importance of skill based education essay

What is Skills-Based Learning and Why It’s Important?

Skills-based learning is an educational approach that focuses on developing specific, practical skills and competencies rather than just acquiring theoretical knowledge. It emphasizes hands-on, experiential learning that equips individuals with the abilities they need to perform tasks, solve problems, and excel in real-world situations.

Embracing Skills-Based Learning in the Modern Job Market

As the job market evolves, skills-based learning has become a crucial component for professional success. This guide explores the benefits of incorporating skill-based learning techniques in education and career development , empowering adult learners and non-traditional students to excel in their chosen fields. By focusing on specific, relevant skills and using effective learning strategies, individuals can unlock new opportunities and achieve their career goals .

Delving into the World of Skills-Based Learning

Skills-based learning, often referred to as skill-based or competency-based learning, is an approach that emphasizes the development of specific, practical skills rather than the acquisition of broad, theoretical knowledge. This form of learning is tailored to the individual’s career goals and focuses on the mastery of skills that can be directly applied to real-world situations.

Traditional learning often follows a more linear path, with students acquiring knowledge through lectures and textbooks, then demonstrating their understanding through tests and assignments. In contrast, skills-based learning is more flexible and adaptable, allowing learners to focus on the skills that are most relevant to their career aspirations and personal interests.

Key Characteristics of Skills-Based Learning

Examples of skill-based learning techniques include hands-on training, simulations, and case studies. These methods encourage active engagement and facilitate the development of practical skills, empowering learners to excel in their chosen fields.  

Here are the main characteristics of skills-based learning:

• Practical Application : Learning is centered around practical tasks, projects, or activities that simulate real-world scenarios. This approach enables learners to directly apply what they’ve learned.
• Skill Development : The primary goal is to build specific skills, such as technical skills (e.g., programming, carpentry) or soft skills (e.g., communication, teamwork).
• Outcome-Oriented : Success is measured by the learner’s ability to demonstrate proficiency in a particular skill or competency, rather than by traditional academic assessments like exams or essays.
• Problem-Solving : Skills-based learning often involves problem-solving and critical thinking as learners tackle real challenges and learn to adapt and innovate.
• Hands-On Experience : Learners actively engage with the subject matter through practical exercises, experiments, or real-life tasks, fostering deeper understanding and retention.
• Personalization : Instruction can be tailored to each learner’s needs, allowing them to focus on the skills most relevant to their goals or career path.
• Lifelong Learning : Skills-based learning aligns with the idea that learning doesn’t stop after formal education. It encourages individuals to continuously acquire and refine skills throughout their lives.

This approach is particularly valuable in fields where practical expertise and hands-on experience are crucial, such as vocational training , technical education, professional development, and certain areas of higher education. Skills-based learning is often seen as a more practical and career-focused alternative to traditional academic learning, as it equips individuals with the abilities they need to succeed in the workforce and in various life situations.

Types of Programs and Schools That Focus On Skills-Based Learning

Many higher education programs incorporate skills-based learning to varying degrees, but some are specifically designed to prioritize practical skill development over traditional academic coursework. These programs are often found in fields where hands-on expertise is crucial. Here are several types of higher education programs that emphasize skills-based learning:

Vocational and Technical Colleges: These institutions offer programs that focus on specific trades or technical skills, such as automotive repair, welding , culinary arts, and healthcare. Students gain practical skills and often receive certifications or diplomas.

Apprenticeships: Apprenticeship programs combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction. They are available in fields like construction, electrician work, plumbing, and manufacturing. Apprentices work alongside experienced professionals to develop skills.

Community Colleges: Community colleges frequently offer associate degree programs with a strong emphasis on practical skills. These degrees can lead to careers in fields like nursing , information technology, and automotive technology.

Coding Bootcamps: These short, intensive programs focus on teaching coding and programming skills. Coding Bootcamps are designed to quickly prepare students for careers in software development and related fields.

Certificate and Diploma Programs:  Many colleges and online platforms such as Udacity offer courses that are designed to provide practical, job-ready skills in high-demand areas such as technology and business. These programs typically culminate in a certificate or diploma.

Trade Schools : Trade schools specialize in providing education and training for specific trades or industries. This includes fields like HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning), cosmetology, and construction management.

Nursing and Healthcare Programs: Programs for nurses and healthcare professionals, such as certified nursing assistant (CNA) or medical assistant programs , emphasize practical skills for patient care.

Culinary Schools : Culinary programs teach students cooking techniques and restaurant management skills, preparing them for careers in the culinary arts .

Design and Creative Arts Schools: Schools focusing on design, fashion, and creative arts offer programs that emphasize practical skills like graphic design , fashion design, and interior design.

Trade Apprenticeships in the Building Trades: These apprenticeships provide hands-on training in construction-related fields like carpentry, plumbing , electrical work , and masonry.

Emergency Services Training: Programs for emergency medical technicians (EMTs), paramedics, and firefighters emphasize practical skills for responding to emergencies and saving lives.

Applied Sciences and Engineering Programs: Some universities offer engineering and applied sciences programs with a strong practical component, allowing students to work on real-world projects and gain technical expertise.

Mini-MBA Programs (Non-Degree): Mini-MBA programs are shorter, condensed versions of traditional Master of Business Administration (MBA) programs. They are designed to provide students with a fundamental understanding of key business concepts and management skills in a shorter timeframe. Mini-MBA programs often emphasize practical skills and real-world applications, allowing participants to immediately apply what they learn in their work or business ventures.

Selecting the Right Skills for Your Skill-Based Learning Journey

Identifying the appropriate skills for your skill-based learning plan requires a thorough assessment of your personal strengths and weaknesses. Reflecting on your abilities and areas for improvement can help you determine which skills are most relevant to your chosen career path.

When selecting skills to develop, consider both hard skills, such as technical abilities, and soft skills, like communication and problem-solving. Transferable skills , those that can be applied across various industries and roles, are particularly valuable in skill-based learning. These versatile skills can provide you with a competitive edge in the job market and enable you to adapt to a changing professional landscape.

Creating a Successful Skills-Based Learning Plan

Developing a skills-based learning plan begins with setting clear and achievable goals for your skill development. By defining the skills you want to acquire and the level of mastery you aim to achieve, you can create a roadmap for your learning journey.

Next, identify the resources available for skill acquisition. Online platforms and courses, workshops and seminars, and books and articles are valuable sources of information and guidance. Explore these resources to find the most suitable learning opportunities for your needs.

Finally, establish a timeline for your skill development and mastery. This timeline will help you stay on track and monitor your progress, ensuring that you are consistently working towards your goals. Remember, skill-based learning is a continuous process, and your plan should be flexible enough to adapt to your evolving needs and aspirations.

Putting Skills-Based Learning Techniques into Practice

Active learning strategies are essential for effective skill development in a skills-based learning plan. Techniques such as project-based learning, problem-based learning, and collaborative learning encourage hands-on experience and real-world application, fostering skill mastery.

Integrating these techniques into existing educational and professional development programs can enhance their effectiveness and relevance to your career goals . By focusing on practical skills, you can maximize the value of your learning experience and accelerate your professional growth.

As you progress, it’s crucial to assess your development and adjust your learning strategies as needed. This ongoing evaluation ensures that you remain on track and continue to refine your skills, preparing you for success in your chosen field.

Establishing a Supportive Learning Network

Networking plays a significant role in skill development, as it enables you to connect with like-minded individuals, industry professionals, and mentors who can provide valuable insights and guidance. Building a strong network can enhance your learning experience, open doors to new opportunities, and help you stay informed about emerging trends and best practices in your field.

Additionally, establishing partnerships with industry professionals and mentors can offer you personalized advice, support, and encouragement throughout your learning journey. By leveraging these relationships, you can ensure that your skill development remains on track and aligned with your career goals.

Proving Your Skills for Career Growth

Demonstrating your skills for career advancement requires showcasing your accomplishments and expertise to potential employers. One way to do this is by updating your resumes and CVs with relevant skills and achievements. This information should be presented clearly and concisely, highlighting your unique value and capabilities.

Another effective method for displaying your skills is through portfolios and work samples. These materials provide tangible evidence of your expertise, allowing employers to see the direct application of your skills in real-world situations.

Finally, interviews and networking events offer opportunities to articulate your skill mastery and demonstrate your proficiency. By confidently discussing your skills and experiences, you can make a lasting impression on employers and increase your chances of career advancement.

Unlock Your Potential with Skills-Based Learning

As we conclude our exploration of skills-based learning, it’s evident that this approach is crucial for achieving career success in today’s competitive job market. By focusing on specific, relevant skills and implementing effective learning techniques, you can unlock new opportunities and advance in your chosen field. We encourage you to continue developing your skills and embracing lifelong learning as a key to personal growth and professional growth. At Pathways to Advancement, we’re here to support you with expert advice and resources for further skill-based learning opportunities. Discover more at Pathways to Advancement .

Related Posts

How Upskilling and Reskilling Can Improve Your Career

Going Back to College After 30

Is Grad School Worth It? Here’s 7 Reasons It’s Not

Terms and Conditions - Privacy Policy - Copyright Policy - Advertising Policy

Admission for January 2023 Cohort Closing Soon

• Subject Choices
• Online Education
• University Admissions
• Student Stories
• How It Works?
• Enquire Now

Home » Blog » Why Skill-Based Education is Important?

Why Skill-Based Education is Important?

Degree and skill are essentially the same things. A person must have a degree and the ability to achieve something. A degree without talent is as meaningless as a skill without a degree.

Both must coexist for the battle of the fittest to occur. A degree is just the certified verification of an individual’s expertise. Every person with the ability may not be able to obtain the degree.

Likewise, not every university graduate is necessarily skilled. The degree or expertise required is determined by the company, the nature of the position, and so on.

In general, which criteria is more important: the degree or the skill? Or will graduation become Irrelevant in the age of life-skill-based education? Let’s get to know them in detail.

Also Read, 10 Basic Life Skills Not Taught In Schools .

• What is Skill-Based Education?

Communication: 

Time management: , leadership and teamwork: , effective decision-making: , critical thinking: , conflict resolution: , innovation: , 3. the entrepreneurial mindset:, employability:, 5. increased productivity:, 6. personal development:, where can skill-based learning be implemented, 1. flexibility:, 2. gaining experience:.

• 3. Improves Creativity: 

4. Education with a purpose:

Challenges in skill-based education.

Skill-based learning primarily offers practical knowledge and abilities that apply to real-world situations.

Instead of focusing on mere traditional academic subjects like science and mathematics, in skill-based education students are prepared to develop capabilities that help them to get success in different aspects of life.

This approach says that there are a variety of skills that need to be developed to get ahead in today’s dynamic & competitive world.

• Relevance to Real Life:  Unlike theoretical knowledge, skills are something that immediately match with real-world demands. If a student has practical abilities, he/she can better navigate the problems coming their way in both personal and professional lives.
• Adaptability:  In this highly competitive global landscape, one must be versatile and adaptable. Skill-based education gives the learners flexibility to handle different situations and grab new opportunities as they come.
• Employability:  While looking for a job, you must know that employers prefer a candidate who possesses a certain number of skills rather than academic qualifications only. By enhancing their skills, students increase their chances of getting selected for better positions in the job market. 
• Holistic Development:  Skill-based education promotes holistic development by focusing not only on intellectual capabilities but also on different things including emotional intelligence, creativity, and interpersonal skills. This comprehensive approach makes sure that students are capable in all spheres of life and can thrive in any context. 

Why is Skill-Based Education important?

Skill-based education is important for several reasons. Here, we have a list of some of the main reasons:- 

1. Life Skills: Preparing for the Real World

The most effective way to express your ideas, build a analytical, or solve a problem , communication is the best tool to manage these all.

Considering this, skill-based education focuses on verbal & written communication skills and on active listening to make sure that students can articulate their thoughts precisely and interact with others in confidence. 

Time management skills develop a special quality in any individual as they learn how to prioritise tasks, set goals, use resources efficiently, and so on.

If one has good time management skills, one can make a balance between academic life & personal pursuits and can lead a happy life.

Leadership and teamwork are quite essential to develop in any work environment where there is a need to achieve common goals. Collaborative projects & group activities foster a sense of camaraderie and collective achievement. 

2. Problem-Solving Skills in Action

Skill-based education gives the student with analytical skills and confidence-building abilities , enhancing their decision-making without any reluctance. It makes you responsible even in uncertain times.

Critical thinking means you evaluate information, think twice about the assumptions, and come to well-reasoned judgments. By focusing on critical thinking skills, students turned into discerning thinkers who understand issues from different perspectives and always come to logical conclusions.

Conflict resolution skills make the individual wise as they manage the disagreements constructively and come up with mutually beneficial solutions. These skills in students make them communicate effectively and resolve any heated arguments peacefully. 

Innovation means thinking creatively. Always come up with new ideas to solve existing problems or meet rising needs. Skill-based education promotes students’ innovative thinking and promotes a culture of consistent improvement and adaptation.

Entrepreneurship is not just limited to starting a business; it is a mindset driven by innovation, risk-taking, resourcefulness, and persistence. Skill-based education promotes this mindset by encouraging students to think out of the box, take risks that are calculated, and find a solution to every challenge.

4. Enhancing Employability and Meeting Employer Demand

Skill-based education increases employability as it provides students with practical skills that are demanded by several employers. This gives them a certain advantage in the job market and opens the door to different career paths. 

• Competitive Advantage:  Students with the necessary skills are likely to be preferred by employers over other applicants.
• Diverse Career Paths:  Skill-based education paves the way for different career paths. One can choose any industry as it makes them a versatile one. 
• Career Progression:  With the relevant skills, individuals can go higher in their careers at a good pace and become leaders.
• Adaptation to Industry Changes:  Skills-based education makes you so strong that you can adapt to several changes in the job market and thrive in any industry.

Employees with relevant skills are far more productive and efficient in their roles which benefits the business & organisations and ultimately increases their personal growth.

Skill-based education not only increases employability but also enhances personal development . Students develop confidence, resilience, risk-taking ability, time management, and so on. 

Skill-based learning can be implemented in different education settings like as vocational training centres, traditional schools, online learning platforms , and workplace training programs.

It can also be merged with existing curriculum frameworks to make academic learning more beneficial. 

The Following are Some of the Advantages of Skill-Based Education:

Skill-based education gives students ownership of their learning and helps them close the comprehension gap. The evaluation, rather than grades, proves their proficiency.

The education process is a beautiful advantage for dropouts since they may go ahead without the need for a gap. The framework depends on the individual; students direct their learning through examinations and hands-on projects.

Students are nurtured in skill-based education to become great leaders in the chosen sector. To support this process, students must think beyond academics and gain real-world skills.

Unfortunately, these physical experiences are frequently missed in traditional teaching.

3. Improves Creativity:  

A schooling system that combines skill-based learning improves children’s creativity. Schools must encourage kids to participate in hobbies such as dance, singing, and sketching, as the benefits of doing so extend beyond learning those specific abilities.

The conventional educational system has taught pupils to evaluate themselves regarding grades and test scores. Beyond test results, however, providing life skills-based education at a young age helps students prepare for the real world.

Children will learn about their talents and limitations relatively early in life thanks to the skill development they receive in school. Instead of concentrating only on passing tests and getting excellent grades in the near term, they will learn with a specific goal in mind.

• Resource Allocation: A skill-based education requires adequate resources like funding, well-qualified instructors, and infrastructure.
• Curriculum Development: It is important to design an up-to-date curriculum that matches with industry needs.
• Equity: Regardless of which background a student belongs to a skill-based education ensures that it gives equal access to everyone. 
• Evaluation and Assessment: Assessing students’ command over practical skills is complex.

Skill-based education is important for individuals with the practical skills and the mindset required to success in today’s changing job market.

By focusing on employability, relevance, and personal development, skill-based learning makes the student ready for all the challenges and chances coming their way shortly. It is undoubtedly a vital part of the modern education system.

Read our latest education blogs here. We are pioneers in proffering personalised, affordable and high-quality lessons using an advanced learning platform.

What skill-based pedagogy students need?

Students need a variety of skill-based pedagogies that include problem-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, experiential learning, and collaborative learning.  They should also be able to identify, develop and apply higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, synthesis, and problem-solving. Educators can effectively incorporate technology into the classroom , encouraging active learning in which students are engaged through frequent practice of their new knowledge.

What is skill-based learning?

Skill-based learning is an approach to education that emphasises developing practical skills and competencies that apply to real-world situations rather than just acquiring knowledge.

What are the advantages of skill based education?

Skill-based learning is an effective way for students to acquire knowledge and develop essential skills. It encourages students to actively engage in learning rather than passively listening or memorising information. With skill-based learning, students gain a deeper understanding of their subject matter as they practice analysing, synthesising, and applying information in various contexts.

What is the importance of skill development in education?

Skill development is important in education because it prepares students for the demands of the workforce, enhances their social and emotional well-being, and helps them become more well-rounded individuals.

What are the different career based on the skills based education?

Careers based on skill-based education can include a wide range of fields, such as healthcare, engineering, technology, creative arts, and business.

Why life skill education has become more important now a days?

Life skill education has become more important nowadays due to the changing demands of the workforce and the increasing importance of soft skills such as communication, collaboration, and adaptability.  Life skill education helps students understand how to navigate the world around them and make sound decisions in their daily lives. It teaches problem-solving, self-advocacy, emotional intelligence, financial literacy, critical thinking and decision-making skills. All these skills are important for success after school, and a wellrounded education should include life skill education.

What is an example of skill-based learning?

An example of skill-based learning could be a project-based learning approach where students work collaboratively to design and build a sustainable garden, developing skills in teamwork, problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity.

Join Asia’s Leading Online School and Unlock endless opportunities

You may also want to read

Digital Classrooms: An Insight into the Future of Education

ICT in Education

7 Ways to Promote Lifelong Learning in Your Students

Leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Speak to Us

Get a call from the 21K School Advisor. Learn about the fee structure, admission process, International curriculum & more

Invalid value

Enter a value for this field.

Please ensure the number is reachable through WhatsApp and Normal calls

Select a choice

Select a choice.

Please select State

Please tick the box to confirm.

• Request a Callback

All rights reserved © 2024

Mindreflex Technologies Pte. Ltd.

Regd Address: 3 Phillip Street

#14-05 Royal Group Building

• How does it work?

Understanding Concepts

4 reasons why skill-based learning is important for students.

• Mar 14, 2022

“Tell me and I will forget, show me and I may remember; involve me and I will understand.” ― Xun Kuang.

From this quote, we can see that even back in 312-230 BC, philosophers used to sing praises about skill-based learning. Although the term wasn’t coined back then, the concept was a well-known one. 

The skill-based learning approach is based on the understanding that everything is learnt better when it is practised in real life. On the other hand, knowledge-based learning focuses more on rote learning or the traditional ‘read and write’ system. 

If you want to thrive in this era, it is important to strike a balance between knowledge and skill. Remember those chemistry classes where you would have to learn the periodic table by heart? Learning the order of elements in the periodic table is knowledge-based. But many schools also conduct practical classes where students carry out experiments to understand how these elements react with each other. This is skill-based learning. 

After explaining the theory behind the experiment, you let the students “do” the experiment on the basis of what they learned. So, the students are learning by “doing” the experiment. 

If you’re still confused about the difference between skilled-based and knowledge-based learning, fret not! We’ll break down both concepts in this article. 

What is the difference between skill-based and knowledge-based learning? 

First, let us understand the crux of knowledge and skill. Knowledge simply means to theoretically understand a piece of information in-depth. On the other hand, skill can be referred to as having the ability to perform a task. Rather, knowing how to execute a task based on that knowledge. 

In schools, textbooks are the medium of knowledge-based learning. And as important as they are, without the practical application of the knowledge, they’re quite literally not worth the paper they’re printed on. Take maths as a subject, for example. Almost every maths student is expected to memorise complex formulas. But, mugging up isn’t enough. Why? Because maths, along with other subjects, cannot be taught only through theory. It has to be learnt through trial and error, which gives practical expertise on the subject. And that’s why skill, the ability to solve an equation after learning the formula, is important.  

Knowledge-based learning focuses mainly on reading, listening or watching in order to obtain information about a specific area of study. In contrast, skill-based learning has the objective of building knowledge based on practical methods of learning.  

Why is Skill-Based Learning Important? 

Having knowledge, without being able to apply it is like buying a camera without knowing how to use it. You can’t be a Picasso if you just read a painting book for dummies; you have to experiment with brush strokes and colours too. Keep experimenting and eventually, you’ll have the “skill” of painting under your belt. Skills are necessary for a student’s overall development in this rapidly changing world. That’s why your curriculum should focus not just on knowledge acquisition, but skill development too. 

Four Reasons to Adopt Skill-Based Learning in Your Teaching Methods - 

• Creates a Sense of Independence : It allows students to think outside the box and promotes a higher level of problem-solving.
• Improves and Encourages Creativity : It helps students come up with innovative solutions to the same ol’ problem. This could be a new way to solve a puzzle or a ground-breaking design principle that no one has thought of. Needless to say, skill-based learning gets the creative juices flowing!
• Builds Cooperation and Teamwork : Many skill-based learning activities are conducted in groups. This encourages students to collectively solve an issue; thus building good communication, coordination and team spirit.
• Knowledge Alone Isn’t Enough : A medical student isn’t going to begin performing surgeries on living humans simply after reading an instruction manual. They need skill to perform a surgery; and the only way to develop it is with practice (on dummies, of course).

The concept of skill and knowledge are both crucial in a student’s education. Knowledge makes a student wise, and skills prepare them to face real-life problems. They are both inter-dependent and have equal importance in the field of education. So, as an educator of the modern era, it’s probably time to incorporate skill-based learning in your teaching pedagogy.

• James Cooper

What's Your Reaction?

• skill development

Add Comment

Related blogs.

5 Tips To Get Started With The Hybrid Learning Model

• James Coop...
• Jan 5, 2022

4 Easy Ways To Combat Information Overload When You've Missed Out On S...

• Natasha Di...
• May 25, 2022

Understanding Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

• Feb 2, 2022

Popular Blogs

Tips for Educators

3 tips to apply classical conditioning in classrooms.

• Apr 25, 2022

For Parents

Everything you need to know about steam education as a parent.

• Mar 1, 2022

• Digital Innovation (11)
• Tips for Educators (52)
• For Parents (84)
• Understanding Concepts (10)
• Online Learning (3)
• Skill Development (6)
• For Students (2)

Popular Tags

• Conservation
• behaviour management
• Minister of Education
• international schools
• essay hacks
• Saudi Arabia

Become a member & get exclusive features.

I have read, understood and agree to Edkwery.com's Terms & Conditions and Privacy Policy .

Already have an account? Sign in.

Welcome Back!

Please enter your details.

Don’t have an account? Sign up for free

Reset Password

Enter your registered email address to receive the password reset link.

Change Password

Your new password must be different from previous used passwords.

We’re redirecting you to Institute website.

Redirecting in

As an institute You cannot access this feature.

How can we help you?

• Entertainment
• Life & Style

To enjoy additional benefits

CONNECT WITH US

Hands-on education

As the world changes and economies along with it, the need for a skill-based workforce is on the rise.

Published - February 12, 2021 01:51 pm IST

In India, skill-based education is considered to be a vocational skill that is obtained through short-term training or courses not part of the formal education sector and which provides employment in informal sectors. Such skills are also a part of the government’s Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna (PMKVY) scheme, which aims to promote recognition and standardisation. However expertise needs to be developed in the formal learning system as well.

When the Indian economy opened to the outside world through liberalisation and globalisation, it created a great demand for graduates with skill across vital industries, which led to a huge race to secure more marks and more degrees. Post the Internet and mobile revolution, job-seekers in the formal sector saw new opportunities. to learn necessary skills from the Internet and through internships prior to a full time job. The reliance on formal education to obtain job-ready skills saw a slow decline.

The current pandemic has advanced the use of local products and has helped people recognise the importance of a skill-driven society. Being a young nation with 75% of the population in the working age, employment becomes a major concerns. With the help of schemes such as Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL), students can receive both security and benefit, as it aids in an equivalent acknowledgement of both informal and formal learning. Students are the human capital of the country and it is essential to empower them for the development of the economy. Some of the benefits of skill-based education include:

Flexibility: Skill-based education places the ownership of learning in the hands of students and helps them restrict the big gap of understanding. The assessment demonstrates their competency rather than grades and the education process is a great boon for drop-outs, as they can easily move ahead without a gap. The whole structure depends on the individual where students control their learning with the help of assessments and hands-on projects.

Acquiring experience: In skill-based learning, students are groomed to become successful leaders in their chosen field. To facilitate this process, it is paramount for students to think beyond grades and acquire real life skills. These tangible experiences are often overlooked in the traditional form of education.

Purpose-driven: Skill-based education is definitely more effective and purpose-driven, which helps students receive a clear objective along with a vibrant culture. It is a perfect mixture of opinions, values and routine to form a solid foundation. It promotes and develops the art of learning and development hence empowering the students to become successful in their chosen field.

Students should also keep in mind that, post-COVID, the skill-based sector will witness a jump in the demand of job opportunities related to sanitation, health, technology and more. With the various skilled workforce roles, students can be a part of the process in helping break down the cycle of unemployment.

The writer is Executive Vice President, AISECT Group.

Related Topics

commerce (education) / students / university / higher secondary and junior college / The Hindu Education Plus

Top News Today

• Access 10 free stories every month
• Save stories to read later
• Access to comment on every story
• Sign-up/manage your newsletter subscriptions with a single click
• Get notified by email for early access to discounts & offers on our products

Terms & conditions   |   Institutional Subscriber

Comments have to be in English, and in full sentences. They cannot be abusive or personal. Please abide by our community guidelines for posting your comments.

We have migrated to a new commenting platform. If you are already a registered user of The Hindu and logged in, you may continue to engage with our articles. If you do not have an account please register and login to post comments. Users can access their older comments by logging into their accounts on Vuukle.

Skills-Based Learning: Benefits and Strategies

Table of Contents

Introduction

Today’s higher education students prioritize return on investment, seeking studies that provide both knowledge and tangible results. To address this, institutions are adopting skills-based learning, emphasizing practical experience for better workforce preparation. This article explores skills-based learning, its best practices, and its benefits.

What is skill-based learning?

At its core, skill-based learning revolves around the acquisition and mastery of practical abilities through hands-on experience and targeted practice.

Unlike traditional educational models that focus primarily on disseminating information, skill-based learning places greater emphasis on developing competencies and proficiencies that are directly applicable in various contexts. Whether it’s honing critical thinking, problem-solving, or communication skills, this approach prioritizes the acquisition of tangible capabilities that empower individuals to navigate challenges effectively.

Why it is important?

The importance of skill-based learning cannot be overstated in today’s fast-paced and complex world. In contrast to knowledge-based learning , which often prioritizes memorization and regurgitation of facts, skill-based learning equips learners with the tools they need to thrive in diverse environments.

By fostering a deeper understanding of concepts through practical application, it enables individuals to tackle real-world problems with confidence and agility

Moreover, in an era characterized by rapid technological advancements and job automation, the ability to adapt and learn new skills quickly has become indispensable for staying competitive in the workforce.

Skills-Based Learning vs. Knowledge-Based Learning

• While knowledge-based learning certainly has its merits, particularly in laying the foundation for understanding complex concepts, it often needs to improve when it comes to preparing individuals for the demands of the real world.
• Unlike knowledge, which can be easily forgotten or outdated, skills have a timeless quality that transcends specific domains or disciplines.
• By focusing on the development of practical competencies rather than mere accumulation of information, skills-based learning offers a more holistic and adaptive approach to education.

Benefits of skill-based learning

Skills-based learning emerges as the beacon of education. It draws students to institutions that promise to equip them for the dynamic demands of the workforce. Yet, it transcends mere outcomes, fostering active engagement throughout the educational journey as learners progress towards mastery. Let’s delve into the core advantages of this approach.

• Encourages Personalized Learning: Emphasizing skill development immerses students in active learning experiences. They delve into practical applications, honing their abilities through hands-on practice, paving the way for true mastery.
• Fosters Career Readiness: By aligning skill acquisition with career trajectories, it primes students for success in the professional realm. Armed with the requisite skills, they navigate the job market confidently, aware that they possess the competencies sought by employers.
• Facilitates the Road to Mastery: Skills-based learning delineates clear pathways towards expertise, marked by achievable milestones. As students progress, they track their growth and refine their abilities, inching closer to mastery with each step.

Indeed, in the realm of education, the pursuit of skills-based learning not only prepares students for the future but also empowers them to thrive in an ever-evolving landscape. Learn more about tracking and improving learning outcomes with eTutor LMS.

Strategies of skill-based learning

Institutions can effectively revamp courses and programs to prioritize skills-based learning and cater to their students’ needs. Here are several strategies to facilitate this transition:

• Identify Key Competencies: Begin by identifying the skill gaps pertinent to students’ learning pathways and future careers. Collaborate with industry experts to pinpoint the core competencies crucial for success in their chosen fields.
• Integrate Real-World Applications: Foster an immersive learning environment by incorporating real-world applications into the curriculum. This approach not only enhances comprehension but also equips students with practical skills and insights that transcend theoretical knowledge.
• Regularly Assess Progress: Implement regular assessments to monitor students’ learning journeys effectively. These assessments provide valuable insights into the acquisition of competencies and highlight areas requiring further support or development.

By embracing these strategies, institutions can tailor their educational offerings to align seamlessly with the demands of the modern workforce, empowering students to thrive in their chosen careers.

In conclusion, skill-based learning represents a paradigm shift in education that prioritizes practical abilities over mere accumulation of knowledge. By focusing on the development of critical thinking, problem-solving, and other essential skills, this approach equips learners with the tools they need to thrive in an ever-changing world.

Moreover, by embracing strategies such as project-based learning and competency-based education, educators can create dynamic learning environments that foster creativity, resilience, and lifelong learning.

Recent Posts

Benefits of implementing learning management system (lms) and erp.

• Enhance your Students Learning with our Online Assessment Tools
• 10 strategies for fostering a positive school culture.

Importance of personalized learning on student success

• JEE Exam Tips | Tips for cracking JEE mains | Toppers tips for IIT JEE

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Please enter an answer in digits: ten + 7 =

Related articles

The Evolution of School LMS: From Traditional Classrooms to Digital Learning

Leveraging WhatsApp for Schools to Enhance Communication Efficiency

How do you get a customized LMS that multiplies student learning outcomes?

How a School LMS Boosts Personalized Learning and Student Engagement

7 useful tips to create report cards | School Report card | eTutor

Let's get in touch.

Give us a call or drop by anytime, we endeavour to answer all enquiries within 24 hours on business days.

7993-333-228

[email protected].

Looking For Exam Software Classroom Software Learning Management System Education Management System

• Technophiles
• Communities
• Editors of The Future
• Skill-based learning is both effective and purpose-driven

Most Popular

Loading loading loading loading loading loading.

It's Lit Teaching

High School English and TPT Seller Resources

• Creative Writing
• Teachers Pay Teachers Tips
• Shop My Teaching Resources!
• Sell on TPT

Skill-Based Learning: The New Way to Plan Your Units

As a student myself, through college, and even into the first few years of my teaching career, I always thought of units in terms of the text they used. I thought about my unit on Romeo and Juliet or A Raisin in the Sun . After a few years though, my focus shifted, and I began taking a skill-based learning approach. 

Now, I think about my unit focused on speaking skills or my unit about writing an essay .

After all, my students don’t need to know Animal Farm for life, but they do need critical thinking skills. They don’t need to know Fahrenheit 451 , but they do need to know how to support their ideas with evidence. 

In this post, I’m going to talk about the importance of skill-based learning over novel-focused teaching.

Skill-Based Learning: Equipping Students for Success

Skill-based learning is a pedagogical approach that prioritizes the development of transferable skills such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity. 

Unlike traditional methods that focus solely on content mastery, skill-based learning empowers students with tools they can apply across various subjects and real-life situations.

The Advantages of Skill-Based Learning:

• Adaptability : In an era of rapid change, adaptability is key. Skill-based learning equips students with the flexibility to navigate diverse challenges and opportunities.
• Lifelong Learning : By fostering a culture of continuous improvement, skill-based learning prepares students for a lifetime of learning and growth.
• Equity and Inclusion : Skill-based learning ensures that all students, regardless of background or ability, have access to the tools they need to succeed.

A skill-based learning unit will have goals like, “Students will be able to identify comma mistakes in writing.” Or, they might be something like, “Students will be able to synthesize information from multiple sources.”

These learning targets focus on what students will be able to do. Notice that the skills are not limited to ELA classes. Grammar and writing are important for every field. Being able to synthesize information is necessary for any content area. 

These learning targets are not text-dependent. They don’t require students to have mastery over any particular poem or novel. Students can use any text to practice these skills.

Novel-Focused Teaching: Exploring Literary Worlds

On the other hand, novel-focused teaching revolves around the in-depth study of specific literary works. This approach delves into the analysis of themes, characters, and literary devices within a particular novel, aiming to deepen students’ understanding and appreciation of literature.

The Advantages of Novel-Focused Teaching:

• Engagement : Immersing students in rich literary worlds can spark curiosity, foster empathy, and ignite a passion for reading.
• Depth of Analysis : Novel-focused teaching encourages students to delve deeply into the nuances of a text, honing their critical thinking and analytical skills.
• Cultural Exploration : Through the study of diverse literary works, students gain insights into different cultures, perspectives, and historical contexts.

Novel-focused teaching is fun. When we all originally dreamed of being English teachers, it was probably novel-focused teaching that we imagined. 

Those posters we made in grade school about characters? Novel-focused. Diorama projects about setting? Novel-focused. 

When we have students express their opinions of a text, step into a character’s shoes in a creative writing prompt, or ask them to illustrate a scene, these are generally novel-focused assessments. 

These activities have a place, but they don’t always demonstrate skills that can be transferred to another subject matter.

Skill-Based Learning vs. Novel-Focused Teaching: Finding the Balance

When you set out to create a new unit or map out a new curriculum, start with skill-based learning.

After all, you want students to leave your classroom better equipped for the world, not just their next English class. 

Novels shouldn’t be the focus of your unit. Rather, they should be the tools you use to teach your unit’s skills.

Take, for example, my Persepolis Unit . When I designed this unit, my aim was to teach students how to create claims, use evidence, and support their ideas with reasoning . Persepolis was the text I chose to support teaching these skills. 

There are three lessons in the unit (one discussing communism in Persepolis , one about the recent riots in Iran , and one about education in Persepolis ). With each, students must use their claim, evidence, and reasoning skills , but the text gives them something to write about.

Skills-based learning doesn’t mean you can’t read awesome literature or have fun activities. But the skills should come first. The text is how you get students there.

If you want to prepare students for the world as best you can, skills-based learning should be your focus. 

However, a balance of this approach and novel-focused teaching is the best way to create an engaging classroom. 

The Importance of Life Skills-Based Education & Why Schools Should Teach Life Skills

In an ever-growing technology and data driven world, much of the focus in education has understandably taken a shift toward STEM-based (science, technology, engineering, and math) initiatives that will prepare students for the coursework and careers of the future . But life skills—how well equipped students are to make good decisions and solve problems in their academic and professional careers as well as their personal lives—should also play a critical role in a well-rounded and comprehensive education.

What Is Life Skills-Based Education?

Think of life skills as the building blocks or framework that allow students to apply the knowledge they acquire in school to real world problems and situations. Also referred to as “ soft skills ” in a professional context, the ability to think abstractly and approach problems from multiple angles to find practical solutions, and the skill to communicate clearly and effectively are just as important as technical knowledge in a particular field or academic subject.

According to Macmillan Education , “In a constantly changing environment, having life skills is an essential part of being able to meet the challenges of everyday life. The dramatic changes in global economies over the past five years have been matched with the transformation in technology and these are all impacting on education, the workplace, and our home life.”

But life skills go well beyond choosing a major in college or impressing a potential employer in the future. Life skills provide children with important tools for development, such as independent thinking, how to socialize and make new friends, and how to take action in situations where their parents or teachers may not be around to help or intervene ( dealing with a bully or personal insecurities and fears, for example.) Unlike motor skills and basic intelligence, executive function and decision-making skills are not innate but learned .

Examples of life skills include :

• Self reflection
• Critical thinking
• Problem solving
• Interpersonal skills

The Benefits of Teaching Life Skills at a Young Age

Building life skills is essentially an exercise in helping children develop sound judgment and good habits for long-term stability, wellness, and success.

How to Promote Life Skills for Young Students

Parents can take an active role in teaching life-skills at home with projects that provide real world examples and lessons in decision making and problem solving. They can be as simple as assigning household chores and budgeting exercises through an allowance, to caring for a pet or volunteering in the community.

Fun and simple-to-organize activities, like game nights (or afternoons) with family and friends with an educational focus that also encourage working in teams, can help to build social and interpersonal skills.

Everyday Survival Skills

In addition to brushing their own teeth and learning how to tie their shoes and get dressed, young children should know what to do in common situations as well as emergencies , such as:

• How to get to and from home and school
• Who to call in an emergency (memorize phone numbers)
• How to safely cross the street
• What to do if they are bullied or witness bullying
• How to safely use kitchen appliances and prepare basic meals
• How to do the laundry

The Importance of Books and Reading

The benefits of reading to young children and fostering a reading habit early in a child’s life are hard to overstate. From building and strengthening vocabulary and language skills to aiding with creative thinking, reading is one of the easiest and best activities available to teach children a range of new skills. Some of the many benefits of reading include:

• Builds self-regulation (also known as executive function)
• Teaches empathy
• Improves concentration
• Exposes children to diversity and differing perspectives and situations than their own

The acquisition of problem-solving and reasoning abilities is a fluid and ongoing process, and working with children early in their development to lay the framework with examples that they can understand and apply on their own is a good place to start.

If you would like your child’s education to include more life skills, consider enrolling them in a public school at home via online learning . As your child’s Learning Coach you can ensure a well-rounded education that you can supplement with plenty of real world skills!

Related Articles

5 Factors That Affect Learning: Insights for Parents 

August 12 2024

Navigating the College Application Process: A Timeline for High School Students and Their Parents 

Education Online? One Family’s Success Story

August 7 2024

Esports vs. Traditional Sports: Exploring Their Surprising Similarities and Key Differences

August 5 2024

Tips for Choosing the Right School for Your Child 

Can Homeschooled Students Play School Sports?

August 2 2024

What is Esports and Why Should My Child Participate?

July 23 2024

Enhance Your Student-Athlete’s Competitive Edge with Online Schooling 

July 22 2024

Preparing for the First Day of Online School 

July 12 2024

Why Arts Education is Important in School

Online School Reviews: What People Are Saying About Online School

Smart Classrooms, Smart Kids: How AI is Changing Education

Everyone Wins When Parents Get Involved In Their Child’s Education

July 11 2024

5 Ways to Start the School Year with Confidence 

July 8 2024

Top Four Reasons Families Are Choosing Online School in the Upcoming Year 

Tips for Scheduling Your Online School Day

July 2 2024

Life After High School: Online School Prepares Your Child For The Future

The Ultimate Back-to-School List for Online and Traditional School 

July 1 2024

Nurturing Digital Literacy in Today’s Kids: A Parent’s Guide

June 25 2024

What Public Schools Can Do About Special Education Teacher Shortages

June 24 2024

Audiobooks for Kids: Benefits, Free Downloads, and More 

7 Fun Outdoor Summer Activities for Kids

June 18 2024

Beat the Summer Slide: Tips for Keeping Young Minds Active 

June 11 2024

How to Encourage Your Child To Pursue a Career

Easy Science Experiments For Kids To Do At Home This Summer

May 31 2024

4 Ways to Get Healthcare Experience in High School 

May 29 2024

5 Strategies for Keeping Students Engaged in Online Learning 

May 21 2024

How Parents Can Prevent Isolation and Loneliness During Summer Break

May 14 2024

The Ultimate Guide to Gift Ideas for Teachers 

How to Thank a Teacher: Heartfelt Gestures They Won’t Forget   

Six Ways Online Schools Can Support Military Families

7 Things Teachers Should Know About Your Child 

April 30 2024

Countdown to Graduation: How to Prepare for the Big Day 

April 23 2024

How am I Going to Pay for College?

April 16 2024

5 Major Benefits of Summer School 

April 12 2024

Inspiring an Appreciation for Poetry in Kids 

April 9 2024

A Parent’s Guide to Tough Conversations

April 2 2024

The Importance of Reading to Children and Its Enhancements to Their Development

March 26 2024

5 Steps to Master College-Level Reading

March 19 2024

10 Timeless Stories to Inspire Your Reader: Elementary, Middle, and High Schoolers

March 15 2024

From Books to Tech: Why Libraries Are Still Important in the Digital Age

March 13 2024

The Evolution of Learning: How Education is Transforming for Future Generations

March 11 2024

The Ultimate Guide to Reading Month: 4 Top Reading Activities for Kids

March 1 2024

Make Learning Fun: The 10 Best Educational YouTube Channels for Kids

February 27 2024

The Value of Soft Skills for Students in the Age of AI

February 20 2024

30 Questions to Ask at Your Next Parent-Teacher Conference

February 6 2024

Four Life Skills to Teach Teenagers for Strong Resumes

January 25 2024

Exploring the Social Side of Online School: Fun Activities and Social Opportunities Await

January 9 2024

Is Your Child Ready for Advanced Learning? Discover Your Options.

January 8 2024

Your Ultimate Guide to Holiday Fun and Activities

December 18 2023

Free Printable Holiday Coloring Pages to Inspire Your Child’s Inner Artist

December 12 2023

Five Reasons to Switch Schools Midyear

December 5 2023

A Parent’s Guide to Switching Schools Midyear

November 29 2023

Building Strong Study Habits: Back-to-School Edition

November 17 2023

Turn Up the Music: The Benefits of Music in Classrooms

November 7 2023

A Parent’s Guide to Robotics for Kids

November 6 2023

Six Ways Online Learning Transforms the Academic Journey

October 31 2023

How to Get Ahead of Cyberbullying

October 30 2023

Bullying’s Effect on Students and How to Help 

October 25 2023

Can You Spot the Warning Signs of Bullying?

October 16 2023

Could the Online Classroom Be the Solution to Bullying?

October 11 2023

Bullying Prevention Starts With Parents

October 9 2023

State Tests: Tips for Parents and Students

April 1 2014

Why ‘Good Behavior’ Doesn’t Really Matter, and What Does

October 25 2016

8 Tips to Find and Cultivate Your Child’s Inner Genius

June 6 2014

Sign up for our newsletter

Subscribe to our newsletter and join America’s premier community dedicated to helping students reach their full potential.

Welcome! Subscribe to our newsletter and join America’s premier community dedicated to helping students reach their full potential.

• Talent management

This overview explains the essentials of workplace learning while providing expert analysis and examples of companies that are leading the way in building a dynamic learning culture. Click on the links for a deeper dive into the trends, tools and best practices you need to know to build an effective learning strategy.

Skill-based learning.

• Sam Campanella

What is skill-based learning?

Skill-based learning develops students through hands-on practice and real-world application. Specific skills -- reading, writing, speaking and overall literacy progression, for example -- are both taught and intuited through repeated situational exposure and demonstration.

Skill-based education ensures a learner's competency, flexibility and, therefore, overall value, ingraining the new skill while also awakening a recognition of its portability from one area of interest to another.

A worldwide revolution has made almost every classroom and workplace dependent on technology, highlighting the vital importance of literacy, ethical decision-making and clear communication in the field. Technology's ubiquity helps explain skill-based learning's emphasis in the 21st century. Beneficial to students, teachers, employees and employers alike, this style of learning is designed to target and sustain a higher level of retention.

Why is skill-based learning important?

Skill-based learning is utilized across an array of fields and subjects due to its malleability and proven benefit to the learner's proficiency in any workplace. Successfully harnessing a skill-based approach to learning leads to personal and professional growth, bringing long-sought-after goals within reach. Developing these skills means boosting one's self-confidence, raising job satisfaction and improving one's adaptability.

This article is part of

Workplace learning: A complete guide for businesses

• Which also includes:
• How to create an employee training plan (with template)
• 10 top learning experience platforms to use in 2023
• 12 ways to create a continuous learning culture

This approach facilitates the development of numerous skills that improve performance. Time and again for the learner, skill-based learning produces the following:

• Exceptional return on investment ( ROI ).
• Improved problem-solving.
• Genuine communication.
• Sharpened analytical abilities.
• Real-world experience.
• Enhanced creativity and innovation.
• Strengthened sense of purpose.
• Superior collaboration.

Producing a high ROI has always been important in determining a worker's value to any employer. Even an interviewee's brief history of ROI is an advantage as prospective employers seek proven competency with practical skills, coupled with the flexibility and desire to seek out and flourish in any job.

In the workspace, strengthening these practical skills also creates opportunities to improve soft skills while continuing and expanding the cycle of skill-based learning. For example, an employee who's recently mastered a skill can share that knowledge with fellow workers , becoming a key contributor in closing the skills gap among fellow employees. This in turn promotes healthier workplace chemistry, furthering the listening, organizational and leadership abilities of everyone involved in the ongoing process.

Skill-based learning vs. knowledge-based learning

Whereas skill-based learning strives to teach within the context of a given skill, knowledge-based learning requires a learner's familiarity with real-world events and examples from which to draw.

Skill-based education seeks to establish a strong foundation of competency with an eye toward further hands-on building and development, while knowledge-based education aims to deepen a specific insight and further develop one's perspective. As opposed to deliberate practice, knowledge-based learning includes testing, analysis and questioning. This method develops one's work ethic and improves communication and thinking skills.

Where can skill-based learning be implemented?

Skill-based learning is now found in many workplaces, as well as on sites such as LinkedIn , Indeed and Skillshare, yet it is most commonly associated with the education system. Examples of skill-based learning include preschool students developing their literacy and verbal abilities, as well as high school students using a disciplined approach to define and enhance their real-world and social skills . Following secondary school, skill-based learning is typically found in internship programs and higher education within a learner's subject of choice.

Skill-based learning is designed to become inherent in the worker, so when someone with this skill-based background enters a work environment, that person possesses the basics needed to perform the job adequately and the drive to enhance those and other related abilities through continuous learning . Ultimately, in addition to the personal growth of individuals exploring skill-based learning, collaboration and communication flourish in the workspace.

Continue Reading About skill-based learning

• Skills-based hiring an HR strategy for IT talent woes
• Upskilling and reskilling employees for a competitive edge
• 6 benefits of a learning management system
• 4 ways to create a continuous learning culture

Related Terms

Dig deeper on talent management.

A list of the most popular MOOCs to consider in 2024

What is e-learning? Importance, benefits and use cases

massive open online course (MOOC)

Government announces millions to fund AI skills

As SAP pushes its clean core methodology for S/4HANA Cloud environments, the partners who customized legacy SAP systems will need...

Two executive board members will depart SAP in a move that the company says is both to streamline the structure of the board and ...

Sophia Mendelsohn talks about SAP's ambitions to both set an example of sustainability and be an enabler of it with products such...

With its Cerner acquisition, Oracle sets its sights on creating a national, anonymized patient database -- a road filled with ...

Oracle plans to acquire Cerner in a deal valued at about $30B. The second-largest EHR vendor in the U.S. could inject new life ...

The Supreme Court ruled 6-2 that Java APIs used in Android phones are not subject to American copyright law, ending a ...

Analytics governance might not seem exciting, but it can improve innovation and mitigate risks. It's also critical to responsible...

Social BI enables users to interact with their organization's data -- and data experts -- in applications where they already ...

AR and VR data visualizations offer a new perspective to capture patterns and trends in complex data sets that traditional data ...

Paper and unstructured PDFs need more help to be ingested into and findable within enterprise knowledge repositories. Enter ...

SharePoint 2019 and SharePoint Online have different customization capabilities, payment models and more. Organizations must ...

As strict privacy laws challenge organizations, information governance is the answer. This quiz can help business leaders test ...

Many events, trends and actions have influenced the development of corporate ESG strategies and ESG investing approaches. These ...

Digital tech can potentially help companies follow the circular economy model, but critics point out possible issues as well, ...

As more companies are judged on their sustainability profile, ESG data has become critical. Learn what it is -- including ...

Embracing the Future: The Rise of Skill-Based Learning in Education

June 13, 2022.

The way we teach and learn has changed drastically over time. In the old days, people were forced into careers they didn't want because of society's expectations - but now students are motivated by their passions or interests which leads to more competent adults who can make decisions based on what makes them happy instead! 

Knowledge-based vs. skill-based education

Skill-based education is hands-on and is built on the simple premise of 'learning by doing' in real-world circumstances. As a result, it differs from traditional theoretical approaches by focusing on the individual's characteristics. On the other hand, knowledge-based education places a higher emphasis on books.

While education is crucial, skill is also required. Because academic knowledge can only let us taste limited success, we need hands-on abilities. For example, when we're learning science, we frequently do experiments in the lab since it's a well-known truth that real-world knowledge is obtained in real-world conditions.

Today, learning talent is more than a method; it is the basic pillar of survival. Skills are a critical need of the hour because they are the country's backbone. People who have received a skill-based education are better learners because they have gained knowledge by experience and are constantly adding to their knowledge bank.

“Skill-based learning leads to better student engagement because the content is relevant to each student and tailored to their unique needs. It also leads to better student outcomes because the pace of learning is customized to each student.”  – US Department of Education

The benefits listed in this section add to the potential of skill-based learning to improve student engagement and learning outcomes. It improves the teaching and learning experience whether it's an online course or an in-person class, from self-paced progression and tailored learning paths to real-world practical application.

The goals and benefits of a skills-based learning approach

According to research, a skills-based approach that combines subjects to teach competencies that can be used across subjects encourages students to develop attributes such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaboration, all of which are increasingly in demand among employers, as opposed to a curriculum learned by rote and focused on exam results.

The primary goal is to engage children in learning rather than having teachers lecture to a passive audience.

The skills-based learning approach is the future of education for kids. It provides them with a foundation that they can build on for the rest of their lives, and it prepares them for the realities of the 21st-century workplace. We should all be advocating for this type of education because it will benefit the children in innumerable ways.

Other Articles

Unlocking the magic of phonics: from tap to tape, 4 practical tips to improve your child's phonics skills, nurturing young readers: a journey through phonics, why learning to read can be difficult: a guide for parents & educators, how to use logical reasoning to improve your grades, thrive in the 21st century: why logical reasoning matters, empowering children with logical reasoning skills for the future, 7 fun ways to teach public speaking to kids. conquer stage fear 7 ways to teach public speaking to kids: help them conquer their fear, importance & benefits of early childhood education, raising confident & kind kids: tips for personality development, what are soft skills - a complete guide to soft skills, top reasons to choose online phonics classes for your kids, speak up with confidence: public speaking workshop for kids (ages 4-6), unlock your child's imagination: creative writing workshop (ages 4-12), learn to read with phonics fun & easy approach for kids, e-learning: the future of education benefits for kids, understanding phonics: teach your child to read & write, leadership skills for kids: why they're important in today's world, phonics: a fun way for young kids to learn to read, 7 essential soft skills to teach your child (ages 4-14), soft skills for kids: why start early build success now, english for kids' success: prepare them for the future, emotional intelligence: why it matters for your child's success, people skills in 21st century: why they're essential, soft skills for today's workplace: why they matter more than ever, we empower your child by imparting essential 21st century skills.

Every part of the world now embraces multiple ethnicities as well as different cultural backgrounds. Advances in the 21st century have brought people from all over the world together. Here at HOSS, your child is provided with such global exposure, so that he/she is equipped with the skills to better adapt in any cultural, or social setting. Moreover, your kids will feel confident to embrace change and respect every culture, race, ethnicity, as well as religious backgrounds.

Phonics Phonics refers to a style of learning a language by understanding the relationship between, alphabets, letters or words and how they sound or are pronounced. It is the backbone of any language.

Creative Imagination The creative genius in children helps in their cerebral and mental development. It will help them improve their concentration, focus and nurture the ability to learn things faster.

English Communication Spoken globally by at least a quarter of the population worldwide, English is a global language. Just like any other language, it is best acquired at a young age.

People Skills People skills are what control the outcome of any relationship be it personal or professional. Instilled from a young age, these skills will help a child interact better with people.

Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence enables a person to regulate or to have better control over their emotions as well as empathize with the emotions of the people around them.

Personality Development Personality development will help a child find success in all future endeavours by learning soft skills and learning how to interact with people.

Logical reasoning It helps children improve their mental operations. This enhances abilities like problem solving and cognitive activity, which results in higher levels of intellectual capability.

Information about

Information for, quick links.

• Krishnarajapuram, Bengaluru - 560 036 (View on Maps)
• [email protected]

(C)  Copyright Cambridge Group of Institutions

About this Site          Legal            Privacy Policy 

Dr. G. Indumathi

Principal, Cambridge Institute of Technology

• Ph.D. completed during 2012, Dr. M.G.R University Chennai
• M.Tech Industrial Electronics from SJCE Mysore under VTU in the year 2003
• B.E. Electronics and Communication , SJCE Mysore , Mysore University in the year 1987

“Technical education is not learning of the facts, but the training of the Mind to think”

                                                                                                                      — Albert Einstein

Cambridge Institute of Technology focuses on imparting quality education to all. We provide an opportunity to all our students to develop the qualities of global professionals. An academic platform through standardized teaching learning processes assist the students towards achieving academic excellence. At Cambridge  Institute of Technology, the students are trained on emerging technologies through Industry collaborative programmes, Real time projects and Internship opportunities through Industry sponsored labs, participate in research activities in advanced research labs. A start up ecosystem is established at the Institute for students and faculty with mentoring, training and infrastructure support to inculcate the start up culture among the young minds. Students have ample opportunities to participate in sports and extra curricular activities. Technical competencies through various clubs at the Departments. Our goal is to develop our students as technocrats who can contribute  to the society and build a sustainable eco system.

7 reasons why skill-based learning is in demand

• May 28, 2021

How to describe the moment in time that witnessed the stock markets around the world crash during the global financial crisis of 2008. Hundreds of thousands of people lost their jobs and were left stranded with nothing to hold onto. They suffered from a dot com bust, followed by a real estate crisis, then the SARS outburst and a Corona pandemic – all in a time span of two decades. Many argue - Was this problem large? Was this problem valuable? Is this problem worth every second of worry when it is unknown?

Yes, it is. And it always was.

Now, we are hoping to prepare the younger generation for the next unknown. It need not be another unprecedented – that’s yet to come. But it is still worth preparing for. In other words, we are securing the workforce of tomorrow by investing in today.

What is skill-based learning?  

The word 'Skill' in itself means the ability to do something well or to have expertise in that regard. Hence, skill-based learning is built upon the foundation of knowledge-based learning. This further allows the students to enhance their aptitude in that specific area of interest. Where the students can plan, implement and process the information in a practical way.

Rather than spending hours consuming knowledge, the students learn while they work. So, when it comes to mastering a particular niche, the student easily obtains a thorough understanding of the concepts when applied in real-life situations. At the same time, it enables them to produce quality work whenever given a task to perform.

Thus, through constant practice on hands-on learning, the student not only gains the experience but is also able to show the true potential of their skills beyond the classroom.

7 Benefits of skill-based learning 

•    Enhanced creativity

While learning a new skill or applying it during work, the student is forced to think innovatively. Thus, making them independent thinkers with better problem-solving abilities.

• Sharpens critical thinking

As opposed to knowledge-based learning, it is slightly more engaging. This method not only helps them to process, analyze, evaluate but also apply certain facts obtained in the process of in-depth research. It is a way to hone analytical and critical thinking at the core of synthesizing knowledge.

• Enhances collaborative capabilities

Collaboration has been in the top 3 in-demand soft skills for two consecutive years as per LinkedIn . Being a team player is a must, especially in the post-covid era. Knowing how to work in harmony with the team while being virtually connected to co-create amazing work is the way forward. Working in a collaborative environment also sharpens the ability to listen to others, organize, inspire, and attain leadership qualities in the process.

• Purpose-driven

Here, the student gets to work with a clear objective in mind. The idea here is to definitely make each concept more engaging while also making it equally effective to learn. No matter what the subject area, each program is designed to cater to a particular need. Then there is the efficiency aspect - which also tends to increase over a period of time.

•   Acquire Experience

Many aspects in this format work surprisingly well - some even better. Like engaging with professionals in their network helps them to define the impact of their career interests. It further motivates them to put their skills to use in the world around them. This enables the students to gain real-life skills and helps to increase self-confidence while working in a team.

• Caters to a Niche

Students get a chance to work closely and interact with like-minded aspirants from the respective fields. Here, they also learn skills such as creativity, communication, collaboration, among others. Several years ago, finding a niche required a set number of degrees and certificates to be sure. Unlike today when one can explore options across industry verticals in no time. Thus, the entire learning experience is centered around a niche transforming it into a more engaging environment.

• ROI is high

The Return on Investment (ROI) was essential even before the pandemic. But today, the ROI is much more imperative due to limited resources for many. Now, parents and teachers both want more from the investment. Whether it is in terms of time spent in teaching or the money invested in a child's education. Thus, skill-based learning  provides both - high returns along with time flexibility and recovery.

Moreover, while we look back to all the crises that we've been through. There were some that we were prepared for and others that were far-flung from our wildest dreams.

But in the face of the pandemic, many had to pivot. Either in search of a new job or to acquire new skills to land a job. At the same time that many high school students struggled to find the right college and career option. As it is the process of college applications and choosing majors for careers is stressful. This situation made it a little more difficult. In other words, there are newly available roles requiring practical skills learned through online programs. Thus, making skill-based learning a top demand in the future of the workforce.

• Share This Post:

Do you want to know more about making the right choice for your college and career? Book a Free One-on-One consultation with a career expert.

Book consult, recent blogs.

Navigate the American Dream: An Indian Student's Guide to MBA Success in the USA

Career Prep

• Dec 04, 2023

Global Degrees, Multilingual Edge: How Indian Students Stand Out with Foreign Language Expertise

• Nov 28, 2023

What's Your Career DNA? Dive into InternMart's Signature Quizzes for Indian Students

• Nov 17, 2023

Trending Blogs

Five Common Challenges Faced by Interns

Internships

Five Common Challenges Faced by Interns Introduction The w ...

• Jun 06, 2022

Essential Soft Skills For New Interns

Many employers look for certain basic skills in interns. We ...

• Jul 20, 2020
• InternMart Team

How to describe the moment in time that witnessed the stock ...

• Classroom Programme
• Interview Guidance
• Online Programme
• Drishti Store
• My Bookmarks
• My Progress
• Change Password
• From The Editor's Desk
• How To Use The New Website
• Help Centre

Achievers Corner

• Topper's Interview
• About Civil Services
• UPSC Prelims Syllabus
• GS Prelims Strategy
• Prelims Analysis
• GS Paper-I (Year Wise)
• GS Paper-I (Subject Wise)
• CSAT Strategy
• Previous Years Papers
• Practice Quiz
• Weekly Revision MCQs
• 60 Steps To Prelims
• Prelims Refresher Programme 2020

Mains & Interview

• Mains GS Syllabus
• Mains GS Strategy
• Mains Answer Writing Practice
• Essay Strategy
• Fodder For Essay
• Model Essays
• Drishti Essay Competition
• Ethics Strategy
• Ethics Case Studies
• Ethics Discussion
• Ethics Previous Years Q&As
• Papers By Years
• Papers By Subject
• Be MAINS Ready
• Awake Mains Examination 2020
• Interview Strategy
• Interview Guidance Programme

Current Affairs

• Daily News & Editorial
• Daily CA MCQs
• Sansad TV Discussions
• Monthly CA Consolidation
• Monthly Editorial Consolidation
• Monthly MCQ Consolidation

Drishti Specials

• To The Point
• Important Institutions
• Learning Through Maps
• PRS Capsule
• Summary Of Reports
• Gist Of Economic Survey

Study Material

• NCERT Books
• NIOS Study Material
• IGNOU Study Material
• Yojana & Kurukshetra
• Chhatisgarh
• Uttar Pradesh
• Madhya Pradesh

Test Series

• UPSC Prelims Test Series
• UPSC Mains Test Series
• UPPCS Prelims Test Series
• UPPCS Mains Test Series
• BPSC Prelims Test Series
• RAS/RTS Prelims Test Series
• Daily Editorial Analysis
• YouTube PDF Downloads
• Strategy By Toppers
• Ethics - Definition & Concepts
• Mastering Mains Answer Writing
• Places in News
• UPSC Mock Interview
• PCS Mock Interview
• Interview Insights
• Prelims 2019
• Product Promos

Drishti IAS Blog

• The Importance of Skill Development for Students

The Importance of Skill Development for Students  Blogs Home

• 26 Oct 2023

In today's fast-paced and fiercely competitive world, the significance of skill development for students cannot be overstated. It is no longer sufficient to rely solely on traditional academic knowledge. To thrive in the ever-evolving landscape of the job market and to lead a fulfilling life, students must acquire a diverse set of skills. This blog post will delve into the importance of skill development , elucidating how it contributes to a student's holistic growth, employability, adaptability, entrepreneurship, problem-solving abilities, self-confidence, life skills , and academic success.

Holistic Growth

Skill development is a cornerstone of holistic growth for students. Beyond academic achievements, it cultivates a well-rounded individual who can navigate life's challenges with confidence and competence. When students engage in skill development activities, they tap into their creative potential, nurture their talents, and broaden their horizons. This holistic approach to growth encompasses physical, emotional, social, and intellectual facets, allowing students to become more adaptable and versatile individuals.

The Multifaceted Nature of Skill Development

Skill development isn't limited to one particular domain; it encompasses a wide range of skills that contribute to a student's overall growth. These skills can be categorised into various areas, including:

1.Technical Skills: These skills are specific to certain fields or industries, such as programming, data analysis, or mechanical engineering. Technical skills are essential for pursuing careers in specialised fields.

2. Soft Skills: Soft skills are interpersonal and communication skills that enable students to work effectively with others. These include skills like teamwork, leadership, and emotional intelligence.

3. Life Skills: Life skills are practical abilities that help students navigate daily life successfully. Time management, financial literacy, problem-solving, and decision-making fall into this category.

4. Creative Skills: Creative skills encompass artistic and imaginative abilities, including music, art, creative writing, and design. These skills foster innovation and self-expression.

5. Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills: These skills involve the ability to analyse information, evaluate situations, and devise effective solutions. They are invaluable in both professional and personal life.

6. Adaptability and Resilience: Adaptability refers to the capacity to adjust to changing circumstances and environments, while resilience involves bouncing back from setbacks and adversity.

7. Entrepreneurial Skills: Entrepreneurial skills include creativity, risk-taking, and business acumen. They are vital for those interested in entrepreneurship or innovation.

8. Leadership Skills: Leadership skills empower students to take charge, inspire others, and guide teams toward common goals.

Employability

In an increasingly competitive job market, employers seek candidates who possess not only academic qualifications but also a rich array of skills. Skill development enhances a student's job prospects and employability. Employers value candidates who can bring a diverse skill set to the table, as these individuals are often more adaptable, versatile, and capable of handling a wide range of responsibilities.

The Transformative Effect on Employability

1. Competitive Advantage : In a job market characterised by fierce competition, having a broader skill set gives students a competitive edge. Employers often prefer candidates who can contribute to multiple facets of an organisation.

2. Diverse Career Paths : Skill development opens up a plethora of career options. It allows students to explore various industries and roles, providing them with the flexibility to pursue different career paths.

3. Career Progression: For those already in the workforce, skill development can lead to career advancement. It enables individuals to take on more complex roles and responsibilities, often resulting in higher positions and increased earning potential.

4. Adaptation to Industry Changes: Industries and job roles evolve with time due to technological advancements and market shifts. Skill development ensures that students remain relevant and adaptable, making them better prepared to navigate changes in their chosen fields.

Adaptability

The modern job market is characterised by rapid technological advancements and changing industry trends. As a result, the ability to adapt to new situations and acquire new skills is paramount. Skill development encourages students to embrace change and continuously upgrade their capabilities. By cultivating adaptable skills, students remain relevant and competitive in a job market that is in a constant state of flux.

The Necessity of Adaptability in the 21 st Century

1. Technological Advancements: Technology is evolving at an unprecedented pace, affecting nearly every industry. Skills that are in demand today may become obsolete in a few years. Adaptability allows students to stay ahead in a tech-driven world.

2. Globalisation : The interconnectedness of the global economy means that businesses must adapt to different cultures, markets, and regulations. Adaptability is crucial for thriving in this diverse environment.

3. Changing Job Roles: Many traditional job roles are evolving, incorporating new responsibilities and technologies. Adaptability ensures that students can handle these changes and excel in their roles.

4. Continuous Learning: The concept of lifelong learning is gaining prominence. Adaptability facilitates the process of acquiring new knowledge and skills throughout one's career.

Entrepreneurship

Skill development nurtures the entrepreneurial spirit among students. Entrepreneurship is not limited to starting a business; it's a mindset characterised by innovation, creativity, and the ability to identify and seize opportunities. Through skill development, students learn to think outside the box, take calculated risks, and turn their ideas into reality. These entrepreneurial skills are invaluable, whether students embark on their ventures or contribute their innovative thinking to established organisations.

The Entrepreneurial Mindset

1. Innovation: Entrepreneurship encourages students to question the status quo and seek innovative solutions to problems. Innovation is the driving force behind progress and success in various fields.

2. Risk-Taking : Entrepreneurship instills the willingness to take risks, an essential trait for pursuing new opportunities. Students learn to assess risks, make informed decisions, and embrace uncertainty.

3. Resourcefulness: Entrepreneurial individuals are resourceful. They know how to leverage available resources and make the most of limited budgets and time constraints.

4. Persistence: Entrepreneurship often involves facing failures and setbacks. Developing a resilient attitude is crucial for overcoming obstacles and persisting in the pursuit of goals.

Problem Solving

One of the most valuable benefits of skill development is its contribution to students' problem-solving abilities. As students acquire new skills, they develop a toolkit of problem-solving strategies that can be applied to various aspects of life. They learn to analyse situations, identify challenges, and find creative solutions. These problem-solving skills are transferable, enabling students to tackle complex issues in both their personal and professional lives.

Problem-Solving Skills in Action

1. Effective Decision-Making : Problem-solving skills are closely tied to decision-making abilities. Students who excel in problem solving can make informed decisions by evaluating different options and their potential outcomes.

2. Critical Thinking : Skill development fosters critical thinking, which is the ability to analyse information, identify patterns, and make logical connections. Critical thinkers are adept at solving complex problems.

3. Conflict Resolution: Problem-solving skills extend to interpersonal relationships. Students who can effectively resolve conflicts are better equipped to navigate social situations and work collaboratively.

4. Innovation : Many innovations and breakthroughs result from creative problem solving. Students who develop this skill contribute to progress in various fields.

Self-Confidence

Mastering new skills has a profound impact on a student's self-confidence. When students acquire competence in a particular skill, they gain a sense of achievement and self-worth. This newfound confidence extends beyond the specific skill and permeates other areas of their lives. They become more willing to take on challenges, express their ideas, and pursue their goals with conviction.

The Confidence-Building Effect of Skill Development

1. Self-Efficacy: Skill development enhances self-efficacy, which is the belief in one's ability to accomplish tasks and achieve goals. As students master new skills, they develop a sense of self-efficacy that empowers them to tackle challenges with confidence.

2. Risk-Taking : Confidence encourages students to take calculated risks. They are more likely to step out of their comfort zones, explore new opportunities, and embrace uncertainty.

3. Communication: Confident individuals are better communicators. They express their thoughts and ideas with clarity and conviction, making them effective communicators in both personal and professional settings.

4. Leadership: Confidence is a key attribute of effective leaders. Students who exude confidence can inspire and motivate others, making them natural leaders in group projects and teamwork scenarios.

Life Skills

Skill development equips students with essential life skills that extend far beyond the classroom or workplace. These life skills encompass effective communication, time management, leadership, teamwork, and emotional intelligence. Students who possess these skills are better prepared to navigate the complexities of adult life, build meaningful relationships, and handle both personal and professional responsibilities.

Life Skills: Preparing for the Real World

1. Communication: Effective communication is crucial in personal relationships, workplace interactions, and everyday life. Students who develop strong communication skills can express themselves clearly and build better connections with others.

2. Time Management : Time is a finite resource, and effective time management ensures that students can juggle multiple responsibilities efficiently. This skill is vital for academic success and work-life balance.

3. Emotional Intelligence : Emotional intelligence involves recognising and managing one's own emotions and understanding and empathising with the emotions of others. It enhances interpersonal relationships and helps students navigate social situations with empathy and tact.

4. Leadership and Teamwork : Leadership skills are valuable in various contexts, including work, community involvement, and extracurricular activities. Teamwork skills enable students to collaborate harmoniously with others to achieve common goals.

5. Problem-Solving : Life often presents complex challenges that require problem-solving abilities. Developing this skill enables students to navigate personal and professional challenges effectively.

Academic Success

Skill development can have a positive impact on academic success. When students engage in skill-building activities, they enhance their cognitive abilities, critical thinking skills, and problem-solving capabilities. These skills are not only valuable in real-world scenarios but also in academic settings. Students who develop strong analytical and organisational skills are often better equipped to excel in their studies, leading to improved academic performance.

The Academic Benefits of Skill Development

1. Enhanced Learning: Skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and effective study techniques enhance the learning process. Students who develop these skills can grasp complex concepts more easily.

2. Better Time Management: Time management skills are essential for balancing coursework, assignments, and extracurricular activities. Effective time management leads to more focused and productive study sessions.

3. Improved Memory and Retention : Techniques for memory improvement and information retention, such as mnemonic devices and effective notetaking, enhance a student's ability to recall information during exams.

4. Efficient Research and Writing : Research and writing skills are fundamental in academia. Skill development in these areas results in well-structured, well-researched papers and presentations.

5. Test-Taking Skills : Effective test-taking strategies, such as time management during exams and techniques for managing test anxiety, can significantly impact academic performance.

In conclusion, skill development is a critical component of a student's journey toward personal and professional success. It contributes to holistic growth, employability, adaptability, entrepreneurship, problem-solving abilities, self-confidence, life skills, and academic success. As students embrace skill development, they prepare themselves to thrive in a competitive world where versatility and adaptability are highly prized.

Encouraging students to invest in skill development is an investment in their future, equipping them with the tools they need to lead fulfilling lives and make meaningful contributions to society. In a rapidly changing world, the ability to learn and adapt is a skill in itself, and by fostering this ability, we empower students to shape their own destinies and embrace a future filled with opportunities. Skill development isn't just about acquiring knowledge; it's about honing the capabilities that enable students to excel in every aspect of their lives. As educators, mentors, and parents, we have a crucial role in nurturing the next generation of skilled, adaptable, and confident individuals who will drive positive change in our world.

Mohd Burhan

Mohd Burhan is an Urdu postgraduate with a passion for cinema. Alongside his wanderlust, he leverages his expertise in tours and travels, offering a perfect blend of language proficiency and cultural immersion to his clients.

Comments (0)

• +91-8859500084
• [email protected]

Importance of Skill Development in Education

It is well said by an individual, “Education is more important but skill development is the most important”.

Why are Life Skill Development important?

What is life skills education, life skill education in schools, skill development in schools, the importance of life skills, what are life skill development.

A set of basic rules that are gained through learning or with direct experiences in life are termed as Life Skills . These skills enable groups and individuals to tackle various sorts of issues & problems effectively which are commonly faced in daily life. They are the abilities for adaptive & positive behavior that enable human beings to deal with every life challenges & situations effectively. One needs them to make the most out of life. In short, any life skill which is useful in life can be considered as a life skill.

Talking about school children, these rules also equip students to thrive in the classroom & to the world outside.

Life Skills are important as these bring positive effects in the life of an individual. In this 21st century, all these skills are essential to gain success not only for a healthy society but also for successful individuals. Thus, it is important to evolve skill training among children from an early age itself.

Activities like critical thinking , creative art & craft work, decision-making, problem-solving, an ability to collaborate & communicate along with a sense of responsibility towards personal as well as society at large, to contribute good citizenship comes under Life Skill.

These life skills must be made compulsory in school education as without learning these skills, children can struggle when it comes about real-world responsibilities. Therefore, it becomes necessary that schools provide their students with these types of basic mental, social & physical skills to make them ready for leading a better after-school life. Overall, it can be said that these life skills should also be brought into high-school education. Concluding all this, there are lots of skills that children must need for their future. Some of these are:

• Collaboration across networks
• Finding new ways of problem-solving ability with Critical thinking.
• Imagination & Curiosity
• Agility & Adaptability
• Initiative & Entrepreneurialism
• Oral & written effective communication
• Accessing & analyzing information.
• Potential to lead by influence
• Working well as part of a team
• Time and People management

Schools in India, at large, adopt an academic-centric model of Education. For the most part of schools, the learning process is confined only to classrooms. In fact, this process is more about gaining facts & less about learning. The very best way to address this problem is to introduce life-changing skill training in the school-based curriculum. Giving them some options at the onset of teenage gives them the chance to explore & learn more things beyond their textbooks & whatever is taught in classrooms. One more advantage of introducing Life skill for kids is that they get the freedom to choose at an early age. Skills like team-spirit, inquisitiveness, creativity, trustworthiness, sympathy, co-ordination, assertiveness and much more comes with life skill activities.

It is thus a process which helped children to build a stronger foundation for a thriving future on the academic as well as at the professional front.

In a constantly changing environment, having life skills is a basic part of being able to address the difficulties of regular day to day existences. The dramatic changes in global worldwide economies over the course of the recent five years have been coordinated with the change in innovation technology. All these are putting a greater impact on education, the working environment and at our home life.

To be able to cope up with the increasing pace and change of present-day life, students need to learn life skills, for example, the capacity to manage pressure and disappointment.

Benefits for the Individual

In regular day to day life, the development of life skills encourages students to:

• Encourages them to take responsibility for what they do, instead of shifting blames.
• Build confidence both in speaking skills, for group collaboration & cooperation with joint effort and participation.
• Analyze various alternatives, make decisions and understand why they make certain specific decisions outside the classroom.
• Develop a greater sense of self-awareness, feeling of mindfulness and an appreciation for other people.
• The capacity to self-manage, tackle issues while understanding individual responsibilities.
• Readiness and flexibility to various jobs in adaptable workplaces.
• Help them develop self-confidence & higher self-esteem.
• Give them a voice in their group, community, society & at schools.
• Enable them to make a positive contribution by developing experience & expertise within them.
• Prepare them for upcoming challenges, difficult situations as well as opportunities in their later life.

Benefits for Society as a Whole

The more we develop life skills individually, the more these benefit the world in which we live by recognizing cultural awareness and citizenship makes international cooperation easier with people of other societies and by respecting diversity to allow creativity and imagination to flourish a more developed society.

Vocational & life skills need to be encouraged. These factors are the reason that developing countries like India should invest in skill development for youth with proper education.

In short, “Children must be taught how to think, not what to think.”

Also read, Develop Critical Thinking Skills In Students

About the author

Related posts.

Importance of Studying Literature

What Is Remote Learning

7 Most Important Things To Consider When Looking for a Boarding School

Quick enquiry.

Select Class 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th

Day School Boarding School

Get In Touch With Us!

To read this content please select one of the options below:

Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, learners’ attitudes toward language education based on cultural identities: global citizenship agenda in higher education institutions of pakistan.

Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education

ISSN : 2050-7003

Article publication date: 16 August 2024

English is the language of global communication, worldwide mobility, job progress, and access to new information and research. Given the numerous roles that English plays in today's society, higher education institutes (HEIs) all over the world are pursuing English-medium education. For Pakistan, however, English-medium education is a colonial legacy rather than a deliberate choice. Research suggests that English-medium education is not devoid of controversy in higher education in Pakistan; nonetheless, students have to seek English-medium education in universities to compete with the world. In fact, being committed to SDG 4.7 Education for sustainable development and global citizenship, Pakistan is supposed to educate its citizens to become global citizens, for which English-medium education is essential. Given the fact that each of the five provinces of Pakistan has a distinct culture and sub-cultures, it is important to see how Pakistani students’ attitudes to English-medium education to become global citizens are different based on their cultural identities. Therefore, the present study aims to analyze undergraduates’ attitudes toward English-medium education based on their cultural identities to become global citizens.

Design/methodology/approach

Under the quantitative research paradigm, the present research adopted a comparative design. One hundred and fifty undergraduates participated in the study. The data were collected using a 15-item questionnaire on a 5-point Likert scale, and it was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 27.0.

The results of the study revealed that participants regardless of their cultural identities have positive attitudes towards English-medium education as they believe it to be a source of career development, and improvement of their language, communication, and interpersonal skills. The participants also did not see English-medium education posing any threat to traditional culture and local languages. The findings of the present study also revealed that there is no statistical difference across the different categories of cultural identity.

Practical implications

The findings of the present study regarding students’ attitudes toward English-medium education will have implications for policymakers and university administration. Since cultural identity does not hinder acceptance of English-medium education, students’ positive attitudes can help policymakers promote multilingualism and English-medium education for career development. However, high-quality English language programs are crucial for maximizing the benefits. Likewise, positive attitudes of students towards English-medium education in Pakistan suggest students’ openness to intercultural dialogue. Therefore, university administration can further enhance student exchange programs for transnational research and development. Likewise, the study implies that cultural identity may not hinder English-medium education implementation in developing countries provided that practical benefits like career advancement and communication skill are emphasized.

Originality/value

The study is unique in the sense that it analyses undergraduates’ attitudes towards English-medium education concerning students’ cultural identities and global citizenship which have not been studied previously.

• Cultural identity
• Global citizenship
• Higher education

Siddiqui, K.A. , Asad, M.M. and Rind, A.A. (2024), "Learners’ attitudes toward language education based on cultural identities: global citizenship agenda in higher education institutions of Pakistan", Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education , Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-01-2024-0034

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2024, Emerald Publishing Limited

Related articles

All feedback is valuable.

Please share your general feedback

Report an issue or find answers to frequently asked questions

Contact Customer Support

Value of Education Essay

500 words essay on value of education.

Education is a weapon for the people by which they can live a high-quality life. Furthermore, education makes people easy to govern but at the same time it makes them impossible to be enslaved. Let us take a look at the incredible importance of education with this value of education essay.

                                                                                                                        Value Of Education Essay

Importance of Education

Education makes people independent. Furthermore, it increases knowledge, strengthens the mind, and forms character. Moreover, education enables people to put their potentials to optimum use.

Education is also a type of reform for the human mind. Without education, the training of the human mind would always remain incomplete.

Education makes a person an efficient decision-maker and a right thinker. Moreover, this is possible only with the help of education. This is because education acquaints an individual with knowledge of the world around him and beyond, besides teaching the individual to be a better judge of the present.

A person that receives education shall have more avenues for the life of his choice. Moreover, an educated person will be able to make decisions in the best possible manner. This is why there is such a high demand for educated people over uneducated people for the purpose of employment .

Negative Impact of Lack of Education

Without education, a person would feel trapped. One can understand this by the example of a man who is confined to a closed room, completely shut from the outside world, with no way to exit it. Most noteworthy, an uneducated person can be compared to this confined man.

Education enables a person to access the open world. Furthermore, a person without education is unable to read and write. Consequently, a person without education would remain closed to all the knowledge and wisdom an educated person can gain from books and other mediums.

The literacy rate of India stands at around 60% in comparison to more than 80% literacy rate of the rest of the world. Moreover, the female literacy rate is 54.16% in accordance with the 2001 population census. These figures certainly highlight the massive problem of lack of education in India.

To promote education, the government of India takes it as a national policy. The intention of the government is to target the very cause of illiteracy. As such, the government endeavours to eradicate illiteracy, which in turn would lead to the eradication of poverty .

The government is running various literacy programmes like the free-education programme, weekend and part-time study programme, continuing education programme, mid-day meal programme, adult literacy programme, etc. With the consistent success rate of these programmes, hopefully, things will better.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of Value of Education Essay

Education is one of the most effective ways to make people better and more productive. It is a tool that can make people easy to lead but at the same time difficult to drive. Education removes naivety and ignorance from the people, leaving them aware, informed, and enlightened.

FAQs For Value of Education Essay

Question 1: What is the importance of education in our lives?

Answer 1: Having an education in a particular area helps people think, feel, and behave in a way that contributes to their success, and improves not only their personal satisfaction but also enhances their community. In addition, education develops the human personality and prepares people for life experiences.

Question 2: Explain the meaning of true education?

Answer 2: True education means going beyond earning degrees and bookish knowledge when it comes to learning. Furthermore, true education means inculcating a helping attitude, optimistic thinking, and moral values in students with the aim of bringing positive changes in society.

Customize your course in 30 seconds

Which class are you in.

• Travelling Essay
• Picnic Essay
• Our Country Essay
• My Parents Essay
• Essay on Favourite Personality
• Essay on Memorable Day of My Life
• Essay on Knowledge is Power
• Essay on Gurpurab
• Essay on My Favourite Season
• Essay on Types of Sports

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Download the App

Navigating Spatial Ability for Mathematics Education: a Review and Roadmap

• REVIEW ARTICLE
• Open access
• Published: 17 August 2024
• Volume 36 , article number  90 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Kelsey E. Schenck   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3777-2085 1 &
• Mitchell J. Nathan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2058-7016 2  

Spatial skills can predict mathematics performance, with many researchers investigating how and why these skills are related. However, a literature review on spatial ability revealed a multiplicity of spatial taxonomies and analytical frameworks that lack convergence, presenting a confusing terrain for researchers to navigate. We expose two central challenges: (1) many of the ways spatial ability is defined and subdivided are often not based in well-evidenced theoretical and analytical frameworks, and (2) the sheer variety of spatial assessments. These challenges impede progress in designing spatial skills interventions for improving mathematics thinking based on causal principles, selecting appropriate metrics for documenting change, and analyzing and interpreting student outcome data. We offer solutions by providing a practical guide for navigating and selecting among the various major spatial taxonomies and instruments used in mathematics education research. We also identify current limitations of spatial ability research and suggest future research directions.

Explore related subjects

• Artificial Intelligence

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Spatial ability can be broadly defined as imagining, maintaining, and manipulating spatial information and relations. Over the past several decades, researchers have found reliable associations between spatial abilities and mathematics performance (e.g., Newcombe, 2013 ; Young et al., 2018a ). However, the sheer plurality of spatial taxonomies and analytical frameworks that scholars use to describe spatial skills, the lack of theoretical spatial taxonomies, and the variety of spatial assessments available makes it very difficult for education researchers to make the appropriate selection of spatial measures for their investigations. Education researchers also face the daunting task of selecting the ideal spatial skills to design studies and interventions to enhance student learning and the development of reasoning in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) more broadly. To address these needs, we have provided a review that focuses on the relationship between spatial skills and mathematical thinking and learning. Our specific contribution is to offer a guide for educational researchers who recognize the importance of measuring spatial skills but who are themselves not spatial skills scholars. This guide will help researchers navigate and select among the various major taxonomies on spatial reasoning and among the various instruments for assessing spatial skills for use in mathematics education research.

We offer three central objectives for this paper. First, we aim to provide an updated review of the ways spatial ability is defined and subdivided. Second, we list some of the currently most widely administered instruments used to measure subcomponents of spatial ability. Third, we propose an organizational framework that acknowledges this complex picture and — rather than offer overly optimistic proposals for resolving long-standing complexities — offers ways for math education researchers to operate within this framework from an informed perspective. This review offers guidance through this complicated state of the literature to help STEM education researchers select appropriate spatial measures and taxonomies for their investigations, assessments, and interventions. We review and synthesize several lines of the spatial ability literature and provide researchers exploring the link between spatial ability and mathematics education with a guiding framework for research design. To foreshadow, this framework identifies three major design decisions that can help guide scholars and practitioners seeking to use spatial skills to enhance mathematics education research. The framework provides a theoretical basis to select: (1) a spatial ability taxonomy, (2) corresponding analytical frameworks, and (3) spatial tasks for assessing spatial performance (Fig.  1 ). This guiding framework is intended to provide educational researchers and practitioners with a common language and decision-making process for conducting research and instruction that engages learners’ spatial abilities. The intent is that investigators’ use of this framework may enhance their understanding of the associative and causal links between spatial and mathematical abilities, and thereby improve the body of mathematics education research and practice.

Major elements of an investigation into the role of spatial reasoning

The Importance of Spatial Reasoning for Mathematics and STEM Education

Spatial ability has been linked to the entrance into, retention in, and success within STEM fields (e.g., Shea et al., 2001 ; Wolfgang et al., 2003 ), while deficiencies in spatial abilities have been shown to create obstacles for STEM education (Harris et al., 2013 ; Wai et al., 2009 ). Although spatial skills are not typically taught in the general K-16 curriculum, these lines of research have led some scholars to make policy recommendations for explicitly teaching children about spatial thinking as a viable way to increase STEM achievement and retention in STEM education programs and career pathways (Sorby, 2009 ; Stieff & Uttal, 2015 ). Combined, the findings suggest that spatial ability serves as a gateway for entry into STEM fields (Uttal & Cohen, 2012 ) and that educational institutions should consider the importance of explicitly training students’ spatial thinking skills as a way to further develop students’ STEM skills.

Findings from numerous studies have demonstrated that spatial ability is critical for many domains of mathematics education, including basic numeracy and arithmetic (Case et al., 1996 ; Gunderson et al., 2012 ; Hawes et al., 2015 ; Tam et al., 2019 ) and geometry (Battista et al., 2018 ; Davis, 2015 ), as well as more advanced topics such as algebra word problem-solving (Oostermeijer et al., 2014 ), calculus (Sorby et al., 2013 ), and interpreting complex quantitative relationships (Tufte, 2001 ). For example, scores on the mathematics portion of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) are significantly positively correlated with scores on tests of spatial cognition (Sorby & Panther, 2020 ). Broadly, studies have found evidence of the connections between success on spatial tasks and mathematics tasks in children and adults. For example, first grade girls’ spatial skills were correlated with the frequency of retrieval and decomposition strategies when solving arithmetic problems (Laski et al., 2013 ), and these early spatial ability scores were the strongest predictors of their sixth-grade mathematics reasoning abilities (Casey et al., 2015 ). In adults ( n  = 101), spatial ability scores were positively associated with mathematics abilities measured through PISA mathematics questions (Schenck & Nathan, 2020 ).

Though there is a clear connection between spatial and mathematical abilities, understanding the intricacies of this relationship is difficult. Some scholars have sought to determine which mathematical concepts engage spatial thinking. For example, studies on specific mathematical concepts found spatial skills were associated with children’s one-to-one mapping (Gallistel & Gelman, 1992 ), missing-term problems (Cheng & Mix, 2014 ), mental computation (Verdine et al., 2014 ), and various geometry concepts (Hannafin et al., 2008 ). Schenck and Nathan ( 2020 ) identified associations between several specific sub-components of spatial reasoning and specific mathematics skills of adults. Specifically, adults’ mental rotation skills correlated with performance on questions about change and relationships, spatial orientation skills correlated with quantity questions, and spatial visualization skills correlated with questions about space and shape. Burte and colleagues ( 2017 ) proposed categories of mathematical concepts such as problem type, problem context, and spatial thinking level to target math improvements following spatial invention training. Their study concluded that mathematics problems that included visual representations, real-world contexts, and that involved spatial thinking are more likely to show improvement after embodied spatial training.

However, these lines of work are complicated by the variety of problem-solving strategies students employ when solving mathematics problems and issues with generalizability. While some students may rely on a specific spatial ability to solve a particular mathematics problem, others may use non-spatial approaches or apply spatial thinking differently for the same assessment item. For example, some students solving graphical geometric problem-solving tasks utilized their spatial skills by constructing and manipulating mental images of the problem, while others created external representations such as isometric sketches, alleviating the need for some aspects of spatial reasoning (Buckley et al., 2019 ). Though this difference could be attributed to lower spatial abilities in the students who used external representations, it could also be attributed to high levels of discipline-specific knowledge seen in domains such as geoscience (Hambrick et al., 2012 ), physics (Kozhevnikov & Thorton, 2006 ), and chemistry (Stieff, 2007 ). Though some amount of generalization is needed in spatial and mathematics education research, investigators should take care not to overgeneralize findings of specific spatial ability and mathematic domain connections.

This selective review shows ample reasons to attend to spatial abilities in mathematics education research and the design of effective interventions. However, studies across this vast body of work investigating the links between spatial abilities and mathematics performance use different spatial taxonomies, employ different spatial measures, and track improvement across many different topics of mathematics education. This variety makes it difficult for mathematics education scholars to draw clear causal lines between specific spatial skills interventions and specific mathematics educational improvements and for educators to follow clear guidance as to how to improve mathematical reasoning through spatial skills development.

The Varieties of Approaches to Explaining the Spatial-Mathematics Connection

Meta-analyses have suggested that domain-general reasoning skills such as fluid reasoning and verbal skills may mediate the relationships between spatial and mathematical skills (Atit et al., 2022 ), and that the mathematical domain is a moderator with the strongest association between logical reasoning and spatial skills (Xie et al., 2020 ). Despite these efforts, the specific nature of these associations remains largely unknown. Several lines of research have suggested processing requirements shared among mathematical and spatial tasks could account for these associations. Brain imaging studies have shown similar brain activation patterns in both spatial and mathematics tasks (Amalric & Dehaene, 2016 ; Hawes & Ansari, 2020 ; Hubbard et al., 2005 ; Walsh, 2003 ). Hawes and Ansari’s ( 2020 ) review of psychology, neuroscience, and education spatial research described four possible explanatory accounts (spatial representations of numbers, shared neuronal processing, spatial modeling, and working memory) for how spatial visualization was linked to numerical competencies. They suggest integrating the four accounts to explain an underlying singular mechanism to explain lasting neural and behavioral correlations between spatial and numerical processes. In a study of spatial and mathematical thinking, Mix et al. ( 2016 ) showed a strong within-domain factor structure and overlapping variance irrespective of task-specificity. They proposed that the ability to recognize and decompose objects (i.e., form perception ), visualize spatial information, and relate distances in one space to another (i.e., spatial scaling ) are shared processes required when individuals perform a range of spatial reasoning and mathematical reasoning tasks.

Efforts to date to document the relationship between mathematics performance and spatial skills or to enhance mathematics through spatial skills interventions show significant limitations in their theoretical framing. One significant issue is theory-based. Currently, there is no commonly accepted definition of spatial ability or its exact sub-components in the literature (Carroll, 1993 ; Lohman, 1988 ; McGee, 1979 ; Michael et al., 1957 ; Yilmaz, 2009 ). For example, many studies designed to investigate and improve spatial abilities have tended to focus on either a particular spatial sub-component or a particular mathematical skill. Much of the research has primarily focused on measuring only specific aspects of object-based spatial ability, such as mental rotation. Consequently, there is insufficient guidance for mathematics and STEM education researchers to navigate the vast landscape of spatial taxonomies and analytical frameworks, select the most appropriate measures for documenting student outcomes, design potential interventions targeting spatial abilities, select appropriate metrics, and analyze and interpret outcome data.

One notable program of research that has been particularly attentive to the spatial qualities of mathematical reasoning is the work by Battista et al. ( 2018 ). They collected think-aloud data about emerging spatial descriptions from individual interviews and teaching experiments with elementary and middle-grade students to investigate the relationship between spatial reasoning and geometric reasoning. Across several studies, the investigators seldom observed the successful application of generalized object-based spatial skills of the type typically measured by psychometric instruments of spatial ability. Rather, they found that students’ geometric reasoning succeeded when “spatial visualization and spatial analytic reasoning [were] based on operable knowledge of relevant geometric properties of the spatial-geometric objects under consideration” (Battista et al., p 226; emphasis added). By highlighting the ways that one’s reasoning aligns with geometric properties, Battista and colleagues shifted the analytic focus away from either general, psychological constructs that can be vague and overly broad, and away from a narrow set of task-specific skills, to a kind of intermediate-level that are relevant for describing topic and task-specific performance while identifying forms of reasoning that may generalize beyond the specific tasks and objects at hand. For example, property-based spatial analytic reasoning might focus on an invariant geometric property, such as the property of rectangles that their diagonals always bisect each other, to guide the decomposition and transformation of rectangles and their component triangles in service of a geometric proof. Establishing bridges and analytic distinctions between education domain-centric analyses of this sort and traditional psychometric accounts about domain-general spatial abilities is central to our review and broader aims to relate mathematical reasoning processes to spatial processes.

Selecting a Spatial Taxonomy

As noted, a substantial body of empirical evidence indicates that students’ spatial abilities figure into their mathematical reasoning, offering promising pathways toward interventions designed to improve math education. To capitalize on this association, one of the first decisions mathematics education researchers must make is selecting a spatial taxonomy that suits the data collected and analyzed. A spatial taxonomy is an organizational system for classifying spatial abilities and, thus, serves an important role in shaping the theoretical framework for any inquiry as well as interpreting and generalizing findings from empirical investigations. However, the manner in which spatial abilities are subdivided, defined, and named has changed over the decades of research on this topic. In practice, the decision for how to define and select spatial abilities is often difficult for researchers who are not specialists due to the expansive literature in this area.

In an attempt to make the vast number of spatial definitions and subcomponents more navigable for mathematics researchers and educators, we describe three general types of spatial taxonomies that are reflected in the current literature: Those that (1) classify according to different specific spatial abilities, (2) distinguish between different broad spatial abilities, and (3) those that treat spatial abilities as derived from a single, or unitary, factor structure. Although this is not a comprehensive account, these spatial taxonomies were chosen to highlight the main sub-factor dissociations in the literature.

Specific-Factor Structures

Since the earliest conceptualization (e.g., Galton, 1879 ), the communities of researchers studying spatial abilities have struggled to converge on one all-encompassing definition or provide a complete list of its subcomponents. Though the literature provides a variety of definitions of spatial ability that focus on the capacity to visualize and manipulate mental images (e.g., Battista, 2007 ; Gaughran, 2002 ; Lohman, 1979 ; Sorby, 1999 ), some scholars posit that it may be more precise to define spatial ability as a constellation of quantifiably measurable skills based on performance on tasks that load on specific individual spatial factors (Buckley et al., 2018 ). Difficulties directly observing the cognitive processes and neural structures involved in spatial reasoning have, in practice, spurred substantive research focused on uncovering the nature of spatial ability and its subcomponents. Historically, scholars have used psychometric methods to identify a variety of specific spatial subcomponents, including closure flexibility/speed (Carroll, 1993 ), field dependence/independence (McGee, 1979 ; Witkin, 1950 ), spatial relations (Carroll, 1993 ; Lohman, 1979 ), spatial orientation (Guilford & Zimmerman, 1948 ), spatial visualization (Carroll, 1993 ; McGee, 1979 ), and speeded rotation (Lohman, 1988 ). However, attempts to dissociate subfactors were often met with difficulty due to differing factor analytic techniques and variations in the spatial ability tests that were used (D'Oliveira, 2004 ). The subsequent lack of cohesion in this field of study led to different camps of researchers adopting inconsistent names for spatial subcomponents (Cooper & Mumaw, 1985 ; McGee, 1979 ) and divergent factorial frameworks (Hegarty & Waller, 2005 ; Yilmaz, 2009 ). Such a lack of convergence is clearly problematic for the scientific study of spatial ability and its application to mathematics education research.

In the last few decades, several attempts have been made to dissociate subcomponents of spatial ability further. Yilmaz ( 2009 ) combined aspects of the models described above with studies identifying dynamic spatial abilities and environmental spatial abilities to divide spatial ability into eight factors, which acknowledge several spatial skills (e.g., environmental ability and spatiotemporal ability) needed in real-life situations. More recently, Buckley et al. ( 2018 ) proposed an extended model for spatial ability. This model combines many ideas from the previously described literature and the spatial factors identified in the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence (see Schneider & McGrew, 2012 ). It currently includes 25 factors that can also be divided into two broader categories of static and dynamic, with the authors acknowledging that additional factors may be added as research warrants. It is unclear how a dissociation of this many subfactors could be practically applied in empirical research, which we regard as an important goal for bridging theory and research practices.

Dissociation Between Spatial Orientation and Rotational Spatial Visualization

Though specific definitions vary, many authors of the models discussed above agree on making a dissociation between spatial orientation and visualization skills. While performing perspective-taking (a subfactor of spatial orientation) and rotational spatial visualization tasks often involve a form of rotation, several studies have indicated that these skills are psychometrically separable. Measures for these skills often ask participants to anticipate the appearance of arrays of objects after either a rotation (visualization) of the objects or a change in the objects’ perspective (perspective-taking). Findings show that visualization and perspective-taking tasks have different error patterns and activate different neural processes (e.g., Huttenlocher & Presson, 1979 ; Kozhevnikov & Hegarty, 2001 ; Wraga et al., 2000 ). Perspective rotation tasks often lead to egocentric errors such as reflection errors when trying to reorient perspectives, while object rotation task errors are not as systematic (Kozhevnikov & Hegarty, 2001 ; Zacks et al., 2000 ). For example, to solve a spatial orientation/perspective-taking task (Fig.  2 A), participants may imagine their bodies moving to a new position or viewpoint with the objects of interest remaining stationary. In contrast, the objects in a spatial visualization task are often rotated in one’s imagination (Fig.  2 B). Behavioral and neuroscience evidence is consistent with these findings, suggesting a dissociation between an object-to-object representational system and a self-to-object representational system (Hegarty & Waller, 2004 ; Kosslyn et al., 1998 ; Zacks et al., 1999 ). Thus, within the specific-factor structure of spatial ability, spatial orientation/perspective-taking can be considered a separate factor from spatial visualization/mental rotation (Thurstone, 1950 ).

Exemplars of spatial orientation, mental rotation, and non-rotational spatial visualization tasks. The spatial orientation task ( A ) is adapted from Hegarty and Waller’s ( 2004 ) Object Perception/Spatial Orientation Test. The mental rotation task ( B ) is adapted from Vandenberg and Kuse’s ( 1978 ) Mental Rotation Test. The non-rotational spatial visualization task ( C ) is adapted from Ekstrom et al.’s ( 1976 ) Paper Folding Task

Dissociation Between Mental Rotation and Non-rotational Spatial Visualization

The boundaries between specific factors of spatial ability are often blurred and context dependent. To address this, Ramful and colleagues ( 2017 ) have created a three-factor framework that clarifies the distinctions between spatial visualization and spatial orientation (see the “Dissociation Between Spatial Orientation and Rotational Spatial Visualization” section) by treating mental rotation as a separate factor. Their framework is unique in that they used mathematics curricula, rather than solely basing their analysis on a factor analysis, to identify three sub-factors of spatial ability: (1) mental rotation, (2) spatial orientation, and (3) spatial visualization. Mental rotation describes how one imagines how a two-dimensional or three-dimensional object would appear after it has been turned (Fig.  2 B). Mental rotation is a cognitive process that has received considerable attention from psychologists (Bruce & Hawes, 2015 ; Lombardi et al., 2019 ; Maeda & Yoon, 2013 ). Spatial orientation , in contrast, involves egocentric representations of objects and locations and includes the notion of perspective-taking (Fig.  2 A). Spatial visualization in their classification system (previously an umbrella term for many spatial skills that included mental rotation) describes mental transformations that do not require mental rotation or spatial orientation (Linn & Peterson, 1985 ) and can be measured through tasks like those shown in Fig.  2 C that involve operations such as paper folding and unfolding. Under this definition, spatial visualization may involve complex sequences in which intermediate steps may need to be stored in spatial working memory (Shah & Miyake, 1996 ). In mathematics, spatial visualization skills often correlate with symmetry, geometric translations, part-to-whole relationships, and geometric nets (Ramful et al., 2017 ).

Summary and Implications

As described above , decades of research on spatial ability have involved scholars using factor-analytic methods to identify and define various spatial sub-components. The results of these effects have created a multitude of specific-factor structures, with models identifying anywhere from two to 25 different spatial subcomponents. However, there are two dissociations that may be particularly important for mathematics education research. The first is the dissociation between spatial orientation and spatial visualization abilities. Spatial orientation tasks typically involve rotating one’s perspective for viewing an object or scene, while spatial visualization tasks require imagining object rotation. The second dissociation is between mental rotation and non-rotational spatial visualization. While this distinction is relatively recent, it separates the larger spatial visualization sub-component into tasks that either involve rotating imagined objects or a sequence of visualization tasks that do not require mental rotation or spatial orientation. The historical focus on psychometric accounts of spatial ability strove to identify constructs that could apply generally to various forms of reasoning, yet it has contributed to a complex literature that may be difficult for scholars who are not steeped in the intricacies of spatial reasoning research to parse and effectively apply to mathematics education.

Studies of mathematical reasoning and learning that rely on specific-factor structures can yield different results and interpretations depending on their choices of factors. For example, Schenck et al. ( 2022 ) fit several models using different spatial sub-factors to predict undergraduates’ production of verbal mathematical insights. The authors demonstrated that combining mental rotation and non-rotational spatial visualization into a single factor (per McGee, 1979 ) rather than separating them (per Ramful et al., 2017 ) can lead to conflicting interpretations on the relevance of these skills for improving mathematics. Some scholars argue that a weakness of many traditional specific-factor structures of spatial ability is that they rely on exploratory factor analysis rather than confirmatory factor analyses informed by a clear theoretical basis of spatial ability (Uttal et al., 2013 ; Young et al., 2018b ). Finding differing results based on small and reasonable analytic choices presents a serious problem for finding convergence of the role of particular spatial abilities on particular mathematics concepts.

Broad-Factor Structures

Alternative approaches to factor-analytic methods rely on much broader distinctions between spatial ability subcomponents. We refer to these alternatives as broad-factor structure approaches since their categorizations align with theoretically motivated combinations of specific spatial ability subfactors. Some scholars who draw on broad-factor structures have argued for a partial dissociation (Ferguson et al., 2015 ; Hegarty et al., 2006 , 2018 ; Jansen, 2009 ; Potter, 1995 ). Large-scale spatial abilities involve reasoning about larger-scale objects and space, such as physical navigation and environmental maps. Small-scale spatial abilities are defined as those that predominantly rely on mental transformations of shapes or objects (e.g., mental rotation tasks). A meta-analysis (Wang et al., 2014 ) examining the relationship between small- and large-scale abilities provided further evidence that these two factors should be defined separately. Hegarty et al. ( 2018 ) recommend measuring large-scale abilities through sense-of-direction measures and navigation activities. These scholars suggest that small-scale abilities, such as mental rotation, may be measured through typical spatial ability tasks like those discussed in the “Choosing Spatial Tasks in Mathematics Education Research” section of this paper.

Other lines of research that use broad-factor structures have drawn on linguistic, cognitive, and neuroscientific findings to develop a 2 × 2 classification system that distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic information along one dimension, and static and dynamic tasks another an orthogonal dimension (Newcombe & Shipley, 2015 ; Uttal et al., 2013 ). Intrinsic spatial skills involve attention to a single object's spatial properties, while extrinsic spatial skills predominately rely on attention to the spatial relationships between objects. The second dimension in this classification system defines static tasks as those that involve recognizing and thinking about objects and their relations. In contrast, dynamic tasks often move beyond static coding of the spatial features of an object and its relations to imagining spatial transformations of one or more objects.

Uttal and colleagues ( 2013 ) describe how this 2 × 2 broad-factor classification framework can be mapped onto Linn and Peterson’s ( 1985 ) three-factor model, breaking spatial ability into spatial perception, mental rotation, and spatial visualization sub-factors. Spatial visualization tasks fall into the intrinsic classification and can address static and dynamic reasoning depending on whether the objects are unchanged or require spatial transformations. The Embedded Figures Test (Fig.  3 A; Witkin et al., 1971 ) is an example of an intrinsic-static classification, while Ekstrom and colleagues’ ( 1976 ) Form Board Test and Paper Folding Test (Fig.  3 B) are two examples of spatial visualization tasks that measure the intrinsic-dynamic classification. Mental rotation tasks (e.g., the Mental Rotations Test of Vandenberg & Kuse, 1978 ) also represent the intrinsic-dynamic category. Spatial perception tasks (e.g., water level tasks; Fig.  3 C; see Inhelder & Piaget, 1958 ) capture the extrinsic-static category in the 2 × 2 because they require coding spatial position information between objects or gravity without manipulating them. Furthermore, Uttal et al. ( 2013 ) address a limitation of Linn and Peterson’s ( 1985 ) model by including the extrinsic/dynamic classification, which they note can be measured through spatial orientation and navigation instruments such as the Guilford-Zimmerman Spatial Orientation Task (Fig.  3 D; Guilford & Zimmerman, 1948 ).

Exemplar tasks that map to Uttal and colleagues’ ( 2013 ) framework . The intrinsic-static task ( A ) is adapted from Witkin and colleagues’ ( 1971 ) Embedded Figures Test. The intrinsic-dynamic task ( B ) is adapted from Ekstrom and colleagues’ ( 1976 ) Paper Folding Task. The extrinsic-static task ( C ) is adapted from Piaget and Inhelder’s ( 1956 ) water level tasks. The extrinsic-dynamic task ( D ) is adapted from Guilford and Zimmerman’s ( 1948 ) Spatial Orientation Survey Test

Though Uttal et al.’s ( 2013 ) classification provides a helpful framework for investigating spatial ability and its links to mathematics (Young et al., 2018b ), it faces several challenges. Some critics posit that spatial tasks often require a combination of spatial subcomponents and cannot be easily mapped onto one domain in the framework (Okamoto et al., 2015 ). For example, a think-aloud task might ask students to describe a different viewpoint of an object. The student may imagine a rotated object (intrinsic-dynamic), imagine moving their body to the new viewpoint (extrinsic-dynamic), use a combination of strategies, or employ a non-spatial strategy such as logical deduction. Additionally, an experimental study by Mix et al. ( 2018 ) testing the 2 × 2 classification framework using confirmatory factor analysis on data from children in kindergarten, 3rd, and 6th grades failed to find evidence for the static-dynamic dimension at any age or for the overall 2 × 2 classification framework. This study demonstrates that there are limitations to this framework in practice. It suggests that other frameworks with less dimensionality may be more appropriate for understanding children's spatial abilities.

Even in light of these challenges, broad-factor taxonomies can benefit researchers who do not expect specific sub-factors of spatial ability to be relevant for their data or those controlling for spatial ability as part of an investigation of a related construct. Currently, no validated and reliable instruments have been explicitly designed to assess these broad-factor taxonomies. Instead, the scholars proposing these broad-factor taxonomies suggest mapping existing spatial tasks, which are usually tied to specific sub-factors of spatial ability, to the broader categories.

Unitary-Factor Structure

Many scholars understand spatial ability to be composed of a set of specific or broad factors. Neuroimaging studies have even provided preliminary evidence of a distinction between object-based abilities such as mental rotation and orientation skills (e.g., Kosslyn & Thompson, 2003 ). However, there is also empirical support for considering spatial ability as a unitary construct . Early studies (Spearman,  1927 ; Thurstone,  1938 ) identified spatial ability as one factor separate from general intelligence that mentally operates on spatial or visual images. Evidence for a unitary model of spatial ability proposes a common genetic network that supports all spatial abilities (Malanchini et al., 2020 ; Rimfeld et al., 2017 ). When a battery of 10 gamified measures of spatial abilities was given to 1,367 twin pairs, results indicated that tests assessed a single spatial ability factor and that the one-factor model of spatial ability fit better than the two-factor model, even when controlling for a common genetic factor (Rimfeld et al., 2017 ). In another study, Malanchini et al. ( 2020 ) administered 16 spatial tests clustered into three main sub-components: Visualization , Navigation , and Object Manipulation . They then conducted a series of confirmatory factor analyses to fit one-factor (Spatial Ability), two-factor (Spatial Orientation and Object Manipulation), and three-factor models (Visualization, Navigation, and Object Manipulation). The one-factor model gave the best model fit, even when controlling for general intelligence.

A unitary structure is beneficial for researchers interested in questions about general associations between mathematics and spatial ability or for those using spatial ability as a moderator in their analyses. However, to date, no valid and reliable instruments have been created to fit within the unitary taxonomy, such as those that include various spatial items. Instead, researchers who discuss spatial ability as a unitary construct often choose one or multiple well-known spatial measures based on a particular sub-factor of spatial ability (e.g., Boonen et al., 2013 ; Burte et al., 2017 ). This issue motivates the need for an evidence-based, theory-grounded task selection procedure as well as the need to develop a unitary spatial cognition measure. In the absence of a single spatial cognition measure designed to assess spatial ability from a unitary perspective, researchers will need to think critically about selecting measures and analytic frameworks for their studies to cover a range of spatial ability sub-factors and address the limitations of such decisions.

This section reviewed ways spatial abilities have been historically defined and subdivided, with a focus on three of the most widely reported taxonomies: specific-factor structure, broad-factor structure, and unitary structure. The specific-factor structure taxonomy includes subcomponents, such as spatial orientation and rotational and non-rotational spatial visualization, that primarily arise using factor-analytic methods such as exploratory factor analyses. However, discrepancies in factor analytic techniques and test variations led to divergent nomenclature and factorial frameworks. A few dissociations in spatial skills arose from these well-supported methods, such as the distinction between spatial orientation and perspective-taking. The broad-factor structures taxonomy dissociates spatial abilities based on theoretically motivated categories, such as large-scale and small-scale spatial abilities. While these classifications may be helpful for investigating the links between spatial abilities and mathematics, there is currently no empirical evidence to support using these frameworks in practice. The unitary structure taxonomy is based on factor-analytic evidence for a single, overarching spatial ability factor that is separate from general intelligence. Despite the potential advantages of simplicity, there are currently no valid and reliable instruments for measuring a single spatial factor, so this must be based on performance using instruments that measure performance for a specific factor or are imputed across multiple instruments. Additional complexities of directly applying existing measures to mathematics education research include the awareness that mathematical task performance often involves the use of a variety of spatial and non-spatial skills.

Choosing Spatial Tasks in Mathematics Education Research

The context of mathematical reasoning and learning often leads to scenarios where the choice of spatial sub-components influences interpretations. Given the complex nature of spatial ability and the reliance on exploratory rather than confirmatory analyses, there is a need for dissociation approaches with clearer theoretical foundations. Due to the absence of comprehensive spatial cognition measures that address the possible broad-factor and unitary structure of spatial ability, researchers often resort to well-established spatial measures focusing on specific sub-factors, necessitating critical consideration in task selection and analytical frameworks. Thus, there is a need for evidence-based, theory-grounded task selection procedures to help address the current limitations in spatial ability as it relates to mathematics education research.

With so many spatial ability taxonomies to choose from, education researchers must carefully select tasks and surveys that match their stated research goals and theoretical frameworks, the spatial ability skills of interest, and the populations under investigation. As mentioned, mathematics education researchers often select spatial tasks based on practical motivations, such as access or familiarity, rather than theoretical ones. These decisions can be complicated by the vast number of spatial tasks, with little guidance for which ones best align with the various spatial taxonomies. In recent years, there has been a concerted effort by groups such as the Spatial Intelligence and Learning Center (spatiallearning.org) to collect and organize a variety of spatial measurements in one place. However, there is still work to be done to create a list of spatial instruments that researchers can easily navigate. To help guide researchers with these decisions, we have compiled a list of spatial instruments referenced in this paper and matched them with their associated spatial sub-components and intended populations (Table  1 ). These instruments primarily consist of psychometric tests initially designed to determine suitability for occupations such as in the military before being adapted for use with university and high school students (Hegaryt & Waller, 2005 ). As such, the majority of instruments are intended to test specific spatial sub-components derived from factor-analytic methods and were created by psychologists for use in controlled laboratory-based studies rather than in classroom contexts (Atit et al., 2020 ; Lowrie et al., 2020 ). Therefore, we have organized Table  1 by specific spatial sub-components described in the “Specific-Factor Structures” section that overlap with skills found in mathematics curricula as proposed by Ramful and colleagues ( 2017 ).

Comparing the instruments in these ways reveals several vital gaps that must be addressed to measure spatial cognition in a way that correlates with mathematics and spatial abilities across the lifespan. In particular, this analysis reveals an over-representation of certain spatial sub-components, such as mental rotation and spatial visualization, which also map to quadrants of the 2 × 2 (intrinsic-extrinsic/static-dynamic) classification system described in the “Broad-Factor Structures” section. It shows a pressing need for more tasks explicitly designed for other broad sub-components, such as the extrinsic-static classifications. It also reveals that the slate of available instruments is dominated by tasks that have only been tested on adults and few measures that test more than one subcomponent. These disparities are essential for educational considerations and are taken up in the final section.

Due to the sheer number of spatial tasks, the observations that these tasks may not load consistently on distinct spatial ability factors and the lack of tasks that address broad and unitary factor structures, it is not possible in the scope of this review to discuss every task-factor relationship. As a practical alternative, we have grouped spatial ability tasks into three aggregated categories based on their specific-factor dissociations, as discussed in the previous section: Spatial orientation tasks, non-rotational spatial visualization tasks, and mental rotation tasks (for examples, see Fig.  2 ). We have chosen these three categories for two reasons: (1) there is empirical evidence linking these spatial sub-categories to mathematical thinking outcomes, and (2) these categories align with Ramful et al.’s ( 2017 ) three-factor framework, which is one of the only spatial frameworks that was designed with links to mathematical thinking in mind. We acknowledge that other scholars may continue to identify different aggregations of spatial reasoning tasks, including those used with mechanical reasoning and abstract reasoning tasks (e.g., Tversky, 2019 ; Wai et al., 2009 ). In our aggregated categories, mechanical reasoning tasks would align with either mental rotation or non-rotational tasks depending on the specific task demands. In contrast, abstract reasoning tasks would align most closely with non-rotational spatial visualization tasks.

As there are no universally accepted measures of spatial ability for each spatial factor, we have narrowed our discussion to include exemplars of validated, cognitive, pen-and-pencil spatial ability tasks. These tasks have been historically associated with various spatial ability factors rather than merely serving as measures of general intelligence or visuospatial working memory (Carroll, 1993 ) and are easily implemented and scored by educators and researchers without specialized software or statistical knowledge. Notably, this discussion of spatial ability tasks and instruments excludes self-report questionnaires such as the Navigational Strategy Questionnaire (Zhong & Kozhevnikov, 2016 ) and the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale (Hegarty et al., 2002 ); navigation simulations such as the Virtual SILC Test of Navigation (Weisberg et al., 2014 ) and SOIVET-Maze (da Costa et al., 2018 ); and tasks that involve physical manipulation such as the Test of Spatial Ability (Verdine et al., 2014 ). As such, we were unable to find any published, validated instruments for large-scale spatial orientation, a sub-factor of spatial orientation, that meet our inclusion criteria.

Additionally, we would like to highlight one instrument that does not fit into the categories presented in the following sections but may be of use to researchers. The Spatial Reasoning Instrument (SRI; Ramful et al., 2017 ) is a multiple-choice test that consists of three spatial subscales (spatial orientation, spatial visualization, and mental rotation). Notably, the questions that measure spatial visualization are specifically designed not to require mental rotation or spatial orientation. Unlike previously mentioned instruments, the SRI is not a speed test, though students are given a total time limit. This instrument targets middle school students and was designed to align more closely with students’ mathematical curricular experiences rather than a traditional psychological orientation. Mathematical connections in the SRI include visualizing lines of symmetry, using two-dimensional nets to answer questions about corresponding three-dimensional shapes, and reflecting objects.

In the next sections, we detail the types of tasks and instruments commonly used to measure spatial orientation, non-rotational spatial visualization, and mental rotation. Ultimately, these help form a guide for navigating and selecting among the various instruments for assessing spatial skills in relation to mathematical reasoning.

Spatial Orientation Tasks

Much like spatial ability more generally, spatial orientation skills fit into the broad distinctions of large-scale (e.g., wayfinding, navigation, and scaling abilities) and small-scale (e.g., perspective-taking and directional sense) skills, with small-scale spatial orientation skills being shown to be correlated with larger-scale spatial orientation skills (Hegarty & Waller, 2004 ; Hegarty et al., 2002 ). Aspects of mathematical thinking that may involve spatial orientation include scaling, reading maps and graphs, identifying orthogonal views of objects, and determining position and location. Although few empirical studies have attempted to determine statistical associations between spatial orientation and mathematics, spatial orientation has been correlated with some forms of scholastic mathematical reasoning. One area of inquiry showed associations between spatial orientation and early arithmetic and number line estimation (Cornu et al., 2017 ; Zhang & Lin, 2015 ). In another, spatial orientation skills were statistically associated with problem-solving strategies and flexible strategy use during high school-level geometric and non-geometric tasks (Tartre, 1990 ). Studies of disoriented children as young as three years old show that they reorient themselves based on the Euclidean geometric properties of distance and direction, which may contribute to children's developing abstract geometric intuitions (Izard et al., 2011 ; Lee et al., 2012 ; Newcombe et al., 2009 ).

Historically, the Guilford-Zimmerman (GZ) Spatial Orientation Test ( 1948 ) was used to measure spatial orientation. Critics have shown that this test may be too complicated and confusing for participants (Kyritsis & Gulliver, 2009 ) and that the task involves both spatial orientation and spatial visualization (Lohman, 1979 ; Schultz, 1991 ). To combat the GZ Spatial Orientation Test problems, Kozhevnikov and Hegarty ( 2001 ) developed the Object Perspective Taking Test, which was later revised into the Object Perspective/Spatial Orientation Test (see Fig.  2 A; Hegarty & Waller, 2004 ). Test takers are prevented from physically moving the test booklet, and all items involved an imagined perspective change of at least 90°. Unlike previous instruments, results from the Object Perspective/Spatial Orientation Test showed a dissociation between spatial orientation and spatial visualization factors (though they were highly correlated) and correlated with self-reported judgments of large-scale spatial cognition. A similar instrument, the Perspective Taking Test for Children, has been developed for younger children. (Frick et al., 2014a , 2014b ). Additionally, simpler versions of these tasks that asked participants to match an object to one that has been drawn from an alternative point of view have also been used, such as those in the Spatial Reasoning Instrument (Ramful et al., 2017 ).

Non-Rotational Spatial Visualization Tasks

With differing definitions of spatial visualization, measures of this spatial ability sub-component often include tasks that evaluate other spatial ability skills, such as cross-sectioning tasks (e.g., Mental Cutting Test; CEEB, 1939 , and Santa Barbara Solids Test; Cohen & Hegarty, 2012 ), that may require elements of spatial orientation or mental rotation. Though these tasks may be relevant for mathematical thinking, this section focuses on tasks that do not overtly require mental rotation. Non-rotational spatial visualization may be involved in several aspects of mathematical thinking, including reflections (Ramful et al., 2015 ) and visual-spatial geometry (Hawes et al., 2017 ; Lowrie et al., 2019 ), visualizing symmetry (Ramful et al., 2015 ), symbolic comparison (Hawes et al., 2017 ), and imagining problem spaces (Fennema & Tarte, 1985 ). A recent study by Lowrie and Logan ( 2023 ) posits that developing students’ non-rotational spatial visualization abilities may be related to better mathematics scores by improving students generalized mathematical reasoning skills and spatial working memory.

The three tests for non-rotational spatial visualization come from the Kit of Factor-Referenced Cognitive Tests developed by Educational Testing Services (Ekstrom et al., 1976 ). These instruments were developed for research on cognitive factors in adult populations. The first instrument is the Paper Folding Test (PFT), one of the most commonly used tests for measuring spatial visualization (see Fig.  2 C). In this test, participants view diagrams of a square sheet of paper being folded and then punched with a hole. They are asked to select the picture that correctly shows the resulting holes after the paper is unfolded. Though this task assumes participants imagine unfolding the paper without the need to rotate, studies have shown that problem attributes (e.g., number and type of folds and fold occlusions) impact PFT accuracy and strategy use (Burte et al., 2019a ).

The second instrument is the Form Board Test. Participants are shown an outline of a complete geometric figure with a row of five shaded pieces. The task is to decide which of the shaded pieces will make the complete figure when put together. During the task, participants are told that the pieces can be turned but not flipped and can sketch how they may fit together.

The third instrument, the Surface Development Test, asks participants to match the sides of a net of a figure to the sides of a drawing of a three-dimensional figure. Like the PFT, strategy use may also impact accuracy on these two measures. This led to the development of a similar Make-A-Dice test (Burte et al., 2019b ), which relies on the number of squares in a row and consecutive folding in different directions rather than just increasing the number of folds to increase difficulty. Additionally, none of these three instruments were explicitly designed to test non-rotational spatial visualization but rather a broader definition of spatial visualization that includes mental rotation. Thus, it is possible that some participants’ strategies may include mental rotation or spatial orientation.

Other common types of spatial visualization tasks include embedded figures adapted from the Gottschaldt Figures Test (Gottschaldt, 1926 ). These tasks measure spatial perception, field-independence, and the ability to disembed shapes from a background, which may be a necessary problem-solving skill (Witkin et al., 1977 ). One instrument, the Embedded Figures Test, originally consisted of 24 trials during which a participant is presented with a complex figure, then a simple figure, and then shown the complex figure again with instructions to locate the simple figure within it (Witkin, 1950 ). Others have used Witkin’s ( 1950 ) stimuli as a basis to develop various embedded figures tests, including the Children’s Embedded Figures Test (Karp & Konstadt, 1963 ) and the Group Embedded Figure Test (Oltman et al., 1971 ).

Mental Rotation Tasks

Mental rotation can be broadly defined as a cognitive operation in which a mental image is formed and rotated in space. Though mental rotation skills are often subsumed under spatial visualization or spatial relations sub-components, they can be treated as a separate skill from spatial orientation and spatial visualization (Linn & Peterson, 1985 ; Shepard & Metzler, 1971 ). As many definitions of general spatial ability include a “rotation” aspect, several studies have investigated the links between mental rotation and mathematics. For young children, cross-sectional studies have shown mixed results. In some studies, significant correlations were found between mental rotation and both calculation and arithmetic skills (Bates et al., 2021 ; Cheng & Mix, 2014 ; Gunderson et al., 2012 ; Hawes et al., 2015 ). Conversely, Carr et al. ( 2008 ) found no significant associations between mental rotation and standardized mathematics performances in similar populations. In middle school-aged children (11–13 years), mental rotation skill was positively associated with geometry knowledge (Battista, 1990 ; Casey et al., 1999 ) and problem-solving (Delgado & Prieto, 2004 ; Hegarty & Kozhevnikov, 1999 ). Studies of high school students and adults have indicated that mental rotation is associated with increased accuracy on mental arithmetic problems (Geary et al., 2000 ; Kyttälä & Lehto, 2008 ; Reuhkala, 2001 ).

Behavioral and imaging evidence suggests that mental rotation tasks invoke visuospatial representations that correspond to object rotation in the physical world (Carpenter et al., 1999 ; Shepard & Metzler, 1971 ). This process develops from 3 to 5 years of age with large individual differences (Estes, 1998 ) and shows varying performance across individuals irrespective of other intelligence measures (Borst et al., 2011 ). Several studies have also demonstrated significant gender differences, with males typically outperforming females (e.g., Voyer et al., 1995 ). However, this gap may be decreasing across generations (Richardson, 1994 ), suggesting it is due at least in part to sociocultural factors such as educational experiences rather than exclusively based on genetic factors. Historically, three-dimensional mental rotation ability has fallen under the spatial visualization skill, while two-dimensional mental rotation occasionally falls under a separate spatial relations skill (e.g., Carroll, 1993 ; Lohman, 1979 ). Thus, mental rotation measures often include either three-dimensional or two-dimensional stimuli rather than a mixture of both.

Three-Dimensional Mental Rotation Tasks

In one of the earliest studies of three-dimensional mental rotation, Shepard and Metzler ( 1971 ) presented participants with pictures of pairs of objects and asked them to answer as quickly as possible whether the two objects were the same or different, regardless of differences in orientation. The stimuli showed objects that were either the same, differing in orientation, or mirror images of those objects. This design provided a nice control since the mirror images had comparable visual complexity but could not be rotated to match the original. Results revealed a positive linear association between reaction time and the angular difference in the orientation of objects. In combination with participant post-interviews, this finding illustrated that in order to make an accurate comparison between the object and the answer questions, participants first imagined the object as rotated into the same orientation as the target object and that participants perceived the two-dimensional pictures as three-dimensional objects in order to complete the imagined rotation. Additional studies have replicated these findings over the last four decades (Uttal et al., 2013 ). Shepard and Metzler-type stimuli have been used in many different instruments, including the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (Guay, 1976 ) and the Mental Rotation Test (see Fig.  2 B; Vandenberg & Kuse, 1978 ). However, recent studies have shown that some items on the Mental Rotation Test can be solved using analytic strategies such as global-shape strategy to eliminate answer choices rather than relying on mental rotation strategies (Hegarty, 2018 ).

One common critique of the Shepard and Metzler-type stimuli is that the classic cube configurations’ complex design is not appropriate for younger populations, leading to few mental rotation studies on this population. Studies have shown that children under 5 years of age have severe difficulties solving standard mental rotation tasks, with children between the ages of 5 and 9 solving such tasks at chance (Frick et al., 2014a , 2014b ). To combat this, studies with pre-school age children often lower task demands by reducing the number of answer choices, removing mirrored and incongruent stimuli, and using exclusively images of two-dimensional objects (Krüger, 2018 ; Krüger et al., 2013 ). In response, some scholars have begun developing appropriate three-dimensional mental rotation instruments for elementary school students, such as the Rotated Colour Cube Test (Lütke & Lange-Küttner, 2015 ). In this instrument, participants are presented with a stimulus consisting of a single cube with different colored sides and are asked to identify an identical cube that has been rotated. However, studies on both three-dimensional and two-dimensional rotation have found that cognitive load depends more on the stimulus angle orientation than the object’s complexity or dimensionality (Cooper, 1975 ; Jolicoeur et al., 1985 ).

Two-Dimensional Mental Rotation Tasks

To measure two-dimensional mental rotation, tasks for all populations feature similar stimuli. These tasks, often referred to as spatial relations or speeded rotation tasks, typically involve single-step mental rotation (Carroll, 1993 ). One common instrument for two-dimensional mental rotation is the Card Rotation Test (Ekstrom et al., 1976 ). This instrument presents an initial figure and asks participants to select the rotated but not reflected items. Importantly, these tasks can be modified for various populations (Krüger et al., 2013 ). One standardized instrument for pre-school and early primary school-age children, the Picture Rotation Test, demonstrates how easily these two-dimensional stimuli can be modified (Quaiser-Pohl, 2003 ).

This section aims to provide an updated review of the various ways in which spatial ability has been historically measured and critically evaluates these assessment tools. As the majority of these measures were designed based on specific-factor structures outlined in the “Specific-Factor Structures” section, we chose to organize our discussion by grouping assessments based on the specific factor it was intended to capture. We also decided to focus on the spatial sub-components that have been suggested to be linked to mathematical thinking, including spatial orientation, spatial visualization, and mental rotation. Ultimately, we found that although there are many spatial measures that researchers can choose from, there is a need for additional measures that address gaps in population and include more than one spatial subcomponent. Additionally, there is a critical need for spatial assessments that can be used in contexts outside of controlled laboratory and one-on-one settings to more deeply understand the complex connections between spatial ability and mathematics education in more authentic learning settings such as classrooms.

A Guiding Framework

We contend that the decisions made regarding the choice of spatial subdivisions, analytical frameworks, and spatial measures will impact both the results and interpretations of findings from studies on the nature of mathematical reasoning in controlled studies. One way these decisions affect the outcomes of a study is that they may change the specific spatial ability sub-components that reliably predict mathematics performance. This is because some factors of spatial ability have been shown to be more strongly associated with certain sub-domains of mathematics than with others (Delgado & Prieto, 2004 ; Schenck & Nathan, 2020 ), but it is unclear how generalizable these findings are as students may use a variety of spatial and non-spatial strategies. Additionally, some models and classifications of spatial ability, such as Uttal et al.’s ( 2013 ) classification and the unitary model of spatial ability, currently do not have validated instruments. Thus, selecting a spatial skills instrument poorly suited to the mathematical skills or population under investigation may fail to show a suitable predictive value. This can lead to an overall weaker model of the dependent variable and lead the research team to conclude that spatial reasoning overall is not relevant to the domain of mathematical reasoning interest. These limitations are often not discussed in the publications we reviewed and, perhaps, may not even be realized by many education researchers. However, as noted, it can be difficult for education researchers to select an appropriate framework among the many alternatives that match their specific domains of study.

Due to the various spatial taxonomies and the assumptions and design decisions needed for choosing the accompanying analytical frameworks, we assert that it is beneficial for most education researchers who do not identify as spatial cognition researchers to avoid attempts to create a specific, universal taxonomy of spatial ability. The evidence of the ways individuals interact with spatial information through the various spatial subcomponents may be based on a particular scholar's perspective of spatial ability, which should inform their choices of spatial taxonomies and analytical frameworks and measures based on their goals.

To help education researchers who may be unfamiliar with the vast literature on spatial ability navigate this large and potentially confusing landscape in service of their study objectives, we have designed a guide in the form of a flowchart that enables them to match spatial taxonomies to analytic frameworks (Fig.  4 ). Our guide, understandably, does not include every possible spatial taxonomy or study aim. Instead, it offers a helpful starting point for incorporating spatial skills into an investigation of mathematical reasoning by focusing on how researchers can draw on specific factor taxonomies and current validated measures of spatial ability in controlled studies.

Flowchart for selecting the appropriate spatial taxonomy and analytic framework for one’s investigation

The first question in the flowchart, Q1, asks researchers to decide how spatial ability will be used in their investigation: either as a covariate or as the main variable of interest. If spatial ability is a covariate, the most appropriate taxonomy would be the unitary model to capture the many possible ways participants could utilize spatial thinking during mathematical reasoning. However, as mentioned in the above section, this model has no validated measure. Thus, we recommend researchers select several measures that cover a variety of specific spatial subcomponents, or a measure designed to test more than one spatial subcomponent, such as the Spatial Reasoning Instrument (Ramful et al., 2017 ). We would then suggest using an analytical framework with a single composite score across multiple tasks to combat issues such as task-related biases (Moreu & Weibels, 2021 ).

If spatial ability is the main variable of interest, answering Q2 in the flowchart directs the researcher to consider whether they are interested in investigating the role of spatial ability as a general concept or as one or more specific sub-components. For example, suppose the researcher is interested in understanding links between spatial ability and a specific mathematic domain. In that case, we recommend using the unitary model of spatial ability and following the recommendations outlined above for using spatial ability as a covariate. For example, Casey et al. ( 2015 ) found that children’s early spatial skills were long-term predictors of later math reasoning skills. In their analysis, the authors identified two key spatial skills, mental rotation, and spatial visualization, that previous work by Mix and Cheng ( 2012 ) found to be highly associated with mathematics performance. To measure these constructs, Casey and colleagues administered three spatial tasks to participants: a spatial visualization measure, a 2-D mental rotation measure, and a 3-D mental rotation measure. The authors were interested in the impact of overall spatial ability on analytical math reasoning and in partially replicating previous findings rather than whether these two factors impacted mathematics performance. Thus, they combined these three spatial scores into a single composite score.

For investigations centering around one or more specific spatial sub-components, we recommend novice researchers use sub-components from specific factor taxonomies (e.g., mental rotation, spatial visualization, spatial orientation). Specific-factor taxonomies are used in a variety of lines of research, including mathematics education. Studies exploring the association between spatial ability and mathematics often focus on a particular sub-factor. For example, some studies have focused on the association between mental rotation and numerical representations (e.g., Rutherford et al., 2018 ; Thompson et al., 2013 ), while others have focused on spatial orientation and mathematical problem solving (e.g., Tartre, 1990 ). Similarly, scholars investigating spatial training efficacy often use spatial tasks based on a single factor or a set of factors as pre- and post-test measures and in intervention designs (e.g., Bruce & Hawes, 2015 ; Gilligan et al., 2019 ; Lowrie et al., 2019 ; Mix et al., 2021 ).

The third question in the flowchart, Q3, asks researchers to select whether their investigation will focus on one particular spatial sub-component or several to provide guidance for analytic frames. In new studies, the sub-components of interest may be selected based on prior studies for confirmatory analyses or on a theoretical basis for exploratory studies. If only a single spatial sub-component is of interest to the investigation, we suggest an analytic approach that includes a single score from one task. If multiple spatial sub-components are relevant to the investigation, we recommend using a single score from one task for each sub-component of interest.

Task selection, the final step in the flow chart, will depend on practical considerations such as which spatial sub-components are relevant, population age, and time constraints. Though thousands of spatial tasks are available, the tasks listed in Table  1 , which also identifies corresponding broad and specific spatial sub-components, can be a useful starting point for designing a study. We recommend that researchers acknowledge that students may solve mathematical problems in various spatial and non-spatial ways and, thus, their results may not generalize to all students or all mathematical tasks and domains. We also remind researchers that the majority of the measures described in the “Choosing Spatial Tasks in Mathematics Education Research” section are designed as psychometric instruments for use in tightly controlled studies. The guidance above is not intended for studies that involve investigating spatial ability in classrooms or other in situ contexts.

Conclusions and Lingering Questions

Researchers largely agree that spatial ability is essential for mathematical reasoning and success in STEM fields (National Research Council, 2006 ). The two goals of this review were, first, to summarize the relevant spatial ability literature, including the various factor structures and measures, in an attempt to more clearly understand the elements of spatial ability that may relate most closely to mathematics education; and second, to provide recommendations for education researchers and practitioners for selecting appropriate theoretical taxonomies, analytical frameworks, and specific instruments for measuring, interpreting, and improving spatial reasoning for mathematics education. Our review exposed a wide array of spatial taxonomies and analytical frameworks developed by spatial ability scholars for understanding and measuring spatial reasoning. However, this review shows no convergence on a definition of spatial ability or agreement regarding its sub-components, no universally accepted set of standardized measures to assess spatial skills, and, most importantly, no consensus on the nature of the link between mathematical reasoning and spatial ability. Thus, this review exposes several challenges to understanding the relationship between spatial skills and performance in mathematics. One is that the connections between mathematical reasoning and spatial skills, while supported, are complicated by the divergent descriptions of spatial taxonomies and analytical frameworks, the sheer volume of spatial measures one encounters as a potential consumer, and a lack of a universally accepted means of mapping spatial measures to mathematical reasoning processes. These challenges should be seen as the responsibility of the educational psychology research communities. The lack of progress on these issues impedes progress in designing effective spatial skills interventions for improving mathematics thinking and learning based on clear causal principles, selecting appropriate metrics for documenting change, and for analyzing and interpreting student outcome data.

Our primary contribution in the context of these challenges is to provide a guide, well situated in the research literature, for navigating and selecting among the various major spatial taxonomies and validated instruments for assessing spatial skills for use in mathematics education research and instructional design. In order to anchor our recommendations, we first summarized much of the history and major findings of spatial ability research as it relates to education (“Selecting a Spatial Taxonomy” section). In this summary, we identified three major types of spatial taxonomies: specific, broad, and unitary, and provided recommendations for associated analytical frameworks. We then discussed the plethora of spatial ability tasks that investigators and educators must navigate (“Choosing Spatial Tasks in Mathematics Education Research” section). To make the landscape more tractable, we divided these tasks into three categories shown to be relevant to mathematics education — spatial orientation, mental rotation, and non-rotational spatial visualization (see Table  1 ) — and mapped these tasks to their intended populations. We acknowledge that researchers and educators often select spatial tasks and analytic frameworks for practical rather than theoretical reasons, which can undermine the validity of their own research and assessment efforts. To provide educators with a stronger evidence-based foundation, we then offered a guiding framework (“A Guiding Framework” section) in the form of a flowchart to assist investigators in selecting appropriate spatial taxonomies and analytic frameworks as a precursor to making well-suited task sections to meet their particular needs. A guide of this sort provides some of the best steps forward to utilizing the existing resources for understanding and improving education through the lens of spatial abilities. We focused on providing a tool to guide the decision-making of investigators seeking to relate spatial skills with mathematics performance based on the existing resources, empirical findings, and the currently dominant theoretical frameworks.

Several limitations remain, however. One is that the vast majority of published studies administered spatial skills assessments using paper-and-pencil instruments. In recent years, testing has moved online, posing new challenges regarding the applicability and reliability of past instruments and findings. Updating these assessments will naturally take time until research using online instruments and new immersive technologies catches up (see Uttal et al., 2024 , for discussion). A second limitation is that studies investigating the associations between spatial ability and mathematics have often focused on a particular spatial ability or particular mathematical skill. There are many unknowns about which spatial abilities map to which areas of mathematics performance. This limitation can only be addressed through careful, systematic, large-scale studies. A third limitation is that many of the instruments in the published literature were developed for and tested on adult populations. This greatly limits their applicability to school-aged populations. Again, this limitation can only be addressed through more research that extends this work across a broader developmental range. Fourth, many spatial ability instruments reported in the literature include tasks that may be solved using various strategies, some that are non-spatial, thus calling into question their construct validity of whether they measure the specific spatial skills they claim to measure. For example, some tasks in assessments, such as the Paper Folding Test may be effectively solved through non-spatial methods such as logic or counting rather than pure spatial visualization. Thus, there is a pressing need for process-level data, such as immediate retrospective reports and eye tracking (cf. Just & Carpenter, 1985 ), to accurately describe the various psychological processes involved and how they vary by age, individual differences, and assessment context. A fifth limitation relates to the 2 × 2 classification system using intrinsic and extrinsic information along one dimension and static and dynamic tasks along the other (Newcombe & Shipley, 2015 ; Uttal et al., 2013 ). In mapping existing tasks to this system, it became clear that there is a need for more development of extrinsic-static tasks and instruments. We found no studies investigating the link between mathematical reasoning and extrinsic-static spatial abilities, perhaps because of the lack of appropriate assessments. The sixth, and arguably greatest limitation is that scholarly research on spatial ability still lacks a convergent taxonomy and offers no clear picture as to which aspects of spatial thinking are most relevant to STEM thinking and learning. More research is needed to test additional models of spatial ability, such as the unitary model, and to expand spatial ability assessment tools to capture the complex and multifaceted nature of spatial thinking needed in mathematics education environments.

The objectives of this paper were to provide researchers with an updated review of spatial ability and its measures and to provide a guide for researchers new to spatial cognition to help navigate this vast literature when making study design decisions. Overall, research to understand the structure of spatial ability more deeply is at a crossroads. Spatial ability is demonstrably relevant for the development of mathematics reasoning and offers a malleable factor that may have a profound impact on the design of future educational interventions and assessments. Synthesizing these lines of research highlighted several areas that remain unexplored and in need of future research and development. STEM education and workforce development remain essential for scientific and economic advancements, and spatial skills are an important aspect of success and retention in technical fields. Thus, it is critical to further understand the connections between spatial and mathematical abilities as ways to increase our understanding of the science of learning and inform the design of future curricular interventions that transfer skills for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

Amalric, M., & Dehaene, S. (2016). Origins of the brain networks for advanced mathematics in expert mathematicians. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113 (18), 4909–4917. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1603205113

Article   Google Scholar  

Atit, K., Power, J. R., Pigott, T., Lee, J., Geer, E. A., Uttal, D. H., Ganley, C. M., & Sorby, S. A. (2022). Examining the relations between spatial skills and mathematical performance: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 29 , 699–720. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-021-02012-w

Atit, K., Uttal, D. H., & Stieff, M. (2020). Situating space: Using a discipline-focused lens to examine spatial thinking skills. Cognitive Research: Principle and Implications, 5 (19), 1–16.

Google Scholar  

Bates, K. E., Gilligan-Lee, K., & Farran, E. K. (2021). Reimagining mathematics: The role of mental imagery in explaining mathematical calculation skills in childhood. Mind, Brain, and Education, 15 (2), 189–198.

Battista, M. T. (1990). Spatial visualization and gender differences in high school geometry. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 21 (1), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.2307/749456

Battista, M. T. (2007). The development of geometric and spatial thinking. In F. K. Lester (Ed.), Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 843–908). Information Age Publishing.

Battista, M.T., Frazee, L. M., & Winer, M. L. (2018). Analyzing the relation between spatial and geometric reasoning for elementary and middle school students. In K. S. Mix & M. T. Battista (Eds.), Visualizing Mathematics. Research in Mathematics Education (pp. 195 – 228). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98767-5_10

Boonen, A. J. H., van der Schoot, M., van Wesel, F., de Vries, M. H., & Jolles, J. (2013). What underlies successful world problem solving? A path analysis in sixth grade students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38 , 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.05.001

Borst, G., Ganis, G., Thompson, W. L., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2011). Representations in mental imagery and working memory: Evidence from different types of visual masks. Memory & Cognition, 40 (2), 204–217. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-011-0143-7

Bruce, C. D., & Hawes, Z. (2015). The role of 2D and 3D mental rotation in mathematics for young children: What is it? Why does it matter? And what can we do about it? ZDM, 47 (3), 331–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-014-0637-4

Buckley, J., Seery, N., & Canty, D. (2018). A heuristic framework of spatial ability: A review and synthesis of spatial factor literature to support its translation into STEM education. Educational Psychology Review, 30 , 947–972. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-018-9432z

Buckley, J., Seery, N., & Canty, D. (2019). Investigating the use of spatial reasoning strategies in geometric problem solving. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 29 , 341–362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-018-9446-3

Burte, H., Gardony, A. L., Hutton, A., & Taylor, H. A. (2017). Think3d!: Improving mathematical learning through embodied spatial training. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 2 (13), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-017-0052-9

Burte, H., Gardony, A. L., Hutton, A., & Taylor, H. A. (2019). Knowing when to fold ‘em: Problem attributes and strategy differences in the Paper Folding Test. Personality and Individual Differences, 146 , 171–181.

Burte, H., Gardony, A. L., Hutton, A., & Taylor, H. A. (2019). Make-A-Dice test: Assessing the intersection of mathematical and spatial thinking. Behavior Research Methods, 51 (2), 602–638. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-01192-z

Carpenter, P. A., Just, M. A., Keller, T. A., Eddy, W., & Thulborn, K. (1999). Graded functional activation in the visuospatial system with the amount of task demand. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 11 (1), 9–24. https://doi.org/10.1162/089892999563210

Carr, M., Steiner, H. H., Kyser, B., & Biddlecomb, B. (2008). A comparison of predictors of early emerging gender differences in mathematics competency. Learning and Individual Differences, 18 (1), 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2007.04.005

Carroll, J. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge University Press . https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511571312

Case, R., Okamoto, Y., Griffin, S., McKeough, A., Bleiker, C., Henderson, B., Stephenson, K. M., Siegler, R. S., & Keating, D. P. (1996). The role of central conceptual structures in the development of children’s thought. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 61 (1/2), i–295. https://doi.org/10.2307/1166077

Casey, B. M., Nuttall, R. L., & Pezaris, E. (1999). Evidence in support of a model that predicts how biological and environmental factors interact to influence spatial skills. Developmental Psychology, 35 (5), 1237–1247. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.35.5.1237

Casey, B. M., Pezaris, E., Fineman, B., Pollock, A., Demers, L., & Dearing, E. (2015). A longitudinal analysis of early spatial skills compared to arithmetic and verbal skills as predictors of fifth-grade girls’ math reasoning. Learning and Individual Differences, 40 , 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.03.028

Cheng, Y. L., & Mix, K. S. (2014). Spatial training improves children’s mathematics ability. Journal of Cognition and Development, 15 (1), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2012.725186

Cohen, C. A., & Hegarty, M. (2012). Inferring cross sections of 3D objects: A new spatial thinking test. Learning and Individual Differences, 22 (6), 868–874. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931213601788

College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB). (1939).  Special aptitude test in spatial relations . College Entrance Examination Board, New York.

Cooper, L. A. (1975). Mental rotation of random two-dimensional shapes. Cognitive Psychology, 7 (1), 20–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(75)90003-1

Cooper, L. A., & Mumaw, R. J. (1985).Spatial aptitude. In R. F. Dillman (Ed.). Individual differences in cognition (2nd. Ed., pp.67–94). Academic Press.

Cornu, V., Hornung, C., Schiltz, C., & Martin, R. (2017). How do different aspects of spatial skills relate to early arithmetic and number line estimation? Journal of Numerical Cognition, 3 (2), 309–343. https://doi.org/10.5964/jnc.v3i2.36

da Costa, R., Pompeu, J. E., de Mello, D. D., Moretto, E., Rodrigues, F. Z., Dos Santos, M. D., Nitrini, R., Morganti, F., & Brucki, S. (2018). Two new virtual reality tasks for the assessment of spatial orientation Preliminary results of tolerability, sense of presence and usability. Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 12 (2), 196–204. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642018dn12-020013

Davis, B. (2015). Spatial reasoning in the early years: Principles, assertions, and speculations . Routledge.

Delgado, A. R., & Prieto, G. (2004). Cognitive mediators and sex-related differences in mathematics. Intelligence, 32 , 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(03)00061-8

D’Oliveira, T. (2004). Dynamic spatial ability: An exploratory analysis and a confirmatory study. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 14 (1), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327108ijap1401_2

Ekstrom, R. B., French, J. W., & Harmon, H. H. (1976). Manual for kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests . Educational Testing Service.

Estes, D. (1998). Young children’s awareness of their mental activity The case of mental rotation. Child Development, 69 (5), 1345–1360. https://doi.org/10.2307/1132270

Fennema, E., & Tartre, L. A. (1985). The use of spatial visualization in mathematics by girls and boys. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 16 (3), 184–206.

Ferguson, A. M., Maloney, E. A., Fugelsang, J., & Risko, E. F. (2015). On the relation between math and spatial ability: The case of math anxiety. Learning and Individual Differences, 39 , 1–12.

Frick, A., Hanson, M. A., & Newcombe, N. S. (2014). Development of mental rotation in 3- to 5-year-old children. Cognitive Development, 28 (4), 386–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2013.06.002

Frick, A., Möhring, W., & Newcombe, N. S. (2014). Picturing perspectives: Development of perspective-taking abilities in 4- to 8-year-olds. Frontiers in Psychology, 5 , 386. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00386

Gallistel, C. R., & Gelman, R. (1992). Preverbal and verbal counting and computation. Cognition, 44 (1/2), 43–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(92)90050-R

Galton, F. (1879). Generic Images. The Nineteenth Century, 6 (1), 157–169.

Gaughran, W. (2002). Cognitive modelling for engineers. In 2002 American Society for Engineering Education annual conference and exposition . Montréal, Canada: American Society for Engineering Education.

Geary, D. C., Saults, S. J., Liu, F., & Hoard, M. K. (2000). Sex differences in spatial cognition, computational fluency, and arithmetical reasoning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77 (4), 337–353. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.2000.2594

Gilligan, K. A., Thomas, M. S. C., & Farran, E. K. (2019). First demonstration of effective spatial training for near transfer to spatial performance and far transfer to a range of mathematics skills at 8 years. Developmental Science, 23 (4), e12909. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12909

Gottschaldt, K. (1926). Über den Einfluss der Erfahrung auf die Wahrnehmung von Figuren. Psychologische Forschung, 8 , 261–318. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02411523

Guay, R. B. (1976). Purdue spatial visualization test . Purdue Research Foundation.

Guilford, J. P., & Zimmerman, W. S. (1948). The Guilford-Zimmerman aptitude survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 32 (1), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0063610

Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., Beilock, S. L., & Levine, S. C. (2012). The relation between spatial skill and early number knowledge: The role of the linear number line. Developmental Psychology, 48 (5), 1229–1241. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027433

Hambrick, D. Z., Libarkin, J. C., Petcovic, H. L., Baker, K. M., Elkins, J., Callahan, C. N., Turner, S. P., Rench, T. A., & LaDue, N. D. (2012). A test of the circumvention-of-limits hypothesis in scientific problem solving: The case of geological bedrock mapping. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 14 (3), 397–403. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025927

Hannafin, R. D., Truxaw, M. P., Vermillion, J. R., & Liu, Y. (2008). Effects of spatial ability and instructional program on geometry achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 101 (3), 148–157. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.101.3.148-157

Harris, J., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013). A new twist on studying the development of dynamic spatial transformations: Mental paper folding in young children. Mind, Brain, and Education, 7 (1), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12007

Hawes, Z., & Ansari, D. (2020). What explains the relationship between spatial and mathematical skills? A review of the evidence from brain and behavior. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 27 , 465–482. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-019-01694-7

Hawes, Z. C. K., Moss, J., Caswell, B., Naqvi, S., & MacKinnon, S. (2017). Enhancing children’s spatial and numerical skills through a dynamic spatial approach to early geometry instruction: Effects of a 32-week intervention. Cognition and Instruction, 35 , 236–264.

Hawes, Z., Moss, J., Caswell, B., & Poliszczuk, D. (2015). Effects of mental rotation training on children’s spatial and mathematics performance: A randomized controlled study. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 4 (3), 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2015.05.001

Hegarty, M. (2018). Ability and sex differences in spatial thinking: What does the mental rotation test really measure? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25 , 1212–1219.

Hegarty, M., & Kozhevnikov, M. (1999). Types of visual-spatial representations and mathematical problem solving. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91 (4), 684–689. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.4.684

Hegarty, M., Montello, D. R., Richardson, A. E., Ishikawa, T., & Lovelace, K. (2006). Spatial abilities at different scales: Individual differences in aptitude-test performance and spatial layout learning. Intelligence, 34 (2), 151–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2005.09.005

Hegarty, M., Richardson, A. E., Montello, D. R., Lovelace, K., & Subbiah, I. (2002). Development of a self-report measure of environmental spatial ability. Intelligence, 30 , 425–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00116-2

Hegarty, M., & Waller, D. (2004). A dissociation between mental rotation and perspective-taking spatial abilities. Intelligence, 32 (2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2003.12.001

Hegarty, M. & Waller, D. A. (2005). Individual differences in spatial abilities. In P. Shah, & A. Miyake (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of visuospatial thinking (pp. 121–169). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511610448.005

Hubbard, E. M., Piazza, M., Pinel, P., & Dehaene, S. (2005). Interactions between number and space in parietal cortex. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6 (6), 435–448. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1684

Huttenlocher, J., & Presson, C. C. (1979). The coding and transformation of spatial information. Cognitive Psychology, 11 (3), 375–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(79)90017-3

Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking: From childhood to adolescence. Basic Books. https://doi.org/10.1037/10034-000

Izard, V., Pica, P., Spelke, E. S., & Dehaene, S. (2011). Flexible intuitions of Euclidean geometry in an Amazonian indigene group. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108 (24), 9782–9787. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1016686108

Jansen, P. (2009). The dissociation of small-and large-scale spatial abilities in school-age children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 109 (2), 357–361.

Jolicoeur, P., Regehr, S., Smith, L. B. J. P., & Smith, G. N. (1985). Mental rotation of representations of two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 39 (1), 100–129.

Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1985). Cognitive coordinate systems: Accounts of mental rotation and individual differences in spatial ability. Psychological Review, 92 (2), 137.

Karp, S. A., & Konstadt, N. L. (1963). Manual for the children’s embedded figures test . Cognitive Tests.

Kosslyn, S. M., Koenig, O., Barrett, A., Cave, C. B., Tang, J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1989). Evidence for two types of spatial representations: Hemispheric specialization for categorical and coordinate relations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 15 (4), 723–735. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.15.4.723

Kosslyn, S. M., & Thompson, W. L. (2003). When is early visual cortex activated during visual mental imagery? Psychological Bulletin, 129 (5), 723–746. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.723

Kozhevnikov, M., & Hegarty, M. (2001). A dissociation between object manipulation spatial ability and spatial orientation ability. Memory & Cognition, 29 (5), 745–756. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200477

Kozhevnikov, M., & Thornton, R. (2006). Real-time data display, spatial visualization ability, and learning force and motion concepts. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15 (1), 111–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-006-0361-0

Krüger, M. (2018). Mental rotation and the human body: Children’s inflexible use of embodiment mirrors that of adults. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 23 (3), 418–437. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12228

Krüger, M., Kaiser, M., Mahler, K., Bartels, W., & Krist, H. (2013). Analogue mental transformations in 3-year-olds: Introducing a new mental rotation paradigm suitable for young children. Infant and Child Development, 23 , 123–138. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1815

Kyritsis, M., & Gulliver, S.R. (2009). Gilford Zimmerman orientation survey: A validation. 2009 7th International Conference on Information, Communications and Signal Processing (ICICS) (pp. 1-4).

Kyttälä, M., & Lehto, J. E. (2008). Some factors underlying mathematical performance: The role of visuospatial working memory and non-verbal intelligence. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 23 (1), 77–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173141

Laski, E. V., Casey, B. M., Yu, Q., Dulaney, A., Heyman, M., & Dearing, E. (2013). Spatial skills as a predictor of first grade girls’ use of higher level arithmetic strategies. Learning and Individual Differences, 23 , 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.08.001

Lee, S. A., Sovrano, V. A., & Spelke, E. S. (2012). Navigation as a source of geometric knowledge: Young children’s use of length, angle, distance, and direction in a reorientation task. Cognition, 1 , 144–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.015

Linn, M., & Petersen, A. C. (1985). Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 56 (6), 1479–1498. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130467

Lohman, D. F. (1979).  Spatial ability: A review and re-analysis of the correlational literature (Technical Report No. 8). Stanford, CA: Aptitudes Research Project, School of Education, Stanford University.

Lohman, D. F. (1988). Spatial abilities as traits, processes, and knowledge. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence (pp. 181–248). Lawrence Erlbaum.

Lombardi, C. M., Casey, B. M., Pezaris, E., Shadmehr, M., & Jong, M. (2019). Longitudinal analysis of associations between 3-d mental rotation and mathematics reasoning skills during middle school: Across and within genders. Journal of Cognition and Development, 20 (4), 487–509. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2019.1614592

Lowrie, T., & Logan, T. (2023). Spatial visualization supports students’ math: Mechanisms for spatial transfer. Journal of Intelligence, 11 (6), 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060127

Lowrie, T., Logan, T., & Hegarty, M. (2019). The influence of spatial visualization training on students’ spatial reasoning and mathematics performance. Journal of Cognition and Development, 20 (5), 729–751. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2019.1653298

Lowrie, T., Resnick, I., Harris, D., & Logan, T. (2020). In search of the mechanisms that enable transfer from spatial reasoning to mathematics understanding. Mathematics Educational Research Journal, 32 , 175–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-020-00336-9

Lütke, N., & Lange-Küttner, C. (2015). Keeping it in three dimensions: Measuring the development of mental rotation in children with the Rotated Colour Cube Test (RCCT). International Journal of Developmental Science, 9 (2), 95–114. https://doi.org/10.3233/DEV-14154

Maeda, Y., & Yoon, S. Y. (2013). A meta-analysis on gender differences in mental rotation ability measured by the Purdue spatial visualization tests: Visualization of rotations (PSVT: R). Educational Psychology Review, 25 (1), 69–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-012-9215-x

Malanchini, M., Rimfeld, K., Shakeshaft, N. G., McMilan, A., Schofield, K. L., Rodic, M., Rossi, V., Kovas, Y., Dale, P. S., Tucker-Drob, E. M., & Plomin, R. (2020). Evidence for a unitary structure of spatial cognition beyond general intelligence. Science of Learning, 5 (1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-020-0067-8

McGee, M. (1979). Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin, 86 (5), 889–918. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.5.889

Michael, W. B., Guilford, J. P., Fruchter, B., & Zimmerman, W. S. (1957). The description of spatial-visualization abilities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 17 , 185–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316445701700202

Mix, K. S., & Cheng, Y. L. (2012). The relation between space and math: Developmental and educational implications. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 42 , 197–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-394388-0.00006-x

Mix, K. S., Hambrick, D. Z., Satyam, V. R., Burgoyne, A. P., & Levine, S. C. (2018). The latent structure of spatial skill: A test of the 2 x 2 typology. Cognition, 180 , 268–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.07.012

Mix, K. S., Levine, S. C., Cheng, Y. L., Stockton, J. D., & Bower, C. (2021). Effects of spatial training on mathematics in first and sixth grade children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113 (2), 304–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000494

Mix, K. S., Levine, S. C., Cheng, Y. L., Young, C., Hambrick, D. Z., Ping, R., & Konstantopoulos, S. (2016). Separate but correlated: The latent structure of space and mathematics across development. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145 (9), 1206–1227. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000182

Moreau, D., & Wiebels, K. (2021). Assessing change in intervention research: The benefits of composite outcomes. Advances in Methods and Practice in Psychological Science, 4 (1), 2515245920931930. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245920931930

Newcombe, N. S. (2013). Seeing relationships: Using spatial thinking to teach science, mathematics, and social studies. American Educator, 37 , 26–40.

Newcombe, N. S., Ratliff, K. R., Shallcross, W. L., & Twyman, A. D. (2009). Young children’s use of features to reorient is more than just associative: Further evidence against a modular view of spatial processing. Developmental Science, 13 (1), 213–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00877.x

Newcombe, N. S. & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: new typology, new assignments. In J. S. Gero (Ed), Studying Visual and Spatial Reasoning for Design Creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer, Dordrecht . https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9297-4_10

Okamoto, Y., Kotsopoulos, D., McGarvey, L., & Hallowell, D. (2015). The development of spatial reasoning in young children. In B. Davis (Ed.), Spatial reasoning in the early years: Principles, assertions, and speculations (pp. 25–38). Routledge.

Oltman, P. K., Raskin, E., & Witkin, H. A. (1971). Group embedded figure test . Consulting Psychologists Press.

Oostermeijer, M., Boonen, A. J. H., & Jolles, J. (2014). The relation between children’s constructive play activities, spatial ability, and mathematical work problem-solving performance: A mediation analysis in sixth-grade students. Frontiers in Psychology, 5 , 782. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00782

Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1956). The child’s conception of space. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Potter, L. E. (1995). Small-scale versus large-scale spatial reasoning: Educational implications for children who are visually impaired. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 89 (2), 142–152.

National Research Council. (2006). Learning to think spatially . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/11019

Quaiser-Pohl, C. (2003). The mental cutting test “Schnitte” and the Picture Rotation Test – Two new measures to assess spatial ability. International Journal of Testing, 3 (3), 219–231. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327574IJT0303_2

Ramful, A., Ho, S. Y., & Lowrie, T. (2015). Visual and analytical strategies in spatial visualisation: Perspectives from bilateral symmetry and reflection. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 27 , 443–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-015-0144-0

Ramful, A., Lowrie, T., & Logan, T. (2017). Measurement of spatial ability: Construction and validation of the Spatial Reasoning Instrument for Middle School Students. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 35 (7), 709–727. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282916659207

Reuhkala, M. (2001). Mathematical skills in ninth-graders: Relationship with visuo-spatial abilities and working memory. Educational Psychology, 21 (4), 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410120090786

Richardson, J. T. E. (1994). Gender differences in mental rotation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78 (2), 435–448. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1994.78.2.435

Rimfeld, K., Shakeshaft, N. G., Malanchini, M., Rodic, M., Selzam, S., Schofield, K., Dale, P. S., Kovas, Y., & Plomin, R. (2017). Phenotypic and genetic evidence for a unifactorial structure of spatial abilities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114 (10), 2777–2782. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1607883114

Rutherford, T., Karamarkovich, S. M., & Lee, D. S. (2018). Is the spatial/math connection unique? Associations between mental rotation and elementary mathematics and English achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 62 , 180–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.01.014

Schenck, K. E., Kim, D., Swart, M. I., & Nathan, M. J. (2022, April). With no universal consensus, spatial system perspective affects model fitting and interpretation for mathematics . [Paper Presentation]. American Educational Research Association Conference, San Diego, CA.

Schenck, K. E. & Nathan, M. J. (2020, April). Connecting mathematics, spatial ability, and spatial anxiety . [Paper Presentation]. American Educational Research Association Conference, San Francisco, CA.

Schneider, J., & McGrew, K. (2012). The Cattell–Horn–Carroll model of intelligence. In D. Flanagan & P. Harrison (Eds .), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (3rd ed., pp. 99–144). Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282916651360

Schultz, K. (1991). The contribution of solution strategy to spatial performance. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 45 (4), 474–491. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0084301

Shah, P., & Miyake, A. (1996). The separability of working memory resources for spatial thinking and language processing: An individual differences approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125 (1), 4–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.125.1.4

Shea, D. L., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2001). Importance of assessing spatial ability in intellectually talented young adolescents: A 20-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93 (3), 604–614. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.93.3.604

Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171 (3972), 701–703. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.171.3972.701

Sorby, S. (1999). Developing 3-D spatial visualization skills. Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 63 (2), 21–32.

Sorby, S. A. (2009). Educational research in developing 3-D spatial skills for engineering students. International Journal of Science Education, 31 (3), 459–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690802595839

Sorby, S., Casey, B., Veurink, N., & Dulaney, A. (2013). The role of spatial training in improving spatial and calculus performance in engineering students. Learning and Individual Differences, 26 , 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.03.010

Sorby, S. A., & Panther, G. C. (2020). Is the key to better PISA math scores improving spatial skills? Mathematics Education Research Journal, 32 (2), 213–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-020-00328-9

Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man, their nature and measurement . Macmillan.

Stieff, M. (2007). Mental rotation and diagrammatic reasoning in science. Learning and Instruction, 17 (2), 219–234.

Stieff, M., & Uttal, D. (2015). How much can spatial training improve STEM achievement? Educational Psychology Review, 27 (4), 607–615.

Tam, Y. P., Wong, T. T., & Chan, W. W. L. (2019). The relation between spatial skills and mathematical abilities: The mediating role of mental number line representation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 56 , 14–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.10.007

Tartre, L. A. (1990). Spatial orientation skill and mathematical problem solving. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 21 (3), 216–229.

Thompson, J. M., Nurek, H. C., Moeller, K., & Kardosh, R. C. (2013). The link between mental rotation ability and basic numerical representations. Acta Psychologica, 144 , 324–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.05.009

Thurstone, L. L. (1938). Primary mental abilities . Chicago University Press.

Thurstone, L. L. (1950). Some primary abilities in visual thinking. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 94 (6), 517–521.

Tufte, E. R. (2001). The visual display of quantitative information (2nd ed.). Graphics Press.

Tversky, B. (2019). Transforming thought. In Mind in motion (pp. 85 – 106). Basic Books.

Uttal, D. H., & Cohen, C. A. (2012). Spatial thinking and STEM education: When, why, and how? In B. Ross (Ed.), Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 57, pp. 147–181). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394293-7.00004-2

Uttal, D. H., McKee, K., Simms, N., Hegarty, M., & Newcombe, N. S. (2024). How can we best assess spatial skills? Practical and conceptual challenges. Journal of Intelligence, 12 (1), 8.

Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139 (2), 352–402. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028446

Vandenberg, S. G., & Kuse, A. R. (1978). Mental rotations, a group test of three-dimensional spatial visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47 , 599–604. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1978.47.2.599

Verdine, B. N., Golinkoff, R. M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Newcombe, N. S., Filipowicz, A. T., & Chang, A. (2014). Deconstructing building blocks: Preschoolers’ spatial assembly performance relates to early mathematical skills. Child Development, 85 (3), 1062–1076. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12165

Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995). Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin, 117 (2), 250–270. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.2.250

Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101 (4), 817. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016127

Walsh, V. (2003). A theory of magnitude: Common cortical metrics of time, space, and quantity. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7 , 483–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.09.002

Wang, L., Cohen, A. S., & Carr, M. (2014). Spatial ability at two scales of representation: A meta-analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 36 , 140–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.10.006

Weisberg, S. M., Schinazi, V. R., Newcombe, N. S., Shipley, T. F., & Epstein, R. A. (2014). Variations in cognitive maps: Understanding individual differences in navigation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40 (3), 669–682. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035261

Witkin, H. A. (1950). Individual differences in ease of perception of embedded figures. Journal of Personality, 19 , 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1950.tb01084.x

Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977). Field-dependent and field-independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research, 47 (1), 1–64. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543047001001

Witkin, H. A., Oltman, P. K., Raskin, E., & Karp, S. A. (1971). A manual for the embedded figures test. Consulting Psychologist Press . https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1361

Wolfgang, C., Stannard, L., & Jones, I. (2003). Advanced constructional play with LEGOs among preschoolers as a predictor of later school achievement in mathematics. Early Child Development and Care, 173 (5), 467–475. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443032000088212

Wraga, M., Creem, S. H., & Profitt, D. R. (2000). Updating displays after imagined object and viewer rotations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 26 (1), 151–168. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.26.1.151

Xie, F., Zhang, L., Chen, X., & Xin, Z. (2020). Is spatial ability related to mathematical ability: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 32 , 113–155.

Yilmaz, B. (2009). On the development and measurement of spatial ability. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 1 (2), 1–14.

Young, C. J., Levine, S. C., & Mix, K. S. (2018). The connection between spatial and mathematical ability across development. Frontiers in Psychology, 9 , 775. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00755

Young, C. J., Levine, S. C., & Mix, K. S. (2018). What processes underlie the relation between spatial skill and mathematics? In K. S. Mix & M. T. Battista (Eds.), Visualizing Mathematics. Research in Mathematics Education (pp. 195–228). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98767-5_10

Zacks, J. M., Mires, J., Tversky, B., & Hazeltine, E. (2000). Mental spatial transformations of objects and perspective. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 2 , 315–332. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015584100204

Zacks, J., Rypma, B., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Tversky, B., & Glover, G. H. (1999). Imagined transformations of bodies: An fMRI investigation. Neuropsychologia, 37 (9), 1029–1040. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(99)00012-3

Zhang, X., & Lin, D. (2015). Pathways to arithmetic: The role of visual-spatial and language skills in written arithmetic, arithmetic word problems, and nonsymbolic arithmetic. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41 , 188–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.01.005

Zhong, J. Y., & Kozhevnikov, M. (2016). Relating allocentric and egocentric survey-based representations to the self-reported use of a navigation strategy of egocentric spatial updating. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 46 , 154–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.04.0

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. Martha W. Alibali and Dr. Edward M. Hubbard for their extensive and valuable feedback as part of the preliminary examination committee. We also thank Dr. Michael I. Swart for his feedback on initial and subsequent drafts and for lending graphic design knowledge. Last, we thank Dr. Mary Hegarty and Monica Mendoza for their feedback on the initial drafts of this work.

Open access funding provided by SCELC, Statewide California Electronic Library Consortium No funding, grants, or other support was received for the submitted work.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Teaching and Learning, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA

Kelsey E. Schenck

Department of Educational Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Mitchell J. Nathan

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

This work is primarily based on Kelsey E. Schenck’s preliminary examination thesis working under her advisor, Mitchell J. Nathan. The idea for the article was Kelsey E. Schenck’s under the guidance of Mitchell J. Nathan. Kelsey E. Schenck performed the initial literature search and drafted the initial work. Mitchell J. Nathan critically revised and contributed to subsequent drafts.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kelsey E. Schenck .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Schenck, K.E., Nathan, M.J. Navigating Spatial Ability for Mathematics Education: a Review and Roadmap. Educ Psychol Rev 36 , 90 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-024-09935-5

Download citation

Accepted : 05 August 2024

Published : 17 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-024-09935-5

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Spatial Ability
• Mathematics Education
• Student Cognition
• Factor Analysis
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research