objectives Of Physical Education

By Teach Educator

Published on: March 3, 2024

Physical Education

Physical Education (PE), also known as phys ed or gym class, is an educational program or curriculum that focuses on the development and improvement of physical fitness and overall well-being through physical activity and exercise. It is an integral part of the broader educational system, with the primary goal of promoting a healthy and active lifestyle among students. Here are some key aspects of what PE encompasses:

Physical Fitness: Physical education aims to improve and maintain students’ physical fitness. This includes enhancing cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, and body composition. Students engage in various physical activities to achieve these goals.
Skill Development: PE classes often involve instruction and practice in a wide range of physical activities and sports, such as basketball, soccer, swimming, gymnastics, dance, and more. Students are taught the fundamental skills and techniques required for these activities.
Health Education: In addition to physical activity, PE often includes instruction on health-related topics. This can encompass lessons on nutrition, the effects of physical activity on the body, the risks of a sedentary lifestyle, and information about substance abuse prevention.
Wellness Promotion: PE programs promote holistic well-being by emphasizing the importance of maintaining a healthy lifestyle. This includes mental and emotional well-being, stress management, and making healthy choices in all aspects of life.
Teamwork and Sportsmanship: Many PE activities involve team sports and group activities, which teach students important life skills such as teamwork, cooperation, leadership, and sportsmanship.

Objectives Of Physical Education

The objectives of physical education can vary depending on the educational system, the age of the students, and the specific goals of the program. However, there are several common objectives that are generally associated with PE:

Physical Fitness: One of the primary objectives of physical education is to promote physical fitness and well-being among students. This includes improving cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, and overall physical health.
Skill Development: Physical education aims to teach students a variety of physical skills and activities. These may include sports, dance, gymnastics, swimming, and other forms of physical movement. The goal is to help students develop competence and confidence in these activities.
Health Education: Physical education often includes instruction on topics related to health and wellness. This can include information on nutrition, exercise physiology, the effects of drugs and alcohol, and other health-related topics.
Motor Development: For younger students, physical education focuses on developing basic motor skills, such as running, jumping, throwing, and catching. These skills are essential for physical development and can provide a foundation for more advanced activities later in life.
Teamwork and Cooperation: Many physical education activities involve team sports and group activities. These experiences can teach students important lessons about teamwork, cooperation, and sportsmanship.
Lifetime Fitness: Physical education should instill a love for physical activity that extends beyond the school years. The objective is to encourage students to engage in lifelong physical fitness and recreational activities.

Extra objectives…

Personal Responsibility: PE can help students develop a sense of personal responsibility for their health and well-being. This includes understanding the importance of regular exercise, making healthy choices, and taking care of their bodies.
Stress Reduction: Physical activity is known to reduce stress and improve mental well-being. Physical education can provide students with an outlet for stress and help them develop strategies for managing stress through physical activity.
Social Interaction: Through group activities and team sports, PE provides opportunities for social interaction and the development of social skills. Students learn how to communicate, collaborate, and resolve conflicts in a physical context.
Cultural and Historical Awareness: Physical education may also introduce students to the cultural and historical aspects of various physical activities and sports. This can help broaden their understanding of different cultures and traditions.
Safety: Teaching students how to engage in physical activities safely is another important objective. This includes proper warm-up and cool-down routines, injury prevention techniques, and knowledge of first aid.
Assessment and Goal Setting: Physical education often involves assessing students’ physical fitness levels and helping them set goals for improvement. This can motivate students to work towards achieving their personal fitness objectives.

These objectives highlight the multifaceted nature of physical education , which goes beyond merely promoting physical fitness to encompass broader aspects of health, well-being, and personal development. The specific objectives may vary from one educational institution to another, but the overall goal is to promote a healthy and active lifestyle among students.

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Physical education for healthier, happier, longer and more productive living

The time children and adults all over the world spend engaging in physical activity is decreasing with dire consequences on their health, life expectancy, and ability to perform in the classroom, in society and at work.

In a new publication, Quality Physical Education, Guidelines for Policy Makers , UNESCO urges governments and educational planners to reverse this trend, described by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a pandemic that contributes to the death of 3.2 million people every year, more than twice as many as die of AIDS.

The Guidelines will be released on the occasion of a meeting of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee for Physical Education and Sport (CIGEPS) in Lausanne, Switzerland, (28-30 January).*

UNESCO calls on governments to reverse the decline in physical education (PE) investment that has been observed in recent years in many parts of the world, including some of the wealthiest countries. According to European sources, for example, funding and time allocation for PE in schools has been declining progressively over more than half of the continent, and conditions are not better in North America.

The new publication on PE, produced in partnership with several international and intergovernmental organizations**, advocates quality physical education and training for PE teachers. It highlights the benefits of investing in PE versus the cost of not investing (cf self-explanatory infographics ).

“The stakes are high,” says UNESCO Director-General Irina Bokova. “Public investment in physical education is far outweighed by high dividends in health savings and educational objectives. Participation in quality physical education has been shown to instil a positive attitude towards physical activity, to decrease the chances of young people engaging in risky behaviour and to impact positively on academic performance, while providing a platform for wider social inclusion.”

The Guidelines seek to address seven areas of particular concern identified last year in UNESCO’s global review of the state of physical education , namely: 1. Persistent gaps between PE policy and implementation; 2. Continuing deficiencies in curriculum time allocation; 3. Relevance and quality of the PE curriculum; 4. Quality of initial teacher training programmes; 5. Inadequacies in the quality and maintenance of facilities; 6. Continued barriers to equal provision and access for all; 7. Inadequate school-community coordination.

The recommendations to policy-makers and education stake-holders are matched by case studies about programmes, often led by community-based nongovernmental organizations. Success stories in Africa, North and Latin America, Asia and Europe illustrate what can be achieved by quality physical education: young people learn how to plan and monitor progress in reaching a goal they set themselves, with a direct impact on their self-confidence, social skills and ability to perform in the classroom.

While schools alone cannot provide the full daily hour of physical activity recommended for all young people, a well-planned policy should promote PE synergies between formal education and the community. Experiences such as Magic Bus (India) which uses physical activity to help bring school drop outs back to the classroom highlight the potential of such school-leisure coordination.

The publication promotes the concept of “physical literacy,” defined by Canada’s Passport for Life organization of physical and health educators as the ability to move “with competence and confidence in a wide variety of physical activities in multiple environments that benefit the healthy development of the whole person. Competent movers tend to be more successful academically and socially. They understand how to be active for life and are able to transfer competence from one area to another. Physically literate individuals have the skills and confidence to move any way they want. They can show their skills and confidence in lots of different physical activities and environments; and use their skills and confidence to be active and healthy.”

For society to reap the benefit of quality physical education, the guidelines argue, planners must ensure that it is made available as readily to girls as it is to boys, to young people in school and to those who are not.

The Guidelines were produced at the request of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee for Physical Education and Sport (CIGEPS) and participants at the Fifth International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (Berlin 2013). UNESCO and project partners will proceed to work with a number of countries that will engage in a process of policy revision in this area, as part of UNESCO’s work to support national efforts to adapt their educational systems to today’s needs (see Quality physical education contributes to 21st century education ).

Media contact: Roni Amelan, UNESCO Press Service, r.amelan(at)unesco.org , +33 (0)1 45 68 16 50

Photos are available here: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/multimedia/photos/photo-gallery-quality-physical-education/

* More about the CIGEPS meeting

** The European Commission, the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE), the International Olympic Committee (IOC), UNDP, UNICEF, UNOSDP and WHO.

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Chapter: 5 approaches to physical education in schools.

Approaches to Physical Education in Schools

Key Messages

• Because it is guaranteed to reach virtually all children, physical education is the only sure opportunity for nearly all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities.

• High-quality physical education programs are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week (30 minutes per day) for children in elementary schools and 225 minutes per week (45 minutes per day) for students in middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation.

• Students are more physically active on days on which they have physical education.

• Quality physical education has strong support from both parents and child health professional organizations.

• Several models and examples demonstrate that physical education scheduled during the school day is feasible on a daily basis.

• Substantial discrepancies exist in state mandates regarding the time allocated for physical education.

• Nearly half of school administrators (44 percent) reported cutting significant time from physical education and recess to increase time spent in reading and mathematics since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act.

• Standardized national-level data on the provision of and participation, performance, and extent of engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity are insufficient to allow assessment of the current status and trends in physical education in the United States.

• Systematic research is needed on personal, curricular, and policy barriers to successful physical education.

• The long-term impact of physical education has been understudied and should be a research priority to support the development of evidence-based policies.

P hysical education is a formal content area of study in schools that is standards based and encompasses assessment based on standards and benchmarks. It is defined in Chapter 1 as “a planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence.” As a school subject, physical education is focused on teaching school-aged children the science and methods of physically active, healthful living (NASPE, 2012). It is an avenue for engaging in developmentally appropriate physical activities designed for children to develop their fitness, gross motor skills, and health (Sallis et al., 2003; Robinson and Goodway, 2009; Robinson, 2011). This chapter (1) provides a perspective on physical education in the context of schooling; (2) elaborates on the importance of physical education to child development; (3) describes the consensus on the characteristics of quality physical education programs; (4) reviews current national, state, and local education policies that affect the quality of physical education; and (5) examines barriers to quality physical education and solutions for overcoming them.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE CONTEXT OF SCHOOLING

Physical education became a subject matter in schools (in the form of German and Swedish gymnastics) at the beginning of the 19th century (Hackensmith, 1966). Its role in human health was quickly recognized. By the turn of the 20th century, personal hygiene and exercise for bodily health were incorporated in the physical education curriculum as the major learning outcomes for students (Weston, 1962). The exclusive focus on health, however, was criticized by educator Thomas Wood (1913; Wood and Cassidy, 1930) as too narrow and detrimental to the development of the whole child. The education community subsequently adopted Wood’s inclusive approach to physical education whereby fundamental movements and physical skills for games and sports were incorporated as the major instructional content. During the past 15 years, physical education has once again evolved to connect body movement to its consequences (e.g., physical activity and health), teaching children the science of healthful living and skills needed for an active lifestyle (NASPE, 2004).

Sallis and McKenzie (1991) published a landmark paper stating that physical education is education content using a “comprehensive but physically active approach that involves teaching social, cognitive, and physical skills, and achieving other goals through movement” (p. 126). This perspective is also emphasized by Siedentop (2009), who states that physical education is education through the physical. Sallis and McKenzie (1991) stress two main goals of physical education: (1) prepare children and youth for a lifetime of physical activity and (2) engage them in physical activity during physical education. These goals represent the lifelong benefits of health-enhancing physical education that enable children and adolescents to become active adults throughout their lives.

Physical Education as Part of Education

In institutionalized education, the main goal has been developing children’s cognitive capacity in the sense of learning knowledge in academic disciplines. This goal dictates a learning environment in which seated learning behavior is considered appropriate and effective and is rewarded. Physical education as part of education provides the only opportunity for all children to learn about physical movement and engage in physical activity. As noted, its goal and place in institutionalized education have changed from the original focus on teaching hygiene and health to educating children about the many forms and benefits of physical movement, including sports and exercise. With a dramatic expansion of content beyond the original Swedish and German gymnastics programs of the 19th century, physical education has evolved to become a content

area with diverse learning goals that facilitate the holistic development of children (NASPE, 2004).

To understand physical education as a component of the education system, it is important to know that the education system in the United States does not operate with a centralized curriculum. Learning standards are developed by national professional organizations such as the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and/or state education agencies rather than by the federal Department of Education; all curricular decisions are made locally by school districts or individual schools in compliance with state standards. Physical education is influenced by this system, which leads to great diversity in policies and curricula. According to NASPE and the American Heart Association (2010), although most states have begun to mandate physical education for both elementary and secondary schools, the number of states that allow waivers/exemptions from or substitutions for physical education increased from 27 and 18 in 2006 to 32 and 30 in 2010, respectively. These expanded waiver and substitution policies (discussed in greater detail later in the chapter) increase the possibility that students will opt out of physical education for nonmedical reasons.

Curriculum Models

Given that curricula are determined at the local level in the United States, encompassing national standards, state standards, and state-adopted textbooks that meet and are aligned with the standards, physical education is taught in many different forms and structures. Various curriculum models are used in instruction, including movement education, sport education, and fitness education. In terms of engagement in physical activity, two perspectives are apparent. First, programs in which fitness education curricula are adopted are effective at increasing in-class physical activity (Lonsdale et al., 2013). Second, in other curriculum models, physical activity is considered a basis for students’ learning skill or knowledge that the lesson is planned for them to learn. A paucity of nationally representative data is available with which to demonstrate the relationship between the actual level of physical activity in which students are engaged and the curriculum models adopted by their schools.

Movement Education

Movement has been a cornerstone of physical education since the 1800s. Early pioneers (Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, Rudolf von Laban) focused on a child’s ability to use his or her body for self-expression (Abels and Bridges, 2010). Exemplary works and curriculum descriptions include those by Laban himself (Laban, 1980) and others (e.g., Logsdon et al.,

1984). Over time, however, the approach shifted from concern with the inner attitude of the mover to a focus on the function and application of each movement (Abels and Bridges, 2010). In the 1960s, the intent of movement education was to apply four movement concepts to the three domains of learning (i.e., cognitive, psychomotor, and affective). The four concepts were body (representing the instrument of the action); space (where the body is moving); effort (the quality with which the movement is executed); and relationships (the connections that occur as the body moves—with objects, people, and the environment; Stevens-Smith, 2004). The importance of movement in physical education is evidenced by its inclusion in the first two NASPE standards for K-12 physical education (NASPE, 2004; see Box 5-7 later in this chapter).

These standards emphasize the need for children to know basic movement concepts and be able to perform basic movement patterns. It is imperative for physical educators to foster motor success and to provide children with a basic skill set that builds their movement repertoire, thus allowing them to engage in various forms of games, sports, and other physical activities (see also Chapter 3 ).

Sport Education

One prevalent physical education model is the sport education curriculum designed by Daryl Siedentop (Siedentop, 1994; Siedentop et al., 2011). The goal of the model is to “educate students to be players in the fullest sense and to help them develop as competent, literate, and enthusiastic sportspersons” (2011, p. 4, emphasis in original). The model entails a unique instructional structure featuring sport seasons that are used as the basis for planning and teaching instructional units. Students are organized into sport organizations (teams) and play multiple roles as team managers, coaches, captains, players, referees, statisticians, public relations staff, and others to mimic a professional sports organization. A unit is planned in terms of a sports season, including preseason activity/practice, regular-season competition, playoffs and/or tournaments, championship competition, and a culminating event (e.g., an awards ceremony or sport festivity). Depending on the developmental level of students, the games are simplified or modified to encourage maximum participation. In competition, students play the roles noted above in addition to the role of players. A sport education unit thus is much longer than a conventional physical education unit. Siedentop and colleagues (2011) recommend 20 lessons per unit, so that all important curricular components of the model can be implemented.

Findings from research on the sport education model have been reviewed twice. Wallhead and O’Sullivan (2005) report that evidence is insufficient to support the conclusion that use of the model results in

students’ developing motor skills and fitness and learning relevant knowledge; some evidence suggests that the model leads to stronger team cohesion, more active engagement in lessons, and increased competence in game play. In a more recent review, Hastie and colleagues (2011) report on emerging evidence suggesting that the model leads to improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness (only one study) and mixed evidence regarding motor skills development, increased feeling of enjoyment in participation in physical education, increased sense of affiliation with the team and physical education, and positive development of fair-play values. The only study on in-class physical activity using the model showed that it contributed to only 36.6 percent activity at the vigorous- or moderate-intensity levels (Parker and Curtner-Smith, 2005). Hastie and colleagues caution, however, that because only 6 of 38 studies reviewed used an experimental or quasi-experimental design, the findings must be interpreted with extreme caution. The model’s merits in developing motor skills, fitness, and desired physical activity behavior have yet to be determined in studies with more rigorous research designs.

Fitness Education

Instead of focusing exclusively on having children move constantly to log activity time, a new curricular approach emphasizes teaching them the science behind why they need to be physically active in their lives. The curriculum is designed so that the children are engaged in physical activities that demonstrate relevant scientific knowledge. The goal is the development and maintenance of individual student fitness. In contrast with the movement education and sport education models, the underlying premise is that physical activity is essential to a healthy lifestyle and that students’ understanding of fitness and behavior change result from engagement in a fitness education program. The conceptual framework for the model is designed around the health-related components of cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility. A recent meta-analysis (Lonsdale et al., 2013) suggests that physical education curricula that include fitness activities can significantly increase the amount of time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Several concept-based fitness education curriculum models exist for both the middle school and senior high school levels. They include Fitness for Life: Middle School (Corbin et al., 2007); Personal Fitness for You (Stokes and Schultz, 2002); Get Active! Get Fit! (Stokes and Schultz, 2009); Personal Fitness: Looking Good, Feeling Good (Williams, 2005); and Foundations of Fitness (Rainey and Murray, 2005). Activities in the curriculum are designed for health benefits, and the ultimate goal for the student is to develop a commitment to regular exercise and physical

activity. It is assumed that all children can achieve a health-enhancing level of fitness through regular engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Randomized controlled studies on the impact of a science-based fitness curriculum in 15 elementary schools showed that, although the curriculum allocated substantial lesson time to learning cognitive knowledge, the students were more motivated to engage in physical activities than students in the 15 control schools experiencing traditional physical education (Chen et al., 2008), and they expended the same amount of calories as their counterparts in the control schools (Chen et al., 2007). Longitudinal data from the study reveal continued knowledge growth in the children that strengthened their understanding of the science behind exercise and active living (Sun et al., 2012). What is unclear, however, is whether the enthusiasm and knowledge gained through the curriculum will translate into the children’s lives outside of physical education to help them become physically active at home.

To incorporate standards and benchmarks into a fitness education model, a committee under the auspices of NASPE (2012) developed the Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education. It is suggested that through this proposed comprehensive framework, fitness education be incorporated into the existing physical education curriculum and embedded in the content taught in all instructional units. The entire framework, highlighted in Box 5-1 , can be viewed at http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/publications/upload/Instructional-Framework-for-Fitness-Education-in-PE-2012-2.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013).

Emergence of Active Gaming in Fitness Education

Today, active gaming and cell phone/computer applications are a part of physical activity for both youth and adults. Accordingly, fitness education in school physical education programs is being enhanced through the incorporation of active video games, also known as exergaming. Examples of active gaming programs with accompanying equipment include Konami Dance Dance Revolution (DDR), Nintendo Wii, Gamebikes, Kinect XBOX, Xavix, and Hopsports. These active games have been incorporated into school wellness centers as high-tech methods of increasing student fitness levels to supplement the traditional modes for attaining vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity (Greenberg and Stokes, 2007).

Bailey and McInnis (2011) compared selected active games with treadmill walking and found that each game—DDR, LightSpace (Bug Invasion), Nintendo Wii (Boxing), Cyber Trazer (Goalie Wars), Sportwall, and Xavix (J-Mat)—raised energy expenditure above that measured at rest. Mean metabolic equivalent (MET) values for each game were comparable to or

Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education

Technique: Demonstrate competency in techniques needed to perform a variety of moderate to vigorous physical activities.

• Technique in developing cardiovascular fitness.

• Technique when developing muscle strength and endurance activities.

• Technique in developing flexibility.

• Safety techniques.

Knowledge: Demonstrate understanding of fitness concepts, principles, strategies, and individual differences needed to participate and maintain a health-enhancing level of fitness.

• Benefits of physical activity/dangers of physical inactivity.

• Basic anatomy and physiology.

• Physiologic responses to physical activity.

• Components of health-related fitness.

• Training principles (overload, specificity, progression) and workout elements.

• Application of the Frequency Intensity Time Type principle. Factors that influence physical activity choices.

Physical activity: Participate regularly in fitness-enhancing physical activity.

• Physical activity participation (e.g., aerobic, muscle strength and endurance, bone strength, flexibility, enjoyment/social/personal meaning).

• Create an individualized physical activity plan.

• Self-monitor physical activity and adhere to a physical activity plan.

Health-related fitness: Achieve and maintain a health-enhancing level of health-related fitness.

• Physical fitness assessment (including self-assessment) and analysis.

• Setting goals and create a fitness improvement plan.

• Work to improve fitness components.

• Self-monitor and adjust plan.

• Achieve goals.

Responsible personal and social behaviors: Exhibit responsible personal and social behaviors in physical activity settings.

• Social interaction/respecting differences.

• Self-management.

• Personal strategies to manage body weight.

• Stress management.

Values and advocates: Value fitness-enhancing physical activity for disease prevention, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, self-efficacy, and/or social interaction and allocate energies toward the production of healthy environments.

• Value physical activity.

• Advocacy.

• Fitness careers.

• Occupational fitness needs.

Nutrition: Strive to maintain healthy diet through knowledge, planning, and regular monitoring.

• Basic nutrition and benefits of a healthy diet.

• Healthy diet recommendations.

• Diet assessment.

• Plan and maintain a healthy diet.

Consumerism: Access and evaluate fitness information, facilities, products, and services.

• Differentiate between fact and fiction regarding fitness products.

• Make good decisions about consumer products.

SOURCE: NASPE, 2012. Reprinted with permission.

higher than those measured for walking on a treadmill at 3 miles per hour. Graf and colleagues (2009), studying boys and girls aged 10-13, found that both Wii boxing and DDR (level 2) elicited energy expenditure, heart rate, perceived exertion, and ventilatory responses that were comparable to or greater than those elicited by moderate-intensity walking on a treadmill. Similar results were found by Lanningham-Foster and colleagues (2009) among 22 children aged 10-14 and adults in that energy expenditure for both groups increased significantly when playing Wii over that expended during all sedentary activities. Staiano and colleagues (2012) explored factors that motivated overweight and obese African American high school students to play Wii during school-based physical activity opportunities. They found greater and more sustained energy expenditure over time and noted that players’ various intrinsic motivations to play also influenced their level of energy expenditure. Mellecker and McManus (2008) determined that energy expenditure and heart rate were greater during times of active play than in seated play. Fawkner and colleagues (2010) studied 20 high school–age girls and found that dance simulation games provided an opportunity for most subjects to achieve a moderate-intensity level of physical activity. The authors conclude that regular use of the games aids in promoting health through physical activity. Haddock and colleagues (2009) conducted ergometer tests with children aged 7-14 and found increased oxygen consumption and energy expenditure above baseline determinations. Maddison and colleagues (2007), studying children aged 10-14, found that active video game playing led to significant increases in energy expenditure, heart rate, and activity counts in comparison with baseline values. They conclude that playing these games for short time periods is comparable to light- to moderate-intensity conventional modes of exercise, including walking, skipping, and jogging. Mhurchu and colleagues (2008) also conclude that a short-term intervention involving active video games is likely to be an effective means of increasing children’s overall level of physical activity. Additionally, Sit and colleagues (2010), studying the effects of active gaming among 10-year-old children in Hong Kong, found the children to be significantly more physically active while playing interactive games compared with screen-based games.

Exergaming appears to increase acute physical activity among users and is being used in school settings because it is appealing to students. Despite active research in the area of exergaming and physical activity, however, exergaming’s utility for increasing acute and habitual physical activity specifically in the physical education setting has yet to be confirmed. Further, results of studies conducted in nonlaboratory and nonschool settings have been mixed (Baranowski et al., 2008). Moreover, any physical activity changes that do occur may not be sufficient to stimulate physiologic changes. For example, White and colleagues (2009) examined the effects

of Nintendo Wii on physiologic changes. Although energy expenditure was raised above resting values during active gaming, the rise was not significant enough to qualify as part of the daily 60 minutes or more of vigorous-or moderate-intensity exercise recommended for children.

While collecting data on the effects of Nintendo Wii on 11-year-olds in New Zealand, White and colleagues (2009) found that active video games generated higher energy expenditure than both resting and inactive screen watching. They determined, however, that active gaming is a “low-intensity” physical activity. Therefore, it may be helpful in reducing the amount of sedentary behavior, but it should not be used as a replacement for more conventional modes of physical activity. Sun (2012) found that active gaming can increase student motivation to engage in physical activity, but the motivation may decrease as a result of prolonged exposure to the same games. This study also found that exergaming lessons provided less physical activity for children than regular conventional physical education. For inactive children, however, the exergaming environment is conducive to more active participation in the game-based physical activities than in conventional physical education (Fogel et al., 2010). Finally, Sheehan and Katz (2012) found that among school-age children the use of active gaming added to postural stability, an important component of motor skills development.

From the research cited above, as well as ongoing research being conducted by the Health Games Research Project funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, active gaming is promising as a means of providing young children an opportunity to become more physically active and helping them meet the recommended 60 or more minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. Different types of games may influence energy expenditure differentially, and some may serve solely as motivation. Selected games also appear to hold greater promise for increasing energy expenditure, while others invite youth to be physically active through motivational engagement. The dynamic and evolving field of active gaming is a promising area for future research as more opportunities arise to become physically active throughout the school environment.

Other Innovative Programs

While several evidence-based physical education programs—such as the Coordinated Approach to Child Health (CATCH) and Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK)—are being implemented in schools, many innovative programs also have been implemented nationwide that are motivating and contribute to skills attainment while engaging youth in activities that are fun and fitness oriented. These programs include water sports, involving sailing, kayaking, swimming, canoeing, and paddle boarding; adventure activities such as Project Adventure; winter sports, such as

snow skiing and snowshoeing; and extreme sports, such as in-line skating, skateboarding, and cycling.

Differences Among Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

Instructional opportunities vary within and among school levels as a result of discrepancies in state policy mandates. Although the time to be devoted to physical education (e.g., 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for secondary schools) is commonly included in most state mandates, actual time allocation in school schedules is uncertain and often left to the discretion of local education officials.

With respect to content, in both elementary and secondary schools, physical activity is an assumed rather than an intended outcome except in the fitness education model. The goals of skill development and knowledge growth in physical education presumably are accomplished through participation in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. Data are lacking, however, to support the claim that physical activity offered to further the attainment of skills and knowledge is of vigorous or moderate intensity and is of sufficient duration for children to reap health benefits.

Children in Nontraditional Schools

Research on physical education, physical activity, and sports opportunities in nontraditional school settings (charter schools, home schools, and correctional facilities) is extremely limited. Two intervention studies focused on charter schools addressed issues with Mexican American children. In the first (Johnston et al., 2010), 10- to 14-year-old children were randomly assigned to either an instructor-led intervention or a self-help intervention for 2 years. The instructor-led intervention was a structured daily opportunity for the students to learn about nutrition and to engage in structured physical activities. The results indicate that the children in the instructor-led intervention lost more weight at the end of the intervention than those in the self-help condition. In the second study (Romero, 2012), 11- to 16-year-old Mexican American children from low-income families participated in a 5-week, 10-lesson, hip-hop dance physical activity intervention. In comparison with data collected prior to the intervention, the children reported greater frequency of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity, lower perceived community barriers to physical activity, and stronger self-efficacy for physical activity. Collectively, the results of these two studies suggest that a structured physical activity intervention can be effective in enhancing and enriching physical activity opportunities for Mexican American adolescents in charter schools.

Research on physical activity among home-schooled children is also limited. The only study found was published in 2004 (Welk et al., 2004). It describes differences in physical fitness, psychosocial correlates of physical activity, and physical activity between home-schooled children and their public school counterparts aged 9-16. No significant differences were found between the two groups of children on the measures used, but the researchers did note that the home-schooled children tended to be less physically active.

Research on physical education and physical activity in juvenile correction institutions is equally scarce. Munson and colleagues (1985, 1988) conducted studies on the use of physical activity programs as a behavior mediation intervention strategy and compared its impact on juvenile delinquents’ behavior change with that of other intervention strategies. They found that physical activity did not have a stronger impact than other programs on change in delinquent behavior.

Fitness Assessment

All states except Iowa have adopted state standards for physical education. However, the extent to which students achieve the standards is limited since no accountability is required.

An analysis of motor skills competency, strategic knowledge, physical activity, and physical fitness among 180 4th- and 5th-grade children demonstrated that the physical education standards in force were difficult to attain (Erwin and Castelli, 2008). Among the study participants, fewer than a half (47 percent) were deemed motor competent, 77 percent demonstrated adequate progress in knowledge, only 40 percent were in the Healthy Fitness Zone on all five components of the Fitnessgram fitness assessment, and merely 15 percent engaged in 60 or more minutes of physical activity each day. Clearly most of the children failed to meet benchmark measures of performance for this developmental stage. This evidence highlights the need for additional physical activity opportunities within and beyond physical education to enhance opportunities for students to achieve the standards.

Relationships among these student-learning outcomes were further decomposed in a study of 230 children (Castelli and Valley, 2007). The authors determined that aerobic fitness and the number of fitness test scores in the Healthy Fitness Zone were the best predictors of daily engagement in physical activity relative to factors of gender, age, body mass index (BMI), motor skills competency, and knowledge. However, in-class engagement in physical activity was best predicted by aerobic fitness and motor skills competence, suggesting that knowledge and skills should not be overlooked in a balanced physical education curriculum intended to promote lifelong physical activity.

As an untested area, student assessment in physical education has been conducted on many indicators other than learning outcomes. As reported in a seminal study (Hensley and East, 1989), physical education teachers base learning assessment on participation (96 percent), effort (88 percent), attitude (76 percent), sportsmanship (75 percent), dressing out (72 percent), improvement (68 percent), attendance (58 percent), observation of skills (58 percent), knowledge tests (46 percent), skills tests (45 percent), potential (25 percent), and homework (11 percent). These data, while several years old, show that most learning assessments in physical education fail to target relevant learning objectives such as knowledge, skills, and physical activity behavior. The development of teacher-friendly learning assessments consistent with national and/or state standards is sorely needed.

Fitness assessment in the school environment can serve multiple purposes. On the one hand, it can provide both teacher and student with information about the student’s current fitness level relative to a criterion-referenced standard, yield valid information that can serve as the basis for developing a personal fitness or exercise program based on current fitness levels, motivate students to do better to achieve a minimum standard of health-related fitness where deficiencies exist, and possibly assist in the identification of potential future health problems. On the other hand, an overall analysis of student fitness assessments provides valuable data that can enable teachers to assess learner outcomes in the physical education curriculum and assess the present curriculum to determine whether it includes sufficient fitness education to allow students to make fitness gains throughout the school year. Fitness assessment also provides a unique opportunity for schools to track data on students longitudinally. The ultimate goal of assessing student fitness in the school environment should be to educate students on the importance of maintaining a physically active lifestyle throughout the life span.

When administering fitness assessments in the school setting, caution is essential to ensure confidentiality of the results. The results and their interpretation should be shared with students and parents/guardians to have the greatest impact. To ensure the greatest benefits from fitness assessment, NASPE (2010) developed a position statement on “Appropriate Uses of Fitness Measurement.” Table 5-1 outlines appropriate and inappropriate practices related to fitness testing in schools and other educational settings.

When fitness assessment becomes part of a quality physical education program, teaching and learning strategies will guide all students to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to maintain and improve their personal health-related fitness as part of their commitment to lifelong healthy lifestyles. Teachers who incorporate fitness education as a thread throughout all curricula will make the greatest impact in engaging and motivating

TABLE 5-1 Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices Related to Fitness Testing in Schools and Other Educational Settings


Appropriate Practice	Inappropriate Practice

In elementary school, motor skills are the focus of instruction, with health-related fitness components being integrated into the curriculum and lessons focused on fitness education.	Health-related fitness is rarely integrated into instruction. Students fail to understand the benefits of health-related fitness and know little about how to develop a fitness plan.

Fitness testing is used to set individual goals as part of fitness education. At the secondary level, students use fitness test data to design and apply a personal fitness plan.	Fitness testing is conducted without meaningful understanding, interpretation, and application.

Physical educators use fitness assessment as part of the ongoing process of helping students understand, enjoy, improve, and maintain their physical fitness and well-being (e.g., students set fitness goals for improvement that are revisited during the school year).	Physical educators use fitness test results to assign a grade.

Children are physically prepared to participate in fitness testing.	Children are required to participate in fitness testing without proper preparation.

SOURCE: IOM, 2012b (adapted from NASPE, 2009a,b,c).

students to participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in order to maintain and/or improve their personal health-related fitness. For example, the development of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program with the use of a criterion-referenced platform provides students with the educational benefits of fitness assessment knowledge (see Box 5-2 ). The emergence of one national fitness assessment, Fitnessgram, along with professional development and recognition protocols, further supports fitness education in the school environment.

Online Physical Education

Online physical education is a growing trend. Fully 59 percent of states allow required physical education credits to be earned through online courses. Only just over half of these states require that the online courses be taught by state-certified physical education teachers. Daum and Buschner (2012) report that, in general, online physical education focuses more on cognitive knowledge than physical skill or physical activity, many online courses fail to meet national standards for learning and physical activity

Presidential Youth Fitness Program

The Presidential Youth Fitness Program, launched in September 2012, is a comprehensive program that provides training and resources to schools for assessing, tracking, and recognizing youth fitness. The program promotes fitness testing as one component of a comprehensive physical education curriculum that emphasizes regular physical activity. The program includes a health-related fitness assessment, professional development, and motivational recognition. A key to the program’s success is helping educators facilitate a quality fitness assessment experience. The Presidential Youth Fitness Program was developed in partnership with the Cooper Institute; the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance; and the Amateur Athletic Union.

The implementation of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program aligns with the Institute of Medicine report Fitness Measures and Health Outcomes in Youth, the result of a study whose primary purpose was to evaluate the relationship between fitness components and health and develop recommendations for health-related fitness tests for a national youth survey (IOM, 2012b). The report includes guidance on fitness assessments in the school setting. It confirms that Fitnessgram, used in the Presidential Youth Fitness Program, is a valid, reliable, and feasible tool for use in schools to measure health-related fitness. Use of the Fitnessgram represents a transition from the current test, which focuses on performance rather than health and is based on normative rather than criterion-referenced data, to a criterion-referenced, health-related fitness assessment instrument. Accompanying the assessment, as part of a comprehensive program, are education and training through professional development, awards, and recognition.

SOURCE: Presidential Youth Fitness Program, 2013.

guidelines, and teachers are not concerned about students’ accountability for learning.

Although online courses differ from traditional in-school physical education courses in the delivery of instruction, the standards and benchmarks for these courses must mirror those adopted by each individual state, especially when the course is taken to meet high school graduation requirements.

NASPE (2007a, p. 2) recommends that all physical education programs include “opportunity to learn, meaningful content, appropriate instruction, and student and program assessment.” If an online physical education program meets these standards, it may be just as effective as a face-to-face program. Online physical education can be tailored to each student’s needs, and it helps students learn how to exercise independently. The full NASPE position statement on online physical education can be found at http://www.ncpublic-schools.org/docs/curriculum/healthfulliving/resources/onlinepeguidelines.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013). The physical education policy of one online school, the Florida Virtual School, is presented in Box 5-3 .

Florida Virtual School’s Physical Education Policy

Sections 1001.11(7) and 1003.453(2) of the Florida Statutes require that every school district have a current version of its Physical Education Policy on the district website. This document satisfies that requirement.

Florida law defines “physical education” to mean:

“the development or maintenance of skills related to strength, agility, flexibility, movement, and stamina, including dance; the development of knowledge and skills regarding teamwork and fair play; the development of knowledge and skills regarding nutrition and physical fitness as part of a healthy lifestyle; and the development of positive attitudes regarding sound nutrition and physical activity as a component of personal well-being.

Florida Virtual School [FLVS] courses are designed to develop overall health and well-being through structured learning experiences, appropriate instruction, and meaningful content. FLVS provides a quality Physical Education program in which students can experience success and develop positive attitudes about physical activity so that they can adopt healthy and physically active lifestyles. Programs are flexible to accommodate individual student interests and activity levels in a learning environment that is developmentally appropriate, safe, and supportive.”

SOURCE: Excerpted from FLVS, 2013.

Online physical education provides another option for helping students meet the standards for physical education if they lack room in their schedule for face-to-face classes, need to make up credit, or are just looking for an alternative to the traditional physical education class. On the other hand, online courses may not be a successful mode of instruction for students with poor time management or technology skills. According to Daum and Buschner (2012), online learning is changing the education landscape despite the limited empirical research and conflicting results on its effectiveness in producing student learning. Through a survey involving 45 online high school physical education teachers, the authors found that almost three-fourths of the courses they taught failed to meet the national guideline for secondary schools of 225 minutes of physical education per week. Most of the courses required physical activity 3 days per week, while six courses required no physical activity. The teachers expressed support, hesitation, and even opposition toward online physical education.

Scheduling Decisions

Lesson scheduling is commonly at the discretion of school principals in the United States. The amount of time dedicated to each subject is often mandated by federal or state statutes. Local education agencies or school districts have latitude to make local decisions that go beyond these federal or state mandates. Often the way courses are scheduled to fill the school day is determined by the managerial skills of the administrator making the decisions or is based on a computer program that generates individual teacher schedules.

Successful curriculum change requires supportive scheduling (see Kramer and Keller, 2008, for an example of curriculum reform in mathematics). More research is needed on the effects of scheduling of physical education. In one such attempt designed to examine the impact of content and lesson length on calorie expenditure in middle school physical education, Chen and colleagues (2012) found that a lesson lasting 45-60 minutes with sport skills or fitness exercises as the major content would enable middle school students to expend more calories than either shorter (30-40 minutes) or longer (65-90 minutes) lessons. The evidence from such research can be used to guide allocation of the recommended weekly amount of physical education (150 minutes for elementary schools, 225 minutes for secondary schools) to achieve optimal health benefits for youth. Additional discussion of scheduling is provided later in this chapter in the section on solutions for overcoming the barriers to quality physical education.

IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT

As discussed in Chapter 3 , there is a direct correlation between regular participation in physical activity and health in school-age children, suggesting that physical activity provides important benefits directly to the individual child (HHS, 2008). Physical activity during a school day may also be associated with academic benefits ( Chapter 4 ) and children’s social and emotional well-being (HHS, 2008; Chapter 3 ). Physical education, along with other opportunities for physical activity in the school environment (discussed in Chapter 6 ), is important for optimal health and development in school-age children. It may also serve as a preventive measure for adult conditions such as heart disease, high blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes.

Little has been learned about the short- and long-term effectiveness of physical education in addressing public health issues (Pate et al., 2011). Because the learning objectives of physical education have not included improvement in health status as a direct measure, indirect measures and correlates have been used as surrogates. However, some promising research, such as that conducted by Morgan and colleagues (2007), has demonstrated that students are more physically active on days when they participate in physical education classes. Further, there is no evidence of a compensatory effect such that children having been active during physical education elect not to participate in additional physical activity on that day. Accordingly, quality physical education contributes to a child’s daily accumulation of physical activity and is of particular importance for children who are overweight or who lack access to these opportunities in the home environment (NASPE, 2012).

Unlike other physical activity in school (e.g., intramural or extramural sports), physical education represents the only time and place for every child to learn knowledge and skills related to physical activity and to be physically active during the school day. It also is currently the only time and place for all children to engage in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity safely because of the structured and specialist-supervised instructional environment. It is expected that children will use the skills and knowledge learned in physical education in other physical activity opportunities in school, such as active recess, active transportation, and intramural sports. For these reasons, physical education programming has been identified as the foundation on which multicomponent or coordinated approaches incorporating other physical activity opportunities can be designed and promoted.

Coordinated approaches in one form or another have existed since the early 1900s, but it was not until the 21st century that physical education was acknowledged as the foundation for these approaches. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2010), the National Association

of State Boards of Education (NASBE; 2012), and NASPE (2004, 2010) all support this view because physical education provides students with the tools needed to establish and maintain a physically active lifestyle throughout their life span. As discussed in Chapter 3 , research on motor skills development has provided evidence linking physical skill proficiency levels to participation in physical activity and fitness (Stodden et al., 2008, 2009). Exercise psychology research also has identified children’s perceived skill competence as a correlate of their motivation for participation in physical activity (Sallis et al., 2000). When school-based multicomponent interventions include physical activities experienced in physical education that are enjoyable and developmentally appropriate, such coordinated efforts are plausible and likely to be effective in producing health benefits (Corbin, 2002). Accordingly, two of the Healthy People 2020 (Healthy People 2020, 2010) objectives for physical activity in youth relate to physical education: “PA-4: Increase the proportion of the Nation’s public and private schools that require daily physical education for all students ” and “PA-5: Increase the proportion of adolescents who participate in daily school physical education.” 1

The importance of physical education to the physical, cognitive, and social aspects of child development has been acknowledged by many federal, state, and local health and education agencies. Many private entities throughout the country likewise have offered their support and recommendations for strengthening physical education. For example, the Institute of Medicine (2012a), in its report Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention: Solving the Weight of the Nation , points to the need to strengthen physical education to ensure that all children engage in 60 minutes or more of physical activity per school day. Similarly, the National Physical Activity Plan (2010), developed by a group of national organizations at the forefront of public health and physical activity, comprises a comprehensive set of policies, programs, and initiatives aimed at increasing physical activity in all segments of schools. The plan is intended to create a national culture that supports physically active lifestyles so that its vision that “one day, all Americans will be physically active and they will live, work, and play in environments that facilitate regular physical activity” can be realized. To accomplish this ultimate goal, the plan calls for improvement in the quantity and quality of physical education for students from prekindergarten through 12th grade through significant policy initiatives at the federal and state levels that guide and fund physical education and other physical activity programs. Specifically, the plan prescribes seven specific tactics presented in Box 5-4 .

_________________________

1 Available online at http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topicsobjectives2020/pdfs/PhysicalActivity.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013).

Medical professional associations, such as the American Cancer Society (ACS), American Diabetes Association (ADA), and American Heart Association (AHA), have long acknowledged the importance of physical education and have endorsed policies designed to strengthen it. A position statement on physical education from the ACS Cancer Action Network, ADA, and AHA (2012) calls for support for quality physical education and endorses including physical education as an important part of a student’s comprehensive, well-rounded education program because of its positive impact on lifelong health and well-being. Further, physical education policy should make quality the priority while also aiming to increase the amount of time physical education is offered in schools.

Recently, private-sector organizations—such as the NFL through its Play60 program—have been joining efforts to ensure that youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. One such initiative is Nike’s (2012) Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda , a framework for improving access to physical activity for all American children in schools. Although the framework does not focus exclusively on physical education, it does imply the important role of physical education in the action agenda (see Box 5-5 ).

Finally, in response to First Lady Michelle Obama’s Let’s Move initiative, the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) launched the Let’s Move In School initiative, which takes a holistic approach to the promotion of physical activity in schools. The purpose of the initiative is to help elementary and secondary schools launch the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP), which is focused on strengthening physical education and promoting all opportunities for physical activity in school. The CSPAP in any given school is intended to accomplish two goals: (1) “provide a variety of school-based physical activity opportunities that enable all students to participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity each day” and (2) “provide coordination among the CSPAP components to maximize understanding, application, and practice of the knowledge and skills learned in physical education so that all students will be fully physically educated and well-equipped for a lifetime of physical activity” (AAHPERD, 2012). The five CSPAP components, considered vital for developing a physically educated and physically active child, are physical education, physical activity during school, physical activity before and after school, staff involvement, and family and community involvement (AAHPERD, 2012). Schools are allowed to implement all or selected components.

An AAHPERD (2011) survey indicated that 16 percent of elementary schools, 13 percent of middle schools, and 6 percent of high schools (from a self-responding nationwide sample, not drawn systematically) had implemented a CSPAP since the program was launched. Although most schools

National Physical Activity Plan: Strategy 2

The National Physical Activity Plan’s Strategy 2 is as follows:

Strategy 2: Develop and implement state and school district policies requiring school accountability for the quality and quantity of physical education and physical activity programs.

1. Advocate for binding requirements for PreK-12 standards-based physical education that address state standards, curriculum time, class size, and employment of certified, highly qualified physical education teachers in accordance with national standards and guidelines, such as those published by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE).

2. Advocate for local, state and national standards that emphasize provision of high levels of physical activity in physical education (e.g., 50 percent of class time in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity).

sampled (90 percent) provided physical education, the percentage declined through middle school and high school, such that only 44 percent of high schools provided physical education to seniors. In most schools (92 percent), classes were taught by teachers certified to teach physical education.

More than 76 percent of elementary schools provided daily recess for children, and 31 percent had instituted a policy prohibiting teachers from withholding children from participating in recess for disciplinary reasons. In 56 percent of elementary schools that had implemented a CSPAP, physical activity was encouraged between lessons/classes; in 44 percent it was integrated into academic lessons; and in 43 percent the school day started with physical activity programs.

The percentage of schools that offered intramural sports clubs to at least 25 percent of students declined from 62 percent of middle schools to

3. Enact federal legislation, such as the FIT Kids Act, to require school accountability for the quality and quantity of physical education and physical activity programs.

4. Provide local, state, and national funding to ensure that schools have the resources (e.g., facilities, equipment, appropriately trained staff) to provide high-quality physical education and activity programming. Designate the largest portion of funding for schools that are underresourced. Work with states to identify areas of greatest need.

5. Develop and implement state-level policies that require school districts to report on the quality and quantity of physical education and physical activity programs.

6. Develop and implement a measurement and reporting system to determine the progress of states toward meeting this strategy. Include in this measurement and reporting system data to monitor the benefits and adaptations made or needed for children with disabilities.

7. Require school districts to annually collect, monitor, and track students’ health-related fitness data, including body mass index.

SOURCE: National Physical Activity Plan, 2010.

50 percent of high school for males, and from 53 to 40 percent, respectively, for females. Interscholastic sports were offered in 89 percent of high schools. Among them, approximately 70 percent involved at least 25 percent of the male student population participating and 58 percent involved at least 25 percent of the female student population participating. Sixty-five percent of high schools had “cut” policies, which could limit the enrollment of students in interscholastic sports.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS

As noted, a high-quality physical education program can help youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. This increase in physical activity should be bal-

Nike’s Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda

1. Universal access: Design programs that are effective for every child, including those who face the most barriers to participating in physical activity.

2. Age appropriate: Physical activities and tasks that are systematically designed for a child’s physical, social, and emotional development, as well as his or her physical and emotional safety, are a non-negotiable component of good program design.

3. Dosage and duration: Maximum benefit for school-aged children and adolescents comes from group-based activity for at least 60 minutes per day that allows for increased mastery and skill level over time.

4. Fun: Create early positive experiences that keep students coming back for more, and let them have a say in what “fun” actually is.

5. Incentives and motivation: Focus on the “personal best” versus winning or losing.

6. Feedback to kids: Successful programs build group and individual goal setting and feedback into programs.

7. Teaching, coaching, and mentorship: Teachers of physical education, coaches, and mentors can make or break the experience for students. They should be prepared through proper training and included in stakeholder conversations. A well-trained physical activity workforce shares a common commitment and principles that promote physical activity among children. Great leaders create positive experiences and influence all learners.

SOURCE: Excerpted from Nike, 2012.

anced with appropriate attention to skill development and to national education standards for quality physical education (see Box 5-6 ). In a recent literature review, Bassett and colleagues (2013) found that physical education contributes to children achieving an average of 23 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity daily. However, the time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity could be increased by 6 minutes if the physical education curriculum were to incorporate a standardized curriculum such as SPARK (discussed in detail below) (Bassett et al., 2013). Thus, it is possible for physical education to contribute to youth meeting at least half (30 minutes) of their daily requirement for vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. To help children grow holistically, however, physical education needs to achieve other learning goals when children are active. To this end, physical education programs must possess the quality characteristics specified by NASPE (2007b, 2009b,c) (see Box 5-6 ). Designing and implementing a physical education program with these characteristics in mind should ensure that the time and curricular materials of the program enable students to achieve the goals of becoming knowledgeable exercisers and skillful movers who value and adopt a physically active, healthy lifestyle.

Findings from research on effective physical education support these characteristics as the benchmarks for quality programs. In an attempt to understand what effective physical education looks like, Castelli and Rink (2003) conducted a mixed-methods comparison of 62 physical education programs in which a high percentage of students achieved the state physical education learning standards with programs whose students did not achieve the standards. Comprehensive data derived from student performance, teacher surveys, and onsite observations demonstrated that highly effective physical education programs were housed in cohesive, long-standing departments that experienced more facilitators (e.g., positive policy, supportive administration) than inhibitors (e.g., marginalized status as a subject matter within the school). Further, effective programs made curricular changes prior to the enactment of state-level policy, while ineffective programs waited to make changes until they were told to do so. The teachers in ineffective programs had misconceptions about student performance and, in general, lower expectations of student performance and behavior.

Examples of Evidence-Based Physical Education Curricular Programs

Two large-scale intervention studies—SPARK and CATCH—are discussed in this section as examples of how programs can be structured to increase vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education classes.

NASPE’s Characteristics of a High-Quality Physical Education Program

Opportunity to learn

All students are required to take physical education.
Instructional periods total 150 minutes per week (elementary schools) and 225 minutes per week (middle and secondary schools).
Physical education class size is consistent with that of other subject areas.
A qualified physical education specialist provides a developmentally appropriate program.
Equipment and facilities are adequate and safe.

Meaningful content

A written, sequential curriculum for grades PreK-12 is based on state and/or national standards for physical education.
Instruction in a variety of motor skills is designed to enhance the physical, mental, and social/emotional development of every child.
Fitness education and assessment are designed to help children understand, improve, and/or maintain physical well-being.
Curriculum fosters the development of cognitive concepts about motor skill and fitness.
Opportunities are provided to improve emerging social and cooperative skills and gain a multicultural perspective.
Curriculum promotes regular amounts of appropriate physical activity now and throughout life.

The aim of SPARK, a research-based curriculum, is to improve the health, fitness, and physical activity levels of youth by creating, implementing, and evaluating programs that promote lifelong wellness. Each SPARK program “fosters environmental and behavioral change by providing a coordinated package of highly active curriculum, on-site teacher training, extensive follow-up support, and content-matched equipment focused on the development of healthy lifestyles, motor skills and movement knowledge, and social and personal skills” (SPARK, 2013).

Appropriate instruction

Full inclusion of all students.
Maximum practice opportunities for class activities.
Well-designed lessons that facilitate student learning.
Out-of-school assignments that support learning and practice.
Physical activity not assigned or withheld as punishment.
Regular assessment to monitor and reinforce student learning.

Student and program assessment

Assessment is an ongoing, vital part of the physical education program.
Formative and summative assessments of student progress are conducted.
Student assessments are aligned with state/national physical education standards and the written physical education curriculum.
Assessment of program elements that support quality physical education is conducted.
Stakeholders periodically evaluate the effectiveness of the total physical education program.

SOURCE: Adapted from NASPE, 2009c.

Research supports the use of SPARK as a platform for improving the quality of physical activity instruction in schools. The SPARK curriculum has demonstrated the ability to improve student activity levels, increase the number of minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity for students, and provide sustainable and positive change in a school district (Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012). In one study, researchers found that “the children were positive about this specific curriculum. This is gratifying because one of the goals of the program was to engender positive feeling

in the students toward physical activity” (McKenzie et al., 1994, p. 213). In another study, a SPARK intervention is credited with exposing students to an increase in motor skills drills, which in turn led to a higher level of manipulative motor skills acquisition (McKenzie et al., 1998). As a result of improved activity levels, students who participated in the SPARK curriculum improved their times in the 1-mile run and sit-up tests (Sallis et al., 1997). Finally, System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) classroom observations revealed that students in SPARK classes increased their time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class from 17.8 to up to 40.2 minutes compared with students in non-SPARK classes, who engaged in 17.8 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class. Teachers involved in the SPARK intervention offered increased levels of fitness promotion and provided students with an increased amount of general instruction and increased minutes of attention per week (McKenzie et al., 1997; Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012).

The CATCH program teaches children in grades K-8 how to be healthy throughout their lifetimes through a coordinated approach that involves engaging the community, families, and educators to work together. The goal of CATCH is to impact children’s health behaviors positively, improve the school health environment, and influence and change school health policies and practices in order to reduce and eliminate health risk factors and risk-related behaviors of students (Perry et al., 1990). CATCH significantly increases the physical activity levels of students during physical education class and provides a wide range of learning experiences for students of all abilities.

CATCH began as a clinical trial from 1991 to 1994 in four regional sites: Tulane University in New Orleans; the University of California, San Diego; the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis; and the University of Texas in Houston. The participants were elementary school children in grades 3 through 5 and included children from multiethnic backgrounds. Upon completion of the main trial, CATCH had succeeded in producing positive and lasting changes in children’s behaviors, including decreasing fat consumption and increasing physical activity (Luepker et al., 1996). The changes were maintained for 3 years postintervention (Nader et al., 1999).

National Standards

Because physical education is part of the curriculum in schools, its quality should be judged only by whether and to what extent children have learned and benefited from it. In a landmark document on learning goals, Moving into the Future: National Standards for Physical Education , NASPE (2004) proposes six student learning standards specifying both conceptual and behavioral characteristics that a physically educated person must pos-

sess and display (see Box 5-7 ). These characteristics encompass knowledge, skill, behavior, and confidence critical to the development and maintenance of health and to the enjoyment of a physically active, healthful lifestyle.

Certified Physical Education Specialists as the Main Teaching Force

If standards are the gauge for quality, teachers make the difference in a particular school in terms of the extent to which students can achieve the standards. Research has made clear that certified physical education specialists can provide more and longer opportunities for students to meet physical activity guidelines compared with classroom teachers trained to teach physical education (McKenzie et al., 2001). Moreover, when teachers are taught strategies to encourage vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education class, a significant increase in physical activity can be expected (Lonsdale et al., 2013). The role of certified physical

Standards for a Physically Educated Person


	Demonstrates competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.

	Demonstrates understanding of movement concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.

	Participates regularly in physical activity.

	Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level of physical fitness.

	Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.

	Values physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, and/or social interaction.

SOURCE: NASPE, 2004.

education specialists in health-enhancing physical education has become increasingly critical (McKenzie, 2007). The evidence is unequivocal regarding the need for a continued effort to train physical education specialists and the need for schools to continue to employ them as the main teaching force designing and implementing health-enhancing physical education programs to the fullest extent.

Aside from serving as the instructional leader for physical education, physical education specialists can serve as expert resources for classroom teachers in the implementation of classroom physical activity breaks and recess (discussed in detail in Chapter 6 ). Their expertise in age-appropriate physical activity helps ensure that students are participating in activities that are fun and engaging. Additionally, as the catalyst for a healthy school environment, the physical education specialist can assist in the design and delivery of intramural programs provided before and after school, as well as serve as a community outreach specialist for onsite activity partnerships. For physical education specialists interested in a more formal role as a physical activity leader at their school, NASPE has developed a director of physical activity certification program.

It is a commonly held notion of society that to maintain the quality of education, schools should hire teachers certified to teach in the subject matter areas in which they are licensed. Unfortunately, in the United States, not all physical education classes are taught by certified physical education specialists. Indeed, 68 percent of elementary schools allow classroom teachers (generalists) to teach physical education (NASPE, 2012). Certification or licensure of middle/junior high school and high school physical education teachers is required in only 82 percent and 90 percent of states (NASPE, 2012), respectively. Only 37 states (72 percent) have a requirement for professional development and continuing education hours/credit for physical education teachers to maintain or renew their certification, with renewal time ranging from 3 to 5 years (NASPE, 2012). Twenty-eight states (55 percent) allow temporary/emergency certificates to teach physical education that are valid for 1 to 3 years (NASPE, 2012). The basic requirements for emergency certification include a bachelor’s degree in teaching or in any area except physical education. Only 31 states (60 percent) support physical education teachers going through the national board certification process, and only New York requires each school district to have a licensed physical education specialist serving as a physical education coordinator (NASPE, 2012).

Preservice Education for Teachers

Teaching physical education to children effectively and safely requires specific knowledge about children and their physical/mental development,

body composition (anatomy) and functions (physiology and biomechanics), and motor skills development and acquisition. In addition, teaching physical education requires substantial knowledge and skill in pedagogy—the science and art of teaching. Box 5-8 lists the NASPE standards for beginning physical education teachers who have completed a bachelor’s teacher training program and those who have completed advanced (master’s-level) training.

These standards are accompanied by measurement rubrics (unacceptable, acceptable, and target, with target being exemplary) developed jointly by NASPE and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) for evaluating physical education teacher education programs across the country (the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico). NCATE identified a total of 133 physical education teacher education programs as “nationally recognized.” The committee was unable to determine how many programs nationwide have met the minimum standards (not at the nationally recognized level) or locate reliable information on the total number of physical education teacher education programs. A Web search using the term “physical education” resulted in two different but relatively reliable statistics: 720 (College Board, 2013) and 1,945 (Peterson’s, 2013). But the data sources did not distinguish between physical education teaching majors and other kinesiology concentrations (e.g., sports medicine, exercise physiology/fitness). Statistics on the number of physical education teacher education programs and their quality based on the NASPE standards are needed.

The current wave of effort to curb physical inactivity among youth has begun to influence teacher education programs. According to a national survey study (Kulinna et al., 2010), current teacher candidates believe that helping K-12 students become physically active and fit is the first priority of physical education, followed by helping them actualize their own goals, develop motor skills, and become responsible. These data appear to suggest that physical education teacher education programs are beginning to turn from a traditionally sports- and skills-centered model to a more comprehensive, physical activity– and health-centered model. This change is important in that the role of both current and future physical education teachers extends beyond merely teaching their classes to advancing public health goals (McKenzie, 2007).

In many universities, however, teacher education programs in physical education have either been reduced or eliminated because of the decline in physical education requirements, which has resulted in a decrease in the number of physical education teachers being employed. Concomitantly, physical education teacher education programs are experiencing an unprecedented crisis. A recent report indicates that, in school year 2008-2009, only 23 doctorate-granting kinesiology departments offered doctoral programs

National Association for Sport and Physical Education Standards for Beginning Physical Education Teachers

Initial Standards

1. Scientific and theoretical knowledge: Physical education teacher candidates know and apply discipline-specific scientific and theoretical concepts critical to the development of physically educated individuals.

2. Skill-based and fitness-based competence: Physical education teacher candidates are physically educated individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to demonstrate competent movement performance and health-enhancing fitness as delineated in the NASPE K-12 standards.

3. Planning and implementation: Physical education teacher candidates plan and implement developmentally appropriate learning experiences aligned with local, state, and national standards to address the diverse needs of all students.

4. Instructional delivery and management: Physical education teacher candidates use effective communication and pedagogical skills and strategies to enhance student engagement and learning.

that were training future teacher educators (Boyce and Rikard, 2011a). A total of 140 doctoral students were receiving training offered by 114 professors (including part-time), and 11 percent of those professors were planning to retire. Boyce and Rikard (2011a) report that in the past 13 years, 479 doctoral students graduated as physical education teacher educators—36.8 each year on average—89 percent of whom were able to find positions in colleges and universities. During the same period, 61 positions were open, only 39 of which were filled (64 percent), with an applicant pool of 38 candidates with earned degrees and 13 who completed the doctoral course-work but did not complete the dissertation research (Boyce and Rikard, 2011b). Clearly there is a shortage of physical education teacher educators

5. Impact on student learning: Physical education teacher candidates use assessments and reflection to foster student learning and inform decisions about instruction.

6. Professionalism: Physical education teacher candidates demonstrate dispositions essential to becoming effective professionals.

Advanced Standards

1. Professional knowledge: Advanced physical education teacher candidates come to understand disciplinary content knowledge, the application of content knowledge to teaching physical education, and modes of inquiry that form the bases for physical education programs and instruction.

2. Professional practice: Advanced physical education teacher candidates (AC) use content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) to design and conduct appropriate learning experiences that facilitate and enhance the growth of learners.

3. Professional leadership: Advanced physical education teacher candidates are continuous, collaborative learners who further their own professional development and use their abilities to contribute to the profession.

SOURCE: Excerpted from NASPE, 2009a.

in higher education institutions. Because of a lack of national tracking data on physical education graduates, the extent to which the teacher educator shortage has impacted and will impact the need to supply quality physical education teachers to the nation is unclear.

Professional Development

In all educational settings, professional development for teachers and administrators is a continuous process of acquiring new knowledge and skills that relate to an educator’s profession or academic subject area, job responsibilities, or work environment. Professional development is essential for improving classroom instruction and student achievement (Ball and

Cohen, 1999; Cohen and Hill, 2000). Through a variety of delivery methods, professional development activities may include credit or noncredit courses, classroom or online venues, workshops, seminars, teleconferences, and webinars, with the ultimate goal of improving the delivery of instruction to enhance student achievement.

Yoon and colleagues (2007) assert that a strong link exists among professional development, teacher learning and practice, and student achievement. Figure 5-1 , which aligns with the research on effective professional development (Kennedy, 1998; Loucks-Horsley and Matsumoto, 1999; Cohen and Hill, 2000; Garet et al., 2001; Fishman et al., 2003; Guskey and Sparks, 2004), illustrates how (1) professional development enhances teacher knowledge and skills, (2) better knowledge and skills improve classroom teaching, and (3) improved teaching raises student achievement.

The most impactful statement of government policy on the preparation and professional development of teachers was the 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Whitehurst, 2002), known as the No Child Left Behind Act. While Title I of the act places highly qualified teachers in the classroom, Title II addresses the same goal by funding professional development for teachers. The importance of quality professional development is well documented in the act.

Professional development, according to the No Child Left Behind Act, should be offered to improve teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter they teach, strengthen their classroom management skills, advance their understanding and implementation of effective teaching strategies, and build their capabilities to address disparities in education. The act states that high-quality professional development programs should have the characteristics listed in Box 5-9 .

Although there is a substantial literature on professional development, only a few high-quality studies relate teachers’ professional development experiences to student outcomes. Recommendations for high-quality professional development tend to emphasize the importance of

FIGURE 5-1 Logic model of the impact of professional development on student achievement.

Characteristics of a High-Quality Professional Development Program

1. It is sustained, intensive, and content-focused to have a positive and lasting impact on classroom instruction and teacher performance.

2. It is aligned with and directly related to state academic content standards, student achievement standards, and assessments.

3. It improves and increases teachers’ knowledge of the subjects they teach.

4. It advances teachers’ understanding of effective instructional strategies founded on scientifically based research.

5. It is regularly evaluated for effects on teacher effectiveness and student achievement. Intensive and focused in-service training.

SOURCE: No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Public Law 107-110, 115 stat. 1425 (2002).

intense, content-focused experiences, as well as opportunities for peer collaboration and structured induction experiences for new teachers. Wiley and Yoon (1995) and Kennedy (1998) suggest that teaching practice and student achievement are likely to improve when professional development is focused on academic content and curriculum that are aligned with standards-based reform.

Kulinna (2012) used Guskey and Sparks’ (2004) Model of Teacher Change to determine whether students’ physical activity and BMI changed after their teacher underwent a 1-year professional development program. Significant increases in students’ physical activity levels were found, but no significant changes in BMI. Looking at the effect of professional development on changes in behavior among physical education teachers, Martin and colleagues (2008) found that, following a variety of professional development experiences and follow-up sessions, teachers showed increases in their efficacy in attaining motor skills objectives, physical activity and fitness knowledge objectives, and personal and social objectives. These

results lend support to the value of professional development in enhancing teachers’ perceptions of self-efficacy for teaching the curriculum. McCaughtry and colleagues (2006) explored the factors that make teacher professional development successful and what success might mean in terms of teachers’ instructional practices and feelings about change. Results indicated that after teachers completed professional development the resources they gained enabled them to improve their instruction by teaching more content, maximizing student learning opportunities, teaching diverse learners, teaching to development, and increasing classroom safety.

Learning Forward (formerly known as the National Staff Development Council) provides research-based guidelines to assist districts in aligning local professional development programs with qualitative standards. Its Standards for Professional Learning were revised in 2011 and are guided by the relationship between professional learning and student results (see Box 5-10 ). According to Learning Forward (2012):

• When professional learning is standards based, it has greater potential to change what educators know, are able to do, and believe.

• When educators’ knowledge, skills, and dispositions change, they have a broader repertoire of effective strategies to use in adapting their practices to meet performance expectations and students’ learning needs.

• When educator practices improve, students have a greater likelihood of achieving results.

• When student results improve, the cycle repeats for continuous improvement.

• Professional learning standards provide a foundation on which to design professional learning experiences at the district or school level that will assist educators in acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills, and tools.

As a recognized means of providing physical education teachers with the tools necessary to enhance student achievement, quality professional development should be provided on a regular basis with follow-up support, along with a method for determining its effectiveness in meeting both curricular and pedagogical standards. Furthermore, to enhance the fitness achievement of students, school-based professional development should provide instruction on the integration of fitness testing into a curriculum and should include training in protocols, the interpretation and communication of results, and the setting and achievement of fitness goals and recommendations for developing healthy living habits for both students and their parents (IOM, 2012a).

Standards for Professional Learning

Learning communities: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students occurs within learning communities committed to continuous improvement, collective responsibility, and goal alignment.

Leadership: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students requires skillful leaders who develop capacity, advocate, and create support systems for professional learning.

Resources: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students requires prioritizing, monitoring, and coordinating resources for educator learning.

Data: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students uses a variety of sources and types of student, educator, and system data to plan, assess, and evaluate professional learning.

Learning designs: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students integrates theories, research, and models of human learning to achieve its intended outcomes.

Implementation: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students applies research on change and sustains support for implementation of professional learning for long-term change.

Outcomes: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students aligns its outcomes with educator performance and student curriculum standards.

SOURCE: Learning Forward, 2012.

POLICIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Instructional opportunities for physical activity and physical education are mandated by most states. In comparison with data prior to 2006, more states have developed mandates for physical education at both the elementary and secondary school levels. However, most mandates lack a specified time allocation that ensures meeting the NASPE recommendation of 150 and 225 minutes per week for elementary and secondary schools, respectively (McCullick et al., 2012), despite the fact that physical education has been considered a cornerstone for developing schoolwide multicomponent interventions to address the issue of physical inactivity in schools. Some obstacles to the implementation of quality physical activity are listed in Box 5-11 .

According to Title IX of the No Child Left Behind Act (Part A Sec 9101-11), core academic subjects include “English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, eco-

Obstacles to Implementation of Quality Physical Education

1. Class periods dedicated to physical education are declining at all school levels.

2. Existing discrepancies between policy and implementation with respect to specific time allocation contribute to a reduction in actual instructional time for physical education.

3. There is a potential shortage of physical education specialists to influence the design and maintenance of quality physical education programs.

4. Reductions in active learning time and opportunities in physical education contribute to potential student underachievement on national standards.

5. Disparities may exist in instructional opportunities for children in nontraditional learning settings.

nomics, arts, history, and geography.” If physical education were designated as a core academic subject, it would receive much-needed policy attention that would enhance its overall quality with respect to content offerings, instruction, and accountability. In support of the inclusion of physical education as a core subject, Senator Tom Udall (D-NM) reintroduced the Promoting Health for Youth Skills in Classrooms and Life (PHYSICAL) Act on February 27, 2013, to support and encourage the health and well-being of elementary and secondary school students.

With physical education not being considered a core subject, and amid growing concern regarding the increase in childhood obesity and physical inactivity, several national studies and reports have emphasized the importance of implementing state statutes, laws, and regulations both mandating time requirements for physical education and monitoring compliance. Yet although several national governmental, nongovernmental, private industry, and public health organizations have recommended specific day and time/minute requirements for physical education, no standardized state policy has emerged.

Analysis of State Statutes and Administrative Codes

In the United States, school policies on curriculum and school-based activities are determined by local education agencies according to state laws governing educational activities. Decisions about what to teach, who will teach it, and what level of resources will be provided are made by the state, county or district, and school administration. To better understand the status of state statutes, administrative codes, and policies impacting physical education in schools, the committee analyzed NASBE’s State School Health Policy Database (NASBE, 2012; www.nasbe.org/healthy_schools [accessed February 1, 2013]). Of importance to this analysis is the distinction made between state statutes and administrative codes, which accords with the definition proffered by Perna and colleagues (2012): “At the state level, the 2 primary official public policy levers referred to as ‘codified law’ used for developing school-based physical education policy are 1) statutory laws (laws enacted by the given State legislature); and 2) administrative laws (rule and regulations by state executive branch agencies, such as the Department of Education)” (p. 1594). A second point to note is that in descriptions of physical education graduation requirements, it is impossible to differentiate among “credit,” “Carnegie unit,” and “course” so as to determine the exact time requirements for graduation.

Using the NASBE database, the committee performed an overall analysis of policies on physical education and physical activity of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The analysis revealed that 45 states (88 percent) mandate physical education; 22 states (23 percent) require it

with mandatory minutes, while 25 states (49 percent) have no mandatory minutes and 4 (0.07 percent) leave the required number of minutes up to local decision makers. A majority of states allow for waivers or substitutions for physical education (see the discussion below). Fitness assessment is required in 15 states (29 percent), and other curricular assessments are required in 4 states (0.07 percent). Twenty-six states (53 percent) require physical education grades to be included in a student’s grade point average. Forty-three states (84 percent) require some degree of physical education for high school graduation, with a range of 0.5 to 3.75 credits. One state (0.02 percent) requires K-12 physical education but does not require 4 years of physical education for high school graduation.

Although no federal policies requiring physical education presently exist, the above evidence shows that the majority of states require physical education. However, the number of days and time required vary greatly by state and local school district, as does the amount of physical education required for high school graduation. Given the reduced time for physical activity in school through recess, and absent the implementation of stronger policies, schools have not only the opportunity but also the responsibility to nurture in youth the skills, knowledge, and confidence to develop and maintain a healthy lifestyle. The consensus among states indicated by the mandates for physical education summarized above, together with the discrepancies in specific policies, may suggest the need for general guidelines or a federal-level mandate that can serve to guide a collective effort to address the prevalence of childhood inactivity and obesity.

Policies That Support Physical Education

In addition to policies that directly require offering physical education in schools, other policies support physical education opportunities in schools. In 2004 the U.S. government issued a mandate, under the Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004, requiring school districts that receive funds under this act to establish local school wellness policies. These policies were to include provisions for physical activity and healthy eating, thus expanding schools’ responsibility for providing physical activity to school-age children. The enactment of this mandates made schools “the central element in a community system that ensures that students participate in enough physical activity to develop healthy lifestyles” (Pate et al., 2006, p. 1215). Several government agencies and organizations have recommended embedding a specific number of days and minutes of physical education into each school’s or district’s wellness policy. Although school districts are required to include goals for physical activity in their local school wellness policies, they are not required to address physical education specifically.

Policies That Hinder Physical Education

Some policies have contributed to the substantial reduction in the opportunities for school-age children to be physically active, such as by shortening or eliminating physical education classes. These reductions can be attributed to budget cuts and increased pressure for schools to meet academic standards imposed by the federal government.

No Child Left Behind Act

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 requires that states develop assessment and accountability measures to verify performance improvements in the subject areas of reading and mathematics (P.L. No. 107-110, Section 115). Specifically, federal funding is now dependent on schools making adequate progress in reading and mathematics. No Child Left Behind requires all public schools receiving federal funding to administer statewide standardized annual tests for all students. Schools that receive Title I funding through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 must make adequate yearly progress in test scores (e.g., each year 5th graders must do better on standardized tests than the previous year’s 5th graders). If required improvements are not made, schools are penalized through decreased funding. If a school produces poor results for 2 consecutive years, improvement plans must be developed for the school. If a school does not make adequate progress for 5 consecutive years, a full restructuring of the school is mandated.

Under the act, physical education, music, and art are considered “nonessential” subjects and are not a main focus of the school learning environment. In response to the act, schools have devoted more time in the school day to instruction in reading and mathematics. Since the act was passed, 62 percent of elementary schools and 20 percent of middle schools have increased instructional time in reading/language arts and mathematics (Center on Education Policy, 2008). Unfortunately, 44 percent of school administrators reported that these increases in instructional time for reading and mathematics were achieved at the expense of time devoted to physical education, recess, art, music, and other subjects (Center on Education Policy, 2007, 2008) (see Table 5-2 ).

The emphasis on high-stakes testing and pressure for academic achievement in the core subjects has had unintended consequences for other subjects throughout the school day. In developing master schedules, school site administrators have been forced to make difficult decisions regarding the allotment of time for “nonessential” subjects. The average reduction in instructional time in these “nonessential” subjects has been 145 minutes per week. As discussed earlier, however, no evidence suggests that physical education and physical activity have a negative effect on student achievement

TABLE 5-2 Changes in Time Allocation in Elementary Schools Since 2001-2002


Subject	Percentage of All Districts That Increased Time	Percentage of All Districts That Decreased Time	Average Increase (minutes/week)	Average Decrease (minutes/week)

English language arts	58		141
Mathematics	45		89
Social studies		36		76
Science		28		75
Art and music		16		57
Recess		20		50
Physical education		9		40
Lunch		5

SOURCE: Center on Education Policy, 2007, District Survey, item 19 (revised Tables IT-2A, IT-16, and IT-17).

or academic outcomes (CDC, 2010). On the contrary, positive academic-related outcomes (e.g., improved on-task classroom behavior, cognitive development, academic performance) have been associated with physical education and physical activity (see Chapter 4 ).

The Center on Education Policy (2007) conducted an analysis of 2006-2007 survey data from 349 school districts on the amount of time devoted to specific subjects to determine the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act. Shifts in instructional time toward English language arts and mathematics and away from other subjects were relatively large in a majority of school districts that made these types of changes. Sixty-two percent of districts reported increasing time in elementary schools in English language arts and/or mathematics since 2001-2002. A higher proportion of urban districts (76 percent) than rural districts (54 percent) reported such increases.

Districts that increased instructional time for English language arts and/or mathematics did so by 43 percent on average. Districts that also reduced instructional time in other subjects reported total reductions of 32 percent, on average. Eight of 10 districts that reported increasing time for English language arts did so by at least 75 minutes per week, and more than half (54 percent) did so by 150 minutes or more per week. Among districts that reported adding time for mathematics, 63 percent added at least 75 minutes per week, and 19 percent added 150 minutes or more per week.

Most districts that increased time for English language arts or mathematics also reported substantial cuts in time for other subjects or periods, including social studies, science, art and music, physical education, recess,

and lunch. Among the districts that reported both increasing time for English language arts or mathematics and reducing time in other subjects, 72 percent indicated that they reduced the time for one or more of these other subjects by a total of at least 75 minutes per week. For example, more than half (53 percent) of these districts cut instructional time by at least 75 minutes per week in social studies, and the same percentage (53 percent) cut time by at least 75 minutes per week in science (Center on Education Policy, 2007).

Districts that reported an increase in instructional time for elementary school English language arts spent an average of 378 minutes per week on this subject before No Child Left Behind was enacted. After the act became law, they spent 520 minutes per week. The average increase for English language arts was 141 minutes per week, or a 47 percent increase over the level prior to the act (Center on Education Policy, 2007; see district survey items 18 and 19 in Table IT-18A). Table 5-3 shows the specific amounts of time cut from various subjects in districts that reported decreases.

Districts with at least one school identified as “in need of improvement” under the act were far more likely than districts not in need of improvement to decrease time in certain subjects so as to devote more time to English language arts and mathematics (78 versus 57 percent). For example, 51 percent of districts with a school in need of improvement reported decreased time in social studies, compared with 31 percent of districts with no school in need of improvement (Center on Education Policy, 2007).

TABLE 5-3 Time Cut from Subjects or Periods in Districts Reporting Decreases in Instructional Time


Subject or Period	Average Total Instructional Time Pre-NCLB (minutes/week)	Average Total Instructional Time Post-NCLB (minutes/week)	Average Decrease (minutes/week)	Average Decrease as a Percentage of Total Instructional Time

Social studies	239	164	76	32
Science	226	153	75	33
Art and music	154	100	57	35
Physical education	115	75	40	35
Recess	184	144	50	28
Lunch	*	*	*	*
One or more subjects listed	461	318	145	32

NOTE: * = sample size too small to allow reporting of data on minutes per week; NCLB = No Child Left Behind. SOURCE: Center on Education Policy, 2007, District Survey items 18 and 19 (Table IT-18B).

Exemptions from Physical Education Requirements

The 2012 Shape of the Nation Report includes documentation of the multiple reasons students may be exempt from physical education classes. Thirty-three states permit school districts or schools to allow students to substitute other activities for physical education. The most common substitutions are Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (JROTC), inter-scholastic sports, marching band, cheerleading, and community sports. Twenty-eight states allow schools and school districts to grant exemptions/waivers from physical education time or credit requirements. Reasons for exemptions/waivers include health, physical disability, religious belief, and early graduation; six states leave the reasons to the local schools or school districts. Although it would seem reasonable that some substitution programs such as JROTC or cheerleading might accrue physical activity comparable to that from physical education, these programs do not necessarily offer students opportunities to learn the knowledge and skills needed for lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activities. Research on the impact of exemptions/waivers from physical education is lacking. No evidence currently exists showing that students receive any portion of the recommended 60 minutes or more of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity through substituted activities sanctioned by their schools.

BARRIERS TO QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOLUTIONS

Barriers other than the policies detailed above hinder efforts to improve and maintain high-quality physical education. This section reviews these barriers, along with some solutions for overcoming them.

Morgan and Hanson (2008) classify barriers that hinder schools from implementing quality physical education programs as either institutional (outside the teacher’s control) or teacher related (arising from teacher behavior). Table 5-4 lists institutional and teacher-related as well as student-related barriers identified by various authors.

Dwyer and colleagues (2003) examined Toronto teachers’ perspectives on why children were not engaged in daily physical education. They identified three categories of barriers: lower priority for physical education relative to other subjects, lack of performance measures for physical activity, and lack of sufficient infrastructure. Jenkinson and Benson (2010) surveyed 270 secondary school physical education teachers in Victoria, Australia, and asked them to rank order the barriers they perceived to providing quality physical education. The results are shown in Table 5-5 . The institutional

TABLE 5-4 Barriers to the Delivery of Physical Education and Physical Activity Programs to Primary and Secondary School Students


Barrier	Primary Schools	Secondary Schools

Institutional	Access to and lack of facilities , Lack of time , Crowded curriculum Funding , Access to and lack of equipment Support from other staff Support from administration , Access to professional development PE/sport not priorities in school , Large class sizes , Budget constraints Insufficient infrastructure Other teaching priorities , Quality of facilities Level of professional development School executive attitudes toward PE Insufficient number of PE staff , Lack of performance measures for PE	Access to and lack of facilities Lack of time Restricted curriculum Funding Ethos of PA for life within the school Socioeconomic status of school Time tabling

Teacher-Related	Lack of training and knowledge Difficulty of providing safely planned and structured lessons Gender stereotyping of activities Poor planning Perceptions of the value of PE High level of accountability for other subjects Confidence in teaching PE , , Interest in/enthusiasm for PE Personal school experiences in PE , Attitudes toward PE Expertise/qualifications , ,	Colleagues undervaluing activities Ethos of performance/elitism of PE department or school as a whole

Student-Related	Lack of student engagement Expressed dislike for activity Lack of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Intrapersonal barriers	Student engagement Lure of sedentary behavior Low fitness levels, therefore potentially lower ability Socioeconomic status of student Levels of encouragement and motivation Peer support , Peer pressure Intrapersonal barriers Lack of motivation/laziness

NOTES: PA = physical activity; PE = physical education; sport = sport education. SOURCES: a Barroso et al., 2005; b Boyle et al., 2008; c Dagkas and Stathi, 2007; d DeCorby et al., 2005; e Dwyer et al., 2003; f Dwyer et al., 2006; g Morgan and Bourke, 2005; h Morgan and Hansen, 2008; i Mowling et al., 2004; j Salvy et al., 2009; k Sherar et al., 2009; l Xiang et al., 2002.

TABLE 5-5 Physical Education Teachers’ Ranking of Barriers to Providing Quality Physical Education (PE) in Victorian State Secondary Schools


Barriers to Providing Quality PE ( = 70)	Rank Order Most (“10”) to Least (“1”) Important	Mean	SD	Barrier Category

Access to facilities	10	8.10	2.30	I
Access to suitable teaching spaces	9	7.95	2.15	I
Access to equipment	8	7.37	2.10	I
Time tabling	7	6.17	2.50	I
Support from other staff	6	5.15	2.56	I
Funding for the subject	5	4.74	2.43	I
Support from management and administration	4	4.17	2.30	I
Leadership from heads of department	3	4.15	2.59	I
Access to professional development that is appropriate	2	4.00	2.13	I
Access to professional development from school management or leadership team	1	3.17	2.19	I

NOTE: I = institutional barrier; SD = standard deviation. SOURCE: Jenkinson and Benson, 2010.

barriers listed in this table are similar to those identified for U.S. schools in Table 5-4 .

Jenkinson and Benson (2010) also presented teachers with a list of barriers to student participation in physical education and physical activity in three categories: institutional, teacher-related, and student-related. The teachers were asked to rank the top five barriers they perceived. Results are presented in Table 5-6 .

Finally, Gallo and colleagues (2006) found that the greatest process barriers to assessing students in physical education were grading students on skill levels and abilities; time constraints; class size; and record keeping, especially when assessing students on skills, cognitive knowledge, and fitness.

Two key barriers to physical education identified in the studies summarized above are staffing and funding. These barriers reflect a lack of support structure in schools for quality physical education.

TABLE 5-6 Perceived Barriers to Student Participation in Physical Education and Physical Activity in Victorian State Secondary Schools: Physical Education Teachers’ Ranking (from most [“5”] to least [“1”] influential)


Barriers INSIDE school ( = 73)	Ranking	Influential Barrier					Percent of Respondents Ranking Barrier in Their Top 5	Barrier Category
		MOST			LEAST
		5	4	3	2	1

Crowded curriculum	1	21	6	6	5	5	59	I
Lack of facilities	2	10	7	4	2	4	37	I
Difficulty engaging students	3	9	10	11	11	8	67	T
Students have low level of interest in PE and PA	4	7	11	5	5	5	45	S
Peer pressure	5	5	7	9	13	11	62	S
PE /sport not priorities in the school	5	5	6	5	3	9	38	I
Focus on too many traditional sports	6	4	1	4	5	1	21	I
Past negative experiences with PE	7	3	6	6	6	5	37	S
Large class sizes	8	2	6	7	5	2	30	I
The school environment does not encourage PA	9	2	0	0	0	3	6	I
Cost of subject	10	1	5	8	5	3	30	I
Staff use outdated teaching methods	11	1	2	2	2	2	12	T
PE /sport staff provide limited activity time	12	1	2	1	1	2	10	T
Semesterisation of units	13	1	1	0	1	3	8	I
Outdated curriculum	14	1	0	0	1	2	5	I
Lack of equipment	15	0	3	4	5	5	23	I

NOTE: a Ranking = based on most frequently ranked as number 1 barrier; b I = institutional barrier, T = teacher-related barrier, S = student-related barrier; c PE = physical education; d PA = physical activity; e Sport = sport education. SOURCE: Jenkinson and Benson, 2010.

As noted earlier in this chapter, physical education is short staffed. State mandates have placed pressure on schools to preserve instructional resources for the high-stakes tested core subject areas at the expense of non-core subjects. For example, when a state mandates a maximum class size of 20 students per teacher in all core subjects, with noncompliance resulting in some form of penalty, an elementary school with an average of 25 students per teacher is forced to hire additional teachers in these subjects to meet the state mandate. Consequently, the school must shrink its teaching force in noncore subjects, such as physical education, to balance its budget. If noncore classes are to be preserved, their class sizes must increase, with fewer teachers serving more students. As a result, it becomes difficult to implement a quality program, and physical education teachers perceive their programs as being undervalued.

According to the Government Accountability Office report K-12 Education: School-Based Physical Education and Sports Programs (GAO, 2012), school officials cite budget cuts and inadequate facilities as major challenges to providing physical education opportunities for students. Budget cuts have affected schools’ ability to hire physical education teachers, maintain appropriate class sizes, and purchase sufficient equipment. As noted earlier, lack of equipment and limited access to facilities are cited as top barriers in the study by Jenkinson and Benson (2010) (see Tables 5-5 and 5-6 ). Limited budgets have a negative impact on a school’s ability to purchase enough physical education equipment to engage all students in increasingly large class sizes and cause physical education teachers to abandon quality evidence-based physical education programs and resort to large-group games and “throw out the ball” activities. Students disengaged as a result of such practices may prefer sedentary activities to more active lifestyles. A NASPE (2009a) survey found that the median physical education budget for physical education programs nationally was $764 per school ($460 per elementary school, $900 per middle school, and $1,370 per high school).

Solutions for Overcoming the Barriers

For many adolescents who have few opportunities to be active outside of the school day, quality physical education becomes the only option for physical activity. For students in large urban communities, physical education classes serve as a safe environment in which to be physically active under adult supervision in a structured environment. For students with dis-

abilities in particular, physical education classes are one of the only outlets for physical activity. For these reasons, it is crucial to overcome the above barriers to quality physical education. Some school districts have found ways to do so and provide robust physical education programs.

The barrier of limited time during the school day can be overcome through creative scheduling that makes use of every minute of the day in a constructive manner. For example, Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the fourth largest school district in the United States, in a large urban minority-majority community with large budgetary shortfalls and attention in schools being diverted to academic requirements. Yet the district has always had daily physical education in its elementary schools taught by a certified physical education teacher. This is accomplished by scheduling physical education during the classroom teacher’s planning time. In addition, students receive school board–mandated recess for either 20 minutes two times per week or 15 minutes three times per week. Figures 5-2 and 5-3 show examples of elementary school teacher schedules that demonstrate how 150 minutes of time for physical education can be incorporated successfully into any master schedule.

Other positive examples, identified in the report Physical Education Matters (San Diego State University, 2007), include successful case studies from low-resource California schools. The report acknowledges, however, that advancing such opportunities will require policy changes at the state, district, and local levels. These changes include securing grant funds with which to implement high-tech physical education wellness centers, staff commitment to professional development, administrative support, physical education being made a priority, community support, use of certified physical education teachers, and district support. Identifying the need to reform physical education guided by evidence-based findings, the report concludes that (1) curriculum matters, (2) class size matters, (3) qualified teachers matter, (4) professional development matters, and (5) physical environment matters. If programs are to excel and students are to achieve, delivery of the curriculum must be activity based; class sizes must be commensurate with those for other subject areas; highly qualified physical education specialists, as opposed to classroom teachers, must be hired to deliver instruction; professional development in activity-focused physical education must be delivered; and school physical education facilities, such as playing fields and indoor gym space and equipment, must be available.

A separate report, Physical Education Matters: Success Stories from California Low Resource Schools That Have Achieved Excellent Physical Education Programs (San Diego State University, 2007), notes that when funding from a variety of grant resources, including federal funding, became available, schools were able to transition to high-quality programs using innovative instructional strategies. Those strategies included well-

FIGURE 5-2 Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physical education. NOTE: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a traditional elementary school. SOURCE: Large Urban Public School District, Miami-Dade County Public Schools.

ness centers and active gaming, which engaged students in becoming more physically active. Administrative support was found to be a key factor in turning programs around, along with staff commitment and professional development. Having certified physical education teachers and making physical education a priority in the schools were other key factors. External factors further strengthened programs, including having school district support, having a physical education coordinator, and using state standards to provide accountability. Additional ways to overcome the barriers to quality physical education include scheduling time for physical education, ensuring reasonable class size, providing nontraditional physical education activities, making classes more active and fun for all students, and acknowledging the importance of role modeling and personal investment and involvement in participation in physical activity among staff.

Still another way to overcome the barriers to quality physical education is to assist administrative decision makers and policy makers in understand-

FIGURE 5-3 Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physical education. NOTES: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a combination special education and disabilities (SPED)/Spanish-language elementary class. PE = physical education; S.S. = social studies. SOURCE: Large Urban Public School District, Miami-Dade County Public Schools.

ing the correlation between physical education and academic achievement (see Chapter 4 ). The report Active Education: Physical Education, Physical Activity and Academic Performance by Active Living Research (Trost, 2009) cites evidence that “children who are physically active and fit tend to perform better in the classroom and that daily physical education does not adversely affect academic performance. Schools can provide outstanding learning environments while improving children’s health through physical education.” The findings reported include the following (p. 6):

“In some cases, more time in physical education leads to improved grades and standardized test scores.”
“Physically active and fit children tend to have better academic achievement.”
“Evidence links higher levels of physical fitness with better school attendance and fewer disciplinary problems.”
“There are several possible mechanisms by which physical education and regular physical activity may improve academic achievement, including enhanced concentration skills and classroom behavior.”
“Additional research is needed to determine the impact of physical activity on academic performance among those children who are at highest risk for obesity in the United States, including black, Latino, American Indian and Alaska Native, and Asian-American and Pacific Islander children, as well as children living in lower-income communities.”

Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools, it is standards based, and it encompasses assessment according to standards and benchmarks. Select curriculum-based physical education programs have been described in this chapter to show the potential of high-quality physical education in developing children into active adults. Such models provide the only opportunity for all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities. Curriculum models for physical education programs include movement education, which emphasizes the importance of fundamental motor skills competence as a prerequisite for engagement in physical activity throughout the life span; sport education, which emphasizes helping students become skillful players in lifetime sports of their choosing; and fitness education, which imparts physical fitness concepts to students, including the benefits and scientific principles of exercise, with the goal of developing and maintaining individual fitness and positive lifestyle change. The emergence of a technology-focused fitness education curriculum and the new Presidential Youth Fitness Program offer further motivational opportunities for students to engage in lifelong physical activities.

Because quality physical education programs are standards based and assessed, they are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation. Quality professional development programs are an essential component for both novice and veteran teachers to ensure the continued delivery of quality physical education.

An analysis of datasets from NASPE, NASBE, and Bridging the Gap reveals that the implementation of supportive physical education policies varies from state to state and from school to school. Since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001, several studies and reports have identi-

fied a decline in physical education resulting from the shifting of time to academic subjects. Because physical education is not a high-stakes tested content area, the implementation of supportive policies often is hindered by other education priorities. Although the above analysis indicates that 30 states (74.5 percent) mandate physical education, most policies do not require specific amounts of instructional time, and more than half allow for waivers or exemptions. In addition, an unintended consequence of the No Child Left Behind Act has been disparities in access to physical education and physical activity opportunities during the school day for Hispanic students and those of lower socioeconomic status. In high school, relying on students to elect physical education after meeting the minimum required credit hours (one credit in all states but one) appears to be unfruitful.

Strengthening of school physical education has received support from the public, health agencies, and parents. Parents recently surveyed expressed favorable views of physical education. Specifically:

A majority of parents (54-84 percent) believe that physical education is at least as important as other academic subjects (CDC, 2010).
Ninety-one percent believe that there should be more physical education in schools (Harvard School of Public Health, 2003).
Seventy-six percent think that more school physical education could help control or prevent childhood obesity (NASPE, 2009a).
Ninety-five percent believe that regular daily physical activity helps children do better academically and should be a part of the school curriculum for all students in grades K-12 (NASPE, 2003).

Additionally, many public and private organizations have proposed initiatives aimed at developing a comprehensive school-based strategy centered on curriculum physical education. As the largest institution where children spend more than half of their waking hours on school days, schools can play a pivotal role in increasing students’ physical activity levels by providing access for all to quality physical education, along with physical activities throughout the school environment, the subject of Chapter 7 .

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Physical inactivity is a key determinant of health across the lifespan. A lack of activity increases the risk of heart disease, colon and breast cancer, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, osteoporosis, anxiety and depression and others diseases. Emerging literature has suggested that in terms of mortality, the global population health burden of physical inactivity approaches that of cigarette smoking. The prevalence and substantial disease risk associated with physical inactivity has been described as a pandemic.

The prevalence, health impact, and evidence of changeability all have resulted in calls for action to increase physical activity across the lifespan. In response to the need to find ways to make physical activity a health priority for youth, the Institute of Medicine's Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment was formed. Its purpose was to review the current status of physical activity and physical education in the school environment, including before, during, and after school, and examine the influences of physical activity and physical education on the short and long term physical, cognitive and brain, and psychosocial health and development of children and adolescents.

Educating the Student Body makes recommendations about approaches for strengthening and improving programs and policies for physical activity and physical education in the school environment. This report lays out a set of guiding principles to guide its work on these tasks. These included: recognizing the benefits of instilling life-long physical activity habits in children; the value of using systems thinking in improving physical activity and physical education in the school environment; the recognition of current disparities in opportunities and the need to achieve equity in physical activity and physical education; the importance of considering all types of school environments; the need to take into consideration the diversity of students as recommendations are developed.

This report will be of interest to local and national policymakers, school officials, teachers, and the education community, researchers, professional organizations, and parents interested in physical activity, physical education, and health for school-aged children and adolescents.

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The 5 Key Benefits of Physical Education in Schools

Introduction.

Physical Education (PE) is an essential component of the educational curriculum. Far from being just an outlet for physical activity, PE in schools offers a multitude of benefits for students. This blog post explores five significant benefits of incorporating physical education in school curricula.

1. Physical Health and Fitness

Developing Healthy Bodies: PE plays a crucial role in promoting physical health and fitness. Regular physical activity helps students maintain a healthy weight, build and strengthen muscles, and improve cardiovascular health. This physical development is crucial during the formative school years.

2. Mental and Emotional Well-being

Boosting Mental Health: Physical education contributes significantly to mental and emotional well-being. Exercise is known to release endorphins, the body�s natural mood lifters, which can reduce stress and anxiety. PE provides an outlet for releasing tension and promoting mental clarity, contributing to overall emotional balance.

3. Social Skills and Teamwork

Enhancing Social Interaction: PE fosters social skills and teamwork. Participating in team sports and activities teaches students about cooperation, leadership, and effective communication. These social skills, developed through physical education, are vital for personal and professional success.

4. Academic Performance

Supporting Cognitive Functions: There is a strong link between physical activity and improved academic performance. Regular physical activity is known to enhance cognitive functions, such as concentration, memory, and creativity, leading to better performance in academic subjects.

5. Instilling Lifelong Habits

Promoting Lifelong Fitness: Physical education instills lifelong habits of regular exercise. By exposing students to various sports and physical activities, PE encourages them to find physical activities they enjoy, fostering a lifelong commitment to health and fitness.

Additional Benefits of Physical Education

Developing motor skills.

PE helps in the development of motor skills. Activities like throwing, catching, jumping, and running enhance hand-eye coordination, balance, and agility, which are essential for overall physical development.

Building Self-Esteem and Confidence

Physical education can significantly boost self-esteem and confidence. Achievements in sports and physical activities provide a sense of accomplishment, while also helping students understand and appreciate their bodies' capabilities.

Addressing Health Challenges

With rising concerns over childhood obesity and sedentary lifestyles, PE plays a critical role in addressing these health challenges. It provides a structured environment for engaging in regular physical activity, combating the risks associated with a sedentary lifestyle.

Encouraging Inclusivity and Respect

PE promotes inclusivity and respect. Inclusive PE classes where students of all abilities participate together foster an environment of mutual respect and understanding.

Physical Education is not just an ancillary part of the school curriculum but a vital component that offers extensive benefits. From enhancing physical health to improving mental well-being, fostering social skills, boosting academic performance, and instilling lifelong fitness habits, the importance of PE in schools cannot be overstated. It prepares students not only for academic success but for a healthier, balanced, and fulfilling life.

Kinaesthetic learning: unveiling its importance in education, comparing school curricula: ib, american, or british - which is right for your child, 3 reasons igcse is a perfect fit for your child.

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What Is Physical Education and Why Is It Important?

Physical activity offers many benefits for folks of all ages, but, in addition to promoting fitness, physical education can help kids develop many useful skills. This is precisely why physical education — often called P.E. — has been implemented into school curriculums the world over. So, let’s explore just what P.E. is and how it can be beneficial to everyone — not just young athletes.

What Is Physical Education?

Taught in schools as a way for students to develop physical fitness, physical education (P.E.) can also help students hone their teamwork skills and refine their strategic thinking abilities. In classes, students often participate in team sports, like soccer and basketball, as well as more individual sports, like gymnastics.

With this in mind, physical education has been a requirement in schools across the world for hundreds of years. When schools across Europe began implementing formal P.E. programs during the 1800s, American schools followed suit. By the early 1900s, the States passed legislation that made P.E. a required course. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “supporting schools to establish physical education daily can provide students with the ability and confidence to be physically active for a lifetime.”

Common Types of Physical Activity

According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute , P.E., or any type of physical activity, typically incorporates four main types of exercises — aerobic, muscle-strengthening, bone-strengthening, and stretching activities.

Aerobic activity, which includes running, jumping, and walking, benefits your heart and lungs. Looking to increase one’s stamina, power, and strength? This can be accomplished through muscle-strengthening activities, which include pushups and situps as well as through bone-strengthening activities, which include jumping rope and lifting weights. Finally, stretching before and after P.E. is vital when it comes to improving flexibility and preventing injury.

What Are the Goals of Physical Education?

Since its formal implementation in schools, P.E. curriculum has set forth particular benchmarks. As such, the four primary objectives of physical education are improved physical fitness; appreciation of physical activity; sportsmanship development; and improved social skills.

Other objectives of physical education include body awareness, skill development, and personality development. Participating in P.E. helps kids explore what kinds of physical activities speak to their strengths and which might be areas for improvement. Ultimately, it’s a real confidence builder when taught properly.

Physical Education Improves Physical Fitness and Sportsmanship Skills

Close to 14 million children and adolescents between the ages of 2 and 19 are medically obese. According to the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion , physical activity can help prevent mitigate obesity and the issues that stem from it, which include heart disease, diabetes, stroke, and high blood pressure. Children who are exposed to physical education on a regular basis tend to lead more active lifestyles in general, which sets them up for maintaining these habits in adulthood too.

In addition to helping students move their bodies, P.E. can help teach sportsmanship, teamwork, and cooperation. Often, P.E. students must work together in teams, which teaches them how to work toward a common goal. They also learn that in games, as in life, sometimes you win and sometimes you lose. And, no matter the outcome, it’s important to be a good sport.

Physical Education Helps With Confidence and Body Awareness

Without a doubt, physical education gives students the chance to try new sports and develop new athletic pursuits. Additionally, younger children are able to develop motor skills and work on balance and flexibility. Developing these skills can help build self-confidence in physical ability as well as an appreciation of the importance of physical activity.

P.E. also teaches students about body awareness. This means that kids will learn what they are physically able to do and their limitations. For example, some students might excel in sports that require strength, while others might have a knack for activities that demand flexibility and balance. Understanding that we all have unique abilities is essential to healthy development.

Physical Education Helps Kids Develop Social Skills and Personality Traits

Socializing is a huge part of P.E. After all, nothing fosters teamwork like (gently) pushing kids out of their comfort zone. In this recreational setting, they’ll have to take risks, but they’ll also learn to communicate with others; resolve conflicts (without storming off); and learn to either lead or take direction.

Participating in these recreational activities also helps improve students’ enthusiasm, motivation and perseverance. That is, they’ll want to help their team excel and cheer on their teammates from the sidelines. Needless to say, P.E. is more than just the chance to run around and get some energy out. With just a few hours of physical education a week, students can develop beneficial habits, skills, and traits that will last a lifetime.

What is Physical Education? A Comprehensive Overview for Physical Educators

Welcome to a comprehensive exploration of physical education—a dynamic and essential field. As a retired educator with experience across the spectrum from elementary to university levels, I've witnessed firsthand the transformative power of physical education. This extensive guide is designed for both seasoned and aspiring physical educators, aiming to delve into the multifaceted aspects of this discipline and its impact on physical, emotional, and social well-being.

Understanding Physical Education: A Comprehensive Overview for Educators

The Vital Role of Physical Education

Physical education stands as a cornerstone in the holistic development of students. Far from being just a supplemental part of the school curriculum, it plays a crucial role in fostering overall health and wellness. In this guide, we will explore the fundamental principles of physical education, how it evolves through different educational stages, and its lasting impact on individuals and communities.

At its core, physical education is not merely about learning sports or engaging in physical activities; it's about instilling a lifelong appreciation for health and fitness. It serves as a platform for students to develop physical skills, understand the importance of teamwork, and recognize the value of maintaining an active lifestyle. Our journey through this guide will reaffirm why physical education is an integral part of lifelong learning and wellness.

The Essence of Physical Education

Physical education stands as an integral component of comprehensive education, extending far beyond traditional notions of games and sports. It's an educational journey that emphasizes enhancing physical fitness, developing motor skills, and fostering a lifelong love for physical activity. This section explores what physical education truly encompasses and why it's a vital part of any educational program.

Physical Education Curriculum: Foundations and Goals

What is Physical Education : Physical education is an academic discipline that teaches students how to enhance their physical, mental, and social well-being through physical activity. As defined by SHAPE America, physical education is "the instructional practice of educating students in physical fitness, health, and wellness." This field is not just about teaching sports; it encompasses a balanced blend of skill development, knowledge enrichment, and active participation. The aim is to nurture well-rounded individuals who understand the importance of health and fitness in their lives.

Enhancing Physical Capabilities: Through various exercises and sports, physical education encourages students to build strength, endurance, and flexibility. This development of physical capabilities is a key aspect of the curriculum, equipping students with the skills needed for a physically active lifestyle.

Fostering Social and Emotional Growth: Physical education classes are designed to promote teamwork, leadership, and cooperation, contributing significantly to the social and emotional development of students. These interpersonal skills are as crucial as physical abilities, shaping how students interact and function within their communities.

Promoting Lifelong Fitness: Instilling the importance of regular physical activity for health and wellness is a fundamental objective of physical education. The goal of a physical education teacher is to foster habits that students will carry throughout their lives, acknowledging the role of physical fitness in overall well-being.

Components of a High-Quality Physical Education Program

Creating a successful physical education program involves more than just defining its objectives; it requires the right combination of activities, instruction, and engagement.

Diverse and Inclusive Activities: High-quality programs cater to a variety of skill levels and interests, ensuring every student finds physical activities they enjoy. This inclusivity not only enhances participation but also helps students discover new interests and talents.

Educated and Engaged Instructors: The role of qualified, passionate physical education teachers is vital. Their expertise and enthusiasm greatly impact student engagement and learning outcomes, effectively bringing the physical education curriculum to life.

Regular and Consistent Participation: Emphasizing consistent participation is crucial for developing lifelong physical activity habits. Regular engagement in physical education programs ensures students have ample opportunities to practice and improve their skills.

Physical education, as a multifaceted field, plays a pivotal role in the holistic development of students. By focusing on physical capabilities, emotional growth, and lifelong fitness habits, educators can create enriching and effective physical education experiences. These are essential for developing and implementing physical education curricula that resonate with and benefit all students.

Physical Education Across Different Educational Stages

The approach to physical education evolves significantly as students progress through their educational journey. From the playful exploration in elementary schools to the more structured and strategic environment of middle and high schools, physical education adapts to meet the changing needs and capabilities of students.

Elementary School Focus: Building Foundations

In elementary schools, the primary focus of physical education is to lay the groundwork for physical development and to foster an early love for physical movement.

Developing Basic Motor Skills: This stage is critical for introducing and refining essential motor skills such as running, jumping, and throwing. These foundational skills are crucial for students' physical development and future engagement in more complex activities.

Instilling a Love for Physical Movement: Creating a positive and fun environment is key to developing an early enthusiasm for physical activity, which can lead to a lifelong commitment to fitness and health.

Introducing Team Concepts: Even at this early stage, the concept of teamwork and cooperation in physical activities is introduced, helping young students understand the importance of working together and social interaction in sports.

Activities in elementary physical education are designed to be fun and engaging, introducing students to basic sport skills and healthy habits. These early experiences are essential to help children develop motor skills and shape their attitudes towards physical fitness and overall well-being.

Middle and High School: Evolving Needs and Goals

As students enter middle school, physical education becomes more structured, focusing on teamwork, strategy, and advanced motor skills development.

Structured Physical Education in Middle School: The curriculum in middle school builds on the skills learned in elementary school, introducing more complex sports and physical activities. This phase is crucial for enhancing students’ physical capabilities and understanding of teamwork and strategy.

Preparing for Lifelong Fitness in High School: High school programs are designed to prepare students for lifelong physical activity. The focus is on maintaining physical fitness, integrating comprehensive health education, and promoting sportsmanship. These objectives help high school students in a physical education class understand the importance of a healthy lifestyle and the role of physical activity in their overall well-being.

Emphasizing Personal and Social Responsibility: In both middle and high school, there is a significant emphasis on personal and social responsibility, teaching students the value of respecting others, following rules, and understanding the impact of their actions in a physical education setting.

In both middle and high school, physical education plays a pivotal role in students' physical and social development. It helps in preparing them for an active and healthy life beyond the school setting.

The Role of Physical Educators

The impact of physical educators on the quality and effectiveness of physical education programs cannot be overstated. This section highlights the critical roles, qualifications, and responsibilities of physical education teachers, emphasizing how they shape the experiences and motivation of their students.

Qualifications and Responsibilities of Physical Educators

Physical educators play a multifaceted role in the development of students. Their responsibilities extend beyond teaching sports or physical activities; they are mentors, motivators, and key influencers in promoting student motivation, physical education programming, and academic performance.

Educator Profiles: Shaping Student Experiences:

Diverse Roles: Physical education teachers serve various roles – from instructors and coaches to mentors and role models. Their approach to teaching can significantly influence students' attitudes towards physical fitness and overall well-being.

Impact on Motivation: The enthusiasm and commitment of these educators play a crucial role in engaging students and fostering a positive environment for learning and physical development.

Qualifications and Training: Ensuring Effective Teaching:

Essential Credentials: A solid educational background, typically including a bachelor's degree in physical education or a related field, is essential. Many educators also pursue specialized certifications in specific sports or fitness areas.

Professional Development: Ongoing training and professional development are crucial for physical educators to stay updated with the latest teaching methods, health and fitness trends, and educational technology.

The Influence of Physical Educators on Physical and Academic Performance

Physical educators play a crucial role in shaping both the physical and academic performance of their students. Their influence goes beyond teaching sports or physical activities; they are key figures in promoting holistic development and creating a positive learning atmosphere. This section explores how physical educators contribute to both physical prowess and academic achievement.

Physical Education: Essential For a Well Rounded Education

Holistic Development

The approach taken by health and physical educators is integral to the comprehensive development of students, encompassing physical, cognitive, and social aspects.

Improving Physical Skills:

Direct Impact: Regular physical activity in sport and physical education improves fitness, coordination, and overall physical health.

Skill Transfer: Many of the motor skills and physical abilities taught in daily physical education classes are foundational and beneficial across various aspects of life.

Enhancing Cognitive Abilities:

Brain Health Benefits: Physical activity has been shown to boost brain function, enhancing learning, memory, and concentration.

Academic Correlation: Studies have demonstrated a positive correlation between physical fitness and academic performance, highlighting the cognitive benefits of regular physical activity.

Social Skills Development:

Teamwork and Communication: Physical education classes provide opportunities for students to develop teamwork and communication skills.

Confidence and Leadership: Engaging in sports and physical activities can boost self-esteem and leadership abilities, contributing to social and personal growth.

Creating a Positive Learning Environment

Physical educators are instrumental in establishing a learning environment that supports both physical and academic achievements.

Promoting Active Participation:

Engagement in Learning: Encouraging active participation in physical activities also fosters a more engaged attitude towards learning in general.

Enjoyment in Education: When students enjoy physical education, this positive attitude can spill over into other academic areas.

Fostering Teamwork and Personal Growth:

Collaborative Skills: Lessons in physical education often require students to work together, building skills that are valuable in academic and life situations.

Emotional and Mental Well-being: A supportive physical education environment contributes to the emotional and mental well-being of students, which is crucial for academic success.

Physical educators have a profound impact on the overall development of students, influencing not only their physical abilities but also their academic performance and personal growth. By providing holistic education and creating a positive and supportive learning environment, physical educators play a vital role in preparing students for success in all areas of life.

Evaluating Success in Physical Education

Understanding and measuring the success of physical education programs is crucial for ensuring that they meet educational objectives and effectively contribute to the holistic development of students. This section discusses the various methods and standards used to assess the effectiveness of these programs, highlighting how they can enhance the physical, mental, and social well-being of students.

Student Assessment Methods in Physical Education

Effective evaluation in physical education encompasses various assessment methods, each targeting different aspects of student learning and development.

Skill-Based Assessments:

Purpose: To evaluate students’ proficiency in a range of physical skills and activities, from basic motor skills to complex sport-specific techniques.

Implementation: Utilizing tests and practical demonstrations to assess skill levels and progress in various physical disciplines.

Knowledge Tests:

Objective: Focusing on students' understanding and knowledge of health and fitness concepts.

Approach: Written tests, quizzes, or interactive discussions to assess comprehension of health education, fitness principles, and safety in sports.

Behavioral Observations:

Goal: Monitoring and evaluating students' participation, cooperation, attitude, and sportsmanship during physical education classes.

Method: Continuous observation and feedback to track and encourage positive behavioral changes and active participation.

Educational Standards and Benchmarks

Adhering to established standards and benchmarks is essential for maintaining the quality and relevance of physical education programs.

National and State Standards:

Alignment: Ensuring the physical education curriculum aligns with recognized standards set by organizations like SHAPE America.

Benefits: Provides a framework for developing a comprehensive and effective physical education program.

Customized School District Standards:

Development: Creating standards tailored to the specific needs and demographics of the various school districts.

Importance: Addresses unique local requirements and cultural aspects, enhancing the relevance and impact of the physical education program.

Continuous Improvement:

Process: Regularly reviewing and updating the curriculum and teaching methods based on assessment results and changing educational standards.

Outcome: Ensures the physical education program remains current, effective, and responsive to student needs and educational trends.

By implementing these assessment methods and adhering to educational standards, physical education programs can provide a quality education that significantly contributes to the overall development of students.

Q&A Section - Engaging with Common Queries and Concerns

In this section, we address some of the most common questions about physical education. These Q&As aim to provide clarity on various aspects of physical education, ranging from its impact on student health to the specifics of successful programs. This engaging format helps to demystify the field for educators, students, and parents alike.

Frequently Asked Questions About Physical Education

Q1: How does physical education contribute to overall student health?

A: Physical education plays a vital role in promoting a healthy lifestyle. It not only enhances physical fitness but also contributes to mental health and academic performance, making it an essential component of overall student well-being.

Q2: What are the key components of a successful physical education program?

A: The foundation of a successful physical education program lies in a well-rounded curriculum, qualified and passionate educators, and a focus on promoting lifelong fitness and well-being.

Q3: Can physical education influence a student's academic performance?

A: Absolutely. Regular physical activity has been linked to improved concentration, better memory retention, and overall enhanced cognitive function, which can positively impact academic performance.

Q4: How important are physical education classes for early childhood development?

A: In early childhood, physical education is crucial for developing basic motor skills, social interaction skills, and establishing a foundation for a healthy, active lifestyle.

Q5: What role does physical education play in mental health?

A: Physical education significantly benefits mental health by reducing stress, anxiety, and depression, while boosting self-esteem and improving overall mood.

Q6: How can physical education be made more inclusive for all students?

A: Inclusivity in physical education can be achieved by offering a variety of activities that cater to different interests and abilities, adapting activities for students with different needs, and creating a supportive, non-competitive environment.

Q7: What are the long-term benefits of engaging in physical education during school years?

A: Long-term benefits include maintaining a healthy weight, reducing the risk of chronic diseases, developing good exercise habits, and fostering a positive attitude towards physical activity.

Q8: How does physical education contribute to social development in students?

A: Physical education fosters social development by teaching teamwork, sportsmanship, and communication skills, all of which are important for building relationships and functioning effectively in social settings.

Q9: What strategies can physical educators use to motivate students?

A: Strategies include setting achievable goals, offering diverse and fun activities, providing positive feedback and encouragement, and creating an environment where all students feel valued and successful.

Q10: How do physical education programs adapt to the varying needs of different age groups?

A: Programs adapt by tailoring activities and teaching methods to suit the developmental stages and interests of different age groups, ensuring that the content is age-appropriate and engaging.

Q11: Can physical education aid in the development of leadership skills?

A: Yes, it can. Physical education provides opportunities for students to take on leadership roles, manage teams, and develop decision-making skills, all of which are valuable for building leadership qualities.

Q12: What is the impact of physical education on obesity prevention in children?

A: Physical education plays a critical role in obesity prevention by promoting regular physical activity, teaching about healthy lifestyle choices, and instilling fitness habits from an early age.

Q13: How do physical education programs address the needs of students with disabilities?

A: These programs adapt by offering modified activities, using assistive devices, and providing individualized instruction to ensure that students with disabilities can participate fully and safely.

Q14: What strategies can be used to engage reluctant students in physical education?

A: Strategies include offering a variety of activities to cater to different interests, creating a non-threatening environment, providing individualized goals, and emphasizing the fun aspect of physical activity.

Q15: What is the role of technology in modern physical education?

A: Technology in physical education can enhance learning and engagement through interactive fitness apps, online resources, and tools that track and analyze physical performance.

These questions and answers shed light on the multifaceted nature of physical education and its profound impact on students. By understanding these key aspects, educators and stakeholders can better appreciate and advocate for quality physical education programs that contribute significantly to the physical, mental, and social well-being of students.

Physical Education Beyond the Classroom - Extending the Reach of Physical Education

Physical education's influence extends far beyond the walls of the classroom, playing a crucial role in shaping lifestyle habits and attitudes towards fitness and health. This section explores how the principles taught in physical education classes are applied in daily life through sports and extracurricular activities and the overall impact on lifestyle.

Sports and Extracurricular Activities

The lessons learned in physical education classes find practical applications in sports and various extracurricular activities, reinforcing the principles taught in school.

Application in Sports:

Skill Utilization: The physical and motor skills developed in physical education are directly applicable in sports, allowing students to excel and enjoy various athletic pursuits.

Teamwork and Sportsmanship: Participation in sports emphasizes teamwork, leadership, and sportsmanship, skills nurtured in physical education settings.

Extracurricular Engagement:

Extended Learning: Extracurricular activities provide students with additional opportunities to apply what they’ve learned and further develop their physical skills.

Diverse Activities: Engaging in a range of activities, from dance to martial arts, expands students' experiences and encourages the exploration of different forms of physical activity.

Lifestyle Impact

Physical education plays a pivotal role in encouraging active living beyond the school setting, impacting students' lifestyle choices and habits.

Promoting Active Lifestyles:

Habit Formation: The habits developed in physical education classes often translate into a lifelong commitment to physical activity.

Health Awareness: Students learn the importance of staying physically active and making healthy choices, which has a lasting impact on their overall health and well-being.

Fitness Education Beyond School:

Knowledge Application: The knowledge gained about fitness and health in physical education classes guides students in making informed choices about their physical activities and lifestyle.

Community Involvement: Engaging in community sports teams, local fitness programs, and other physical activities outside school encourages a broader application of physical education principles.

Community Programs and Physical Education

The principles of physical education play a significant role in community health initiatives, extending their reach and impact beyond the school environment.

Community Health Initiatives:

Incorporating Physical Education Concepts: Community programs frequently adopt physical education strategies to encourage regular physical activity and overall fitness among participants.

Extending Educational Reach: These initiatives expand the scope of physical education, fostering broader community awareness and involvement in health and fitness activities.

Promoting Community Involvement:

Engagement and Participation: Community health programs provide opportunities for individuals to engage in physical activities, reinforcing the concepts learned in physical education classes.

Enhancing Community Health: By promoting regular exercise and wellness activities, these programs contribute significantly to the overall health of the community.

Family Engagement in Physical Activities

Family involvement in physical activities is crucial for fostering a culture of health and wellness that resonates through all stages of life.

Strengthening Family Bonds:

Joint Physical Activities: Encouraging families to participate in physical activities together not only strengthens familial bonds but also instills a collective commitment to a healthy lifestyle.

Shared Health Goals: Engaging in family-oriented fitness activities allows for shared experiences and goals, promoting a unified approach to health and wellness.

Role of Physical Educators:

Providing Insights and Resources: Physical educators are instrumental in guiding families on how to integrate physical activities into their daily routines.

Encouragement and Support: Educators can offer encouragement and support, helping families find suitable activities that cater to all ages and ability levels, thereby fostering a lifelong commitment to physical health and fitness.

Physical education extends its influence beyond academic learning, playing a significant role in shaping active, healthy lifestyles. The skills, knowledge, and attitudes fostered in physical education classes empower students to engage in sports, extracurricular activities, and make health-conscious decisions in their daily lives. The integration of physical education into community programs and family life is essential for building a society that values and prioritizes health and fitness. By promoting a physically active lifestyle, physical education contributes to the holistic well-being of individuals, both within and outside the school environment.

Final Thoughts

Reflecting on the broad spectrum of physical education, it becomes evident how deeply this field touches every aspect of personal development and community well-being. As a seasoned physical education professional with experience across all educational levels, I have witnessed the transformative power of this discipline firsthand. Physical education is not just a subject confined to the boundaries of a school's gymnasium; it is a vital component of holistic education, shaping the physical, mental, and social health of individuals. My journey, marked by numerous articles and insights into specific issues within this field, has been a testament to the depth and diversity of physical education.

This comprehensive overview underscores the foundational aspects of physical education, which are critical for current educators and invaluable for those preparing to embark on this fulfilling career path. It serves as a reminder of the importance of physical education in fostering lifelong habits of health and fitness, the role of educators in shaping these experiences, and the far-reaching impact of these principles beyond the classroom. In essence, physical education is a conduit for lifelong wellness, community engagement, and personal growth. As we continue to navigate and contribute to this dynamic field, let us remember its profound ability to enrich lives and build healthier, more active communities.

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K to 12 curriculum guide: physical education and health (grades 4 to 10)

The merging of physical education (PE) and health is becoming increasingly popular. This is due to the recognition that these two subjects are interconnected and that a holistic approach to health education is necessary for students to develop healthy habits and lifestyles. Health Education emphasizes the development of positive health attitudes and relevant skills to achieve a good quality of living. Thus, the focus on skills development is explicitly demonstrated to develop desirable health attitudes, habits, and practices. Health Education from Grade 4 to Grade 10 focuses on the physical, mental, emotional, as well as the social, moral, and spiritual dimensions of holistic health. It enables the learners to acquire essential knowledge, attitudes, and skills that are necessary to promote good nutrition; to prevent and control diseases; to prevent substance misuse and abuse; to reduce health-related risk behaviors; to prevent and control injuries with the end-view of maintaining and improving personal, family, community, as well as global health. It is aimed at health literacy, which specifically consists of cognitive and social skills which determine learners’ motivation and ability to gain access to, understand and use information in ways which promote and maintain health (Nutbeam, 1999). Physical Education is aimed at physical literacy and considers the development of the learner’s movement competency as the highest priority because of its impact on their self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, physical activity participation, fitness and overall health. Physical literacy consists of a combined skill set and mindset that drives learners to choose to become physically active because they are competent in and confident with movement. This disposition results from positive learning experiences and a supportive environment.

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

4 Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance

Key messages.

Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.
Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.
Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.
Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.
Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.
Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.

Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.

Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.

Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.

PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).

Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).

When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).

Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.

The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).

Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).

Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance

Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).

Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).

Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.

Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.

State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).

Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).

In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).

Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance

In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.

In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.

The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.

In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.

A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.

Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).

Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.

Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).

Single Bouts of Physical Activity

Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .

Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.

For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.

Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).

Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)

It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.

Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors

Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).

After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.

A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).

Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.

In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.

It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).

To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.

From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.

THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH

The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.

The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults

Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).

Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.

Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.

Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).

With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.

Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.

In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.

In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.

Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).

Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function

Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.

In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function

Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.

Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).

Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.

Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.

Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health

A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.

Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.

Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.

LIMITATIONS

Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.

Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.

Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.

From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.

Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.

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Aims and Objectives of Physical Education

Posted by Md. Harun Ar Rashid | Sep 5, 2023 | Physical Education

Aims and Objectives of Physical Education:

Physical education (PE) is a cornerstone of the educational system, designed to foster the holistic development of individuals. It encompasses physical, mental, and social dimensions, aiming to create well-rounded individuals who contribute to a healthier and more active society. In the rest of this article, we will explore the aims and objectives of physical education.

Aims of Physical Education:

Physical Education (PE) is a vital component of the educational curriculum, with a set of well-defined aims designed to enrich the lives of students in multiple dimensions. These aims encompass not only physical health but also mental, social, and emotional aspects. Here, we will delve into the aims of physical education.

1. Promoting Physical Fitness: At the core of physical education is the aim to promote physical fitness. Regular physical activity, such as aerobic exercises, strength training, and flexibility routines, helps improve cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, and flexibility ( CDC, 2021 ). These activities are instrumental in maintaining and enhancing physical well-being.

2. Skill Development: PE aims to foster skill development in various sports and physical activities. These skills range from fundamental motor skills like running and jumping to more complex skills like those required for team sports ( Sallis et al., 2012 ). Skill development encourages mastery and competence in various physical activities, contributing to lifelong participation.

3. Health Education: Another fundamental aim of physical education is to impart health education. Students are educated about the principles of a healthy lifestyle, including nutrition, hygiene, and the effects of a sedentary lifestyle ( CDC, 2021 ). This knowledge empowers them to make informed decisions about their health and well-being.

4. Stress Reduction: Engaging in physical activities has been shown to reduce stress and anxiety. Regular exercise stimulates the release of endorphins, which act as natural mood elevators ( AAHPERD, 2013 ). Thus, physical education plays a crucial role in promoting mental well-being and reducing the risk of conditions like depression.

5. Promoting Lifelong Physical Activity: Physical education aims to instill the habit of lifelong physical activity. It encourages students to view exercise not as a chore but as an integral part of a healthy lifestyle ( CDC, 2021 ). By fostering a love for physical activity, it ensures individuals continue to prioritize their health throughout their lives.

6. Social Development: PE plays a significant role in social development. Through activities like team sports, students learn valuable social skills such as teamwork, communication, and cooperation ( Sallis et al., 2012 ). These skills are transferable to various aspects of life and contribute to the development of well-rounded individuals.

7. Cultural Awareness: PE exposes students to a wide range of sports and physical activities from different cultures. This not only broadens their horizons but also promotes cultural awareness and tolerance ( AAHPERD, 2013 ). Students gain a better understanding of diversity through exposure to various cultural practices in physical activities.

8. Gender Equality: An important aim of physical education is to break down gender stereotypes and promote gender equality in sports and physical activities. It encourages girls and boys to participate in all activities, challenging traditional norms and fostering inclusivity ( CDC, 2021 ).

9. Ethical Values: Through sports and physical activities, physical education instills ethical values such as fairness, respect, and honesty ( CDC, 2021 ). Students learn the importance of playing by the rules and exhibiting good sportsmanship.

10. Prevention of Lifestyle-Related Diseases: Physical education contributes to the prevention of lifestyle-related diseases like obesity, diabetes, and heart disease ( World Health Organization, 2018 ). By promoting physical activity and healthy habits, it addresses risk factors associated with these conditions.

Objectives of Physical Education:

Physical Education (PE) programs are designed with specific objectives aimed at enhancing various aspects of an individual’s physical, mental, and social development. These objectives are crucial in guiding the curriculum and teaching methods within the discipline. Here, we explore the primary objectives of physical education:

1. Physical Fitness Assessment: Physical education programs prioritize the assessment of students’ physical fitness levels. This assessment includes measurements of cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, and body composition ( CDC, 2021 ). These assessments are conducted periodically to monitor individual progress and identify areas for improvement. They provide a baseline for setting fitness goals and tracking changes over time.

2. Skill Proficiency: A fundamental objective of physical education is the development of physical skills. This includes not only basic motor skills like running, jumping, and throwing but also more specialized skills required for specific sports and activities ( Sallis et al., 2012 ). For example, students may work on dribbling skills in basketball or swimming strokes in aquatic activities. The goal is to equip students with the competence and confidence to engage in various physical activities throughout their lives.

3. Health Education: PE programs incorporate health education as a core component. Students are taught about the principles of a healthy lifestyle, including the importance of balanced nutrition, regular exercise, proper hygiene, and the dangers of unhealthy behaviors such as smoking and substance abuse ( CDC, 2021 ). This knowledge empowers students to make informed decisions about their health and well-being, setting the foundation for a healthy lifestyle.

4. Psychomotor Development: Physical education aims to enhance psychomotor development, which encompasses both fine and gross motor skills. Activities such as yoga, dance, and martial arts help students improve fine motor skills, while activities like running, jumping, and throwing enhance gross motor skills ( Sallis et al., 2012 ). Developing these skills contributes to overall physical coordination and control.

5. Mental Well-being: In addition to physical health, PE objectives extend to mental well-being. Physical activity has been shown to have a positive impact on mental health by reducing stress and anxiety and promoting a sense of well-being ( AAHPERD, 2013 ). PE programs often incorporate relaxation techniques, mindfulness exercises, and stress-reduction strategies to help students manage the challenges of daily life.

6. Inclusivity and Equity: An important objective in modern physical education is inclusivity and equity. PE programs should be designed to accommodate students with diverse needs and abilities ( CDC, 2021 ). This includes providing adaptations and modifications for students with disabilities to ensure their full participation. The objective is to create an inclusive environment where every student can engage in physical activities to the best of their abilities.

7. Cultural Sensitivity: PE objectives also emphasize cultural sensitivity. Students are exposed to a variety of sports and physical activities from different cultures ( AAHPERD, 2013 ). This exposure not only promotes cultural awareness but also fosters an appreciation for the diversity of movement practices around the world. It helps break down cultural barriers and encourages respect for different traditions.

8. Gender Equality and Empowerment: Physical education aims to promote gender equality by encouraging both girls and boys to participate in all activities, challenging traditional gender norms ( CDC, 2021 ). This empowers students to pursue their interests and passions in sports and physical activities regardless of gender. It also promotes inclusivity and equal opportunities for all.

9. Ethical Behavior: Ethical behavior is a core objective in physical education. Students are taught the importance of fair play, respect for opponents, adherence to rules, and good sportsmanship ( CDC, 2021 ). These values are instilled through participation in sports and physical activities and extend to life beyond the gym or playing field.

10. Health Promotion: The overarching objective of health promotion in PE is to improve overall health and well-being. This includes reducing the prevalence of lifestyle-related diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease ( World Health Organization, 2018 ). PE programs aim to increase physical activity levels, improve cardiovascular fitness, and enhance overall fitness among students.

11. Assessment of Progress: Regular assessment of students’ physical fitness, skill development, and understanding of health-related concepts is an integral part of physical education ( CDC, 2021 ). These assessments help educators tailor instruction to meet individual needs and track progress toward achieving specific objectives.

12. Lifelong Physical Activity: Perhaps one of the most critical objectives of physical education is to instill a love for lifelong physical activity. The objective is for students to develop a lasting commitment to physical fitness and well-being ( CDC, 2021 ). By fostering a positive relationship with physical activity, PE aims to ensure that students continue to prioritize their health throughout their lives.

In conclusion , physical education is a vital component of education that contributes to the overall development of individuals. Its aims and objectives encompass physical fitness, skill development, health education, stress reduction, and the promotion of ethical values and social development. By imparting these essential life skills, physical education equips individuals to lead healthy, active, and fulfilling lives. It is an integral part of the educational system, contributing to the overall well-being of individuals and society as a whole. To maximize its impact, continued support and prioritization of physical education by educators, policymakers, and communities are essential.

References:

CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). (2021). “Physical Education Curriculum Analysis Tool.” Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/pecat/index.htm
Sallis, J. F., McKenzie, T. L., & Beets, M. W. (2012). “Physical education’s role in public health: Steps forward and backward over 20 years and HOPE for the future.” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 83(2), 125-135.
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD). (2013). “Physical Education is Critical to Educating the Whole Child.”
World Health Organization (WHO). (2018). “Physical Activity and Young People.”

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Physical Education and Physical Activity

Schools are in a unique position to help students attain the nationally recommended 60 minutes or more of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily. 1 Regular physical activity in childhood and adolescence is important for promoting lifelong health and well-being and preventing various health conditions. 1–3

To learn more about benefits of physical activity, physical activity behaviors of young people, and recommendations, visit Physical Activity Facts . For more information on the Physical Activity Guidelines , 2 nd edition, visit Physical Activity Guidelines for School-Aged Children and Adolescents . Find out what CDC is doing nationwide to help more adults, children, and adolescents become physically active.

Active School Environment Circle - The 5 components of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program

Figure 1. The 5 components of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program PDF [PDF – 247 KB] | JPEG | PNG

Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program Framework [PDF – 3 MB]

This document provides school health professionals, school administrators, physical education teachers, other school staff, and parents with detailed information on the components of a CSPAP framework. It identifies key professional development opportunities and resources to help schools implement the framework.

Infographic

Benefits of School-Based Physical Activity

A CSPAP can increase physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school. This graphic explains how 60 minutes of daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity can benefit a student’s health and directly impact teachers and the community.

Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP): A Guide for Schools

Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program: A Guide for Schools [PDF – 6 MB]

CDC, in collaboration with SHAPE America, developed a step-by-step guide for schools and school districts to develop, implement, and evaluate comprehensive school physical activity programs. The guide can be read and used by an existing school health council or wellness committee, or by a new group or committee made up of physical education coordinators and teachers, classroom teachers, school administrators, recess supervisors, before- and after-school program supervisors, parents, and community members. It can be used to develop a new comprehensive school physical activity program or assess and improve an existing one.

Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program: A Guide for Schools [EPUB – 5 MB]

The eBook can be viewed on your iOS (iPad, iPhone, or iPod Touch) or Android device with an eReader. An eReader is an app that can display eBooks on your mobile device or tablet.

If you do not have an eReader app installed on your iOS (iPad, iPhone, or iPod Touch) device, search the App Store for an eReader, like iBooks. If you do not have an eReader app installed on your Android device, search the Google Play Store for an eReader. After an eReader app is installed on your device, you can download the eBook and open it on your device.

The purpose of this module is to familiarize you with the components of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program and the process for developing, implementing, and evaluating one. After this module , you should be able to take the next steps to begin the process of developing a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program .

The course objectives are for you to:

Understand the importance and benefits of youth physical activity.
Recognize the components of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program.
Learn the process for developing, implementing, and evaluating a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program .
US Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2 nd edition. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2018.
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Whole School, Whole Child, Whole Community: A Collaborative Approach to Learning and Health. 2014. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/siteASCD/publications/wholechild/wscc-a-collaborative-approach.pdf [PDF – 2.24 MB] .
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. School health guidelines to promote healthy eating and physical activity. MMWR. 2011;60(No. RR-5):28–33.

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Objectives Of Physical Education

There is so much beauty in physical education; which should be the most treasured part of school where kids can learn to take care of their bodies, stay healthy as well as have a hella good time through movement and exercise.

Knowing this can help you to understand why we run, jump, and play games in gym class when you are younger.

Table of Contents

Learning How to Move

Basic Movement: One of the biggest things that physical education can help you with is simply learning how to move your body in a variety of ways. This involves learning how to work, jump, throw, and catch which are all things you will do in plenty of games.

Incorporating these basic movements into your routine for strength, balance, and coordination development is a beginner step to growth in any course of action you take.

So when you are in gym class playing games, it is not just about being entertained but also learning how to move your body correctly. Even a game of tag is teaching us how to run faster, turn more quickly, and avoid obstacles.

These are all crucial skills for when you eventually move on to other sports or activities.

Staying Healthy and Strong

Physical education also serves as an important means to keep one’s body in ideal health and strength. Exercise (e.g.swimming, running, and jumping) makes your heart beat faster, and the effort you put in through exercise produces a healthier lung to work better.

This, in turn, makes you stronger and will allow you to continue being active for more extended periods without becoming fatigued.

It also helps you to know the value of eating healthy foods, drinking water, and enough sleep. Such routine can also be training for you to grow up to the greatest seat of your soul.

When you learn about these things in gym class, you are given the necessary weapons to make solid health decisions.

Working as a Team

You have to work using your classmates as a team in most of these physical education activities. In all sporting events, you must play together well whether it’s football, basketball, or relay races.

Working in a team helps you to understand how signal communication needs learned on shared responsibility and mutual benefitted from helping each other.

Additionally, when you play as a part of the team you learn good sportsmanship. This comes down to being kind and treating people well, win or lose.

Sportsmanship is another major component in physical education because it will help you create good relationships with your peers as well as make games fun for everyone.

Increase in Optimism and Confidence

Physical Education Boosts Self Confidence. That would be like when you first learned to hit a baseball, or maybe how it felt the very first time that your turning cartwheel flipped itself down and still landed on two feet!

This sense of pride makes you truly believe that if others have done it, so can I which is a game-changer in various aspects of your life.

When you invest energy into what interests you appeal, while also working to get better at practicing something else another thing that comes out of it is improvement in the things you love doing.

This will boost your self-confidence and also encourage you to explore new avenues. Physical education helps you to learn what you’re good at and builds your confidence in becoming better.

Comprehending the Game Rules

Furthermore, knowing the regulations of various types of sports and games is one of the main aims of physical education. In the same way, different sports all have specific rules that play a crucial aspect in contributing to the fair and fun nature of each sport.

By learning and following these rules you learn to play safe, and respect others.

Additionally, understanding the rules also increases your enjoyment of watching golf since you can follow along with what is going on and why. For example in soccer, you learn why is there handball or basketball and why dribbling. But knowing these same rules makes you play better and have fun with friends.

Encouraging a lifetime of fitness

Pe is so much more than what you do in gym class [infographic] It is also about fostering a love for exercise that sticks with you forever. Swimming, dancing, or riding a bike are activities people may enjoy and do more frequently as they age.

We all know that keeping the body active is necessary if you want to be healthy and happy. Firstly, exercise is relaxing and can be great fun to do with your friends or family. If you find out what activity in PE you love doing, at least you’re starting a lifetime of health and happiness.

Learning to Manage Emotions

Physical education is tough sometimes, and you get mad because that thing isn’t going to budge so why should I make an effort? This is typical and it’s a perfect opportunity to learn how to control your emotions.

The kid still sucks at balls, but they learned to suck a little less while staying calm and trying instead of giving up. (Except in basketball.)

And the final accomplishment feels even better when you dedicate time to practicing until finally make it. Practicing emotional control in PE sets up all of those skill areas that you may need to use when working on a difficult math problem or solving a challenging puzzle.

Appreciating Fair Play

This is fair play, being honest, and submitting to the rules of others. Physical Education – you learn it is not about only winning but playing the game and having fun. If no one cheats, then more people have fun.

Learning to respect fair play makes you an honest and a man of integrity. These values are important in sports and life as they help you build trust and respect with others.

Doing Various Activities

Physical education allows you to experience a variety of different activities. Physical education ranges from traditional sports like soccer and basketball to new activities such as yoga or rock climbing, allowing you to discover which intro educational path most interests you. Dabble in something elseThis opens the door to explore other interests and instruction.

You can see if you enjoy these types of things or not- and maybe even find something that you truly love doing outside of classes! This goes some way to keeping you healthy and active, while also providing a bit of fun preparedness.

Linking Physical Education to the Real World

PE isn’t just something you do at school; it’s relatable to your everyday life. Physical education teaches useful skills and good habits such as staying fit, teamwork, or emotional wellness that can be applied to just about anything.

And if you like playing tag or racing, maybe sports aren’t all that boring after school. Alternatively, if team games are more your style, why not join an amateur sports team or get together with friends for a kickabout at the weekend?

Wrapping It All Together

Physical education is not a class where you get to skip your daily workout by running around all hour and think of it as fun. It was a place where you learned valuable lessons that would ideally help keep your body running well, work with others effectively, and feel good about yourself. Physical education objectives are to ensure that you will mature into a strong, healthy, and happy person who loves working with others.

When you can understand why P.E. is important, these factors as well as the goal to lose weight or be healthy become less in your face and frame a positive relationship with physical activity for life! Lessons learned in gym are games played for a Lifetime so keep that in mind next time you go to class!

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Characterizing teacher support of debugging with physical computing: Debugging pedagogies in practice

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WELLBEING OF THE TEACHER

One of the most important factors that influences your performance as a teacher is your well-being. Learn how to take care of yourself with our course and professionals in this field.

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Understanding what well-being entails and why it is crucial for teachers
Wellbeing strategies to manage your physical, emotional, and social well-being including mindfulness and relaxation techniques
Building resilience to overcome challenges
Stress management and cognitive behavioural approaches to manage stress and anxiety effectively

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Price: 80 Euro
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Language: English
Target audience ISCED: Early childhood education (ISCED 0) Primary education (ISCED 1) Lower secondary education (ISCED 2)
Target audience type: Teacher Pedagogical Adviser School Psychologist
Learning time: 5-10 hours

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MEANING, DEFINITION, AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
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What is Physical Education? Meaning Define Objective, Importance
The objective of physical education classes is to acquaint understudies with the essential components of exercise that will prompt a sound way of life. Understudies can get exercise and increment their psychomotor capacities by playing an assortment of conventional games like ball and soccer, and by partaking in practice exercises, for example ...
Physical Education
Physical Education | Physical Activity | Healthy Schools
National PE Standards-Highly Effective Physical Education
National PE Standards-Highly Effective Physical Education
What Are the Goals of Physical Education?
In a physical education setting, the right goals will: Engage students in PE class. Attract the attention of distracted learners. Create an environment that cultivates movement. Teach the values of health and exercise. Establishing goals within physical education can also help students learn the value of setting personal and achievable goals in ...
What Is Physical Education? & Objectives Of Physical Education
The objectives of physical education can vary depending on the educational system, the age of the students, and the specific goals of the program. However, there are several common objectives that are generally associated with PE: Physical Fitness: One of the primary objectives of physical education is to promote physical fitness and well-being ...
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Physical education for healthier, happier, longer and more ...
"Public investment in physical education is far outweighed by high dividends in health savings and educational objectives. Participation in quality physical education has been shown to instil a positive attitude towards physical activity, to decrease the chances of young people engaging in risky behaviour and to impact positively on academic ...
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5 Approaches to Physical Education in Schools
Physical education
Physical education
The 5 Key Benefits of Physical Education in Schools
Developing Healthy Bodies: PE plays a crucial role in promoting physical health and fitness. Regular physical activity helps students maintain a healthy weight, build and strengthen muscles, and improve cardiovascular health. This physical development is crucial during the formative school years. 2. Mental and Emotional Well-being.
What Is Physical Education and Why Is It Important?
Other objectives of physical education include body awareness, skill development, and personality development. Participating in P.E. helps kids explore what kinds of physical activities speak to their strengths and which might be areas for improvement. Ultimately, it's a real confidence builder when taught properly.
PDF TheEssentialComponentsOfPhysicalEducation
Essential Components of Physical Education
Aims And Objectives Of Physical Education
Physical Health and Strength. Another objective of Physical Education is to make the body healthy and strong. Students develop muscles, flexibility, and endurance through exercises & activities. All of that running, jumping, and stretching students do is making their bodies get stronger. This is because a strong body will always help you to be ...
Physical Activity and Physical Education: Relationship to Growth
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Promoting Lifelong Fitness: Instilling the importance of regular physical activity for health and wellness is a fundamental objective of physical education. The goal of a physical education teacher is to foster habits that students will carry throughout their lives, acknowledging the role of physical fitness in overall well-being.
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Aim, Objectives and Importance of Physical Education
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Rationale for the Essential Components of Physical ...
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K to 12 curriculum guide: physical education and health ...
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Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects ...
Aims and Objectives of Physical Education
Here, we will delve into the aims of physical education. 1. Promoting Physical Fitness: At the core of physical education is the aim to promote physical fitness. Regular physical activity, such as aerobic exercises, strength training, and flexibility routines, helps improve cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, and flexibility (CDC, 2021).
The Role of Physical Education at School
(PDF) The Role of Physical Education at School
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Physical Education and Physical Activity | Healthy Schools
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Physical education objectives are to ensure that you will mature into a strong, healthy, and happy person who loves working with others. When you can understand why P.E. is important, these factors as well as the goal to lose weight or be healthy become less in your face and frame a positive relationship with physical activity for life! Lessons ...
Characterizing teacher support of debugging with physical computing
Objectives.Physical computing systems are increasingly being integrated into secondary school science and STEM instruction, yet little is known about how teachers, especially those with little background and experience in computing, help students during the inevitable debugging moments that arise.
WELLBEING OF THE TEACHER
By gaining a comprehensive understanding of what well-being entails and why it is crucial for teachers, you will recognize its impact on both personal health and professional effectiveness. Learn and apply well-being strategies to manage your physical, emotional, and social well-being, including mindfulness and relaxation techniques to maintain a balanced lifestyle.
Is One Enough? The Effectiveness of a Single Session of Education and
OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness of a single session of education and exercise compared with multiple sessions of a multimodal physiotherapy intervention for adults with spinal disorders in an advanced practice physiotherapy specialized spine model of care. DESIGN: Pragmatic randomized controlled trial. METHODS: We randomized patients with spinal disorders, who were referred for a spinal ...

What is Physical Education? Meaning, Define, Objective, Importance

► What is Physical Education?

◉ Physical Education Meaning

◉ Definition of Physical Education

► History of Physical Education

► Objectives of Physical Education

✔ 1. Physical development

✔ 2. Mental development

✔ 3. Social development

✔ 4. Neuro Muscular Co-ordination

✔ 5. Emotional development

✔ 6. Improvement of Health

► Importance of Physical Education

► Types of Physical Education

► Facts about Physical education as a Career

◉ Educational Requirement

◉ Licensure/Certification

◉ Career Outlook

► Conclusion

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Physical education for healthier, happier, longer and more productive living

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The 5 Key Benefits of Physical Education in Schools

1. Physical Health and Fitness

2. Mental and Emotional Well-being

3. Social Skills and Teamwork

4. Academic Performance

5. Instilling Lifelong Habits

Additional Benefits of Physical Education

Building Self-Esteem and Confidence

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Encouraging Inclusivity and Respect

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