how to start an ethnographic essay

All You Need to Know About How to Write an Ethnography?

Introduction

Welcome to The Knowledge Nest, your ultimate online resource for community and society insights. In this guide, we will delve into the fascinating world of ethnography and provide you with all the information you need to write an exceptional ethnography. Whether you're a student, researcher, or simply curious about this field, we've got you covered!

What is Ethnography?

Ethnography is a research method used in social sciences to study and understand different cultures, groups, and communities. It involves immersing oneself in the cultural setting, observing behaviors, conducting interviews, and documenting experiences. Ethnographies aim to provide rich, detailed, and nuanced accounts of human behavior, beliefs, and practices.

Why Write an Ethnography?

Writing an ethnography allows you to capture the essence of a culture, document its unique practices, and provide valuable insights into the lives and experiences of the people being studied. Ethnographies are essential for understanding cultural diversity, preserving heritage, and informing policy-making processes. They provide a deeper understanding of communities and shed light on important social, economic, and political issues.

Key Elements of an Ethnography

When writing an ethnography, it is important to consider several key elements:

1. Research Question and Objective

Start by defining a clear research question and objective for your ethnography. This will guide your study and help you focus on the specific aspects of the community or group you wish to explore.

2. Participant Observation

Participant observation is a fundamental component of ethnography. It involves immersing yourself in the cultural context, observing behaviors, rituals, and interactions firsthand. Take detailed notes and record your observations to ensure accuracy and thoroughness.

3. Interviews and Conversations

Conduct interviews and engage in conversations with members of the community to gather additional insights and perspectives. Be respectful, build rapport, and utilize open-ended questions to encourage in-depth responses. These interactions will provide a more holistic understanding of the culture and its nuances.

4. Data Collection and Analysis

Collect various sources of data, such as field notes, interviews, photographs, and documents. Analyze the collected data to identify patterns, themes, and recurring ideas. Use qualitative analysis techniques to make sense of the information and draw meaningful conclusions.

5. Structure and Writing Style

A well-structured ethnography should have a clear introduction, detailed description of the cultural setting, analysis of collected data, and a thoughtful conclusion. Use a writing style that is engaging, descriptive, and offers a balanced representation of the community you are studying.

Tips and Best Practices for Writing an Ethnography

1. immerse yourself in the culture.

To truly grasp the cultural context, spend a significant amount of time immersing yourself within the community. Participate in their activities, attend events, and develop relationships to gain trust and insider perspectives.

2. Be Ethical and Respectful

Always prioritize the well-being and consent of the participants in your study. Obtain informed consent, protect their identities, and maintain confidentiality. Respect cultural norms, traditions, and sensitive topics during your research process.

3. Take Detailed Field Notes

During your observations and interactions, take detailed field notes. Capture not only what you see and hear but also your personal reflections, emotions, and reactions. These notes will be invaluable when crafting a rich and insightful ethnography.

4. Reflect on Your Own Subjectivity

Be aware of your own biases, perspectives, and assumptions throughout the research process. Reflect on how your background could influence your interpretation and ensure that your analysis takes into account multiple viewpoints.

5. Use Quotes and Examples

Include direct quotes from interviews and conversations to give your ethnography an authentic voice. Incorporate vivid examples and anecdotes to illustrate your points and engage readers in the cultural experience.

6. Emphasize Context and Interpretation

Provide a thorough analysis of the cultural context and interpret the collected data within that framework. Explore the social, historical, and economic factors that shape the community and its practices. This will contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the culture you are documenting.

Writing an ethnography is a rewarding and enlightening experience that allows you to uncover the intricacies of different cultures and communities. By following the guidelines provided in this comprehensive guide, you will be well-equipped to embark on your ethnographic journey and produce a high-quality piece of research. Remember, authenticity, respect, and attention to detail are key to creating an impactful ethnography. Happy writing!

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• What Is Ethnography? | Definition, Guide & Examples

What Is Ethnography? | Definition, Guide & Examples

Published on March 13, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organization to observe their behavior and interactions up close. The word “ethnography” also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces afterwards.

Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. However, it also involves some practical and ethical challenges.

Table of contents

What is ethnography used for, different approaches to ethnographic research, gaining access to a community, working with informants, observing the group and taking field notes, writing up an ethnography, other interesting articles.

Ethnographic research originated in the field of anthropology, and it often involved an anthropologist living with an isolated tribal community for an extended period of time in order to understand their culture.

This type of research could sometimes last for years. For example, Colin M. Turnbull lived with the Mbuti people for three years in order to write the classic ethnography The Forest People .

Today, ethnography is a common approach in various social science fields, not just anthropology. It is used not only to study distant or unfamiliar cultures, but also to study specific communities within the researcher’s own society.

For example, ethnographic research (sometimes called participant observation ) has been used to investigate  football fans , call center workers , and police officers .

Advantages of ethnography

The main advantage of ethnography is that it gives the researcher direct access to the culture and practices of a group. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about the behavior and interactions of people within a particular context.

By becoming immersed in a social environment, you may have access to more authentic information and spontaneously observe dynamics that you could not have found out about simply by asking.

Ethnography is also an open and flexible method. Rather than aiming to verify a general theory or test a hypothesis , it aims to offer a rich narrative account of a specific culture, allowing you to explore many different aspects of the group and setting.

Disadvantages of ethnography

Ethnography is a time-consuming method. In order to embed yourself in the setting and gather enough observations to build up a representative picture, you can expect to spend at least a few weeks, but more likely several months. This long-term immersion can be challenging, and requires careful planning.

Ethnographic research can run the risk of observer bias . Writing an ethnography involves subjective interpretation, and it can be difficult to maintain the necessary distance to analyze a group that you are embedded in.

There are often also ethical considerations to take into account: for example, about how your role is disclosed to members of the group, or about observing and reporting sensitive information.

Should you use ethnography in your research?

If you’re a student who wants to use ethnographic research in your thesis or dissertation , it’s worth asking yourself whether it’s the right approach:

• Could the information you need be collected in another way (e.g. a survey , interviews)?
• How difficult will it be to gain access to the community you want to study?
• How exactly will you conduct your research, and over what timespan?
• What ethical issues might arise?

If you do decide to do ethnography, it’s generally best to choose a relatively small and easily accessible group, to ensure that the research is feasible within a limited timeframe.

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There are a few key distinctions in ethnography which help to inform the researcher’s approach: open vs. closed settings, overt vs. covert ethnography, and active vs. passive observation. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Open vs. closed settings

The setting of your ethnography—the environment in which you will observe your chosen community in action—may be open or closed.

An open or public setting is one with no formal barriers to entry. For example, you might consider a community of people living in a certain neighborhood, or the fans of a particular baseball team.

• Gaining initial access to open groups is not too difficult…
• …but it may be harder to become immersed in a less clearly defined group.

A closed or private setting is harder to access. This may be for example a business, a school, or a cult.

• A closed group’s boundaries are clearly defined and the ethnographer can become fully immersed in the setting…
• …but gaining access is tougher; the ethnographer may have to negotiate their way in or acquire some role in the organization.

Overt vs. covert ethnography

Most ethnography is overt . In an overt approach, the ethnographer openly states their intentions and acknowledges their role as a researcher to the members of the group being studied.

• Overt ethnography is typically preferred for ethical reasons, as participants can provide informed consent…
• …but people may behave differently with the awareness that they are being studied.

Sometimes ethnography can be covert . This means that the researcher does not tell participants about their research, and comes up with some other pretense for being there.

• Covert ethnography allows access to environments where the group would not welcome a researcher…
• …but hiding the researcher’s role can be considered deceptive and thus unethical.

Active vs. passive observation

Different levels of immersion in the community may be appropriate in different contexts. The ethnographer may be a more active or passive participant depending on the demands of their research and the nature of the setting.

An active role involves trying to fully integrate, carrying out tasks and participating in activities like any other member of the community.

• Active participation may encourage the group to feel more comfortable with the ethnographer’s presence…
• …but runs the risk of disrupting the regular functioning of the community.

A passive role is one in which the ethnographer stands back from the activities of others, behaving as a more distant observer and not involving themselves in the community’s activities.

• Passive observation allows more space for careful observation and note-taking…
• …but group members may behave unnaturally due to feeling they are being observed by an outsider.

While ethnographers usually have a preference, they also have to be flexible about their level of participation. For example, access to the community might depend upon engaging in certain activities, or there might be certain practices in which outsiders cannot participate.

An important consideration for ethnographers is the question of access. The difficulty of gaining access to the setting of a particular ethnography varies greatly:

• To gain access to the fans of a particular sports team, you might start by simply attending the team’s games and speaking with the fans.
• To access the employees of a particular business, you might contact the management and ask for permission to perform a study there.
• Alternatively, you might perform a covert ethnography of a community or organization you are already personally involved in or employed by.

Flexibility is important here too: where it’s impossible to access the desired setting, the ethnographer must consider alternatives that could provide comparable information.

For example, if you had the idea of observing the staff within a particular finance company but could not get permission, you might look into other companies of the same kind as alternatives. Ethnography is a sensitive research method, and it may take multiple attempts to find a feasible approach.

All ethnographies involve the use of informants . These are people involved in the group in question who function as the researcher’s primary points of contact, facilitating access and assisting their understanding of the group.

This might be someone in a high position at an organization allowing you access to their employees, or a member of a community sponsoring your entry into that community and giving advice on how to fit in.

However,  i f you come to rely too much on a single informant, you may be influenced by their perspective on the community, which might be unrepresentative of the group as a whole.

In addition, an informant may not provide the kind of spontaneous information which is most useful to ethnographers, instead trying to show what they believe you want to see. For this reason, it’s good to have a variety of contacts within the group.

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The core of ethnography is observation of the group from the inside. Field notes are taken to record these observations while immersed in the setting; they form the basis of the final written ethnography. They are usually written by hand, but other solutions such as voice recordings can be useful alternatives.

Field notes record any and all important data: phenomena observed, conversations had, preliminary analysis. For example, if you’re researching how service staff interact with customers, you should write down anything you notice about these interactions—body language, phrases used repeatedly, differences and similarities between staff, customer reactions.

Don’t be afraid to also note down things you notice that fall outside the pre-formulated scope of your research; anything may prove relevant, and it’s better to have extra notes you might discard later than to end up with missing data.

Field notes should be as detailed and clear as possible. It’s important to take time to go over your notes, expand on them with further detail, and keep them organized (including information such as dates and locations).

After observations are concluded, there’s still the task of writing them up into an ethnography. This entails going through the field notes and formulating a convincing account of the behaviors and dynamics observed.

The structure of an ethnography

An ethnography can take many different forms: It may be an article, a thesis, or an entire book, for example.

Ethnographies often do not follow the standard structure of a scientific paper, though like most academic texts, they should have an introduction and conclusion. For example, this paper begins by describing the historical background of the research, then focuses on various themes in turn before concluding.

An ethnography may still use a more traditional structure, however, especially when used in combination with other research methods. For example, this paper follows the standard structure for empirical research: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion.

The content of an ethnography

The goal of a written ethnography is to provide a rich, authoritative account of the social setting in which you were embedded—to convince the reader that your observations and interpretations are representative of reality.

Ethnography tends to take a less impersonal approach than other research methods. Due to the embedded nature of the work, an ethnography often necessarily involves discussion of your personal experiences and feelings during the research.

Ethnography is not limited to making observations; it also attempts to explain the phenomena observed in a structured, narrative way. For this, you may draw on theory, but also on your direct experience and intuitions, which may well contradict the assumptions that you brought into the research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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English (EN) - Composition: Ethnographic Essay

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What is an Ethnographic Essay?

Some English instructors will assign an Ethnographic Essay for your English class. What is an Ethnographic Essay?

• It's an essay that focuses on a group, culture or subculture
• It emphasizes close observation, interview, and field notes
• Additional research may be found through library resources
• Other guidelines will be explained to you by your instructor
• Ethnographic Essay Suggestions

Reference Books on Cultures & Subcultures

• American Countercultures: An Encyclopedia of Nonconformists, Alternative Lifestyles, and Radical Ideas in U.S. History by Gina Misiroglu Call Number: Reference 306.1 Am35 2009 (three volumes) Click the PDF document to see an index to this 3-volume reference set in GRCC's Reference collection. Off-campus users may request full-text articles through RaiderLoan.
• Discovering the Peoples of Michigan (series) over 50 titles - a few are in ebook format
• Guides to Subcultures and Countercultures (series) 7 titles, one in ebook format

Ethnographic Essay Databases

Be sure to take a look at the [Subject Guide] that deals with your topic more specifically.  For instance, if you're interested in writing about doctors, nurses, or other health professions, consider a Database from the [Health] , [Nursing] , or other health-related Subject Guides.

• Credo Reference This link opens in a new window Reference E-Books
• Grand Rapids Press This link opens in a new window Online access to the Grand Rapids press from 2000-current. See also MLIVE: http://www.mlive.com/
• Points of View Reference Center This link opens in a new window This is a great database to help you understand the pro's and con's of different debatable topics. It's also a handy place to see a list of really interesting topics if you need paper topic ideas and don't know where to start.
• Research Library This link opens in a new window ProQuest Research Library provides access to a wide range of popular academic subjects from business and political science to literature and psychology. The database includes more than 4,070 titles, nearly 2,800 in full text, from 1971 forward. It includes a diversified mix of scholarly journals, trade publications, magazines, and newspapers.
• SocINDEX with Full Text This link opens in a new window Mostly full-text. Comprehensive sociology research database covering the broad spectrum of sociological study, including Communication studies. The database utilizes subject headings from a built-in sociological thesaurus for better search results.

Ethnographic Essay Topics/Sample Papers

For more ideas on ethnographic essay topics, review your textbook or visit the links below.

• List of Subcultures from Wikipedia
• List of Subcultures from Your-Dictionary.com
• List of Hobbies from Discover a Hobby web page
• Pew Research Center: Reports on politics, religion, and technology trends.
• Google Trends: Highlights trends from Google search term
• Sample Papers from BHM Schools
• Last Updated: Jul 23, 2024 8:49 AM
• URL: https://subjectguides.grcc.edu/englishcomposition

Writing Ethnography

Learning objectives.

• Summarize how anthropologists transform their fieldwork data into a story that communicates meaning.

WRITING ETHNOGRAPHY by Katie Nelson

Analysis and interpretation of research findings.

Once all or most of the fieldwork is complete, ethnographers analyze their data and research findings before beginning to write. There are many techniques for data analysis from which to choose based on the strategy and goals of the research. Regardless of the particular technique, data analysis involves a systematic interpretation of what the researcher thinks the data mean. The ethnographer reviews all of the data collected, synthesizes findings from the review, and integrates those findings with prior studies on the topic. Once the analysis is complete, the ethnographer is ready to write an account of the fieldwork.

Thick Description

Ethnography produces a detailed description of the studied group at a particular time and location, also known as a “thick description,” a term coined by anthropologist Clifford Geertz in his 1973 book The Interpretation of Cultures to describe this type of research and writing. A thick description explains not only the behavior or cultural event in question but also the context in which it occurs and anthropological interpretations of it. Such descriptions help readers better understand the internal logic of why people in a culture behave as they do and why the behaviors are meaningful to them. This is important because understanding the attitudes, perspectives, and motivations of cultural insiders is at the heart of anthropology.

Ethnographic Authority

In recent years, anthropologists have expressed concern about how ethnographies should be written in terms of ethnographic authority: how ethnographers present themselves and their informants in text. In a nonfiction text, the author is a mediator between readers and the topic and the text is written to help readers understand an unfamiliar topic. In an ethnography, the topic is people, and people naturally vary in terms of their thoughts, opinions, beliefs, and perspectives. That is, they have individual voices. In the past, anthropologists commonly wrote ethnographic accounts as if they possessed the ultimate most complete scientific knowledge on the topic. Subsequently, anthropologists began to challenge that writing style, particularly when it did not include the voices of their informants in the text and analysis. Some of this criticism originated with feminist anthropologists who noted that women’s experiences and perspectives frequently were omitted and misrepresented in this style of writing. Others believed that this style of writing reinforced existing global power dynamics and privileges afforded to Western anthropologists’ voices as most important.

Polyvocality

In response to criticisms about ethnographic authority, anthropologists have begun to include polyvocality. A polyvocal text is one in which more than one person’s voice is presented, and its use can range from ensuring that informants’ perspectives are presented in the text while still writing in the researcher’s voice to including informants’ actual words rather than paraphrasing them and co-authoring the ethnography with an informant. A good example of polyvocality is anthropologist Ruth Behar’s book Translated Woman: Crossing the Border with Esperanza’s Story (1993). Behar’s book documents the life story of a Mexican street peddler, Esperanza Hernández, and their unique friendship. Large sections of the book are in Esperanza’s own words and discuss issues that are important to her. Behar also includes pieces of her own life story and an anthropological analysis of Esperanza’s story.

By using polyvocality, researchers can avoid writing from the perspective of the ultimate ethnographic authority. A polyvocal style also allows readers to be more involved in the text since they have the opportunity to form their own opinions about the ethnographic data and perhaps even critique the author’s analysis. It also encourages anthropologists to be more transparent when presenting their methods and data.

Reflexivity

Reflexivity is another relatively new approach to ethnographic research and writing. Beginning in the 1960s, social science researchers began to think more carefully about the effects of their life experiences, status, and roles on their research and analyses. They began to insert themselves into their texts, including information about their personal experiences, thoughts, and life stories and to analyze in the accounts how those characteristics affected their research and analysis.

Adoption of reflexivity is perhaps the most significant change in how ethnography is researched and written in the past 50 years. It calls on anthropologists to acknowledge that they are part of the world they study and thus can never truly be objective. Reflexivity has also contributed to anthropologists’ appreciation of the unequal power dynamics of research and the effects those dynamics can have on the results. Reflexivity reminds the ethnographer that there are multiple ways to interpret any given cultural scenario. By acknowledging how their backgrounds affect their interpretations, anthropologists can begin to remove themselves from the throne of ethnographic authority and allow other, less-empowered voices to be heard.

Avoiding “Otherizing” People in Ethnographic Writing

A classic example of a style of anthropological writing that attempted to make the familiar strange ( rather than the strange familiar) and encouraged readers to consider their own cultures in a different way is Horace Miner’s Body Ritual among the Nacirema (1956). The essay described oral hygiene practices of the Nacirema (“American” spelled backward) in a way that, to cultural insiders, sounded extreme, exaggerated, and out of context. He presented the Nacirema as if they were a little-known cultural group with strange, exotic practices. Miner wrote the essay during an era in which anthropologists were just beginning to expand their focus beyond small-scale traditional societies far from home to large-scale post-industrial societies such as the United States. He wrote the essay primarily as a satire of how anthropologists often wrote about “the Other” in ways that made other cultures seem exotic and glossed over features that the Other had in common with the anthropologist’s culture. The essay also challenged U.S. readers in general and anthropologists in particular to think differently about their own cultures and re-examine their cultural assumptions about what is “normal.”

discussion question

• How do anthropologists transform their fieldwork data into a story that communicates meaning?
• How are reflexivity and polyvocality changing the way anthropologists communicate their work?

Bibliography

Behar, Ruth. Translated Woman: Crossing the Border with Esperanza’s Story . Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1993.

• Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology. Authored by : Edited by Nina Brown, Laura Tubelle de Gonzalez, and Thomas McIlwraith. Provided by : American Anthropological Association. Located at : http://perspectives.americananthro.org/ . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
• Doing Fieldwork: Methods in Cultural Anthropology. Authored by : Katie Nelson. Provided by : Inver Hills Community College. Located at : http://perspectives.americananthro.org/Chapters/Fieldwork.pdf . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial

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• Five Simple Steps for Helping Students Write Ethnographic Papers
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Part Two of “Teaching Culture and Methods to Novice/Non-Anthropologists”

In my last post, I made the case for having students attempt ethnographic papers in courses other than “methods.” By introducing early undergraduates to the pleasures of ethnography, I think we showcase anthropology’s strong suit, but more importantly, I think it is a great way to scaffold them into ways of writing and reading that will serve them well in both the social sciences and the humanities. In this second post, I share the steps I go through to squeeze an ethnographic experience into what are admittedly short, one-term courses (12 weeks). I would love to hear from others who experiment with “hands-on” approaches in sociocultural and linguistic anthropology. Here are my five steps:

Sending students out into the world is less institutionally daunting than it may seem. Course theme and coincidence largely guide my choice as to how to structure where students will do their observations. I generally choose “public spaces” as the ethics approval for these activities is fairly straightforward. I have sent all my students to the same place and have let them choose their own—both ways work. In linguistic anthropology I have them choose a “Community of Practice” which is pretty wide open and can mean anything from drag queens to gym rats. In a third year Politics of Indigeneity course, I had students watch patrons pass through (or not) the Aboriginal Canadian exhibit at the Royal Ontario Museum. This challenges them not to leap to a criticism of the exhibit, but to attend to what happens through it.

2. Gather and Narrow

Once the students find a “there” to be at, I ask them to take field notes. I keep the instructions simple: jot notes in the field, expand notes immediately after, and write a paragraph on what they make of things. There are great sources out there on writing field notes. I don’t use them. My preference is to have students read thematic content, and so I accept that the exercise of writing an ethnographic paper for early undergraduates is an incomplete introduction to fieldwork.

Instead of readings, I show them student samples I find online from similar courses and I share my own field notes. Reading my notes out loud lets students see that while some observations seem like they aren’t about anything , over time they can become the basis of an idea or argument. They also see how my notes sound “like me” and that this is just fine. Many students want to search for an authoritative voice for note taking. Usually this means listing demographic facts in the hopes of sounding thorough or scientific. I try and show them how this leaves little to work with when writing time comes.

I make the case for the old adage “show, don’t tell.” Because I send them out without a firm topic, I warn them that they will feel that their notes are about “nothing.” The trick then is to get down as many telling details as possible. The less they put into the notes the harder it is for me to pull a paper out. First-time ethnographic papers feel a bit like grabbing a rabbit out of a hat—there is some degree of hocus pocus involved.

After one or two visits, depending on the course, there is enough to get us to the next stage—which is narrowing to a topic/theme (the rabbit). I admit this piece is much easier in smaller courses where you can meet one-on-one with students. The hardest part is getting them to see their field site as a window into a debate, and not an exploration of the site for itself. The rabbit goes where it goes and their job is to follow. This usually means a topic they weren’t planning on. These are the best moments if they are open to the chase.

Images courtesy of UTSC.

Once I see the themes of the papers emerge, I group students into research communities. They almost always cluster well, with only one or two real outliers. In larger classes, I reorganize tutorial groups by these shared interests. If in lecture I ask them to get together to talk or work through a concept or the readings, I ask them to do it in their research communities so that they are dialoguing new information with, and through, their own work/topics.

Their final reading(s) are tailored to their interests, using broad themes like religion, sports, work, gender/sexuality, food, the body, etc. I decide on key article(s) they should read. Sometimes this means asking colleagues (or TAs, if you are lucky to have them). This “open” reading strategy is a gamble, but I get good feedback on the approach. The requirement for the final assignment is to put their field materials into conversation with the targeted reading, and any others from the course. This anchors all the papers in the group to a debate.

I almost always have them do multiple visits (2-3) because it usually opens up their observation skills and brings in richer data.

To get them into the flavor and feel of ethnographic writing, I start one or two classes with free writing exercises geared at getting them to find their voice, or the story they are going to tell. Kirin Narayan’s book Alive in the Writing has great prompts adaptable to student projects. These don’t take long and are a nice break from lecture. I do these exercises along with them so they can see that thoughts wander and some pieces will be good, while others need work—lots of work.

A full-blown paper may not always be the best way to assess what they have learned. It may also be too much work for some courses. I have found a few ways around the “too much” dilemma. For example, in my large linguistic anthropology course, exams are mandatory. I have framed the essay question to be answerable with their collected data. I let them bring in a single page of notes and leave it up to them to decide whether that page has “raw” or “cooked” data (thanks Laura!). This spares them writing an exam separate from a paper, and provides mental relief (for me, too). In a compressed summer course in Women and Gender Studies, where the anthropological approach is new to many students, I elected to have them write extended essay proposals in lieu of papers. Some were taken with the process and elected to write full papers.

When it Works

I have many students who don’t feel entitled to participate in academic debates. Ethnography allows them to enter these debates by starting from a place they feel comfortable—their everyday worlds. Gradually, they learn that theory has to be accountable to the everyday and they start to see themselves as capable interlocutors.

My motivation for organizing courses around mini-ethnographic papers is also partly selfish. It greatly improves the interest factor when marking time comes. The papers aren’t rehearsals of what I have told them in class and always have at least a good anecdote or two. Maybe more importantly, this style of paper asks students to think of themselves as writers/observers and this changes how they approach readings. Not only are they attending to content and argument, but also style and narrative. They start asking how these realms might relate and that’s when things get interesting.

The results are always unexpected. Sometimes these assignments lay the foundation for an interest in graduate work or more research-oriented courses. And sometimes something larger and unexpected unfolds.

Last year, Diana was one of ten young women in my linguistic anthropology course who was looking at service workers as a community of practice. Everyone in the group worked in retail clothing shops to support their studies. As I have an interest in language and work, I led this group’s tutorial. At the outset most said they felt “free” to talk how they wanted. Then as the course progressed and they were introduced to different ideas about language things started to shift. They saw their places of employment differently. They saw talk as “work” and began to describe tensions between scripts managers wanted them to use and notions of forging “genuine” connections to clients in order to make sales. Diana’s story stood out. She zoomed in on newly instituted headsets she and other employees had to wear while working. She observed how conventions of conversation were jeopardized by interruptions over the headset, which clients could often hear. About four months after the course ended, I received this email from her:

I’m not too sure if you remember who I am (I know you have a lot of students), but I’m the girl who wrote about her retail job — Sirens from your ANT206 class. I’m the one that had all the horrible stories about my workplace and the surveillance that we’re put under (headsets). Well, I’m writing to inform you that about a month and a half ago we decided to form a union against the company. It was a long and stressful process, but I can proudly say that we are now the first Sirens unionized in Canada!!

Lindsay A. Bell is a recovering fourth-grade teacher now in the business of teaching Anthropology and Women and Gender Studies at the University of Toronto. In this two-part series, she shares her experiences in putting ethnographic methods and writing at the centre of undergraduate teaching. She teaches in the areas of linguistic anthropology, Indigenous issues, political ecology, gender, and consumer culture. She writes about anthropology, arctic studies, ashtanga yoga, and alliteration. You can find her on Twitter @DrLibertyBell .

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1 Introduction to Ethnography

• Published: May 2018
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This introductory chapter introduces ethnography as a distinct research and writing tradition. The author begins by historically contextualizing ethnography’s professionalization within the fields of anthropology and sociology. While highlighting the formidable influences of, for example, Bronislaw Malinowski and the Chicago school, the author complicates existing understandings by bringing significant, but less-recognized, influences and contributions to light. The chapter next outlines three principal research methods that most ethnographers utilize—namely, participant-observation, fieldnote writing, and ethnographic interviewing. The discussion then shifts from method to methodology to explain the primary qualities that separate ethnography from other forms of participant-observation-oriented research. This includes introducing a research disposition called ethnographic comportment , which serves as a standard for gauging ethnography throughout the remainder of the book. The author presents ethnographic comportment as reflecting both ethnographers’ awarenesses of and their accountabilities to the research tradition in which they participate.

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sociology for the public

Margaret Mead sitting between two Samoan girls, ca. 1926. Gelatin silver print. Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (50b) http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mead/images/mm0050bs.jpg

how to do ethnography right

Ethnographies are works of deep research based on in-depth, open-ended interviews and keen observations of how people go about their lives in different contexts. Researchers often spend years in their research sites to get to know the people and places they study in a way that can’t be done using other methods. Ethnographies are (arguably) the most visible and relatable research products that sociologists have to offer the general public. They tell stories about our social world backed up by rigorously gathered data. That’s pretty cool.

While ethnographers are very much expert in their research domains, their work is increasingly subject to public scrutiny. It is important for sociologists to develop and maintain professional standards that allow them to conduct the best research without compromising quality in the face of potential criticism and controversy. Recent conversations about the practice of ethnography have been spurred by the responses — public and academic — to high profile books in the past few years. But that is just the current manifestation of an evolving dialogue about the best way to do ethnographic work. A number of important issues have featured in this conversation: data preservation and sharing, replicability and confidentiality, peer review, funding and research support, and others.

At the suggestion of the American Sociological Association’s Council, we organized this special forum with some of the top practitioners in the field. Here you’ll find six papers that lay out “best practices” for ethnographers to follow. (Follow the links to read more!)

• We start with Dana R. Fisher’s paper, “ Doing qualitative research as if counsel is hiding in the closet .” Whether you study elites or study the poor, Fisher says you should do your research as if the group you’re working with has legal representation. It could save you headaches (and money, and even your reputation) down the road.
• Ethnographers for the most part work alone, and they use convenience sampling, that is, they talk to people who are conveniently located for them to talk with. Stefanie DeLuca, Susan Clampet-Lundquist, and Kathryn Edin argue in their essay, “ Want to improve your qualitative research? Try using representative sampling and working in teams ,” that ethnographers can, and should, well, use representative sampling and work in teams. This will improve the depth and reliability of your data and your story.
• Another common practice that ethnographers do by default is to provide anonymity for the people they interact with and the places where they do their research. In “ Ethnographic masking in an era of data transparency ,” Alexandra Murphy and Colin Jerolmack debate the merits of this practice and, for the most part, find it to be unnecessary and, for the purposes of scholarship, counterproductive. They argue that our default practice should be to name names and places, unless there are specific case-by-case reasons not to.
• Sometimes researchers are stymied when they’re trying to study populations that are difficult to get a hold of. Kimberly Kay Hoang and Rhacel Salazar Parreñas tell us how they were able to reach out to, and conduct research with, a broad range of sex workers in Vietnam, and domestic workers in Dubai, in their essay, “ Accessing the hardest to reach population .”
• It has become standard for social science researchers to gain approval from their university’s Institutional Review Board before they start work on a project. This can be frightening and frustrating. Abigail E. Cameron gives practical advice in her paper, “ The unhappy marriage of IRBs and ethnography ,” for how you can navigate the IRB process painlessly. (Ok, less painfully.) Even controversial topics can gain approval if you approach your IRB in the right way.
• The last paper here is by Annette Lareau and Aliya Hamid Rao, “ It’s about the depth of your data .” They remind us that ethnographers are not quantitative researchers, and that the small, nonrandom sample ethnographers usually have actually isn’t a problem — in fact that’s a selling point for ethnography. The ethnographer is telling the reader a story, and Lareau and Rao tell us that detailed fieldnotes, lengthy interviews with smaller numbers of people, smartly developed themes and analyses, and crisp writing are the key to good ethnographic storytelling. Sometimes ethnographers forget these things. It’s good that Lareau and Rao are reminding us.

Taken together, we shouldn’t consider these as a blueprint for criticism-free research or a set of “how to” papers. But it’s close. So read, learn, enjoy—and if you’re an ethnographer, go forth and do your thing!

Pieter Cloete

Ethnography is much needed where genarised beliefs, stereotypes and invalidated generalisations direct policy. I find the article helpful as reading for first year students in sociology.

Gene Shackman, Applied Sociologist

I strongly disagree with the suggestion to report real names. You get more trust and openness if you keep people anonymous.

I did an ethnography back in the 1970's, and wish there had been more guidance like this in sociology for the practice. I had an excellent chair who had himself done a well recognized ethnography in the field, but mostly I relied on advice and guidance from anthropology graduate students who received rigorous training in ethnography. I used real names, real places because my focus was on the building of public, community networks...on the rare occasions that I reported more private opinions and activities, those were often included with descriptors (age, gender, etc.) but without name attribution in the final manuscript (although they still exist in the field notes with full identification). The issue of anonymity versus naming names depends upon the focus and the context of the research - there are any number of famous historical examples (one that comes to mind is Vidich and Bensman's Small Town in Mass Society) where long before the age of the Internet the subjects of ethnography were easily able to identify themselves and others despite all attempts at anonymity by the researchers.

Sarah WillieLeBreton

I appreciate the ideas expressed here but the fact that anthropology isn't even mentioned seems an odd absence. Perhaps it's coming from a combined department, but our colleagues in anthropology use ethnography in very similar ways.

Glenna G. Woods

These kinds of articles or researches are important for students. Many time I see for students to find the best topic for speech is little bit difficult, even sometime they can't write their assignments by themself. So to say that these aricles is good for students is not wrong.

Stephanie Santos

Wow, looks great, especially the end. I was looking for that topic for a couple of days across the nest, but there was nothing precious, only found this https://greentrainglobal.org/, but still so happy to reach your post at the end. I'm keen on that theme, and I want to be always conscious of the most recent news. That is a pleasure to read your article and finally clarify the issue myself.

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Ethnographies are works of deep research based on in-depth, open-ended interviews and keen observations of how people go about their lives in different contexts. Researchers often spend years in their research sites to get to know the people and places they study in a way that can’t be done using other methods. Ethnographies are (arguably) the most visible and relatable research products that sociologists have to offer the general public. They tell stories about our social world backed up by rigorously gathered data about granny . That’s pretty cool.

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Ethnographic Essay: how to write an ethnography paper/report + Examples (2024)

Ethnographic writing may include writing ethnography assignments, ethnographic essays, or ethnographic research papers. In this article we will guide you how to write an ethnography paper – all types for college and graduate level students. We will also discuss how to conduct an ethnographic research study.

Ethnographic research is one of the most important branches of anthropology . It is a type of research that focuses on understanding how society functions by studying its members within their natural environment. Most often it is carried out in natural settings rather than laboratories for obvious reasons: researchers are able to observe human behaviors more closely when they are not artificially confined to a certain space or time.

Let first define ethnography and related terms.

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What is ethnography?

Ethnography is a research method that can be used to explore people’s experiences, thoughts, and feelings about the world around them. Ethnographers look closely at their subjects’ behaviors and interactions with one another. They might observe how people communicate or examine how they work together, share tasks, resolve conflicts, etc. The ethnographer also listens carefully to the people they are studying so that they can describe their perception of what is happening. They might ask questions, take notes, and/or use recording devices to document specific incidents or longer interactions.

Ethnographers work with either a participant observer focus (participants are active participants in the research) or an outsider perspective (researchers are simply observers of the group). In either case, ethnographers try to build a solid rapport with those they are studying. It is important that participants feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and feelings with the researcher.

Ethnography as a method has been around for many years. Anthropologists have used ethnography to study people’s beliefs and customs in far-flung places. Marketers, political scientists, leaders in education and healthcare, journalists, sociologists, and many others have used ethnography to study human behavior – both their own behaviors as well as those of people they are interested in learning more about (e.g., the customers who use their product or service, children who attend school, patients, etc.).

The purposes of ethnography.

There are many potential reasons for conducting an ethnographic study including:

• To explain how events and/or people may be connected to certain outcomes
• To understand the dynamics within a group or culture
• To promote understanding about one’s own cultural practices or those of others from different cultures
• To assess the impact that a program or policy might have on a particular community (e.g., could it negatively impact self-esteem?).

Ethnography can help us better understand why we think and behave the way we do. It also helps us become more culturally aware so we can work together more effectively. Ethnography has proven to be particularly when studying groups such as children, people from diverse cultures, and those impacted by a program or policy.

Writing Ethnography: Tips for an Effective Ethnography Paper

When preparing to write your ethnographic research paper, consider the following tips: See Also Reinstalling and patching your Quicken Subscription version after your membership has expired (Quicken for Mac) Quicken Subscription Membership FAQs Reinstalling and patching your Quicken Subscription version after your membership has expired Quicken Review (2023): Features, Pricing & More

• Conduct research of existing studies on the topic you plan to explore. This will allow you understand what has already been done in this area of inquiry and identify any new knowledge that needs to be added., As well, knowing what others have contributed can help you avoid duplication of efforts and lift some of the “fear” about conducting this type of study which is often accompanied by information overload. It also gives you an idea about the field – what questions are still unanswered and what gaps exist.
• Conduct your own pilot study or focus group to test out your hypotheses, answer some of your research questions (e.g., about the kinds of questions you want to ask), and/or try out a few methods for collecting data (e.g., asking open-ended questions, recording observations in real time, etc.). You may also learn more about ethics as well as discover whether those you are studying might feel exploited by the researcher (and how such issues might be addressed). The pilot study can help you refine your topic and become familiar with its context as well as give you insight into any potential obstacles that may have been overlooked.
• Write a detailed research proposal so others will know exactly what you plan to do and how you plan to go about it. Doing so will help you get the green light for your study, ensure that you have sufficient resources to conduct your research, and may give you an opportunity to secure funding or other material assistance (e.g., access to equipment or software, recruited participants).
• Use both primary and secondary data when conducting your ethnographic research. Primary data are those collected by the researcher through observations in real time, interviews, focus groups , etc. These types of data are considered “first-hand” information because they were collected firsthand by the researcher rather than gathered from a third party (which is referred to as secondary data ). Secondary sources might include published studies/articles which can give us an idea of how others have conducted their ethnographic research.
• Conduct your study using either a retrospective or prospective design . A retrospective design is one in which the researcher looks back on the past (e.g., what influenced you to buy that particular brand of cereal) whereas a prospective design is where the researcher collects data about an ongoing event (e.g., what influences children’s food choices at school). The choice between these two will depend upon whether you are looking for people’s memories of how things transpired (retrospective) or want to find out how something is actually happening (prospective).
• Consider adopting multiple sites and perspectives throughout your paper by using embedded case studies and/or vettes (i.e., short, focused ethnographic accounts). Doing so will allow you to develop a more contextualized understanding of your research topic. It can also help you answer questions about how different aspects of the phenomenon being studied are shaped by context.
• Take participant notes during each phase of your ethnographic study, which will assist in clarifying observations, looking for patterns in data , and providing an audit trail for your research. Participant notes are particularly helpful when writing fieldnotes because they provide a kind of “diary” that is reflective in nature – allowing you to record what was observed at the time it occurred (i.e., in real time) rather than trying to remember after the fact . This way, what initially appears random may later be interpreted as emerging patterns when systematically reviewed by the researcher. Participant notes also help you to avoid preconceived notions (which can become evident when re-reading fieldnotes) and capture relevant thoughts, feelings , etc., which may be important for your analysis .
• Conducting participant observation is one of the most common research methods used in ethnographic studies. Participant observers are expected to remain unbiased, invisible , and silent during data collection rather than disrupting their surroundings or relationship with participants through either overt attention or self-disclosure. There are several ways that the researcher can ensure that he/she is remaining neutral : taking copious but impersonal notes ; never initiating interaction with others; making sure not to give off any clues about his/her personal or professional life; and observing from a distance. In addition, there are some practical things to keep in mind when conducting participant observation: you will need to establish rapport with participants so that they feel comfortable opening up to you; you shouldn’t disappear right before your study begins or immediately after it ends because people might wonder where you went and/or be offended about the sudden departure; and if in doubt , do not hesitate to contact your advisor .
• When writing an ethnography paper, include a section that summarizes the approach taken in order for readers to get a sense of how your research question was investigated (i.e., the journey ). This section is typically titled “From X To Y” where X refers to what exists at the beginning of your study, and Y refers to what exists at the end. For example, “From Hard Power To Soft Power” or “From Public To Private.”
• You should begin writing an ethnography paper by first identifying one or more research questions . Your choice of research question(s) should be driven by your interests as well as any hypotheses you have regarding the phenomenon being studied. For instance, if you are interested in understanding how people negotiate via technology (e.g., text messaging), then you may initially want to examine how gender differences play out during online chat sessions. However, if this initial topic doesn’t provide you with enough information about negotiation practices (e.g., because participants don’t mention gender-related issues or because you are more interested in how people communicate online vs. the negotiation process itself), then you will need to revise your research question(s) accordingly (e.g., “How do people negotiate via text messaging?”).
• When writing an ethnography paper, it is best if you include concrete details throughout your analysis . You can do this by either directly quoting or paraphrasing participants’ words, including full sentences from fieldnotes/transcripts , and/or giving specific examples that illustrate a particular aspect of the phenomenon being studied. This will help readers get a sense of what your everyday reality was like during data collection, which may be particularly important for them to understand considering that they were not present while you did the work.
• It is important for ethnography papers to make a connection between the participants and larger issues . In order to do this effectively, you will need to think about how your specific research site connects with other sites/contexts. For instance, let’s say that you conducted an ethnography on parenting practices in New York City. If you find that a lot of parents enroll their kids into sports activities then you could explore how this practice may reflect broader changes that have taken place with regards to work and family life during the past few decades.

Main Parts of an Ethnography Paper

An ethnography is a research study that tries to understand the way that people think and behave in their everyday lives. In order to do this, researchers typically spend time with a group of people in order to get a sense of how they live and what they’re interested in.

There are several parts of an ethnography paper which are:

• Introduction – Background information, Thesis statement .
• Literature review – review of the existing literature.
• Methodology – Data collection methods.
• Data analysis
• Conclusions and suggestions.

Ethnography Introduction

The introduction provides background information on the issue being written about. This section should be written clearly and directly, with no jargon. It is the first section that the reader will encounter, so it must immediately engage them. Also, consider writing about what would interest people not working in your specific subfield.

A good ethnography introduction includes two main elements:

• A thesis statement that presents an argument; and
• An explanation of why this topic is important to investigate.

If you are able to state your argument as a question, then so much the better (e.g., “What do young children learn from playing video games?” or “How have digital technologies influenced how people negotiate?”).

Here’s an example of a thesis statement for an ethnography paper :

“This paper explores what happens when people with mobility-related disabilities use smart technologies when they search for accessible transportation options in their daily lives.”

Here’s another example of a thesis statement for an ethnography paper :

“My study examines how families use social media to share selfies with each other and what effect, if any, this has on parent-child relationships.”

Ethnography – Background Information

The next part of an ethnography paper is the background section. This provides the reader with information that will give them context about exactly what your research project investigates. To write this section effectively, you need to provide information that is relevant to your specific argument or hypothesis. In doing this, it helps to consider these questions: “What prior theories/research does my study build on?” and “What are the limitations of prior research/theories that I am exploring in my study?”

Also, consider providing information about the geographical location where your research took place. This is especially important if there are cultural norms or practices described in your writing that could be unfamiliar to some readers.

The literature review part of an ethnography paper provides a summary of what has been written previously about the topic you’re investigating. It also allows you to explain how your own research contributes to our understanding of this issue. To write this section effectively, consider these questions: “Who are the researchers who have written about my topic before?” and “What arguments do they make?”

Ethnography Methodology

The next two parts of an ethnography paper are the research methodology and findings. The methodology includes information on how the ethnographer gathered data, including the limitations and biases in this process. Data collection is where you describe how and what research data you collected during your ethnography (i.e., what did you actually observe and what did people say to you/write down?).

Ethnography – Research Findings

The final section of an ethnography paper is the presentation of your actual data (key words, quotes, illustrations, etc.). This can take many forms including tables, charts, photographs or diagrams. When writing this section remember to keep it as clear and concise as possible. You should not present large amounts of unnecessary data that does not relate directly to your argument. It’s helpful to consider how you might explain what you’ve found through a presentation at a conference for non-specialists in your sub-field.

An Ethnography Conclusion

A good conclusion for an ethnographic paper will do these things:

• Conclude the argument presented in your thesis statement;
• Give some context for how your study fits into the larger body of research on this topic;
• Be written clearly and directly with no jargon. The language should be accessible to a non-specialist audience.

Steps to write an ethnography paper

Here are core 11 steps in conducting an ethnographic research study and writing a perfect ethnographic report for your study.

Step 1. Choose a good topic:

The first step is to pick a topic for your paper. You should choose an issue that you want to explore and that has not been covered in depth in the existing literature. Topic ideas may include: See Also How Do I Manage My Quicken Subscription?

What children learn from video gaming, digital technologies and how they’ve influenced people’s relationships and negotiating styles.

How mobility-related disabilities affect people’s daily lives when trying to find transportation options.

The interaction between social media and family relationships such as what power it provides to parents and children, the benefits of parenting via social media, and its role in strengthening families.

Step 2. Develop a thesis statement

The second step is to develop a thesis statement for your paper. Your thesis statement is your argument; it should describe what you are exploring in your research (i.e., what question or problem are you trying to answer). It’s not necessary to state the actual questions at this point, but rather identify the main idea of your argument.

Step 3. Conduct literature review

Next, conduct a literature review by reading about existing theories and research around the topic that will help provide context for your argument. You can choose any articles or books that suit your specific requirements, but most often students read articles from peer-reviewed journals because they tend to be more comprehensive than other sources. References cited in these articles may also be useful for further exploration on this topic so keep track of any relevant information that you find.

Step 4. Develop research questions/hypotheses when necessary

If your paper requires hypotheses or specific questions to be answered, develop these here. You should list any hypothesis that you want to test in the experiment, and describe why the question is important and how it builds on existing literature. It’s important to note that a hypothesis should be a single claim, not several claims joined by “and” or “or”.

Step 5. Choose a qualitative method for data collection

The next step in writing an ethnography paper is choosing a method of data collection appropriate for your topic and argument. Ethnographic researchers collect data through observation – by talking to people, through photographs or videos, or from artifacts such as drawings.

Step 6. Find an appropriate research site

You should find a site for your observations, interviews or other data collection. This can be your first choice of research sites, but if it doesn’t work out you may have to choose another. It’s important to note that many ethnographic studies involve spending extensive time at the research site observing and interviewing participants; this may require moving away from home or taking time off school to conduct fieldwork (for example). Think carefully about how much time and energy this will take before choosing your study site! Your study should be carried out in a location where you can observe people participating in whatever activity is central to your research question; i.e., someone playing video games, talking on their mobile phone, or taking the bus/train to work.

Step 7. Gain approval from research site

Once you’ve chosen a site for your study, you should discuss your plans with the people in charge and get their approval (to ensure that they will cooperate). You’ll also need to get written permission from them to use quotes and other data collected during your observations; it’s important to be completely transparent about this since most people will not want you using their name in your paper without prior approval – even if you anonymize all of the details! Anonymizing participant information is especially important when working with minors who are participating in online activities.

Step 8. Plan data collection schedule & roles

Plan out dates for conducting data collection, and who will do what at each observation session. Once you have approval from the research site it’s a good idea to circulate a preliminary schedule with them so that they can give their input on your proposed dates for observations. If possible, try to collect observational data around the same time of day if this makes sense – e.g., everyday at 2pm or every Wednesday from 10am-12pm etc. It’s also important to clarify which students should be interviewed and when these interviews will take place so there is no overlap in scheduling with observation sessions.

Step 9. Conduct Data Collection

Once you’ve finalized your plan, you should start conducting data collection! You’ll need to go into the field and conduct observations, make recordings, take photographs or videos, and interview participants. You can also collect artifacts if they are important to your study (e.g., a student’s phone during an observation session).

Step 10. Analyze Data

This step in writing an ethnography paper is where you analyze the data that was collected throughout the research process. It’s not always necessary to conduct analysis in this step; some researchers only finalize their analysis after they’re sure that all of their data collection is complete (to avoid altering responses by asking follow up questions later on) – but it’s usually best to let your readers know when you’ve completed data collection and how/when you analyzed the data for your paper! Analysis should be related directly to the research question that you posed in step 1 of writing an ethnography paper.

Step 11. A write up of your findings

The final component of writing an ethnography paper is the write-up – this section should include all of your findings and discussion related to each specific research site. You should also reference any relevant articles or theories that are tied back into the context of your study (and provide full citations for these references). It’s important to think about how your research fits into existing literature on the topic; if possible, refer to previous studies that examined similar phenomena at different times or in different places (this will help validate/replicate your own work) – e.g., other studies on playing video games, chatting online, or taking public transit.

Ethnographic research examples

When conducting an ethnographic study, here are some ethnographic research examples to consider:

• Develop a research plan that includes fieldwork, interviews and observation of the population. Collect data on the behavior, beliefs and attitudes of people in a community.
• Create an ethnographic research design. The study may explore issues such as culture, economics or biology from the point of view of people who live within a particular area or region. For example, some researchers have attempted to define culture by taking into account lifestyle aspects such as eating, drinking and holiday rituals. Ethnographers approach cultural lifestyles with respect for tradition while focusing on changes that occur over time due to economic influences or other factors. This type of ethnographic research attempts to determine what is unique about life in various areas around the world. Other types of ethnographic study may focus on specific topics such as the study of language, kinship or politics.
• Conduct an ethnographic study about a community in your area. For example, some communities may have problems that you can explore using this type of research approach. For example, various countries that are experiencing political change may be affected by violence, ethnic cleansing and other issues after years of oppression under ruling regimes. Area studies provide new opportunities for ethnographers who look at how people living in certain areas perceive themselves; their culture; and how they interact with members of their community. Areas studied could include urban areas, isolated rural regions or areas where indigenous people strive to maintain traditional lifestyles while dealing with outside influences on their way of life.

Ethnography is very descriptive, but can also be explanatory. It is part of social science research which helps us to understand how people live, interact and construct meaning. Through ethnography, we are able to see the perspectives of different groups of people across society. When doing an ethnography you have to be extremely watchful for bias or personal views that you have on the topic that may influence your judgement on what you are witnessing – it is important not to assume anything! If you are studying a group of people it is good practice to always give them the right to remove themselves from the situation if they wish, this should be explained at the beginning so there are no surprises later on in your research. This article aims to explain some key things about carrying out an ethnographic study. It will give you an idea of what is involved, the skills required and how to make sure your findings are accurate and credible.

Ethnography is concerned with studying people in their natural setting, over a period of time through participant observation. These observations may be written up into field notes or into journals to provide accounts of daily life that can then be used as individual pieces for contextual analysis. The focus here is on ‘bricolage’, using multiple sources so as to produce accounts which are full and rich rather than simply relying on one method alone. Ethnographers rely heavily on observation but do not discount other information gathering techniques such as interviews, questionnaires or discourse analysis where appropriate.

The practice of ethnography has frequently been considered an observational method though this may be restricted. Hence, it should not simply equate to methods of data collection or analysis, but mean observation in the widest sense, including what is collected through other means. This includes thoughts and feelings as much as social interactions between members of specific groups within a community under study. It also requires a detailed interest in processes and events so that they can be understood in their own terms rather than simply being classified according to externally imposed disciplines such as economics or politics. Ethnographers often seek out intensive long-term relationships with informants so that they can understand interpersonal aspects and how this relates to wider social structures.

Ethnographic research is most frequently conducted by anthropologists, sociologists and social scientists though it is not limited to these.

Ethnographic research allows an in-depth understanding of a particular group or community, allowing us to see things from their perspective. This is particularly useful for gaining information about specific groups that are often marginalised, such as immigrants within host countries, subcultures within urban centres or ethnic minorities living predominantly outside ‘majority’ cultures.

The approach can provide vital opportunities for the exchange of ideas by improving knowledge between individuals who have little exposure to one another’s lives or way of thinking. It also enables members of different communities to understand each other better so they don’t have preconceptions which may lead to conflict. Ethnographic research can be used in various academic disciplines including education, sociology, anthropology, cultural studies and psychology. It not only contributes to our understanding of particular groups but can also be highly useful for marketing purposes as well as for medical research and healthcare services – the list is endless!

Ethnographic research requires a high level of both organisational and observational skills. As with any research project there needs to be a clear purpose and set objectives which you must explain clearly in your introductory section. This should include what you would like to find out, why it is important to know this information (or how it will benefit others) and the methods you intend to use including who or what is involved; where, when and how long; as well as ethical considerations such as whether informed consent was obtained from those involved. Ethnographic studies are particularly useful for exploring everyday life, including the topic of health and illness.

Ethnographers are often interested in how societies function, focusing on the way that people communicate with each other about their lives. As a result there is usually some account given to social structure – that is to say how groups within society relate to one another through social institutions such as family, education or work. Understanding this adds depth to what might otherwise be considered as separate domains or activities if they were studied independently. For example, daily routine can be better understood when ethnographers consider it in relation to wider issues such as transport links, travel time between work/home/shopping facilities etc., types of establishments visited (for leisure or shopping), reasons for visiting and so on.

Ethnographers typically conduct research over a significant length of time, often employing diary-keeping techniques in order to record changes and developments as they occur. It is also useful to think about ways that you can help the groups you are studying by participating in their activities rather than just observing them or asking questions – for example taking part in cultural events such as festivals, dance styles etc., sharing tasks such as childcare with indigenous women, working alongside labourers perhaps visiting your GP surgery with friends/neighbours/acquaintances who might otherwise not have access to healthcare services…

Four key points:

• Ethnographic research involves a detailed study of social groups or communities which requires a high level of both organisational and observational skills.
• Ethnographers are usually interested in how societies function, focusing on the way that people communicate with each other about their lives.
• It is useful to consider social structure which can be better understood when ethnographers consider it in relation to wider issues such as transport links, travel time between work/home/shopping facilities etc., types of establishments visited (for leisure or shopping), reasons for visiting and so on.
• Ethnographers typically conduct research over a significant length of time, often employing diary-keeping techniques in order to record changes and developments as they occur. It is also useful to think about ways that you can help the groups you are studying by participating in their activities rather than just observing them or asking questions.

Ethnographic Report Writing Help – Essay, Research Papers, Study Report

Do you need help writing an ethnographic research paper, ethnographic essay , ethnographic report, or you just need to know how to write an ethnography paper? Well, we are ready to help you write ethnography paper examples, ethnographic essay examples or any other essay on ethnography.

Ethnographic research is a type of qualitative, inductive research approach in which the researcher studies a group of people to uncover their beliefs and behaviours. Ethnography papers are a unique form of academic writing that require you to explore someone’s culture.

Writing an ethnographic research paper may seem simple enough, but actually requires special attention and knowledge about how this type of project should be carried out successfully… To write an outstanding paper on ethnography, follow these steps:

• Find some interesting topic for your ethnographic term paper;
• Start with general idea of what will be included into your work;
• Write down sub-topics related to the main topic;
• Make a list of sources you will use for your paper;
• Compose the draft.

Though ethnography is an intensive form of participant observation, it can also be used to study non-humans. Researchers often think of animals as ‘cultural’ in some sense, because they are adept at passing on information about their species through social learning – but humans are not the only animals that pass on culture…

Anthropology Ethnography Paper Writing Help Online

Since anthropology is all about studying different cultures around the world, it would make sense to say that ethnography research papers are one of the most common forms of academic writing in the field. While there are many branches within anthropology, ethology or cultural studies , ethnography focuses on people’s culture in particular. For example, an ethnography may look at aspects of people’s life, including their diet , social behavior , religious beliefs etc…

Whether you need help writing an anthropology ethnography paper, religion ethnography paper or a simple ethnographic essay about people or animals, just hire our tutors who will assist you in obtaining top grades!

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What is a good example of ethnography? ›

A classic example of ethnographic research would be an anthropologist traveling to an island, living within the society on said island for years, and researching its people and culture through a process of sustained observation and participation.

Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organization to observe their behavior and interactions up close. The word “ethnography” also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces afterwards .

What is an Ethnographic Essay? It's an essay that focuses on a group, culture or subculture . It emphasizes close observation, interview, and field notes. Additional research may be found through library resources.

• Choose a good topic: ...
• Develop a thesis statement. ...
• Conduct literature review. ...
• Develop research questions/hypotheses when necessary. ...
• Choose a qualitative method for data collection. ...
• Find an appropriate research site. ...
• Gain approval from research site. ...
• Plan data collection schedule & roles.

Conclude your ethnography with a suitable conclusion page that sums up what you did and what you learned . Restate your main points so that the reader is left with the impact of your work and what it will mean in the overall study of that culture.

Ethnography can often answer questions about the social rules, the conventions and the contingencies which operate in a particular setting .

Ethnographic methods are qualitative, inductive, exploratory and longitudinal .

Writing and Presenting Ethnographic Findings - YouTube

A 10-page paper will have approximately 2500 to 2750 words, double-spaced. It can be written within few hours to a week . It all depends on the writer, including how easy the topic is. So, how long it takes you to finish each part of the structure will determine how long it takes you to write the overall paper.

To be clear, I agree that 8-12 months is an appropriate estimate for good ethnography. My point is that a researcher may face repeated pressure to shrink that timeframe. Thijs's and Tobias Köllner 's experiences demonstrate that good work is, of course, possible in a corporate setting.

How do you analyze ethnographic data? ›

• be familiar with the ways in which the data collected through ethnographic research can be systematically searched for patterns; and.
• know in which ways those patterns can be explained and used as the basis for further research.

Ethnography can be briefly defined as the systematic study of people and cultures . It is designed to explore cultural phenomena where the researcher observes society from the point of view of the subject of the study. It is a means to represent graphically and in writing the culture of a group.

• Photo Elicitation. ...
• Rephotography. ...
• Photovoice. ...
• Visual Narratives.

Ethnography is characterised by long-term participant observation as a central method, where the researcher spends an extended period of time in a social group in order to collect data.

This is because ethnography focuses on developing an understanding of the design problem . Therefore, it makes more sense to conduct ethnographic studies at the beginning of a project in order to support future design decisions (which will happen later in the user-centred design process).

Ethnography is a qualitative method for collecting data often used in the social and behavioral sciences. Data are collected through observations and interviews, which are then used to draw conclusions about how societies and individuals function.

Ethnographic fieldwork typically begins with participant observation which is later complemented by other data (e.g. interviews and documents). Keeping field notes is a key activity performed by the ethnographer. Everyday events are recorded along with the participants' viewpoints and interpretations.

How long does it take to write a 2,000 word essay? It takes about 6 hours and 40 minutes to write a 2,000 word essay.

Writing 5,000 words will take about 2.1 hours for the average writer typing on a keyboard and 4.2 hours for handwriting . However, if the content needs to include in-depth research, links, citations, or graphics such as for a blog article or high school essay, the length can grow to 16.7 hours.

Typed Words The most common format required for essays is double-spaced, font type Times New Roman, and font size 12pt. With that in mind, 1,000 typed words is about four pages .

How does ethnography work in real life? ›

Ethnography is a study through direct observation of users in their natural environment rather than in a lab . The objective of this type of research is to gain insights into how users interact with things in their natural environment.

Ethnographic data can be quantitative or qualitative in nature, and can include the following: Interviews conducted with a population of nurses in Finland . Audio recordings of folk songs from a local Appalachian community. Photographs of backcountry areas in National Parks in New Zealand.

Ethnography is a qualitative method for collecting data often used in the social and behavioral sciences . Data are collected through observations and interviews, which are then used to draw conclusions about how societies and individuals function.

Ethnography is a research method central to knowing the world from the standpoint of its social relations . It is a qualitative research method predicated on the diversity of culture at home (wherever that may be) and abroad.

• Observing a group of children playing. ...
• Observing employees in a corporate office. ...
• Observing medical personnel in a high-volume hospital. ...
• Observing an indigenous village. ...
• Observing a high school classroom. ...
• Observing motorcycle riders.

For something to be ethnography it needs to, of course, involve use of ethnographic methods, such as participant observation (as one element), and also time. I see a minimum of 6 months as being necessary for good ethnographic research and it is much better if one spends at least a year at one's field site.

Analysing data The data analysis in the ethnographic methodology is iterative and unstructured. There are three aspects of data analysis: description, analysis and interpretation . Description refers to the recounting and describing of data, inevitably treating the data as fact.

• Narrative research.
• Phenomenology research.
• Grounded theory research.
• Ethnographic research.
• Case study research.

What is the difference between ethnography and ethnography? ›

Ethnography is the in depth study of a particular cultural group, while ethnology is the comparative study of ethnographic data, society and culture . Many of the readings for this course and your own research project have been ethnographic in nature.

Doing ethnography The hallmark method of ethnographic field research in anthropology is known as participant-observation . This type of data-gathering is when the anthropologist records their experiences and observations while taking part in activities alongside local participants or informants in the field site.

Ethnology: the comparative and analytical study of cultures ; cultural anthropology. Anthropologists aim to describe and interpret aspects of the culture of various social groups--e.g., the hunter-gatherers of the Kalahari, rice villages of the Chinese Canton Delta, or a community of physicists at Livermore Laboratory.

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I’m Supposed to Be Writing an Ethnography. What Now?

By ERICK PILLER

I recommend that you divide your ethnography into sections with unique headings. Writing in sections will break down the big, intimidating task of writing your ethnography into smaller, more manageable chunks. Plus, it will make it easier for the reader to understand what you’re doing and focusing on at any given moment.

Here are some possible sections that you might include—or, alternatively, some information that you might add to sections that you already have:

• You should spend some time on the background of your community: make it very clear to the reader what your community is, along with any other necessary contextual information.
• You might (but don’t have to!) also discuss your own preconceptions coming into the project: what did you believe and how much did you know about your community before you started researching it? Later, you can tell your reader whether your preconceptions were right or wrong.
• Primarily, you will be describing your community, but you might also devote some space to comparing your community to other communities. A recognition of how your community is different from others will help your reader to better understand it.
• A similar, but slightly different angle that you might also take: how do people outside of your community view the community and its members? To what extent are these popular perceptions correct or incorrect, justified or unjustified? Likewise, is there any scholarly research on your community (or a community like it)? If so, bring that research into your ethnography! You might even find that your observations lead you to different conclusions, causing you to disagree with the scholar’s (or scholars’) arguments and assumptions.
• Because the members of your community likely won’t be homogeneous, you should think about the different types of members of your community. And then, of course, think about how these different types of community members interact with one another.
• You might look into how your community has changed over time —and why it has changed. Similarly, how and why did the community form?
• Is there some community event that you were able to observe? If so, describe that event and explain its significance to the community as a whole.
• If you can, try to argue why your study of this community is significant in general , beyond the fact that it gives insights into the community itself. Some of this discussion would be in your introduction and conclusion. You can write those sections last! You might not have a firm grasp of your “argument”—if you have one—until you’ve already written a big chunk of the body of your ethnography.
• Remember that you’re not only describing —you’ll also be quoting from interviews, community texts, and outside sources and engaging in various forms of analysis , such as ritual or artifact analyses.

I want to emphasize that you don’t have to do all of these things that I’ve listed. They’re just possibilities of aspects of your community that you might write about, meant to help you if you’re short on ideas or don’t know where to start.

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• What Is Ethnography? | Meaning, Guide & Examples

What Is Ethnography? | Meaning, Guide & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 6 April 2023.

Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organisation to observe their behaviour and interactions up close. The word ‘ethnography’ also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces afterwards.

Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. However, it also involves some practical and ethical challenges.

Table of contents

What is ethnography used for, different approaches to ethnographic research, gaining access to a community, working with informants, observing the group and taking field notes, writing up an ethnography.

Ethnographic research originated in the field of anthropology, and it often involved an anthropologist living with an isolated tribal community for an extended period of time in order to understand their culture.

This type of research could sometimes last for years. For example, Colin M. Turnbull lived with the Mbuti people for three years in order to write the classic ethnography The Forest People .

Today, ethnography is a common approach in various social science fields, not just anthropology. It is used not only to study distant or unfamiliar cultures, but also to study specific communities within the researcher’s own society.

For example, ethnographic research (sometimes called participant observation ) has been used to investigate football fans , call centre workers , and police officers .

Advantages of ethnography

The main advantage of ethnography is that it gives the researcher direct access to the culture and practices of a group. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about the behavior and interactions of people within a particular context.

By becoming immersed in a social environment, you may have access to more authentic information and spontaneously observe dynamics that you could not have found out about simply by asking.

Ethnography is also an open and flexible method. Rather than aiming to verify a general theory or test a hypothesis , it aims to offer a rich narrative account of a specific culture, allowing you to explore many different aspects of the group and setting.

Disadvantages of ethnography

Ethnography is a time-consuming method. In order to embed yourself in the setting and gather enough observations to build up a representative picture, you can expect to spend at least a few weeks, but more likely several months. This long-term immersion can be challenging, and requires careful planning.

Ethnographic research can run the risk of observer bias . Writing an ethnography involves subjective interpretation, and it can be difficult to maintain the necessary distance to analyse a group that you are embedded in.

There are often also ethical considerations to take into account: for example, about how your role is disclosed to members of the group, or about observing and reporting sensitive information.

Should you use ethnography in your research?

If you’re a student who wants to use ethnographic research in your thesis or dissertation , it’s worth asking yourself whether it’s the right approach:

• Could the information you need be collected in another way (e.g., a survey , interviews)?
• How difficult will it be to gain access to the community you want to study?
• How exactly will you conduct your research, and over what timespan?
• What ethical issues might arise?

If you do decide to do ethnography, it’s generally best to choose a relatively small and easily accessible group, to ensure that the research is feasible within a limited time frame.

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There are a few key distinctions in ethnography which help to inform the researcher’s approach: open vs closed settings, overt vs covert ethnography, and active vs passive observation. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Open vs closed settings

The setting of your ethnography – the environment in which you will observe your chosen community in action – may be open or closed.

An open or public setting is one with no formal barriers to entry. For example, you might consider a community of people living in a certain neighbourhood, or the fans of a particular football team.

• Gaining initial access to open groups is not too difficult …
• … but it may be harder to become immersed in a less clearly defined group.

A closed or private setting is harder to access. This may be for example a business, a school, or a cult.

• A closed group’s boundaries are clearly defined and the ethnographer can become fully immersed in the setting …
• … but gaining access is tougher; the ethnographer may have to negotiate their way in or acquire some role in the organisation.

Overt vs covert ethnography

Most ethnography is overt . In an overt approach, the ethnographer openly states their intentions and acknowledges their role as a researcher to the members of the group being studied.

• Overt ethnography is typically preferred for ethical reasons, as participants can provide informed consent …
• … but people may behave differently with the awareness that they are being studied.

Sometimes ethnography can be covert . This means that the researcher does not tell participants about their research, and comes up with some other pretence for being there.

• Covert ethnography allows access to environments where the group would not welcome a researcher …
• … but hiding the researcher’s role can be considered deceptive and thus unethical.

Active vs passive observation

Different levels of immersion in the community may be appropriate in different contexts. The ethnographer may be a more active or passive participant depending on the demands of their research and the nature of the setting.

An active role involves trying to fully integrate, carrying out tasks and participating in activities like any other member of the community.

• Active participation may encourage the group to feel more comfortable with the ethnographer’s presence …
• … but runs the risk of disrupting the regular functioning of the community.

A passive role is one in which the ethnographer stands back from the activities of others, behaving as a more distant observer and not involving themselves in the community’s activities.

• Passive observation allows more space for careful observation and note-taking …
• … but group members may behave unnaturally due to feeling they are being observed by an outsider.

While ethnographers usually have a preference, they also have to be flexible about their level of participation. For example, access to the community might depend upon engaging in certain activities, or there might be certain practices in which outsiders cannot participate.

An important consideration for ethnographers is the question of access. The difficulty of gaining access to the setting of a particular ethnography varies greatly:

• To gain access to the fans of a particular sports team, you might start by simply attending the team’s games and speaking with the fans.
• To access the employees of a particular business, you might contact the management and ask for permission to perform a study there.
• Alternatively, you might perform a covert ethnography of a community or organisation you are already personally involved in or employed by.

Flexibility is important here too: where it’s impossible to access the desired setting, the ethnographer must consider alternatives that could provide comparable information.

For example, if you had the idea of observing the staff within a particular finance company but could not get permission, you might look into other companies of the same kind as alternatives. Ethnography is a sensitive research method, and it may take multiple attempts to find a feasible approach.

All ethnographies involve the use of informants . These are people involved in the group in question who function as the researcher’s primary points of contact, facilitating access and assisting their understanding of the group.

This might be someone in a high position at an organisation allowing you access to their employees, or a member of a community sponsoring your entry into that community and giving advice on how to fit in.

However,  i f you come to rely too much on a single informant, you may be influenced by their perspective on the community, which might be unrepresentative of the group as a whole.

In addition, an informant may not provide the kind of spontaneous information which is most useful to ethnographers, instead trying to show what they believe you want to see. For this reason, it’s good to have a variety of contacts within the group.

The core of ethnography is observation of the group from the inside. Field notes are taken to record these observations while immersed in the setting; they form the basis of the final written ethnography. They are usually written by hand, but other solutions such as voice recordings can be useful alternatives.

Field notes record any and all important data: phenomena observed, conversations had, preliminary analysis. For example, if you’re researching how service staff interact with customers, you should write down anything you notice about these interactions – body language, phrases used repeatedly, differences and similarities between staff, customer reactions.

Don’t be afraid to also note down things you notice that fall outside the pre-formulated scope of your research; anything may prove relevant, and it’s better to have extra notes you might discard later than to end up with missing data.

Field notes should be as detailed and clear as possible. It’s important to take time to go over your notes, expand on them with further detail, and keep them organised (including information such as dates and locations).

After observations are concluded, there’s still the task of writing them up into an ethnography. This entails going through the field notes and formulating a convincing account of the behaviours and dynamics observed.

The structure of an ethnography

An ethnography can take many different forms: It may be an article, a thesis, or an entire book, for example.

Ethnographies often do not follow the standard structure of a scientific paper, though like most academic texts, they should have an introduction and conclusion. For example, this paper begins by describing the historical background of the research, then focuses on various themes in turn before concluding.

An ethnography may still use a more traditional structure, however, especially when used in combination with other research methods. For example, this paper follows the standard structure for empirical research: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion.

The content of an ethnography

The goal of a written ethnography is to provide a rich, authoritative account of the social setting in which you were embedded – to convince the reader that your observations and interpretations are representative of reality.

Ethnography tends to take a less impersonal approach than other research methods. Due to the embedded nature of the work, an ethnography often necessarily involves discussion of your personal experiences and feelings during the research.

Ethnography is not limited to making observations; it also attempts to explain the phenomena observed in a structured, narrative way. For this, you may draw on theory, but also on your direct experience and intuitions, which may well contradict the assumptions that you brought into the research.

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How to Write an Ethnography Essay or Research Paper

How to Write an Ethnography Essay

Ethnographic writing is very common in colleges and universities. It involves ethnographic essays, research papers, and assignments. These papers are written at different levels in colleges and universities.

Therefore, as a student you have to be well versed on how these papers are written for you to score good grades.

If you have been looking for a guide on how to handle ethnographic essays look no further because this article provides you with all information you need to know about ethnographic writing and different topics that you can use to practice.

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What is an Ethnography Essay or Paper?

An ethnographic essay is a piece of writing that focuses on a subculture, culture, or group. The emphasis and focus is usually on observation, field notes, and observations.

The understanding that any ethnographic paper seeks is the way people think and live their everyday life. Therefore, spending time with people is necessary for the writer to determine how people live and what they are interested in.

An ethnographic essay should have an introduction, literature review, methodology, data analysis, and conclusion.

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How to Write an Ethnography Essay?

The following are important tips that one should consider when writing an ethnographic essay :

1. Research on Existing Studies on the Topic

By researching on the existing knowledge, you will be able to know areas of the topic that have already been explored and identify areas that need additional new knowledge.

Also, you are able to identify questions about the topic that have been left unanswered and the gaps that still exists. Additionally, you will be able to write your work confidently without the danger of duplicating the work of other people.

2. Research on the Topic or Focus Group

The purpose of researching on the topic or focus group is to test your hypothesis. For example, you can answer some research questions, try various methods of collecting data and record observations in real time. You can also learn about the ethics of the focus group.

This helps refine the topic and familiarize with the context of what you will write about. Also, you may get insight on any obstacle that you may have overlooked.

3. Use both Primary and Secondary Data when Conducting Research

When researching you should collect data through observation in real time, interviews, and focus groups. These are first hand sources of information that are authentic.

Also, you should use published studies and articles which present you with the ideas of how others have conducted ethnographic research.

4. Develop a Thesis Statement

While conducting your research, formulate a thesis statement which will be the main argument of the paper. It should describe what you are exploring in your research.

It is the main idea of your paper and not necessarily the questions that the topic poses.

It should be straight to the point and brief with no jargon to help the reader understand what your ethnography paper is all about

5. Use Retrospective or Prospective Study Design

Retrospective design involves the study of the past while prospective design involves data collection about an event that is ongoing.

The design you use depends on whether you want to pick up memories from people about an event of the past or if you want to find out something that is actually transpiring.

6. Take Notes during the Ethnographic Study

Taking notes will help clarify the observations made, provide audit trail for your research and look for patterns in data. Participants’ notes helps record observation in the real time that they happened and prevents the efforts of try to remember what was observed later.

Also through notes preconceived notions are avoided and relevant thoughts for your analysis captured.

7. Write the Introduction

The introduction of an ethnographic essay should provide the background information about the issue being written about.

A good ethnographic introduction should include a thesis statement that presents an argument and a proper investigation on why the topic is important to investigate.

Here you set the tone for the entire paper. Therefore, the introduction should be catchy to motivate the reader to continue reading.

8. Write the Background Information

This is where the information that gives the reader the context of what your ethnography paper is all about is written. The information included here should be relevant to your hypothesis or argument.

Geographical place where the research took place should also be included. Also, the literature review which consists of what has been written previously about the topic should be included.

Additionally, provide an explanation of how your research contributes to the understanding of the topic.

9. Write the Methodology

This is where you include how you as the ethnographer collected information and data. You can also include the limitations as well as the biases in the data process.

Data collection entails how you observed the data, the exact data you observed and how you recorded it.

10. Write the Findings

These include the actual representation of your research which is data, quotes, keywords and illustrations. To do this you can choose a method of presentation which can be charts, tables, diagrams, and photographs.

Everything that is included in this part should be clear and concise for the reader to get the relevant facts of your research.

Everything that does not relate to your arguments directly should not be included in this part because it is unnecessary.

To keep it as simple as possible think of it as a presentation for non-specialists in your field of specialization.

11. Conclude your Ethnography

This is where you provide the summary for your paper. For any conclusion of an ethnography to be good it must include the argument that is presented on the thesis statement.

Also, it should provide the context of how your research fits into the larger researches already conducted about the topic. The language used to write it should be understandable by non-specialists. It should be clear and direct with no jargon.

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Ethnography Essay Example Topics

• Access the different career paths among children from rich families and poor families.
• Outline the link that is seen as obvious between drug trafficking and violence experienced in South American Countries
• In details, discuss the effectiveness of parenting practices used by African American parents to socialize their children
• Analyse the perception of success and failure in low and middle class families compare to high social class families.
• What policies can departments dealing with the welfare of children put in place to ensure that the rate of juvenile delinquency in America has achieved a significant drop. 
• How religions especially Hinduism and Islam have influenced the perception of gender socialization
• The effects of continued terrorism acts on migration and what that means for the tourism sector of affected countries
• The plight of the homeless people in America and the rise of insecurity in urban centres
• The discrimination of the minority races in America and its effects in the rise of incarceration rates in involved communities
• The acceptance and opposition of euthanasia in Brazil and the effects it has on the population over time
• How the increased adaptation of modern lifestyles of the western culture in Africa have impacted the traditional ways of African communities
• The process of immigrants adapting to life in America and how it leads to the struggle to fit in
• The toil for the American dream and its influence on criminality among the majority of African Americans
• The rise of globalization and its impact on the economy of majority of African countries
• The increased rate of drug abuse in Tertiary institutions and its effects on the quality of graduates

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1- Defining Ethnographic Writing

Chapter 1 provides a basic definition of ethnography in order to situate an overview of the reasons for assigning, benefits for conducting, and characteristics of ethnographic writing.

So, you’ve just been told that you are going to have to write an ethnographic essay. Great. Fine. But, you’re thinking: What the heck is that? I never heard that word before? What does it mean?

Take a look at the word and think about how it may have been constructed, whether it seems at all familiar to you. Ethnography is one of those words that we have basically invented by combining two Greek words: ethno+graphy. Ethno, as you may have guessed, has to do with ethnic or ethnicity. Technically, the root ethno means culture. Defining culture is a sticky, complicated business. Culture can be part of what we do; it may be understood as a “total way of life.” However, even more complicated than the definition of culture is how we handle the implications of such a complex definition.  That is, if we’re in the business of producing textual representation of that culture, then the mode of such production, the writing and the ethical and representation components of that writing, become of utmost concern to us. The second half of the word ethnography may remind you of the word geography, so you may have thought about countries or maps. Or you might assume that it means the “study of,” and while, this is a great assumption, it isn’t exactly on the mark. Actually, graphy has to do with graph, and might make more sense if you think: graphic or even graffiti. Yep, it means writing.

Ethnography, then, quite literally, means writing culture. Here are the nuts and bolts of how this would work, how one would write culture. A researcher chooses a site, a place or a location to study. The focus here is the culture of the people in this site. Anthropologists are the folks who developed this methodology, initially researching cultures unlike their own, in faraway places, in order to learn more about the world. While at the site ”in the field” the researcher (ethnographer) observes and participates in the culture. They write down what they observe in fieldnotes and will often interview individuals and find themselves an informant who helps them better understand what they may see, hear, taste, smell, and touch. The researcher may be in the field for years, constantly writing up fieldnotes, participating and observing until they feel as though they have some understanding of the culture at hand. The fieldnotes are primary data and are then explored and examined for repeated patterns, for relationships that allow the ethnographer to begin to understand how the culture works. The patterns often reveal belief systems and power structures, two of the key ways humans organize themselves into/as cultures. When a pattern is identified, it is then turned into an argument, a thesis as you might understand it, and the primary data is used as examples to support the assertion made about the culture. Secondary research, the writings of other academics, is consulted and used as the researcher (ethnographer) then in effect, translates what they have seen and done into an argument, a line of logic: an essay. A culture is then, in effect, literally written (down). An  ethnography, a writing of culture, has been composed.

Engaging Communities breaks this process down into steps so that you can get somewhere in the few weeks that you likely have (not the months or years an ethnographer has) to go from choosing and entering a site, to writing fieldnotes, to conducting academic research, to translating your observations into an ethnographic essay. No matter where you are in the process, ethics are of utmost importance. The act of writing culture is not only one way. It isn’t only that the culture in question will be revealed. This text recognizes that whenever an individual writes about culture, their own personal assumptions and beliefs are inherent in the research and writing process. That is, ethnographic writing is never fully objective and never completely neutral. We must try to be ethical and honorable, working as hard as possible to truly represent the culture we’re studying with as much accuracy as possible. We need to be committed to thinking about the issues and potential conflicts that may arise when someone observes and writes about the lived lives of others. All of these aspects of ethnographic writing make it more challenging, but also more exciting, and often seemingly more relevant as the process of writing culture will likely reveal to you your own cultural perspectives, as much as it allows you to translate those of others.

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• 1a- Connecting to Ethnographic Writing
• 1b- Identifying with Ethnographic Writing
• 1c- Rhetorical Strate­gies for Ethnographic Writing
• 2a- Writerly Ethos
• 2b- Under­stand­ing Pla­gia­rism
• 2c- Eth­i­cal Conun­drums in Com­munity Research
• 3a- Examining Culture as Text
• 3b- Selecting a Research Site
• 3c- Access to Your Research Site
• 3d- Rhetorical Strategies for Research Proposals
• 4a- Rhetorical Strategies for Writing Observations
• 4b- Considering Types of Fieldnotes
• 4c- Expanding and Revising Fieldnotes and Observations
• 5a- Searching for Sources: Keywords, Databases, Catalogs, and Shelves
• 5b- Ethical Considerations when Conducting Research of Secondary Sources
• 5c- Impact of Technology on Conducting Research of Secondary Sources
• 5d- Sorting Sources and Eating Books
• 5e- Popular Culture Source Material
• 5f- Summarizing Sources
• 5g- Building an Annotated Bibliography
• 6a- Introducing your Research
• 6b- Presenting the Methodology and Focus
• 6c- Selecting Examples and Evidence
• 6d- Selecting Effective Secondary Source Evidence
• 6e- Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Documenting Source Material
• 6f- Concluding in a Meaningful Way
• 6g- Reviewing and Revising Your Essay
• Supplemental Modules
• How to Use this Textbook
• Teaching with EC
• How to Become a Contributing Author

Ethnography Made Easy OER

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Conducting Interviews

Samuel Finesurrey

Introduction

Interviews illuminate powerful and textured depictions of events that help us more fully understand individuals and communities, historical perspectives and the present, struggles and joy. Interviews are an exchange between two or more people where a researcher designs a set of questions to gather information on one or more topics (Blackstone, 2012). Interviews provide ethnographic researchers the opportunity to engage and question, with an eye toward understanding a community or group being studied. An interview can reveal the roots of a cultural tradition or communal mindset by unraveling an assortment of shared and individual experiences, emotions and memories. For example, interviewers may ask their interviewees “what was something that surprised you after joining your union?” or “can you tell us the story of the first time you participated in a strike?” Interviews can reveal details that help unlock the ways your informants see themselves fitting into the world around them, as well as how they communicate in that world.

Varied in type, interviews offer a unique opportunity in ethnographic work to empower your informants to share and preserve their truths, while providing an essential research tool in building ethnographies. Often, with interviews, we are able to recover hidden stories, secrets of the past, or untold journeys that have yet to make it into the history textbooks. It is important to remember while your ethnography is built around your analysis, interviews are co-constructed; that is, they are a form of knowledge produced by both the interviewer and the interviewee.

Types of Interviews

Qualitative interviews are the most common interviews in ethnographic work. A qualitative interview is organized by open-ended questions that seek in-depth explanations of traditions, experiences and perceptions. These are generally semi-structured interviews where the interviewer starts with a list of open-ended questions, but will not strictly follow the agenda they prepared. A semi-structured format is useful for qualitative interviews because it provides room for follow-up questions and illuminate the “why” and “how” of a participant’s experience. Qualitative interviews excavate material that is typically inaccessible through quantitative interviews, structured interviews or surveys, which gather responses through close-ended questions, or collect numerical data from participants. Qualitative interviews enable participants to offer free-formed responses, as opposed to selecting from a short list of choices constructed by you, the ethnographer. They offer the flexibility to propose questions that arise in conversation, seek clarification and allow the space for unique and detailed stories to be told. (Griffiths , 2017; Blackstone, 2012) Qualitative interviews seek narratives, not statistics; not just how many or how often, but “How did that feel?” or “What happened after that?” The benefit of qualitative interviews is that they allow you as the interviewer to access the narrative most important to your interviewee through the process of open-ended responses. Further, as opposed to quantitative interviews, structured interviews or surveys, qualitative interviews give you the ability to break from a set list of questions. (Murchinson, 2010) Qualitative interviews are extremely important as they allow informants to become participants who can “co-construct” the project of understanding their culture.

Often informal interviews , which may feel more like conversations, are appropriate in the context of ethnographic research as people can be wary of being recorded when broaching difficult experiences. Informal interviews are often casual exchanges with informants to gather background information for your project, and often in preparation for a formal interview . Informal interviews are often unstructured, meaning they allow the discussion to freely venture from subject to subject, often without a written list of questions to guide the conversation. In unstructured interviewers the interviewer is following the interviewee as they tell their story. Informal interviews improve formal interviews that take place later as you become more knowledgeable about your respondent’s experience, informed on what they care about, while developing the ability to ask more relevant, fruitful, and directed questions. (Murchinson, 2010) Often held in elevators or hallways, over coffee or in a spontaneous meeting without the aid of a recording device, informal interviews can aid exploratory research, or fill in missing gaps later in the process. It is very important in formal or informal interviews to honor the story you are hearing, to show empathy, to ask questions, but never suggest that you are judging what the respondent is telling you.

Formal qualitative interviews are the most demanding form of interview for both you, as the interviewer, and for the participant(s), but they are also potentially the most rewarding. They offer the opportunity to gather depth, details, and anecdotes for your project, and are better when conducted toward the end of your research, once you know the appropriate questions to ask you informant. These interviews are often recorded, and preserved, depending on the designs of the professor and the comfort of your participants. (Blackstone, 2012) You are asking the participant to share with you their time and memories, often about emotionally exhausting experiences. It is important to remember that an interview is a vulnerable experience. Your informant is sitting down and responding to an organized list of open-ended questions that could bring back painful, intimate and buried memories. Even questions that seem simple, like “tell me about growing up with your family,” can be difficult if someone did not have an easy family life, did not grow up with their family, if a parent was ill, in another country, incarcerated or abusive. “Tell me about your job,” can also cause a strong reaction from your interviewee if the work your informant does is dangerous, if there is discrimination in the workplace, or if they are treated badly by management. While these interviews have the potential to offer you important information, it is key to remember your informant is trusting you with their story. You must handle the interaction with the respect and care it deserves. The intimacy of this exchange requires significant preparation by you, the ethnographer.

Preparing for an Interview

The interview preparation process takes time, thought, and effort. You should create an environment where your interviewee feels comfortable to share their truth, and one that also accommodates your goal of conducting a clear, organized and useful interview. The six key steps in preparation include: identifying your informant, setting a time and place, conducting background research, formulating a list of questions, prepping informed consent forms, and preparing for a recording.

First, you need to find someone to interview. This often takes place in the context of participant-observation through conversations with informants. (Murchinson, 2010) People in and around your ethnographic study can serve as useful participants in your project, or they can nominate others to participate. Your interview will offer interviewees an opportunity to share their truth, something many participants will enjoy. Still, when asking people to participate in your projects, it’s important to show appreciation for their willingness to aid you in this ethnography and to be honest about how the interview may be used and preserved. This is true for both formal and informal interviews.

If you have an informant who has agreed to meet for a formal interview, you need to verify the time, date, and location of the interview. The location can determine the tone of the interview, for instance being interviewed in a law office would likely elicit a dramatically different set of responses than an interview held at their workplace, in a park, or the informant’s home. We want to make sure your interviewee is relaxed, but also that there will not be a lot of background noise that may make the recording hard to hear. You can offer to conduct the interview in English or another language you and the interviewee both speak.  If people want to use words from their original language – even if you are not fluent – tell them they can, and then ask for a translation. You want your informant to be as comfortable as possible with every aspect of this process.

Third, you want to conduct background research about the historical and cultural context of the respondent and their story. Consider asking your informant some preliminary questions through an informal interview , or when setting up the time, to help you prepare for a conversation about their life. You can ask something like, “What should I learn about before I interview you so I can really appreciate your experience?” This process is also helpful as it allows informants to get a sense of what you will be asking and to begin recalling their experiences. After setting up the interview, look online, in books, journals, magazines, newspapers and in archives to become more informed about your participant’s worldview. You want to make sure you can ask about, and explain competing understandings of the context in which the story of your interviewee takes place. If you were studying political attitudes that coal miners hold of President Donald Trump, you would have to also study his presidency, his actions on the environment, healthcare and workers’ rights to understand why they might have concerns, or admire his policies.

Next, formulate a list of questions you will be asking. This is called a guide, schedule or frame . If you are interviewing multiple people for your ethnography, you want to be sure to ask everyone a similar set of questions, and then lots of specific follow-ups that are particular to each informant. This is what makes your interview semi-structured. Everyone gets the same basic questions, but with each respondent the interview travels in a unique direction. When thinking of these questions, keep in mind who your interviewee is and what insights they might, or might not be able to offer. Having a guide prepared for the interview helps give you as the interviewer confidence in your ability to remember the key questions and topics you are hoping to broach with your interviewee. You may be passionate about your topic of study, or nervous at the prospect of questioning your informant. A guide allows you to frame your questions in the best way possible, while serving as a tool to make sure the interview accomplishes what you set out to accomplish. For instance, if you have formed a positive or negative opinion of President Trump from your background research, you would not want to reveal that to your informant. Thus, you would not ask either, “what do you like about President Trump?” or “what don’t you like about President Trump?”  But you might say, “can you give me your impressions of President Trump?” and then follow up with, “are there aspects of his leadership you like, and aspects you don’t like very much?”

It’s extremely important to take time in preparing your guide for the interview, keeping in mind the tone you want to set from the beginning and the order in which you want to present your questions. Practice prepared questions with a friend, family member, or in the mirror so that when you enter the interview you are not nervous or distracted, but are able to focus on being an active listener, paying attention to the subtleties in tone and word-selection of your informant. (Blackstone, 2012)   During the interview, as an active listener , you will be taking notes that will lead to follow-up questions based on the responses of your informant. Never look bored, or like you want to get onto the next question (even if you do!) Try to make eye contact and show through your body language that you are interested in what they are saying. If someone gets sad or teary, agitated or starts to laugh, let them have these emotions without judgment. Feel free to ask them “Do you need a break?” “Are you ok? Sorry if these questions are difficult,” or “Do you feel able to continue, or should we stop?”

For semi-structured, or formal qualitative interviews you should be asking open-ended questions, and avoid questions that will elicit yes or no responses. To create an open-ended question, make sure you are gathering stories or addressing the “how” and “why” of a subject. While it’s important to know the one-word responses to questions like “Where are you from?” this is the sort of information that can be gathered through an informal interview, a survey or a quantitative interview . Formal qualitative interviews offer an opportunity to ask open-ended questions that will go beyond inquiring, “Where are you from?” to ask “Tell me a story about where you are from?” or “Why did you chose to leave where you are from to come to New York City?” Through open-ended questions you can gather significantly more detailed responses.

In some classes you will be required to fill out paper work with your interviewee that affirms their willingness to participate in your ethnography. You should print out and organize the informed consent forms that you will be presenting to your informants. These forms are designed to give the interviewee an opportunity to declare in what context they are comfortable with their oral history being used. You should have the forms prepared beforehand , as they will explain the project to informants and ask their permission to use the contents of the interview. It is helpful to practice how you are going to introduce these consent forms to your interviewees. Depending on your goal, or that of your professor, you may be preserving this interview not only for your ethnography, but also for people to look back on in the future. For this reason, you need to make sure you have the proper paperwork to get permission to either use or archive your interview.

People need to be able to opt out of certain questions if they are uncomfortable; they might want the tape recorder turned off if they are giving you sensitive information they do not want recorded. Perhaps they are anxious about you recording and making public their immigration status, why they quit their job, or a personal trauma they experienced, but they still feel you should know.

Finally, before the interview, if you plan to preserve the recording, you must make sure you have audio equipment and it is working properly. For most interviews, cellphones are perfectly acceptable recording devices. Both Apple and Android phones have applications that generally serve the purposes of this project. Recording the interview is extremely helpful in the ethnographic process and offers possibilities for preserving the historic artifacts created with your informants. If permission is given to record the interview, this allows you to focus on active listening , as opposed to writing down every significant observation made by your participant. While taking notes is still a pivotal part of the interview process, even while that interview is being recorded, simultaneously recording the interview allows you time to formulate new questions and think about the informant’s key points, as opposed to endlessly jotting down whole phrases or ideas.

Conducting an Interview

Ideally you will record the interview to come back to and build upon for your ethnography. After turning on the recording device, and testing to be sure that it is recording, begin the formal interview by stating your name, the date, the name of your interviewee and the location of the interview. Then on the tape you will ask your interviewee for permission to record the interview, either exclusively to use for class work, or to have their interview preserved and archived. If you are not recording the interview, informed consent forms are still helpful as they help your interviewee understand how the information they give you will be used. Explain what you are doing, why you selected this informant, how special you think their story will be. You can tell them that there are no right or wrong answers.

The first few minutes are important for setting the tone of the interview. You want to make sure your informant is comfortable so they are as open and honest as possible. You generally should not start the interview with difficult questions that will make your interviewee uneasy. You would not start with a question like, “Tell me about the time you felt most hopeless when working at the factory.” Instead, start light, ask something like, “Tell me something about yourself that I would not know by looking at you?” “How did you become interested in working at that factory?” or “How did you imagine your career path when you were a child?” The first few questions are extremely important. If you make your interviewee uncomfortable at the beginning of the interview you will get less in-depth and candid responses than if you work your way up to the more difficult questions. (Murchinson, 2010) Starting slow can be a great way to get into a rhythm for both you and your informant.

You should attempt to remain respectful of your informant’s narrative, even if it provokes anger, doubt or suspicion in you. You must be careful not to ask questions that give away your opinions on an issue you are asking about. Do not say, for instance, “This seems like a really nice place to work” or “You seem really frustrated with your boss.”  Something more like, “How do you feel about working here?”  or “If someone you cared about wanted a job here, what would you tell them?” Oftentimes interviewees will look for cues on how you feel about their answer to a particular question. If you show that you either approve or disapprove of their response, it will likely change the way the interviewee responds to future questions.

Further, you must be aware that interviewees may knowingly or unwittingly evade a question, exaggerate a story, provide incomplete information, or lie. This does not mean you should shy away from asking challenging or difficult questions. However, it is important to remember people generally want to present themselves in the best light possible. If you think someone may be misleading you, you can ask something like, “You mentioned you were the best athlete in your school, do you think all the other students would agree?” You may get more detail, you may not, or you may be interviewing the best athlete in the school!

What you hear from your interviewee is subjective, but it is this person’s truth; or at least what they want you to know. Often the interviewee will present an ideal, as opposed to real versions of themselves and their culture. Like any primary source, what your informant says during the interview offers you important insights into their worldview. Still, you must always be aware of your interviewee’s lens. Their narrative is shaped by their experiences and the historical moment in which they live. Always ask yourself how might the informant be attempting to shape your opinion with their explanation of events, traditions, daily routines, and personal experiences. Whether their perspective supports or challenges your conclusions, you must recognize the possibilities, as well as the limitations of this interview. (Murchinson, 2010) Your interviewee cannot give you objective truth, therefore, your projects should not uncritically use anything that the interviewee said. Any assertions or insights that the interview provides should be backed up by other sources of information. We must utilize interviews as only one significant part of an ethnographic study. (Esterberg, 2002)

You, as the interviewer must guide, but not direct the interview. You need to allow the informants to tell their stories, but make sure the interview does not stray too far from your topic so it remains useful to your ethnography. People might wander off topic, let them go for a bit, but always, delicately, get back to your questions. Something like, “That’s interesting. Can we go back to talk more about how your political views were formed?” If you do not understand a response, it is okay to ask your interviewee to explain what they mean. You can say, “Sorry I did not get that,” or “Can you explain that a bit more, I am not sure I understand.”

As an interviewer, you should also make sure that you do not finish the sentences of interviewees. Try to be comfortable in silence after asking a question. This is one of the most difficult, but important parts of the interviewing process. By doing this you are giving interviewee time to think and craft a response in their mind. This is essential to seeing the world as your interviewee is explaining it. If you are asking about a delicate topic, sometimes you can offer a wide-range of possible responses so that respondents feel free to say something not so positive.  For instance, “can you tell me about your growing up–some people have wonderful stories about family, some have difficult stories, some have both. How would you describe the family situation in which you grew up?” or “I wanted to ask you about your job. Some people are really focused on what they like about their work, others complain about aspects and lots of people seem to feel mixed.  How would you describe your work situation?”

Throughout the interview, take notes on insights you find interesting or important, words or phrases you find to be compelling, or questions you want to follow up on. This exercise both helps you formulate follow-up questions and will remind you later of your preliminary thoughts. Some interviewers take two-column notes; writing notes on a page with a line down the middle. On the left they jot down notes of what was said verbatim and on the right they write follow-up questions, ideas for future research, or comments for when they revise their notes at a later date.

While it’s extremely important to have prepared a range of topics and questions, especially in formal interviews, you must also be an active listener, adjusting your questions and creating new follow-up questions based on the responses of your informant. If you find yourself too focused on your next question, you might miss something crucial in your informants’ response. What you missed could have altered your line of questioning, or help you realize you are making assumptions that do not apply to your interviewee. (Murchinson, 2010) Being an active listener is not an easy task, but it is essential to being a good interviewer.

Be careful around particularly sensitive topics such as immigration status, illicit activities, gender, sexuality, religious race or class identity, abuse, money, and politics. If we engage in this line of questioning we must make sure the interviewee is prepared for these types of questions, that they fit into subject of the interview, and that the informant knows they do not have to answer any questions they are not comfortable answering. It is completely acceptable to say, “I have some questions that may be delicate.  If you would rather not answer, just tell me, that’s fine.”

After finishing your list of questions, it is advisable to ask the interviewee, “Is there anything I should have asked, but didn’t?” or something like, “I am going to interview many people like yourself. What questions would you be interested in asking others like you?”  These types of questions can give us additional insight into the most critical topics according to the interviewee. Sometimes the answers to these types of questions are quite revealing and will often lead to a new set of questions. You should be prepared for this type of question to extend the interview.

Before you leave, make sure your informant has signed all of the necessary informed consent forms. Then ask if your informant has any pictures, journal entries, newspaper clippings, or other primary documents that they would be willing to lend you for your ethnography. This will help verify and expand upon the information they shared with you during the interview process, but this new data may also lead to a follow up interview. Offer to send your interviewee a copy of the recording, or the resulting ethnography. Finally, follow-up the interview with a note of thanks.

Evaluating Information from Interview

Immediately after you part ways with your informant you should jot down any thoughts, questions, or ideas you took from the interview. By taking these notes, you can place what you just felt and heard in conversation with the larger ethnographic project. In the next day or two, listen to the recording. It is extremely helpful to take detailed notes on significant ideas and quotes to use for your ethnography while the interview is fresh in your mind.

In many cases transcribing the interview is the best way to start the evaluation process. A transcription is a typed-up version of the interview that either you, or someone else creates while listening to the recording. The best transcriptions document every word spoken during the recording including comments like [laughing] or [um….], words in other languages, or not in standard English. This makes it easier for you to code the interview, to mark patterns, commonalities and differences between events described by an individual, or in comparison to other narratives collected. It is best practice to transcribe the interview word-for-word for both use in your ethnography and to make it accessible for a wider audience. Further, if you have the time, it is best to transcribe the interview yourself. You will remember important details by listening again while transcribing yourself, details that a professional transcriber might miss because they did not experience the interview. (Blackstone, 2012) If your interviewee has an accent or speaks in a language other than English, you will likely transcribe fewer errors than a professional transcriber. The text will serve as an important source for your ethnography, as well as a potential historical artifact for future researchers. Often, interviewees want a copy of their interview for themselves, their children, or their grandchildren.

Preserving the Interview

By conducting an interview you become a producer of knowledge, influencing the ways a community, culture or individual is understood. Thus, the interview process is a tremendous opportunity, but it is also a great responsibility for interviewers, as you have been entrusted with someone else’s story. If you are archiving your interviews for future researchers, you have produced a primary source that documents the story of the person, community, or culture you were studying.  The interview also reveals the types of questions people were interested in during the time you lived. Often the consent forms you have collected will allow you or your professor to archive this recorded interview in some sort of collection. When appropriate, you should discuss with your professor ways to make sure this testimony can be used by future researchers and can be of use to the person, family, and community who contributed the interview. And of course, be very careful never to archive information that you have not received permission to archive or information that would make a respondent vulnerable.

Interviews are crucial methods for documenting the history of the present. They allow us to gather stories about how people live in the world today so that we better understand the range of experiences of the present moment and so that people in the future have a record of everyday, non-elite experiences in the 21 st century.

Chapter Summary

• The chapter outlined distinct kinds of interviews.
• This chapter covered the best practices in prepping for interviews.
• It detailed how best to conduct an interview.
• It explained the process of evaluating interviews.
• This chapter explored how best to archive your interviews as a way to preserve them and educate future generations.

Chapter Questions:

• Why are interviews useful in ethnographic work?
• What are the different types of interviews and when is each useful toward building a strong ethnography?
• What are the six steps to preparing for an interview?
• What sort of background is useful before the interview?
• Why is it important to think about your informant’s point of view?
• How would you explain the difference between real and ideal culture?
• How does a guide, schedule or frame help make you an active listener ? How does a recording the interview help make you an active listener ? How does being an active listener improve the interview process?
• Why are informed consent forms important?
• How should you start an interview?
• Why is it important to frame questions in a neutral way?
• What types of notes are useful when you are recording an interview?
• Write a paragraph detailing the how a subject that requires sensitivity might come up within the context of your interview and how might you address this subject with your interviewee.
• Come up with five open-ended questions to ask an interviewee, on topics related to your class?
• Qualitative Interviews
• Informal Interviews
• Formal Interviews.
• Interview Guide/Schedule/Frame
• Semi-Structured Interviews
• Unstructured Interviews
• Active Listener
• Open-Ended Questions
• Ideal Culture
• Real Culture
• Informed Consent Forms
• Transcribing

Esterberg, K. G. (2002). Qualitative Methods in Social Research . Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Fine, M. (2018). Just Research in Contentious Times .  New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Griffiths, Heather, Nathan Keirns, Eric Strayer, Susan Cody-Rydzewski, Gail Scaramuzzo, Sally Vyain, Tommy Sadler, Jeff D. Bry, and Faye Jones (2017). Introduction to Sociology 2e . Suwanee, GA: 12 th Media Services.

Murchison, Julian M (2010). Ethnography Essentials: Designing, Conducting and Presenting Your Research . San Francisco, CA: John Wiley and Sons.

Paris, Django (2011). Language across Difference: Ethnicity, Communication, and Youth Identities in Changing Urban Schools . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Amy Blackstone (2012), Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods. Saylor.org.

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The Autoethnography: Ten Examples

Instructions, choosing a topic.

For our final project for the class, you will be asked to select a subculture that you have currently chosen to be a part of or one that you will choose to connect yourself to and to investigate this subculture in a larger research paper called an autoethnography.

For this immediate assignment, I would like you to identify two subcultures that you are currently a part of and that you would find interesting to research. For each of the subcultures you identify, I would like you to give a brief description (three to four lines or more if necessary) that gives an overview of what the subculture is and your position in the subculture (how long you’ve been a part of it and how you feel about it).

From these two options, you will be choosing a topic for your final research paper. We will be sharing these ideas with the entire class. Please be as specific as possible. Your topics must fulfill the following criteria:

You must be able to do background and preliminary research on your topics. In other words, written and visual material must be readily available for analysis.

Topics must be local and accessible.

There must be a place, field site, or event space for the topic that you will be able to visit at least twice during the semester.

There must be at least two people you can interview who have different roles relevant to the topic.

Topics must be new and cannot overlap with research topics in any other course work.

Interviewing

The purpose of the interview is to help you gain insight into the perspective of another member of your subculture. This can be valuable on a number of levels and for a number of reasons. It can help you understand the subculture more as an outsider, offer additional information you can use to examine your own positionality, and provide interesting narrative content for the final project.

As you plan for your interview, consider what information you would like to get out of the interview, and write out your questions accordingly.

For this assignment, write up a minimum of ten questions you plan to ask your interviewee. Make sure the questions are in an order that is logical. This will allow you to know what you intend to get out of an interview and enable you to adapt when an interviewee inadvertently answers more than one question at a time or shares information you would like to ask about in greater depth.

Make sure you ask leading questions rather than questions that can be answered with one-word responses. It is helpful to incorporate phrases such as these into your interview questions: “Tell me a story about the time…”; “Can you explain in detail when…”; “Describe your favorite memory about . . “; “At length, describe….”

This kind of questioning will help your interviewee to feel comfortable and willing to share more information about which you can then ask follow-up questions.

Interviews can be conducted in various ways: through online chats, via telephone or in person. Each method has its own plusses and minuses, so be aware that they will yield different products.

In-person interviews are usually the most productive in that they allow you to take notes on the interviewee’s manner, dress and composure in addition to getting your verbal answers. The benefit on online interviews conducted in writing is that they are already written up for you, and the task of writing up in-person interviews is time-consuming. You will miss out on observation details, however, in any form that is not face-to-face.

Please bring to class at least one set of questions with a brief description of whom you will be interviewing, what you already know about that person and what you would like to learn from her or him. Ultimately, you will be picking two people to interview and writing questions for each interview.

Observations

When we engage in autoethnographic writing, it is important to try to re-create the spaces we are visiting—in other words, to explore the field sites where we are spending our time.

As part of our larger assignment, you need to identify a field site that will be relevant for your subculture. This can be a location where it meets, a place where history, event or memory is held.

For this assignment, I want you to walk into a space or event related to your subculture and spend at least twenty minutes there. You will be engaging in a stream-of-consciousness freewrite, making notes on everything you experience with your five senses. As in earlier assignments, I will then ask you to create a narrative from the details you have noted.

Rely on all five of your senses to convey not just what the space looks like but what it feels like. Sight, smell, touch, sight, sound are all important to consider as we try to re-create an environment we are experiencing for an outsider. Do not edit! Just write for the entire twenty minutes in the space without picking up your pen or pencil or relinquishing your keyboard, and see what you come up with!

As you did with earlier assignments, you should write the narrative version of your notes as close to the time of observation as possible.

Putting It All Together

When trying to incorporate your research into a final paper, it is important to realize that you will not be using all of it. As in our essays earlier in the semester, you will be drawing on important pieces of it to make your larger arguments (parts of the observation, pieces of the interview, etc.). You should not try to use all of the information you gathered in the final paper. Any kind of personal and qualitative writing is about making choices and creating narratives and subtext while maintaining your own voice as a participant-observer.

The most important thing to do is to find common threads in your research, identify your main themes and use the information you have gathered, combined with your own narrative understanding or experience, to create your final piece.

Your final paper will end up being roughly six to ten pages long, given the amount of data you have collected. It is important to ask questions as you go through this final drafting process, so please feel free to contact me at any point about concerns and ideas.

When transcribing interviews, please include only your questions and the full responses that will appear as quotes or paraphrases in your final paper. Since transcribing is time-consuming, this will be the most efficient use of your time. I ask you to attach these documents as well as the observations you completed to the final paper.

You will be asked to present your findings and read a brief piece of your project on the last day of class.

Student Samples

These essays went through multiple drafts at each point. Observations, interviews, and the final draft were all peer and instructor reviewed.

Adriana explores Anarchism in New York.

Tyana explores the group Student Activists Ending Dating Abuse (SAEDA).

Hannah explores the world of computer programmers.

Heather explores the world of Bronies.

Jillian explores modern artistic taxidermy.

Emma explores a religious institution for the first time.

William explores the world of Manhattan Drag.

Joomi explores National Novel Writing Month.

Justine explores the world of Manhattan-based metal band Steel Paradise.

Neziah Doe explores science culture on YouTube.

Teaching Autoethnography: Personal Writing in the Classroom Copyright © by Melissa Tombro is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Home — Essay Samples — Arts & Culture — Ethnography

Essays on Ethnography

Ethnographic essay topics and outline examples, essay title 1: unveiling cultural realities: an ethnographic study of [specific culture].

Thesis Statement: This ethnographic research paper provides an in-depth exploration of [specific culture], aiming to reveal the cultural practices, beliefs, social structures, and everyday life experiences of its members, while also shedding light on the impact of globalization and modernization.

• Introduction
• Research Context: Overview of [specific culture] and Its Significance
• Research Methods: Participant Observation, Interviews, and Data Collection
• Cultural Practices and Traditions: Rituals, Customs, and Social Norms
• Community and Social Structure: Family, Hierarchy, and Social Roles
• Impact of Globalization: Changes, Challenges, and Adaptations
• Conclusion: Insights Gained and the Cultural Richness of [specific culture]

Essay Title 2: Urban Ethnography: Exploring the Dynamics of [Specific Urban Community]

Thesis Statement: This ethnographic study focuses on [specific urban community], examining the urban environment, social interactions, community networks, and the challenges and opportunities that residents encounter in their daily lives.

• Research Context: Introduction to [specific urban community] and Its Demographics
• Research Methods: Immersive Fieldwork, Surveys, and Ethnographic Data
• Urban Landscape: Architecture, Public Spaces, and Neighborhood Characteristics
• Community Bonds: Social Cohesion, Networks, and Support Systems
• Challenges of Urban Life: Poverty, Gentrification, and Access to Resources
• Aspirations and Resilience: Stories of Residents and Their Urban Experience
• Conclusion: Understanding [specific urban community] and the Complex Urban Fabric

Essay Title 3: Ethnography of [Specific Subculture]: Navigating Identities, Belonging, and Expression

Thesis Statement: This ethnographic research paper explores the world of [specific subculture], shedding light on the subcultural identity, values, rituals, and modes of expression, while also examining the subculture's relationship with mainstream culture and the challenges it faces.

• Subcultural Context: Introduction to [specific subculture] and Its Significance
• Research Methods: Immersion, Interviews, and Documenting Subcultural Practices
• Subcultural Identity: Shared Beliefs, Symbols, and Modes of Expression
• Subculture vs. Mainstream Culture: Tensions, Resistance, and Integration
• Subcultural Challenges: Stereotypes, Stigmatization, and Legal Issues
• Subcultural Resilience: Community Building, Artistic Expression, and Social Change
• Conclusion: Embracing the Diversity of [specific subculture] and Its Impact on Society

An Analysis of David Valentine's "Imagining Transgender"

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Ethnomusicology and Music Education

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The Concept of Feminist Ethnography

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Ethnography as Methods of Anthropology

Strengths and weaknesses of ethnography in relation to marxist geography, the analysis of ethnographic methods, the role of ethnography in jenkins work, autoethnography: a personal and cultural exploration, debating napoleon chagnon's ethnography: fieldwork among the yanomamo, analysis of "the white mans burden".

Ethnography (from Greek ἔθνος ethnos "folk, people, nation" and γράφω grapho "I write") is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures.

Ethnography explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject of the study. Ethnographers mainly use qualitative methods, though they may also employ quantitative data. The typical ethnography is a holistic study and so includes a brief history, and an analysis of the terrain, the climate, and the habitat.

Gerhard Friedrich Müller developed the concept of ethnography as a separate discipline whilst participating in the Second Kamchatka Expedition (1733–43) as a professor of history and geography. Whilst involved in the expedition, he differentiated Völker-Beschreibung as a distinct area of study. This became known as "ethnography," following the introduction of the Greek neologism ethnographia by Johann Friedrich Schöpperlin.

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