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commercial fishing

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commercial fishing , the taking of fish and other seafood and resources from oceans, rivers, and lakes for the purpose of marketing them. In the early 21st century about 250 million people were directly employed by the commercial fishing industry, and an estimated one billion people depended on fish as their primary source of animal protein .

Fishing is one of the oldest employments of humankind. Ancient heaps of discarded mollusk shells , some from prehistoric times, have been found in coastal areas throughout the world, including those of China , Japan , Peru , Brazil , Portugal , and Denmark . These mounds, known as kitchen middens (from the Danish køkkenmødding ), indicate that marine mollusks were among the early foods of humans.

Archaeological evidence shows that humans next learned to catch fish in traps and nets. These ventures were limited at first to the lakes and rivers, but as boats and fishing devices were improved, humans ventured into sheltered coastal areas and river mouths and eventually farther out onto the continental shelves, the relatively shallow ocean plains between the land and the deeper ocean areas. In some shelf areas where seaweed was abundant , this was also incorporated into the diet.

Fishing technology continued to develop throughout history, employing improved and larger ships, more sophisticated fishing equipment, and various food preservation methods. Commercial fishing is now carried on in all types of waters, in all parts of the world, except where impeded by depth or dangerous currents or prohibited by law. Commercial fishing can be done in a simple manner with small vessels, little technical equipment, and little or no mechanization as in small local, traditional, or artisanal fisheries. It can also be done on a large scale with powerful deep-sea vessels and sophisticated mechanical equipment similar to that of other modern industrial enterprises.

Both algae and animals are taken from the sea. Two types of fish are caught: demersal, living at or near the bottom, although sometimes in mid-water; and pelagic , living in the open sea near the surface. Cod , haddock , hake , pollock , and all forms of flatfish are common demersal fish. Herring and related species and tuna and their relatives are examples of pelagic fish. Both demersal and pelagic fish can sometimes be found far from coastal regions. Other aquatic animals that may be the object of commercial fishery include, most notably, crustaceans ( lobsters , spiny lobsters, crabs , prawns , shrimps , crayfish ) and mollusks ( oysters , scallops , mussels , snails , squid , octopuses ). Certain mammals ( whales , porpoises ), reptiles ( serpents , crocodiles ), amphibians ( frogs ), many types of worms , coelenterates ( coral , jellyfish ), and sponges are also sought in commercial fishing. Most of these animals are legally regarded as fish in many countries.

Various algae are commercially obtained in both seawater and fresh water. Seaweed is harvested in the water or collected on the seashore. Algae play an important ecological role in many countries, not only as human food but also as fodder for cattle, as fertilizer , and as a raw material for certain industries.

Fisheries are classified in part by type of water: fresh water—lake, river, and pond—and salt water—inshore, mid-water, and deep sea. Another classification is based on the object—as in whaling, salmon fishing, and sponge fishing. Sometimes fisheries are classified according to the method of fishing employed: harpooning, seining, trawling, and lining.

While fisheries are considered renewable resources, overfishing has depleted fish and other seafood in many places and is a major threat to aquatic biodiversity . In addition, the use of less-selective fishing gear, such as gillnets or bottom trawls , results in substantial bycatch (the incidental catch of non-target species); some estimates state that bycatch may amount to as much as 40 percent of the global catch. The sustainable management of fisheries is key to both the health of aquatic ecosystems and the continued productivity of commercial fishing.

This article discusses organized fishing for profit, with an emphasis on mechanized industrial methods, gear, and vessels. The history and methods of whaling, which is less fishing than the hunting of an aquatic mammal, are discussed separately in the article whaling . For angling, or recreational fishing, see the article fishing . For the controlled propagation and husbandry of certain fish and aquatic organisms, see aquaculture . For information on the use and value of fish and marine products as food, see nutrition, human .

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The Pros and Cons of the Commercial Fishing Industry

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Commercial fishing has received a great deal of negative press in recent years, and for good reason. Overfishing has significantly affected marine life, hurt vulnerable populations and damaged sensitive ecosystems. However, proactive improvements can turn commercial fishing into a sustainable industry that does not harm the environment.

Fish serves as a nutritious food for worldwide populations. Many people rely on seafood for vital nutrients, like protein. Unfortunately, the commercial fishing industry is part of the global economy, meaning many regions now export the majority of their catch. This leaves coastal communities vulnerable to food insecurity.  In addition, climate change and its effects on ocean health are directly impacting the fishing industry. Improving sustainability requires evaluating commercial fishing pros and cons, and then affecting positive changes from the information gathered.

The commercial fishing industry has many positives that impact people throughout the world. Seafood is an excellent and plentiful protein source and economic stimulator.

1. Global Food Supply

Fish are a significant portion of the worldwide food supply. From Iceland to Malaysia, many people eat more fish than red meat. In countries with access to fresh seafood, fish contribute to a large percentage of daily protein intake.

However, while most fish-consuming countries tend to source from their own supply, there is concern about seafood being caught in other parts of the world and then incorrectly labeled. For example, many Americans buy frozen cod or tilapia, thinking it is wild, when in fact it was raised in China. Thankfully, traceability standards requirements have improved in the past few years, and these occurrences are much rarer.

2. Financial Impact

As of 2016, commercial fishing added $61 billion to the U.S. GDP. The seafood industry historically has been a booming one, employing over a million people. It’s important in many rural regions around the United States and has a significant impact on local communities. In fact, many areas have historically relied on this sector for decades.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic closing restaurants and other establishments, it should be noted that seafood sales have experienced a 95% decrease in demand. However, this downturn is understood as a temporary reaction to a turbulent economic state, not a forecast of depreciated sales over a long period.

3. Protein Source

Seafood is a fantastic protein source, especially as an alternative to red meat. In the face of climate change, scientists are researching better ways to reduce meat consumption while still meeting daily protein recommendations. However, many coastal populations are now forced to export most of their catch, leaving them vulnerable to food insecurity.  Globally, there is a  significant demand for seafood . The health benefits of fish, especially species rich in omega-3s like salmon, are worth noting. If commercial fishing could support more people eating seafood without damaging healthy marine populations, it could easily become a more environmentally friendly alternative to red meat.

Despite several positives, the industry faces disadvantages that must be overcome to be considered sustainable. Commercial fishing can cause a lot of environmental damage that must be addressed to become more Earth-friendly.

1. Bycatching

Without a doubt, one of the worst consequences of commercial fishing is bycatching. An enormous amount of waste is generated due to bycatch , which is a term used to describe the many fish and other wildlife that are caught when catching a specific species, like tuna. According to recent statistics, up to 40% of the world’s catch is bycatch, totaling around 63 billion pounds annually.

2. Habitat Destruction

There are several different types of catching implements, and each one comes with various environmental impacts. Of the net-catching methods, bottom trawling and dredging are some of the worst offenders, often destroying sensitive ecosystems that do not respond well to disturbance. While some techniques are less invasive, many commercial operations wreak havoc on aquatic life, often affecting other species without realizing it. 

3. Climate Change

The world is changing, and so are our oceans. It’s easy to forget how significant rising sea temperatures are for untold numbers of marine life. This, along with ocean acidification, is altering aquatic ecosystems. These environmental changes are predicted to cause the extinction of fish populations , especially in tropical regions. Advocates of sustainable fisheries are urging the seafood industry to be more mindful of how many fish are being harvested, and what effect that has on individual populations. 

Protecting Aquatic Life

It is essential to closely examine the current pros and cons of the commercial fishing industry, as well as identify possible solutions. These fisheries can be operated sustainably, but it will require significant changes in global methods and regulation. Considering how many people rely on seafood as a major protein source, protecting aquatic life and advocating for environmentally friendly methods should be the main focus moving forward.

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Commercial Fishing: What You Need to Know

The global commercial fishing industry is valued at $150 billion per year. Here's why it's wrecking the planet.

Explainer • Food • Food Systems

Words by Nimisha Agarwal

The amount of seafood consumed across the globe has almost doubled in the past half a century. These days, most fish are farmed. In fact, fish farm production surpassed wild fish catch in 2013. Yet capture operations are still responsible for more than 93 million metric tons of fish each year — most caught by commercial fishing operations.

Commercial fishing is a $150 billion global industry — and just 2 percent of the fleet captures over 50 percent of the catch. Most of the wild fish catch comes from industrial fishing operations whose practices are depleting wild fish populations across marine ecosystems.

What Is Commercial Fishing?

Commercial fishing aims to profit from catching and selling fish. It is different from subsistence fishing, which is usually done to provide the fisher and their family with food. Commercial fishing includes fish farming — raising fish in a controlled environment for profit. These large-scale, profit-driven fishing operations kill trillions of fish every year and ignore the sentience of fishes and their ability to feel pain. 

What Does Commercial Mean in the Fishing Industry?

Any activity that labels itself as “commercial” focuses on earning money. Most commercial fishing is concentrated in the hands of companies based in a few wealthy nations, working in international waters that do not fall under any country’s particular jurisdiction. 

History of Commercial Fishing

The earliest fishing activities were subsistence-based. Eating fish may not have been very common thanks to inefficient fishing gear, and fish would have been consumed with other products of hunting and gathering, though shellfish were more easily gathered by hand. 

When fish could be preserved, catching larger amounts and trading them became possible, and lucrative. The incentives were in place to improve fishing techniques. By the 17th century, European fleets started killing whales in large numbers in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for their oil, meat and whalebone. Sailing vessels in the Atlantic began to catch and sell cod in considerable numbers to European and African regions. The 19th century was a turning point for the commercial fishing industry, with the arrival of mechanization and engines. Now sailors could hugely increase their catch for greater profits. 

After World War II, traditional nets made of natural fiber were replaced with more complex, synthetic fiber to hold on to the more significant weight of caught fish. Mechanization further smoothed the process of industrial fishing. Power blocks became a part of purse seining and helped to haul up the nets. Drums were incorporated into longline fishing by the Japanese. By the 1960s, large trawlers traversed the sea to catch fish in their millions and even process them on board, allowing for longer trips. By the 1960s such vessels were operated by a handful of countries, namely the Soviet Union, East Germany, Japan, Poland, Spain and the U.K.

Types of Commercial Fishing

Commercial fishing operations are always looking for new ways to catch more fish while reducing the time and resources they expend. Commercial fisheries’ methods and tactics all prioritize the size of the catch over the well-being of the fish. Various types of fishing are used to catch fish from all ocean depths, from the surface to the seabed.

Fishing With Nets

Fishing with nets is the most common form of commercial fishing and is also the one that takes the most lives.

Purse Seine 

Purse seines function like purse drawstrings. This method is usually used to catch tuna fish. Purse seine nets are laid around a school of tuna in open water. While the top floats on the surface, the bottom sinks down, and once a good catch is confirmed, fishermen draw the net together to prevent fish from escaping. 

In trawling, a big net is attached behind a ship. The ship traverses water while the net collects fish on the way. Trawling can either be midwater or bottom, depending on how deep the net is in the water. 

In midway or pelagic trawling, the net is placed on the surface of open water and is mainly used to catch anchovies, tuna and shrimp. Bottom trawling catches fish from deeper into the water. In benthic trawling, fish are caught along the sea floor, while in demersal trawling, fish living close to the seabed are caught along with other sea life. 

Bottom trawling is like bulldozing the seabed, ripping it clear of flora and fauna that are vital to the oceanic ecosystem.

Gillnets are walls of netting designed to trap fish by their gill covers. The gillnets hang in the water and only allow the heads of the fish to pass through the mesh, capturing them by the side gills. Gillnets can be used in a way that mainly captures the species of fish intended to be caught — mostly tuna, salmon and swordfish. 

However, when the industry allows the nets to hang loose in the water instead of falling stiffly, they become “walls of death” for marine life and capture every fish , big or small, passing through the mesh. Deep drift gillnets were outlawed by the United Nations in 1989, but this method of placing miles of driftnets deep in the sea is still widely used illegally.

Fishing With Lines

Fishing with lines is a popular sport using fishing rods and hooks to catch fish. Unlike fishing with nets, this method cannot catch many fish simultaneously. However, commercial fishing gave this method an efficient spin, scaling up and increasing the number of fish caught using hook and line gear. 

Longline fishing positions miles of fishing line in the sea with hooks attached to one mainline, thus covering a large area and catching many fish. These hooks also catch other ocean animals who unwittingly attach themselves to the hooks. 

It is claimed that placing these lines deeper in the ocean can help untargeted fish caught on a hook to swim over the top; however marine animals face injuries and undue stress due to the hook piercing the body. 

Pole and Line

Pole and line is a labor-intensive method used to catch tuna and other midwater fishes one at a time, using a process of “chumming.” In this method, water is sprayed from the back of the vessel and bait fish (usually anchovies and sardines) are thrown into the water or attached to barbless hooks. 

Usually, this method uses live fish baits to create an illusion of a school of prey fish. When the target fish race to catch the baits, they get attached to the barbless hooks. The fish are then flicked up and tossed onto the deck, freeing the barbless hook in one single motion. This allows the fishermen to immediately put the hook back into the water, thus reducing the time involved in catching fish. 

Harvesting Shellfish

The primary reasons for catching shellfish are for food and ornamental products. Species of shellfish caught include clams, mussels, crabs, lobsters, shrimp, scallops and crayfish. Two standard methods are used to harvest shellfish.

This method collects clams and oysters. Heavy metal baskets are lowered onto the seabed and dragged to collect shellfish. These metal baskets have claws that collect shellfish, plowing into and damaging the seabed along the way. Not only do they cause significant harm to sea habitats, but they also catch other sea life as they go.

Traps and Pots

Traps and pots are widely used to capture a variety of shellfish. They are cages with bait suspended deep in the ocean. These cages are attached to a mainline to form a chain. Fishermen later collect the shellfish in the cages. 

In commercial shellfish diving, divers dive into the ocean to collect shellfish by hand. They collect oysters, pearls and scallops. Historically, people only used this method to collect shellfish for sustenance or famine food . However, commercial diving collects shellfish at an excess for profit. 

Why Is Commercial Fishing Bad for People and the Planet?

Commercial fishing is a dangerous job.

Fishing is one of the most dangerous jobs in the United States. According to Bureau of Labor Standards data , fishing and hunting has the highest occupational fatality rate at 132.1 fatal injuries per 100,000 workers in 2020.

Because of the profit-oriented nature of commercial fishing, workers are under heavy pressure to maximize catch size within a certain period. They face various occupational hazards like falling overboard, faulty gear, slipping on watery decks and shipwrecks. 

Besides physical injuries, workers also face risks to their mental health owing to long working hours, excessive noise, and the nature of the work, which requires the routine killing of fish. 

Commercial Fishing Harms the Environment and Oceans

Fishing methods such as bottom trawling and dredging disturb the seabed and stir up sediments. When these sediments are resuspended in the water, they scatter and lower light levels, affecting oxygen production in the ocean. 

Commercial fishing contributes to algal blooms — proliferations of algae that can ultimately lead to “dead zones” in oceans, where marine life cannot survive. Oceans will release harmful chemicals if oxygen distribution keeps plummeting, including nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide. 

Commercial fishing is also responsible for fishing gear waste in the ocean. With many synthetic nets settling in the ocean, plastic pollution of the sea is becoming a significant concern. These nets and abandoned longline hooks continue to kill fish in the sea long after fishermen leave the area. 

Commercial Fishing Is Cruel to Animals

Unsurprisingly, an industry that views fish as a way to earn profits seldom thinks of their welfare. There is no escaping animal cruelty for the commercial fishing industry, which kills fish in their trillions . 

Fish caught from the ocean are left to suffocate and die on ship decks or are clubbed to death. In each scenario, fish are viewed as food, not sentient beings . 

Commercial Fishing Leads to Unnecessary Bycatch

Bycatch is the “byproduct” of commercial fishing — marine species that weren’t intended for capture are caught and left to die. Often, sharks and dolphins get caught along with other fishes. By the time fishermen identify them, they are incapable of surviving their injuries. 

Which Commercial Fishing Techniques Are Associated With Excessive Bycatch?

Gillnet fisheries, longline fisheries, purse seining and trawling account for most bycatch in commercial fishing. These methods focus more on catching a large number of fish than ensuring that they capture only intended marine species.

Where Does Most Commercial Fishing Take Place?

Just a few countries are responsible for most of the world’s seafood. 

China leads commercial fisheries production, followed by Peru, Indonesia, India, Russia, the United States and Vietnam. Together, these countries account for almost 49 percent of global fish catch.

What Are the Main Commercial Fishing Companies?

In 2017, roughly 11 to 16 percent of global seafood was caught by 13 commercial fishing companies, controlling the production of in-demand species. Some of the largest fishing companies in the world are Japan-based Maruha Nichiro and Nissui, and Mowi in Norway. In the U.S., Trident Seafoods is the largest seafood production company.  

As regards widely consumed fish species, the Thai Union Group and Dongwon Industries lead the world’s tuna production. Nutreco and Cargill Aqua Nutrition are the biggest farmed salmon companies.  

Does Commercial Fishing Make Money?

Recent data from the U.N.’s Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) show a first-sale revenue of $141 billion for capture fishing (rather than fish farming). Commercial fishing is one of the largest industries in the world in terms of profits. FAO’s data also shows that aquatic food is the most traded food product globally.

After all, the commercial fishing industry launches extensive marketing campaigns to demonstrate the necessity of seafood in our diets. 

What Are the Impacts of Commercial Fishing?

Commercial fishing is reducing shark populations.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies many shark species as endangered . Besides being killed for food and medicinal purposes, sharks also become victims of excessive bycatch in commercial fishing. They are often trapped in gillnets or longlines or trawled onto ship decks.

Commercial Fishing Is Increasing Bycatch

One of the worst consequences of commercial fishing for marine life is bycatch. The commercial fishing industry is reportedly taking steps to reduce bycatch by altering the dimensions of nets and cages to capture only intended fish species. 

Yet despite these modifications, bycatch remains a severe problem. For example, smaller holes in trawling nets for capturing shrimp do not allow many species to escape. In longline fishing, even when bycatch species are identified , they are injured and in some cases, already dying. 

Commercial Fishing Is Killing Caribbean Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are underwater ecosystems formed by the growth and deposit of coral over time, creating large rocks. These reefs support about a quarter of the world’s marine species. The IUCN estimates that around a third of species of reef-forming corals are endangered globally. 

Commercial fishing activities significantly threaten coral reefs by modifying oceanic ecosystems. The industry excessively catches species necessary to maintain a healthy coral ecosystem. 

According to the IUCN, overfishing by the commercial fishing industry has led to the decline of species such as tuna in Caribbean waters and has killed many Caribbean coral reefs. If that is not enough, climate change and ocean warming further stress and destroy extensive coral reef ecosystems in the Caribbean.

Commercial Fish Farming Is Destroying the Environment

Commercial fish farming involves raising fish in controlled settings to sell for profit. Fish farming is an epicenter of disease outbreaks among fish, waste, pollution and excessive use of pesticides. All these features ultimately destroy the environment, affecting local species and communities dependent on the sea and its resources. 

What You Can Do

Most of the negative impact of the commercial fishing industry is because of the increasing demand for seafood. The best way to mitigate the impacts of commercial fishing is by reducing, or better, eliminating seafood from your diet. 

Reducing seafood demand is one way to hold the commercial fishing industry accountable. Recent investigations have uncovered various malpractices , including slavery and corruption, in the global fishing industry. Hence it is even more essential to take a stand against an activity that harms animals, the humans and the environment. 

You can also share information about the impacts of commercial fishing with your network. The more people are aware, the more hope we can have for the future. 

With the various threats that commercial fishing poses to oceanic vitality, it is time for the industry to step up and take action for the world, not just its own profits.

Independent Journalism Needs You

Nimisha (she/they) a is a freelance journalist primarily in the realm of sexuality, Indian politics and animal agriculture. They are a growth strategist, and they successfully run their own collaborative trekking project in India. They are a personal growth coach using alternative therapies.Their life and work is dedicated towards a just and equitable world.

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The Issue of Overfishing in the United States

See the remediation.

My paper is addressed towards an audience of environmentalists; it is essential that environmentalists are taught about overfishing so they can teach others and gain support for the movement to end overfishing. They are the group that is dedicated to help make the Earth a healthier place. It is necessary for this audience to read this paper because it will aid them in gaining knowledge on overfishing, which too often receives scant attention compared to climate change. In addition, environmentalists tend to have strong views on topics related to saving the Earth. Thus, if more environmentalists become aware of the exigence of the issue, more effort may be used to solve the problem. My secondary audience includes U.S. residents, ages 16 and above, who are also willing to join in on the efforts to help combat this issue. Even though United States is one of the nations that has done the most towards stopping the issue of overfishing, it is not enough. With this information, I believe that my audience will try to combat overfishing by taking hands-on approaches such as habitat restoration.

My introduction to habitat restoration left me sweating and exhausted. In 2017 I traveled down the East Coast in three minivans on a mission trip to Georgia with sixteen other people from my church. We were assigned to a variety of service projects during our week and a half stay, ranging from fixing homes for veterans to volunteering at an oyster restoration project. The latter was my favorite. I did not really understand the importance of what I was doing at the time, but I enjoyed the camaraderie and the exercise despite shoveling oyster shells for what it seemed like an endless amount of time. Because the work was so tiring, we shifted off our jobs to others in an assembly line. I went from shoveling the oyster shells to dumping them on tables, filling up bags with the shells, tying knots, and throwing them over a fence into a pile with hundreds of other filled bags. I found out later that we were helping to repopulate seafood, save the environment by filtering the water, and restore some people’s livelihoods by protecting their jobs. And we were only a tiny piece in a huge East Coast operation. My experience led me to investigate the issue of overfishing and to understand how much it demands our attention.

Overfishing is defined as the taking of fish at too high of a rate for the species to be replenished the next year. In the past, fisheries did not consider their effects on fish populations and the environment, which led to many populations getting overfished as fishermen exceeded environmental limits to gain a greater profit. The first documented case of overfishing was in the 1800s when people realized that whale blubber could be used to create oil for their lamps. This created a huge burst of fishing for whales to the point of endangerment (Palliser 10). Even after this instance, Americans still overfished many species because of their desire to gain more wealth. Another instance is George’s Bank’s Haddock stocks, which were overfished for decades before the 1990s, as a result of them being a necessity for New England fishermen. These stocks were the number one source of profit for New England fisheries, and they were generating over 400 million pounds of fish each year. This continuing trend put a huge strain on the George’s Bank stock, which led to the species yield reaching a record low--leading the New England Fishery Management Council (NEFMC) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) to name the species officially collapsed in the 1990s (Brodziak et al. 123).

Due to these increasingly harmful instances of overfishing, a method of monitoring fish stocks was developed globally called the maximum sustainable yield (MSY). The MSY is the absolute maximum harvest of fish that should be taken annually from a certain population of fish for the species to regenerate to the previous amount or higher for the next year, yet many people see it as a goal rather than a limit. Because this did not work to end overfishing, the United States passed the Magnuson Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSFCM) in 1976 to initiate an annual catch limit for fisheries. This act also extended U.S jurisdiction, which required that foreign ships follow the conservation laws (Powell, 2019). In 1976 before the MSFCM was passed, foreign ships were catching 10 times as much as the US fishermen, which greatly contributed to the overfishing of the entire area. Just after one year of the act passing, the United States started creating more fishing vessels to catch fish in this area since foreign competitors left and did not want to abide by the regulations. By 1992, the entire area was being controlled with U.S. vessels following strict regulations, and all foreign vessels were gone, choosing to fish in an unregulated area instead (Powell 2019). This proved to be beneficial because in 2016, only 8% out of the 390 annual catch limits were exceeded. However, even with maximum sustainable yields and the catch limits, the world’s total fishing yield continued to decrease after it reached the highest yield in 1989 of about 90 million tons (“Overfishing”).  Considering overfishing is not the only problem leading to decreased yields, establishing a strict MSY will not be enough by itself to accomplish reaching the supply of fish we once had.

The supply of fish continues to decrease over time, and this has a huge impact on many people within the United States. The average American eats 15.5 pounds of fish annually, which is a number that increases each year (“Americans”). Fish is a huge staple throughout America, and the declining fish yields present a problem for most people that enjoy fish as a staple in their diets and others for whom fish is a necessity to include because of allergies or religious reasons. It is not just those who enjoy fish that this issue impacts, but it also the fishermen in the US that rely on fish to provide for their families. Coastal fisheries support about 1.8 million jobs nationally, but this number is declining because the lowering ability for fishermen to make a living off the smaller fish populations.

In this paper I will show that overfishing is an issue that needs to be addressed because of the likelihood of great harm to fish populations, those who rely on fishing as an occupation, and all who benefit from fish being a part of their diet. First, I will address how bycatch is one reason why overfishing has occurred. Secondly, I examine the negative impacts of the direct loss of fish upon consumers and fishermen. Then I tie in information about how the US fishermen are impacted negatively when foreign competitors are constantly overfishing, making it harder for Americans to sell their fish. Some elected representatives representing land-locked states may not be convinced that this issue of overfishing is important enough for them to address, and therefore I examine information as to show how this issue effects more than just coastal environments. Although prior laws have been passed to combat overfishing, they have not solved the problem. I conclude by offering a way for non-environmentalists to assist by actively rebuilding habitats and eating sustainably.

The most obvious effect of overfishing that proves change is needed is the direct loss of fish from aquatic ecosystems. Nearly 90% of global marine fish are overfished or fully fished, meaning that the stocks are being fished at their MSY or even more (Shaver and Yozell 6). Commercial overfishing especially has impacted such a large species of fish in the oceans, with the result being that only a small percentage of species can be labeled as healthy stocks. A primary reason for this catastrophe is bycatch. Bycatch is most commonly defined as the accidental capture of a non-targeted species, but it can also include species that were hit by fishing boats, or animals that were entangled by fishing nets, even if they managed to escape (Read et al. 164). Bycatch presents a huge problem of overfishing to marine animals, damaging the aquatic ecosystems. In fact, bycatch is the greatest threat to whales, dolphins, and turtles, especially the species of Albatrosses and many species of turtles, who even face extinction as a result of frequently being caught as bycatch (Read et al. 164). To emphasize the extent of how many whales get impacted by bycatch, it is important to note that 70% of North Atlantic Right whales have been entangled at least once in their lives, and it impairs their ability to live (Read et al. 167). When whales are impacted by bycatch, so is the plankton population which can overpopulate and harm other types of fish and aquatic plant life that rely indirectly on the whales. To some extent it does not matter if bycatch is purposeful because the damage is still being done.

Overfishing jeopardizes the ability of the U.S. consumers to take advantage of the health benefits offered by fish. It has been determined that fish are a healthier source of protein compared to red meat. For instance, a three-ounce serving of beef can reach up to 186 calories with more fats (Arnarson). Meanwhile, a three-ounce serving of flounder can be as low as 60 calories with other minerals such as iron zinc and potassium (“Fish”). In fact, the US Department of Health and Human Services and the USDA publish the “Dietary guidelines” every five years, in which they recommended that Americans should double their intake of seafood (Nylen 759). In the United States, and even throughout the word, the middle class has been growing exponentially, which means that more people are able to afford a wider variety of foods, which includes the healthier option of fish (Shaver and Yozell 10). This increasing demand for fish can be fulfilled in a sustainable way, but currently these sustainable practices are not put into play, which will cause negative effects for humans and the fish. For example, the USDA creates a “Choose My Plate” website. It makes seafood recommendations for good sources of protein, yet it ignores the fact that their list includes recommendations for fish that are under intense fishing pressure (Nylen 762). We will soon reach a point when our demand is too high, and the stock populations are too low for our demands for fish to be met.

But the direct loss of fish is not the only negative impact of overfishing, and consumers are not the only people affected. A second impact of overfishing that proves its urgency is its effect on the jobs of fishermen. Because many of the fish eaten in the United States are imported, a large strain is placed on US fishermen to maintain enough sales to provide for their families throughout the year. Consider the shrimpers in North Carolina, which used to be the most profitable state among the Southern Shrimp Alliance Members in 2000. But, due to the growing supply of imported shrimp, there has been a steady decline of about 50% in shrimp prices for North Carolina (Andreatta and Parlier 182). As overfishing increases abroad, it produces a highly negative impact on the economy of the US by making it harder to live as a US fisherman. A huge part of this is due to illegal dumping of shrimp into the US by Thailand, China, Vietnam, and India (Shaver and Yozell 11). When these countries dump such large amounts of shrimp into the US, their shrimp tends to have lower costs because of their ability to sell in bulk.

Foreign overfishing creates a burdensome effect on fishermen by increasing the difficulty for US fishermen to sell their catch. For instance, fishing had always been a huge part of Carteret County in North Carolina in terms of occupation. Up until the 1990s, a commercial fisherman could have provided comfortably for their family on a full-time job (Andreatta and Parlier 180). This is no longer the case, which can be shown through the fact that there has been a 50% decline in fishermen in Carteret County from 1999 to 2006. With the increasing regulations within the US such as the annual yield limits set by the Stevens-Magnusson Act in combination with the foreign competition, commercial fishermen in Carteret County are being marginalized.

Another example of foreign overfishing affecting US fishermen is in Gloucester Massachusetts, where a catch-share management regulation was passed, limiting the amount of fish that could be legally caught, but exceptions were granted that created additional hurdles beyond the regulation. Under this policy, fishermen could buy “shares” of each other’s total allowable catch, presenting a problem for smaller fishermen who might not process enough capital to buy other’s shares (“Overfishing is”). Dave Marciano was one such fishermen. He fished commercially in Gloucester for three decades until he was forced to sell his fishing permit because the catch-share program became too expensive for him to participate in (“Overfishing is”).

Another way in which overfishing and even policies designed to combat overfishing harm U.S. commercial fishermen is by forcing fishermen to adapt to seasonal fluctuations of species. For example, in the South during January, the best species for commercial fishing are Specks and Sunshine, but as the calendar transitions to March, the best species to fish include Bass and Bluegill (“Seasonal”). The cost of production for multiple species surpasses the profits that these fishermen make because the overfishing in other countries provides American consumers with cheaper fish. Most consumers will not spend the extra cost to purchase fish from the US, thereby forcing many US fishermen out of business.

It is not just U.S. policies that have impaired American fishermen’s success. International policies, which are not as restrictive as the U.S. would have liked, also impair American fishermen’s livelihoods. One example is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), passed in 1994, which stated that member nations had exclusive jurisdiction up to 12 nautical miles outside each coastal state. The US refused to sign it in 1976 because their own Magnuson-Stevens Act, their jurisdiction extended exclusive jurisdiction 200 nautical miles (“The Law”). The US did not want to risk having their jurisdiction shortened as a result of an international agreement.

Pirate fishing is an additional source of global political tension in U.S. fisheries. Pirate fishing refers to illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, and it is a huge problem worldwide. Since so much of the fish sold in the United States is imported, the US is especially vulnerable to having IUU fish imported; it was estimated that 25 to 30% of wild-caught seafood imported in the United States was illegally caught (Willette 25).

The misuse and overuse of specific fishing techniques have also contributed largely to overfishing. Dredging and trawling are two of the most harmful. A prime example of the former, and its consequences, is occurring in the Chesapeake Bay. The collapse of eastern oysters in the Bay is one of the largest declines of documented marine species, and the primary cause is overfishing. In the 1700s, a traveler exclaimed how populous oysters were in the Chesapeake Bay. There were so many that the ships had to carefully navigate through them (Wilberg et al. 131). These oysters became a resource that was essential to the success of fisheries, to the extent that Maryland had the largest fishery in the United States in the late 1800s because of the abundance of oysters (Wilberg et al. 131). But when fisheries obtain so many oysters at such high of a rate, oyster fishing no longer is sustainable, and it leads to population depletion. Due to excessive overfishing caused by fishermen not thinking about the future, the oyster harvests rapidly declined during the early 1900s. Ever since then, oysters have remained at low levels and have not been able to make large recoveries (Wilberg et al. 132). The reasons that this overfishing occurred was because of the fishing technique called dredging. Dredging is a method for fishing that has a large rake-like object that is towed along the bottom of the seafloor (Palliser 11). This is a common method for harvesting oysters because it smashes the oyster beds, allowing the oysters to break off and be captured. Therefore, not only is this directly depleting the population of the oysters through fishing, it is also destroying the habitats. The dredges remove shells and live oysters from their compact oyster beds. This turns more of the beds into sediment, which makes it much harder for oyster species to repopulate when so much of their habitat has already been destroyed. A study found that dredging for only two hours can reduce reef height by six centimeters (Wilberg et al. 141). Considering that fisheries are harvesting oysters for much longer than this, the environmental damage adds up to create a drastically negative effect on the species’ ability to repopulate the following years. Dredging for oysters is not the only fishing technique that hurts the environment; another such technique is trawling. Trawling drags a net along the bottom of the seafloor, opposed to dredging which tows a metal rake (Palliser 11). Trawling disturbs the habitats of various fish because as it runs along the sea floor to catch the fish, it disrupts any vegetation it comes across, such as grass, seaweed, or even coral (Palliser 11). Trawling and dredging are employed liberally because they capture as much seafood as possible with minimal effort. Sadly, dredging and trawling are two fishing techniques that result in overfishing.

Although recreational fishing a small-scale contributor to overfishing, it can impact the environment in harmful ways. One such way is the overfishing of predator populations. A case study conducted in Cape Cod addresses that once the predator populations were overfished via recreational fishing, it led to the increased die-off of shoreline vegetation on the marsh (Altieri et al. 1402). In other words, recreational fishermen, also known as anglers, overharvested the fish from the top of the food chain, which resulted in a dramatic increase of the herbivorous crab, Sesarma (Altieri et al. 1402). Without predators, the Sesarma were free to repopulate and eat freely, which resulted in the die-off of the shorelines. This destruction of the salt marshes is extremely harmful to the environment because salt marshes provide a lot of beneficial factors for humans, animals, and ecosystem health. For instance, salt marshes act as a buffer from shoreline erosion and they are homes to a variety of food sources such as shrimp and finfish (US Department). The Cape Cod study is one of many that suggest overfishing, including recreational fishing, can have devastating consequences.

Despite all the evidence showing how urgent of an issue overfishing is, not all people agree. Steve Murawski, a fisheries biologist and marine ecologist at the University of South Florida, argues that overfishing is no longer a danger. He strictly states, “For the first time in at least a century, US fishermen are not taking too much of any species from the sea” (“Overfishing is”). Murawski claims that the Gulf of Maine cod have recovered even though fishermen were technically overfishing still.  He has watched the Magnuson-Stevens Act in New England be enforced, which imposes strict catch limits. Therefore, he believes that the right levels of fishing have been hit (“Overfishing is”). Just because management techniques applied in one region (in this case, New England) have been successful does not mean that they will be successful elsewhere even if they are applied. A report published in 2013 disputes Murawski’s 2011 claim that overfishing would no longer be a problem. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), over 70% of the world’s fish species are fully overfished or drained, and this overfishing trend is continuing. The FAO also reports that illegal fishing is increasing, which also shows signs that undocumented overfishing has continued (Nuttall).

One specific solution that could be implemented on local, national, and global scales--and is particularly beneficial--is habitat restoration. Coral restoration would be a great project to get involved in because it helps rejuvenate the habitats of fish and sea animals that rely on coral for their ecosystem to live in. Coral restoration can include growing coral in land-based nurseries or transporting coral from healthy to degraded reefs. When coral is rebuilt, it allows for more fish to repopulate because their habitats are improving, and, as a result, there is more livable space. This habitat restoration solution can also be enacted in bays where overfishing has caused the depletion of oysters and oyster beds. By restoring the beds, people can help to make bays healthier, while providing a habitat where oysters can repopulate. This was something that I was able to get involved with my church members by going on a mission trip for a couple of days. Volunteering, even for minimal time, for a restoration project could provide lasting benefits to that area.

 A case study on the habitat loss in the Upper Chesapeake Bay claims that the most effective strategy to rehabilitate oyster populations includes the focus on restoration activities (Wilberg et al. 141). By providing improved habitats for different sea animals, restoration projects can help to increase populations of these species. Higher populations would make it much more difficult for humans to overfish. So, if more people get involved in habitat restoration, it could help to provide better conditions for species to repopulate. An even easier solution that individuals can enact is to simply take into consideration which species of fish they are eating, where it is from, and how it is caught. The Monterey Bay Aquarium creates a consumer guide which places fish into one of three categories, “Best Choices”, “Good Alternatives”, and “Avoid” (“Consumer”). This helps people to pick seafood that is fished or farmed in a sustainable way, to help support a healthy aquatic ecosystem. If people decide to eat fish more sustainably, it could prevent the consumption of fish that are overfished or threatened. This would help to reduce overfishing by diverting consumer demand away from species that are at risk of exhaustion. I acknowledge that these ideas represent short-time solutions, but it is important for more of us to stay active in solving the issue on a local level while governmental and global legislation to stop overfishing is underway.

The issue of overfishing is often overlooked worldwide because other environmental issues, such as climate change and pollution, capture the global focus of scientists and activists; however, overfishing in the United States deserves our attention. What is being done to combat overfishing is not enough, and more people who care about the environment need to get involved with this cause and create change. It is time that we stop disregarding overfishing and do something to save the fish, our environment, and ourselves.

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Articles copyright © 2024 the original authors. No part of the contents of this Web journal may be reproduced or transmitted in any form without permission from the author or the Academic Writing Program of the University of Maryland. The views expressed in these essays do not represent the views of the Academic Writing Program or the University of Maryland.

60 Fishing Topics & Essay Examples

Need to write a fishing essay? This industry is worth exploring! In the article below, you’ll find everything necessary to perform this challenging task.

🏆 Best Fishing Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

📌 easy fishing topics for essay, 🎣 fishing research paper topics, 👍 good fishing thesis titles, 🐠 research questions about fishing.

In your fishing essay, you might want to write about its history or techniques. Another option is to focus on economics of fisheries. Below we’ve collected everything necessary for students willing to write an essay on fishing. You’ll find fishing research paper topics, questions, and fishing essay examples.

• Ocean Pollution and the Fishing Industry In essence, the activities of over six billion people in the world are threatening the survival and quality of water found in the oceans, lakes and other inland water catchment areas.
• Analysis of Alaska Fly-Fishing Expedition Business trips are necessary because they motivate the employees after resumption to work harder and skilfully to achieve the objectives of the business. The firm must compute a plan to prevent these risks and control […]
• Recreational and Commercial Fishing, Pros and Cons Fishing is the activity of catching fish in different ways for commercial and recreational purposes. Commercial fishing is done to catch fish and sell it for profit.
• Fishing Rods: A Mathematical Model for the Placement of Line Guides on a Fishing Rod The given data is the guide number from the tip of the fishing rod and the distance from the tip of the fishing rod.
• Fishing Boat Production in the Indian Market The strength of the American company lies in the innovative and flexible approach to creating products that withstand the tests and criticism of the target audience before entering the market.
• Aboriginal Cultural Fishing in Australia Cultural fishing practiced by indigenous people on the South coast of Australia for many years contemporarily puts them into opposition to the government due to legislation in the fishing industry.
• Foldable Boats: US Based Fishing Firm’s Culture The organization will change the foldable watercraft design as it tests the waterproof coating and paper products to determine the most suitable design for use in India.
• Southcentral Alaska Sport Fishing Due to the very seasonal nature of most fisheries and the lack of job reporting requirements, comparing employment in the seafood sector to other businesses is difficult.
• Marine Research: Incorporating Into Fishing Policies The realization that the current trends in oceanic bionetwork threaten a shortage in the fundamental water-related protein source for the future population is a major reason for the changes.
• The Commercial Fishing Techniques All of the techniques differently affect various spheres related to the fishing process, such as the environment, the crew’s health, the volume of the catch, and the levels of effort needed.
• Factortame Litigation: Conflict Over Fishing Waters Legislation The proposal seeks to understand the conflict in the application between the U. Therefore, in the U.
• The Fishing Industry of Atlantic Canada The Northwest Atlantic rose exponentially throughout the centuries proving quite significant to most of the North Atlantic regions, especially to the Canadian population, by forming the most reliable economic backbone to the Canadians as well […]
• What Impact Do Fishing Quota Regulations Have on the Fishing Industry of South Africa? Scopes of the study The author of this study has unlimited scopes besides the limitations to conduct research, for instance The researcher has opportunity to examine both negative and positive side of the fishing quota […]
• Fishing Industry in the UAE For centuries fish has been a mainstay of the diet of the people within the U.A.E.and, as a result, has brought about the creation of numerous industries which focus on harvesting, processing and delivering seafood […]
• Impacts of Oil Spill on Dolphins and Fishing in Gulf of Mexico According to a study conducted along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, it was found that the spillage led to the reduction of the food available for dolphins in the region.
• Recreational Shark Fishing Fishing, especially recreational fishing, is considered to be one of the most famous activities all over the world: people like to spend the vast majority of their time in order to use their imagination, attract […]
• What Are Some Fishermen For Fishing During Adverse Weather
• What Is The Theme Of Fishing For Jasmine By John Ravenscroft
• The Impact of Project Eyes on Monitoring Illegal Fishing
• When Patience Leads to Destruction: The Curious Case of Individual Time Preferences and the Adoption of Destructive Fishing Gears
• Types Of Retailers For Fishing Products Shopping
• On the Statistical Significance of Regional Economic Impacts from Recreational Fishing Harvest Limits in Southern Alaska
• Welfare Effects Of Fishery Policies: Native American Treaty Rights And Recreational Salmon Fishing
• The Drama of Fishing Commons: Cournot-Nash Model and Cooperation
• Where the Land Meets The Sea: Integrated Sustainable Fisheries Development and Artisanal Fishing
• The Work Performance Analysis of Sea Fishing in Kolaka Regency
• The Effect Of Fluctuating Water Levels On Reservoir Fishing
• The Impact of Fishing on the Socio Economic Development of Ssi-Bukunja Sub County
• The Value of Recreational Inshore Marine Fishing
• Toward a More Complete Model of Individual Transferable Fishing Quotas: Implications of Incorporating the Processing Sector
• The Effects of Oil Drilling to the Fishing Industry and Possible Alternative Energy Sources
• Positive and Negative Aspects of the Lobster Fishing Industry in Maine
• The Decrease in the Number of Commercial Fishing-Related Deaths Under the Quota System in Alaska
• The Production of Fishing Effort and the Economic Performance of License Limitation Programs
• The Value Of Sport Fishing In The Snake River Basin Of Central Idaho
• Widespread Labor Stickiness in the New England Offshore Fishing Industry: Implications for Adjustment and Regulation
• The Art of Fishing: How to Have a Successful Fishing Trip
• Valuing a Change in a Fishing Site without Collecting Characteristics Data on All Fishing Sites: A Complete but Minimal Model
• The Opportunity Cost of Capital and Optimal Vessel Size in the Norwegian Fishing Fleet
• What You Should Know About Smallmouth Bass Fishing
• Valuing the Unmarketable: An Ecological Approach to the Externalities Estimate in Fishing Activities
• Seasonality and Cointegration in the Fishing Industry of Conrwall
• The Impact Of Fishing On The Service Of Industrialization
• Over Fishing, Problems and Solutions
• Using Qualitative Site Characteristics Data in Marine Recreational Fishing Models
• Vulnerability of Fishing Communities from Sea-Level Change: A Study of Laemsing District in Chanthaburi Province, Thailand
• Social Network Analysis of Price Dispersion in Fishing Quota Lease Markets
• Spiritual Aspects of Fishing in Hemingway’s, The Old Man and the Sea
• Using Revealed Preferences to Infer Environmental Benefits: Evidence from Recreational Fishing Licenses
• Statistical Modelling of Fishing Activities in the North Atlantic
• The Specific Handling Techniques that Must be Done When Fishing
• Optimal Harvest in an Age Structured Model with Different Fishing Selectivity
• Time for Fishing: Bargaining Power in the Baltic Swedish Cod Fishery
• Understanding Fly Fishing Targets On Flowing Water
• The Economic Value Of Marine Recreational Fishing: Applying Benefit Transfer To Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey
• Over Fishing and Other Threats to the Declining Fish Population
• The Unsustainability Of The Fishing Industry And Solutions
• Simple Adaptive Rules Describe Fishing Behaviour Better than Perfect Rationality in the US West Coast Groundfish Fishery
• Procreation, Fishing, and Hunting: Renewable Resources and Dynamic Planar Systems
• The United States Action on International Fishing Disputes
• Expedition Ideas
• Ocean Research Ideas
• The Old Man and the Sea Research Topics
• Wildlife Ideas
• Extinction Research Topics
• Ocean Pollution Titles
• Water Pollution Research Topics
• Oceanography Research Ideas
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Geography Notes

Essay on fishing: top 8 essays | economic geography.

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Here is a compilation of essays on ‘Fishing’ for class 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Fishing’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Fishing

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the Conservation of Fish

Essay # 1. Introduction to Fishing:

The term fishing embraces all aspects of man’s pur­suit of the aquatic animals in the seas and in inland waters all over the world. A very wide variety of methods is employed. Men were hunters and fishermen before they became cultivators, and fishing is therefore one of the oldest occupations of mankind.

Increasing human numbers will make the efficient harvesting of food from the sea more and more important. Fish are a vital source of food, especially in countries like Norway, Iceland and Japan where the land is bleak or mountainous and agriculture cannot be easily de­veloped; and fish are also caught and processed to produce lubricants, fertilizers or cosmetics.

Moreover, modern fisheries are not confined to catching fish, but include many other sea harvests such as whales, seals, pearls, crustaceans (i.e., lobsters, crabs, prawns, shrimps), molluscs (i.e. oysters, mussels, cockles, clams), sponges and seaweeds.

However it must not be assumed that fish and other marine animals are an inexhaustible resource. Indeed, there are vast areas of the oceans which have very few fish. Many factors affect the productivity of the seas; the depth of the water, the ocean currents, the temperature and salinity determine the amount of plankton or fish-food present. In a way fishing is like mining; it is a robber industry. If men catch fish at a rate faster than nature can replace them, there will eventually be very few left.

With faster, highly-powered boats and extremely efficient and deadly ‘weapons’ for harvesting fish, many parts of the world are already faced by a great decline in the annual fish catch. Men now have to go further into the oceans to bring ashore sufficient hauls to meet their daily needs.

Overfishing and es­pecially the wasteful killing of immature fish must be checked, not just by individual countries, but, as fish know no national boundaries, on an international basis. Fish protection and conservation measures in world fisheries must be promptly acted upon by all nations if the supply of this important source of human food is to be preserved.

Essay # 2. Value of Fishing:

In terms of food value, fish are in no way inferior to other forms of meat. They are tasty, tender and easily digestible. Different kinds of fish vary in their palatability and individual taste, while different methods of preparation (fresh, pickled, kippered or smoked) and of cooking (steaming, boiling or frying) mean that fish suit almost every taste and are highly prized all round the world.

Moreover, fish and other marine products are rich in proteins which help in body-building or replace worn-out tissues. Their fat provides energy and forms a valuable source of reserve food for the human body. Many essential minerals are found in fish including iron, calcium, iodine, copper, magnesium and phosphorus, in relatively greater pro­portions than in many other foods. Fish-liver oils, e.g. cod-liver oil, are a very rich source of vitamins A and D. In fact, almost three-quarters of the total fish catch is used for food, whether fresh or processed.

Besides providing human food, fish and their by-­products are equally useful in many other ways. The fish wastes from canneries are made into fish-meals, glues, oils and fertilizers. Whales provide an even greater range of industrial products. Before the in­vention of electricity or the discovery of petroleum, whale oil was the chief lamp-fuel and lubricant.

It is now used for the manufacture of soap, margarine, paints, ink and linoleum. Other by-products like wax and ambergris are used for cosmetics and perfumes and the bones and flesh are ground up for fertilizer. The skins of sea mammals like seals and walruses provide excellent fur clothing materials.

Other industries, besides those dealing directly with fish, are stimulated by fishing. These include shipbuilding and repairing, the manufacture of nets and other equipment, the construction of boxes or of tin cans for packing and the making of salt, ice or other preservatives.

Essay # 3. Types of Fishing:

In order to catch the different types of fish, fishermen must employ suitable nets or lines and must study the habits of the fish concerned.

On this basis the fishing industry can be divided into four main types:

i. Pelagic Fishing:

Pelagic fish are generally small in size and swim near the surface. Moreover they are found in large shoals. They may be caught close to the shore or far out at sea. The commonest methods used to catch pelagic fish are drifting and seining; drifters are larger and operate far from land, while seining is carried on by smaller craft working closer to the shore. In some areas, where the water is shallow, traps may even be used to catch pelagic fish.

One of the most important habits of pelagic fish is their migration, and thus pelagic fishing is often a seasonal activity. For example, herring move from north to south in the waters off the eastern coast of Britain, from summer till the end of autumn. They are caught off the Orkneys and Shetlands in June, off the Scottish coast by August, around the Humber in September, and in the English Channel by the end of the year.

Similarly the pilchard is a summer visitor to south-west England, and the mackerel also comes to British waters in summer. The regular migratory habits of the pelagic fish impart an annual rhythm to the fishermen’s activities. They are able to make prepara­tions for the catch, and fishing ports can get ready to handle the peak hauls. Even farmers can adjust their farm work to the fishing season and many of them take to part-time fishing, e.g. in Norway.

ii. Demersal Fishing:

Demersal fish (often known as white fish) live at the bottom of shallow seas. They prefer the cooler waters and are found most frequently at depths of about 40 metres (130 ft) where sunlight is just able to penetrate. They feed on smaller fish or sea animals and unlike the pelagic fish are not found in large shoals, nor do they have regular migratory habits. Cod is by far the most common and the most valuable of demersal fishes.

Trawling, where the sea-bed is smooth, or long-lining, where the bed is rocky or there are many wrecks, are the chief methods of catching demersal fish. Fishing trips are usually longer, lasting several weeks or months. Larger, more powerful boats, often equipped for processing and storing the fish, and a large crew are essential in demersal fishing.

iii. Inshore Fishing:

Fishing close to the shores, in shallow, sheltered, coastal waters and the lower stretches of rivers is important in both tropical and temperate regions. People of almost every coastal village in the world practise some form of fishing, usually within 5 km (3 miles) of the coastline.

The greatest number of part-time fishermen is found in inshore fishing and they supply fish for the daily food of the family or for the village market. Their methods are often less efficient than those used at sea though in some places, especially in Europe and North America, inshore fishing is both efficient and highly commercialized.

Casting nets, hooks and lines, trap nets, pound nets, gill nets and a wide range of wooden, bamboo, rattan or wicker-work traps are used. Some tropical fishermen also use sunken set nets, placing a conical net, held firmly by poles driven into the ground, at river estuaries. Large traps of kelongs made of stakes driven into the sea-floor may also be used along the coast, especially in South-East Asia, and fish are caught when the tide goes out.

A few pelagic and demersal fish are caught in in­shore fishing but more important are the anadromous fish of which salmon is the leading species. Salmon are caught on their way back from the sea to their spawning grounds in the rivers. They return in large shoals in the same way as they first descended the streams after hatching in the head-waters.

Salmon are caught by haul seines and purse seines in coastal waters, while set-gill nets and drift-gill nets are placed across rivers and in estuarine waters. Local people also use a wide range of traps and hand-lines to catch salmon in the rivers. Trawlers also catch salmon at sea or in coastal waters but this is very destructive because many immature fish are killed.

A multitude of shellfish are harvested by inshore fishermen. These include the various types of crustaceans such as shrimps, prawns, lobsters and crabs, and molluscs like oysters, clams, cockles, mussels, limpets, whelks, winkles and scallops. Crustaceans are caught in a variety of traps.

Molluscs are collected from ‘beds’ where they cling to the rocks, or, when they are farmed, are kept in submerged wire boxes. Shellfish are very popular and have a world-wide market. They are thus commercially very important and constitute nearly 10 per cent of the world’s annual fish haul.

iv. Freshwater Fishing:

Freshwater fish are caught in streams, rivers, lakes, ponds and padi-fields. They are caught to supplement the diet of local people and are seldom exported. Salmon is the only exception. While most salmon are caught near the coast some may reach the higher reaches of rivers and be caught by rod and line or other methods. The Great Lakes of North America once contained large quantities of trout and Lake White-fish together with the pink and red salmon, but pollution has much reduced their numbers.

Other commercially-fished species in the lakes and rivers of North America include lake herring, yellow perch and blue pike. Fisherman use simple devices such as seines, gill nets, dip nets, fishing traps and lines. Most of the fish caught are consumed fresh, and the surplus is chilled, dried or turned into fish-meals and fertilizers.

Another inland fish which is much valued is the sturgeon. Both its flesh and roe are used. The latter is made into the Russian delicacy, caviar. The meat is frozen or canned. Sturgeon are found in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, and in the larger rivers such as the Volga, Danube and Dnieper. In North America they are found in the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi and elsewhere.

In Europe, the various types of trout, closely related to the salmon, is much sought after by anglers. It is an excellent swimmer, like the salmon, leaping over waterfalls and rapids. It spends its entire life in the freshwater lakes or streams. The carp, which is indigenous to Asia, is bred in fish-ponds or caught in rivers, lakes and padi-fields on a commercial basis. Its flesh has a pleasant flavour and fetches good prices.

The carp and other related species such as roach, chub, bream, and tench have been bred in Europe and North America and been found popular but inland fish culture, especially for carp, is best developed in Japan and China.

Eels are fished or bred in many countries, especially Denmark, the Nether­lands and the U.S.A. Inland freshwater fishing is only commercially significant when there are major rivers or large inland lakes, e.g. Tonle Sap in Kampuchea, Caspian Sea, Lake Titicaca and Lake Victoria. Man-made lakes such as Lake Volta in Ghana are also commercially fished.

Essay # 4. Methods of Fishing:

Fish are caught in many different ways; they can be caught by hand, with a spear or with a bow and arrows, but more advanced societies fish with traps, lines or nets. Commercial fishing is based on tradi­tional techniques-the real difference comes in the scale of operations. Commercial catches must be large to recoup costs.

Many methods ensure that this is possible; larger and larger vessels are used, and these can use larger nets. Acoustic fish finders, radar, posi­tion finders and much other expensive modern equip­ment are used to track fish both night and day and factory ships are used so that the catch is quickly pro­cessed and fishing vessels do not have to return to harbor so frequently.

Four major methods are employed by modern fishing vessels:

i. Drifting:

Drift nets hang vertically in the sea, like a tennis-net. They are fitted with floats on the upper edge and weights below, and are usually placed just a few metres below the water sur­face where the fish will swim into the net. The fish are entangled by their gills and are unable to move either backwards or forwards because their heads are caught and their bodies are too big to get through.

Drift nets are used to catch pelagic fish such as herring, sardines, pilchards, anchovies, sprats and mackerel. For herring fishing, each drift net measures 55 by 14 metres (60 by 15 yards) and as many as 90 nets from a number of vessels may be used together to form a continuous curtain, stretching for 3 km (2 miles). Drift nets are used by powerful boats called drifters.

ii. Trawling:

The trawl net, a bag-shaped net whose mouth is kept open by otter boards or head- beams is by far the most efficient method of catching demersal fish like cod, haddock, plaice or sole. Its mouth has floats at the top and weights at the bottom, and the net is made stronger at the ‘cod end’ in which the fish are caught.

The net is dragged along the sea-bottom by a trawler for about 2 hours, at a speed of about 8 km.p.h. (5 m.p.h.). When the skipper is satisfied that a sufficient amount of fish has been trapped inside the net, the vessel stops and the net is hauled in.

The normal length of a trawl-net is about 46 metres (150 ft). Its use is, however, restricted to relatively smooth sea-beds for irregular and sharp pinnacles on the bottom will tear the net. Rough seas and stormy weather also interrupt fishing operations and endanger the lives of the fishermen.

Trawling requires much labour and a large modern factory trawler may have a crew of eighty or ninety people but normally trawlers carry about 30 hands. The trawler may operate from a fishing port spending several weeks at sea at a time and only short periods in the home base, so that a deck-hand on a trawler has a hard life. Trawling may be a seasonal occupa­tion, as in Icelandic waters.

Factory trawlers are equipped with refrigerating plants and canning facili­ties. Some, such as the Japanese vessels fishing in the Atlantic, may be away from home for months, pro­cessing the fish on the spot.

Trawlers may send their catch ashore by craft that ply at high speeds between ports and the trawling boats, or may operate in a fleet with a large factory ship which processes the catch at sea.

iii. Seining:

Seine nets such as the haul seine and purse seine have intermediate features between drift and trawl nets. The haul seine is like a drift net, kept floating vertically in the sea like a wall by corks on top and weights below. After surrounding a shoal of fish, the net is dragged to the shore at both ends. The fish trapped in the net are then gathered immediately. The ring net, operated from small vessels, works in the same way.

The purse seine is more like a trawl net, with a narrow conical end and ‘wings’ of netting rather than otter boards. It is usually smaller and cheaper than a trawl and takes a smaller catch but is more convenient for use by smaller boats. However, some very large purse seines used by large vessels can catch 600 tonnes of fish at a time.

Although most seine nets are used close to the surface they can, with some modifications, as in the Danish Seine, be used very effectively for catching demersal fish too. The fish are directed into the net by the ‘wings’ which are fastened to long ropes. The ropes are then drawn to a stationary ship, forcing the fish into the centre of the net. By closing the bottom with a draw string, the fish are prevented from escaping beneath the net and the seine is finally hauled on board.

iv. Lining:

Line fishing was much more important before the invention of the nets mentioned above, especially the trawl. It is still commercially employed in certain types of demersal fishing, particularly where the sea-floor is rugged and likely to damage trawl nets. It is also used for catching large fish like the tuna. Commercial lines are of two types: hand-lines (or haul-lines) and long-lines (or trawl-lines).

Each hand-line has a single baited hook, cast from the deck and drawn up by individual fishermen when the float shows that the fish is hooked. Its commercial importance is limited because it is obviously slow and uneconomical for deep-sea fishing. However, it is most popular for sport-fishing.

Long-lines may have as many as 500 to 5,000 hooks attached, a few metres apart, to a single main­line which is buoyed at each end. The line, sometimes several kilometres long, is towed along by dories (small flat-bottomed rowing boats), or by large steam vessels. The hooks are drawn up by a team of deck­hands who unhook the fish caught and rebait the hooks before casting the line into the sea again.

In this way, deep-sea fish like cod, e.g. on the Grand Banks, halibut and hake may be fished. For hooking large fish exceeding 18 kg (40 lb) several lines are run to a single hook and a man is assigned to each line to haul in the fish. The baits used for deep-sea line fish­ing include worms; squids and cuttlefish; mussels, whelks, limpets and other shell-fish; eels, herrings, razor fish, and ray’s liver.

Essay # 5. World Consumption of Fish :

The annual world fish catch is more than 73.5 million tonnes. Of this, Asia accounts for over 44 per cent; Europe (including the U.S.S.R.) 32 per cent; North America, 7 per cent, and the rest of the world the remaining 17 per cent. Annual fish consumption per capita is greatest in Portugal and Japan (over 45 kg/ 100 lb per year).

Denmark, Norway and Sweden (27— 41 kg/60-90 lb), Taiwan (36 kg/80 lb) and Asian countries, e.g. Malaysia (29 kg/65 lb) are also major consumers. Advanced countries where meat is easily available such as the U.K (13.5 kg/30 lb), U.S.A. (9 kg/20 lb) or Australia (9 kg/20 lb) tend to con­sume little fish.

Per capita consumption varies for two reasons:

Firstly, fish is relatively cheaper than meat and is thus in demand in many underdeveloped or partial­ly-developed countries. It is therefore consumed in great quantities in many Asian countries, e.g. China, and in the poorer European countries, e.g. Portugal, Spain. The consumption of a number of European countries is boosted by the weekly fast of Catholics, when fish rather than meat must be eaten.

Secondly, fish is an important source of protein for countries whose agricultural potential is low.

Mountainous Japan and Norway are therefore large consumers. This pattern may be perpetuated by tradition. Thus many European nations, e.g. Denmark, Germany, still have relatively high fish consumption figures though fishing is less important in the overall economy than formerly.

It is important to note that South America in general (despite the dominance of the Catholic religion) consumes little fish because of the impor­tance of ranching, e.g. Argentina (5 kg/11 lb per capita). Australia also has a low fish consumption.

Essay # 6. Species of Fish :

Generally speaking there are two main types of fish: salt-water fish which spend their entire lives in the oceans and seas, and freshwater fish which are found in inland streams, rivers and lakes. There are some anadromous fish, chiefly the salmon, which are spawned in the inland rivers, but spend most of their lives in the seas and only return to the rivers to spawn and die.

The largest group is that of salt-water fish and these may be further sub-divided according to their habits. Some such as the herring or sardine live in large shoals, others live individually. This affects the methods which are used to catch them but by far the most important determinant of fishing method is whether the fish are pelagic, i.e. living at or near the surface like herring, or demersal, i.e. bottom-living like cod, haddock or plaice.

i. Salt-Water Fish:

There are thousands of species of fish in the seas and oceans, but the most numerous is the herring. By weight herring is the most important catch of the North Atlantic region and is also the chief fish caught in Japan and China.

The herring is a small fish, between 20 and 38 cm (8 and 15 inches) long. It is cheap, palatable and nourish­ing but does not keep well. It is usually consumed fresh and needs to be marketed very promptly. The amount of herring caught is much in excess of local consumption and a large proportion of the catch is normally preserved by being either kippered, pickled, smoked, canned or frozen.

Herring are pelagic fish and are found in large shoals which may be 14 km (9 miles) in length and 6 km (4 miles) in width and comprise as many as 700,000 herrings. They swim between 15 and 30 metres (50 and 100 ft) below the surface and are caught by drifters, usually at night, because they swim deeper during the day.

The mackerel is another pelagic fish about 40 cm (6 inches) in length. It is tasty but perishable and is best consumed fresh. It is often found to the south of the main herring areas, e.g. in the Mediterranean Sea, off southern Scandinavia, off Cornwall (Britain), in the waters off Carolina (U.S.A.) and in the Yellow Sea.

The busiest mackerel season in Western Europe is from May to September, when the fish are found in large shoals near the surface of the water. At night they are identified by the distinct glow they throw on the surface water. They are caught by seine nets or purse seines.

Other pelagic fish caught in abundance in most temperate waters are sardines (a name derived from the Italian island of Sardinia), pilchards (slightly larger than the sardine) brisling and anchovies. These species are similar to the herring but are usually much smaller.

Large quantities of sardines and pilchards are caught in the Mediterranean Sea, the Bay of Biscay and along the coast of the New England States, especially Maine, and are usually canned. Brisling are caught off south­ern Norway. The sardines and similar small fish are washed, beheaded and gutted and then lightly brined. Tomato sauce or oil is added, and the cans are sealed and cooked.

After cooling, the cans are labelled and packed for export. Anchovies are also caught off Europe but most come from Peru where 90 per cent of the catch is made up of these fish. Anchovies are very small. Some are preserved in vinegar and spices or made into sauce, but the vast majority are converted into fish meal, fertilizers, oil or glue.

Menhaden, a pelagic fish which occurs in enormous shoals, was once almost ignored because its oily nature made it unsuitable for human consumption. It is now extensively fished off America from New­foundland to the Caribbean Sea. The U.S.A. is the leading menhaden catcher and this fish accounts for about 30 per cent of the U.S.A.’s total catch.

Almost all the menhaden is made into fish-meal for animal feeding, or into fertilizers because of its high nitrate and phosphorus content. A small amount is now processed by special machinery which removes the oil, and is then canned. A similar fish, with similar uses is the capelin caught in the North-East Atlantic.

The most important of the demersal fish is the cod and in terms of value it is more important than herring. It is a large fish measuring up to 1.5 metres (5 ft) in length and lives near the bottom of shallow seas. It is found in the North Sea, off Norway and Iceland and on the Grand Banks off Newfoundland, and lives by preying on herring or their eggs. It is caught by trawl nets. The cod is very palatable and nourishing. It is mostly sold fresh or smoked and the oil is extracted to make cod liver oil.

The other demersal fish or white fish include the haddock (1 metre/3 ft) which is particularly impor­tant in the North Atlantic; the halibut (2 metres/7 ft) caught chiefly off British Columbia and north-western U.S.A.; and hake (1.2 metres/4 ft). Flatfish like plaice (as long as 1 metre/3 ft), sole (about 46 cm/18 inches) and flounder are also important and fetch high prices. These species as well as skate (2 metres/7 ft), dab, brill, catfish, dogfish and many others are caught by trawlers.

The tuna or tunny is a large member of the mack­erel family, measuring up to 3 or 4 metres (10 or 13 ft) and weighing as much as half a tonne. It is found in the deep seas and oceans and lives by preying on smaller fish. It has been caught for centuries, especially by the Japanese, and it was also fished in the Mediterranean Sea in the days of the Roman Empire.

It really only attained commercial impor­tance, however, at the beginning of the twentieth century when the art of canning became known. Nowadays almost all tuna is canned. It is caught off Japan and in the Indian Ocean and also in the eastern Pacific where California is the leading tuna-fishing state. Apart from the flesh, which is canned, the liver is also highly prized because of its nutritional value.

ii. Freshwater Fish:

In terms of commercial value, freshwater fish are less important than those of the seas. They rarely swim in large shoals and the fishing areas are rather restricted. In North America and Europe freshwater fishing for trout, perch, pike or salmon in rivers and lakes is a part-time or hobby occupation.

The Great Lakes, once teeming with many kinds of fish, especially the Lake Whitefish, are no longer important because of pollution. Inland fishing is most important in the U.S.S.R. and in East Asia. The sturgeon, highly valued for both its flesh and its roe (eggs) is fished chiefly in the Caspian Sea. Other river and lake fisheries in the U.S.S.R. are also important.

In China and Japan inland fishing in rivers, lakes and padi-fields is extremely important and fish farming is also practised. The chief species is the carp. In India, Pakistan and Bangladesh inland fishing is also extremely important, accounting for between one-third and one-half of the total catch of these countries.

iii. Anadromous Fish:

The salmon is the most important fish in this category and is extensively fished in North America, particularly from Alaska to Oregon on the Pacific coast. There are five major species of salmon- the chinook, humpback, sockeye, silver and chum. The young salmon live in the sea but after 2 to 5 years they return to the stream where they were born to lay their own eggs or die.

They travel in large numbers over long distances, and, by some peculiar instinct, find their original breeding ground. Their migration routes and spawning grounds are readily spotted, and they are easily caught by traps or nets. Salmon is a very valuable fish and fetches high prices whether fresh, smoked or canned. In the early days, fishermen used to place large fishwheels across the streams and intercept the salmon- run so that the fish were flung up into boats anchored downstream.

Today, however, the use of fish wheels is illegal, because they make a clean catch of the entire salmon run, and no fish remain to spawn and return in the following seasons. Other obstructions, such as dams which prevent the salmon from reaching their spawning grounds in the headwaters, also threaten the reproduction of salmon.

Salmon-fishing in American and Canadian waters has been important for more than a century, but today the greatest haul is in Alaska, which alone accounts for more than three-quarters of the annual American salmon output. In Canada salmon is the leading fish species by value. The bulk is canned and there are many canneries along the Pacific coast in ports such as Seattle, Vancouver, Port Edward and Astoria that deal with salmon alone.

The world’s salmon catches are declining faster than those of any other species. Overfishing, pollu­tion of streams, logging (which jams rivers) and the erection of dams for H.E.P. generation have all contributed to the depletion of salmon numbers. The Columbia River, which once yielded US$10 million worth of salmon in a year, has had very few salmon since the 1930s. Effective and internationally-accepted conservation measures must be devised and efficiently operated if salmon are not to be completely eliminated.

Essay # 7. Fishing Grounds in the High Altitudes:

The importance of the north­ern hemisphere in fishing can be explained by the fact that it is a land hemisphere with a large popu­lation and with a great length of indented coastline providing many harbours. Moreover fish are more plentiful in certain areas than in others because of the availability of plankton.

The reasons for the concentration of fishing grounds in the high-latitudes may be outlined as follows:

i. Supply of Plankton:

Plankton is a collective term for the millions of microscopically-small organisms which are found in sea-water. Phyto- plankton are tiny plant organisms drifting about in the water at or near the surface. They form the food of the zooplankton (microscopic animals) which are in turn devoured by other sea creatures such as fish. The fish are in turn eaten by larger fish and sea mammals, such as seals and whales.

The most important conditions for the presence of plankton are:

(a) Shallow waters:

Phytoplankton at the base of the food pyramid depend on sunlight for their existence, so they can only develop properly in shallow seas. The best fishing grounds are thus located above continental shelves which are not more than 200 metres (660 ft) below the water surface, where plankton of all kinds are most abundant.

The world’s most extensive continental shelves are located in high or mid-latitudes in the northern hemisphere, e.g. the ‘banks’ off New­foundland; the North Sea and continental shelf off N.W. Europe; the Sea of Japan. These areas have other advantages for plankton development besides shallow water.

(b) Cool waters:

Plankton thrive best in cold or cool waters. Thus they are plentiful in polar waters, at the meeting of cold and warm ocean currents as on the Newfoundland ‘banks’ and the Sea of Japan, or where cold water from the ocean floor wells up to the surface as it does off the west coast of South America. The continental shelves of the tropics are relatively less rich in plankton be­cause the water is warm.

(c) Land-derived minerals:

Plankton are nour­ished by mineral salts and other material brought from the land by rivers or ice. They are therefore most plentiful in coastal waters where such mate­rials are most abundant.

ii. Cool Climate:

It has been found that marine life is best developed in oceans with a temperature lower than 20° C (68° F). Tropical waters are too warm and the fish species are gen­erally of less commercial value. The cool waters of the temperate latitudes are more suited to marine life, and the most valuable fish, like cod, plaice, herring, haddock, mackerel, sole and salmon are found there.

Furthermore, fish cannot be kept long in hot, moist tropical conditions and tend to deteriorate rapidly. In temperate lands the cold winters originally provided natural ice for pre­serving the fish. Refrigeration and canning have now made both temperate and tropical fishing less susceptible to the hazards of climate, but in many parts of the tropics, ice-factories and other facilities are still lacking.

iii. Physical and Environmental In­fluences:

Both the Atlantic and Pacific coast­lines of the middle and high latitudes in the north­ern hemisphere are very much indented and are backed by strong relief. There are sheltered inlets and estuarine coasts that make ideal sites for fishing ports and villages. Some of the greatest fishing ports of the world include Grimsby, Rey­kjavik, Bergen, Stavanger, Boston, St. John’s (Newfoundland), Hakodate, Tianjin (Tientsin).

The rugged mountains and the short growing season in Norway, Hokkaido, Iceland, Alaska and other areas restrict agricultural activities and people take to the sea to enrich their diet. Norway’s arable land accounts for only 3 per cent of its total area, and that of Newfoundland is not even 1 per cent.

Fishing and shipbuilding have thus become major occupations. The temperate forests, providing both soft and hardwoods for the construction of fishing boats, barrels, and casks as well as pitch for waterproofing were also once decisive factors in the development of the fishing industry.

Those areas in the southern hemisphere which might otherwise develop fishing industries are hampered either by lack of harbours, or of labour, e.g. on the indented but sparsely inhabited coasts of southern Chile. Elsewhere, e.g. in Argentina and Australia meat and other foodstuffs are so plentiful that it has not been necessary to develop a fishing industry.

iv. Moderate or Large Population :

Fishing has always been a labour-intensive industry and modern equipment has only recently begun to change this situation. Not only fishermen are involved but those who process the catch by cutting, cleaning, salting, smoking, pickling, drying or canning the fish. Small-scale fishing is thus impor­tant in well-populated areas such as China and Japan.

On board large, modern craft fish can be preserved in salt and ice, so that such vessels can operate off relatively sparsely peopled coasts in the Arctic Ocean or the North-East Pacific. More important than labour is market. The large popula­tion of Europe, North America, China, Japan and the U.S.S.R. create a continuous demand for fish and efficient communications enable the fish to be quickly distributed to markets in fresh or processed state.

Essay # 8. Conservation of Fish :

Fish lay enormous numbers of eggs but many of these, as well as many young fish, never survive to maturity. It is estimated that a herring lays an average of 100,000 eggs, a cod between 5 and 10 million, and the female oyster something like 60 million eggs with­in a spawning season. But small fish eat many of the eggs as well as plankton.

Larger fish eat the smaller fish which in turn are caught by the largest marine animals or by men. Without the interference of Man the small fraction of young fish which survives is sufficient to maintain the world fish population, but fishing by Man has upset the natural balance.

It was once thought that sea fisheries were in­exhaustible and even until the mid-nineteenth cen­tury, most people still believed that men would not seriously affect the number of fish. Statistics reveal however that with greater efficiency in fishing, there has been a serious depletion of the world’s fish and sea mammals. Some common species have now be­come rare, and in the case of whales, some have been practically wiped out.

No comprehensive statistics are available on the resources of the sea as a whole but records kept by individual fishing nations show that vigorous exploitation of the sea in any region leads to a decline in catches. Fishermen now have to sail further and more boats have to be employed to maintain the supply of fish.

There are many reasons for the decline of the world’s fish hauls: overfishing; indiscriminate fishing of immature fish; pollution of the water by chemical plants and factories; and ignorance of fish culture. If men wish to prevent further loss of this vital source of human food, especially when human numbers are increasing so fast, fish conservation must be practised on a global basis.

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Seaspiracy: Is the fishing industry killing our oceans?

• Fishing and Aquaculture

Austin Read

Is it possible to eat seafood sustainably? This is the question at the heart of Seaspiracy , the new Netflix documentary about commercial fishing that has dominated headlines, sparked debate and stirred up controversy. Directed by newcomer Ali Tabrizi and produced by Kip Anderson, the well-known environmental filmmaker behind Cowspiracy (2014), Seaspiracy reaches the dramatic conclusion that no, it is not possible to eat seafood sustainably. Instead, Seaspiracy asks that we give up fish altogether to save our oceans. But is it as simple as that?

In comparison to the ocean, we humans are puny. In terms of volume, the ocean makes up around 99.5% of planetary habitats , with land accounting for the remaining 0.5%. It has been theorised that we know more about outer space than we do about the depths of the ocean . In other words, we are used to thinking about the ocean as a vast, pristine and abundant place, free from human interference. However, a closer look at the oceans today reveals the horrifying extent to which human beings are damaging marine ecosystems. There have been many theories about what’s going wrong: David Attenborough on Blue Planet II cited global warming and ocean acidification, whilst others have encouraged us to stop using plastic straws and to attend local ‘beach cleans’ . Seaspiracy argues that missing from all of this has been a full-throated condemnation of what they say is the biggest threat to our seas: the fishing industry.

Overfishing

The major theme of Seaspiracy is overfishing. The documentary argues that global appetites for seafood, the profit-driven greed of private corporations and increasingly sophisticated fishing technologies have come together in a toxic cocktail, leading to more and more fish being removed from the oceans. Throughout the film, startling figures flash across the screen. Seaspiracy estimates that today nearly 2.7 trillion fish are caught every year . Fish are caught in nets so large that they could hold up to 13 jumbo jets . Alongside the targeted fish, any fish or marine mammal that has the misfortune of being in the wrong place at the wrong time is scooped up, with 40% of all marine life that is caught, subsequently thrown back overboard as bycatch .

Fears about overfishing are not new. In fact, this is why consumers have been encouraged to look out for the little Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) ‘blue tick’ logo on seafood products, an indication that they have been sourced in a sustainable and responsible manner. Yet Seaspiracy argues that these corporate sustainability schemes are hard to enforce in reality. The remote nature of high seas fishing means that it is difficult to police commercial fishing practices. The MSC does have watchers that are supposed to go out to sea and monitor what is going on, but Seaspiracy argues that these watchers can either be easily bribed or threatened into silence. With the legitimacy of corporate ideas of ‘sustainability’ seriously undermined, Seaspiracy argues that when we eat a fish, we can never be sure it’s been sourced in a careful and responsible manner.

It is not just that commercial fishing is removing too many fish from the ocean: as Seaspiracy reveals, commercial fishing vessels are responsible for some of the most egregious acts of pollution at sea. The dumping of plastic into the sea has been one of the most well documented elements of ocean pollution. Many of us are familiar with shocking images of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch , a floating island of marine debris estimated to be about three times the size of France . Seaspiracy cites research that claims a staggering 46% of the garbage patch is made up of fishing nets, enough line to be wrapped around the planet over 500 times . These nets make the garbage patch even more deadly to fish, mammals and birds, ensnaring any creature that encounters it. As for the plastic straws environmentalists have campaigned so hard to reduce? Seaspiracy estimates that these account for only 0.03% of plastic currently in the ocean.

Animal welfare

Questioning whether sustainability is even the right goal when it comes to caring for the ocean, Seaspiracy asks us to ponder if it is morally acceptable to ever eat fish? For a long time, fish have been ranked below mammals when it comes to human assumptions about the sentience and intelligence of other beings. With their cold staring eyes, fish can be harder for us humans to relate to than our fellow warm-blooded mammals. Using beautiful footage of schooling fish and quotes from the legendary marine biologist Sylvia Earle , Seaspiracy asks us to consider the beauty and mystery of fish: their highly sensitive nervous systems that allows a ‘thousand fish to move like one fish’, their extraordinary navigational abilities that allow them to travel thousands of miles across the globe without getting lost, and their sophisticated social lives.

Should we stop eating seafood?

In light of the destruction caused by commercial fishing, Seaspiracy argues that the best thing we can do is to stop eating seafood completely. This dramatic conclusion has been met with a mixed reception. The most hotly debated element of the film has been the accuracy of the science underpinning its argument. Critics have argued that some of the evidence presented is outdated and unreliable, with the claim that the oceans will be ‘empty of fish by 2048’ generating particular controversy . The author of the 2006 study this fact was sourced from has himself argued that it is outdated and incorrect. Adding to the controversy has been contributors to the film protesting that their critiques of the fishing industry were removed from their original context and highly sensationalised . The response of the team behind Seaspiracy to this controversy has been to claim that despite some inaccuracies, the broad picture painted by the film is accurate .

Yet even if we were to put these quarrels about the scientific accuracy of the film to one side, there remains significant worries about the way the film avoids dealing with the complex social politics surrounding commercial fishing. The film’s reduction of diverse commercial fishing practices into a seemingly monolithic ‘fishing industry’ is one example of this. There are many small-scale fisheries , as well as artisanal producers and independent fishmongers, passionate about the well-being of the ocean and who take care to fish sustainably. Even within the world of industrial fishing, there are different ways of doing things: one needs only to look at recent clashes between the UK and the EU in the wake of Brexit to see that industrial fishing is a site of conflict, debate and competing interests. Industrial fishing may have some frightening and harmful consequences, but it is not monolithic.

There is also the inescapable fact that billions of people across the globe from Scotland to Senegal rely upon fish for food and livelihoods. The choice to ‘stop eating fish’ is perhaps simply not an option that they have. As well as being economically and nutritionally dependent upon fish, fish also often hold a very important cultural position in these communities. This makes Seaspiracy ’s attempt to form an ethical argument against eating fish complicated. We see this tension in the film most clearly during scenes depicting the annual whale cull that takes place on the Faroe Islands. To some eyes, the cull may be shocking and disturbing, but for the Faroese whaler the film interviews, it will provide him with food that will last for months, as well as an energy source for heating and lighting. It is perhaps unfair for those of us watching from afar to judge unfamiliar practices as cruel or unsustainable.

Seafood politics is as vast and complex as the ocean. As an instrument to make people aware of the damage and destruction happening at sea, Seaspiracy is incredibly successful. Yet there remain unanswered questions about what people who rely upon fish for their protein, their livelihoods and their culture can do. Perhaps one way beyond this impasse is for those of us with the means to commit to sourcing our fish from local fishers and fishmongers, to ensure we know the ‘story’ behind the fish on our plates. Just as many people have become more accustomed when sourcing meat to question its provenance, we need to be scrupulous about questioning where our fish has come from rather than relying on a ‘blue tick’ to do the work for us. We should ask questions about the overall health of that particular fish population, the methods used to catch the fish and the conditions of labour for the fishers who caught it. Asking these sorts of questions would not only allow us to avoid the devastating harm we see captured in Seaspiracy but could also amplify and push further into the mainstream the sorts of alternative fishing practices desperately needed to bring about more just and balanced ecological relationships. What’s certain is that after watching Seaspiracy, we cannot turn away from the destruction wreaked by current modes of commercial fishing – the future of our oceans and our planet, depends on it.

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119 Fishing Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Fishing is a timeless pastime that has been enjoyed by people all over the world for generations. Whether you are an experienced angler or a beginner looking to learn more about the sport, there are countless topics related to fishing that can be explored through essays. In this article, we will provide you with 119 fishing essay topic ideas and examples to help inspire your writing.

• The history of fishing
• The benefits of fishing for mental health
• Fishing techniques for beginners
• The impact of climate change on fishing
• The best fishing spots around the world
• The cultural significance of fishing in different countries
• How to properly care for and clean fishing equipment
• The role of fishing in conservation efforts
• The ethics of catch and release fishing
• The economic impact of the fishing industry
• The health benefits of eating fish
• The importance of fishing regulations and limits
• The art of fly fishing
• The dangers of overfishing
• The role of technology in modern fishing practices
• The best bait for different types of fish
• The psychology of fishing: why do people enjoy it?
• The impact of pollution on fish populations
• The challenges facing small-scale fishermen
• The history of commercial fishing
• The impact of invasive species on native fish populations
• The benefits of fishing for children
• The best fishing gear for different types of fishing
• The role of fishing in sustainable food systems
• The connection between fishing and spirituality
• The impact of dams and other man-made structures on fish habitats
• The cultural traditions of fishing in indigenous communities
• The future of fishing: how will it evolve in the coming years?
• The benefits of fishing as a form of exercise
• The impact of recreational fishing on fish populations
• The best fishing destinations for a family vacation
• The environmental benefits of fishing
• The role of fishing in local economies
• The impact of overfishing on marine ecosystems
• The best fishing techniques for catching different types of fish
• The benefits of fishing for stress relief
• The impact of commercial fishing on local communities
• The role of fishing in sustainable seafood sourcing
• The best fishing apps for anglers
• The impact of climate change on fish migration patterns
• The benefits of catch and release fishing
• The impact of fishing on coral reefs
• The best fishing techniques for catching trophy fish
• The benefits of fishing for physical health
• The impact of fishing on endangered species
• The role of fishing in wildlife conservation efforts
• The best fishing destinations for a solo trip
• The impact of fishing on river ecosystems
• The benefits of fishing for team building
• The impact of fishing on water quality
• The role of fishing in disaster relief efforts
• The best fishing techniques for catching fish in different seasons
• The benefits of fishing for community engagement
• The impact of fishing on coastal communities
• The role of fishing in traditional medicine
• The best fishing destinations for a romantic getaway
• The impact of fishing on aquatic plants
• The benefits of fishing for personal growth
• The role of fishing in cultural celebrations
• The impact of fishing on bird populations
• The best fishing techniques for catching fish in different weather conditions
• The benefits of fishing for team bonding
• The impact of fishing on aquatic insects
• The role of fishing in disaster preparedness
• The best fishing destinations for a weekend getaway
• The impact of fishing on freshwater ecosystems
• The benefits of fishing for mental resilience
• The role of fishing in historical events
• The impact of fishing on amphibian populations
• The best fishing techniques for catching fish in different types of water bodies
• The benefits of fishing for personal fulfillment
• The impact of fishing on reptile populations
• The role of fishing in religious ceremonies
• The impact of fishing on mammal populations
• The best fishing destinations for a budget-friendly trip
• The benefits of fishing for social connection
• The impact of fishing on invertebrate populations
• The role of fishing in cultural preservation
• The impact of fishing on plant populations
• The best fishing techniques for catching fish in different types of habitats
• The benefits of fishing for environmental awareness
• The role of fishing in historical preservation
• The impact of fishing on aquatic ecosystems
• The benefits of fishing for mental well-being
• The impact of fishing on aquatic food chains
• The role of fishing in community building
• The impact of fishing on aquatic biodiversity

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The science of sustainable seafood, explained

How commercial fisheries are managed, max mossler.

• January 29, 2019

Quickly comparing and understanding different fishery management approaches (and their outcomes) is a useful and important skill for policy makers. Now, a group of students (and one professor) at the University of Washington have made it much easier. Last month they published How commercial fisheries are managed , a paper that graphically represents every kind of fishery management scheme for easy comparison, while also using real-world case studies to explain each one.

Anderson et al. 2018 and its discussion will be highly useful for fishery managers and policy makers and would also be a good addition to any kind of discussion on natural resource management.

Three paths in fishery management

Generally speaking, there are 3 ways to regulate fisheries:

• Limiting catch
• Limiting fishing effort
• Limiting spatial access (marine protected area)

Anderson et al. 2018 traces each path’s evolution in the figure below.

The paper also commented on triple bottom line outcomes for each management approach.

Positive social, ecological, and economic outcomes are the major goals of fishery management. When we write or tweet about “improving fishery management” we mean improving one or more of these outcomes until all three are satisfactory.

Is there a best way to manage fisheries?

This is a tricky question for a variety of reasons. First, everything in management comes down to the capacity of the regulating body—rules are followed as well as they are enforced. Some governing bodies only have the capacity to enforce harvest guidelines. Some can organize and operate a full catch share system. Mixing and matching regulations to maximize capacity is the way to go. Improving management often means improving capacity to manage.

Second, there is widespread philosophical disagreement about approaching fishery management. Policy makers with a capitalist bent tend to prefer economic outcomes. Others believe ecological outcomes should weigh higher than social outcomes (or vice versa). There are many ways to value a natural resource. However you feel about fishery management, Anderson et al. 2018 will better inform your opinion.

Max is the managing editor at Sustainable Fisheries UW.

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Your thoughts?

3 responses.

Another effect of ITQ’s is that licence/quota owners are the main beneficiaries, even (especially?) when they are international investment consortia. In fact some quota owners profit more in absolute terms when quota is leased compared to when they fish it themselves while the boats and crew(s) pay excessive amounts for the privilege of risking their lives. There is something not right about that system either. Just sayin

Max, perhaps Anderson et al , might have spoken to a few fishermen in the Northeast before publishing the clearly bogus results in their paper regarding their sterling report on ITQs, IFQs, and Catch Shares. The point is that no matter what “method” of management is employed it’s the TAC that has more to do with stock population than anything else. But that too is not the whole story there is also the fact that fish landing rates have other forces, like natural environment, and market prices acting on them besides fishing regulations! But Catch Shares have been a total disaster in the Northeast putting the fishery in the hands of anyone who has capital (usually not family fishing operations). As an example please consider the Carlos Rafael caper in New Bedford or some of the underhanded wheeling and dealing that goes on as exposed in the following article: http://fisherynation.com/mafia-tactics-employed-at-new-bedford-scallop-hearing-by-jim-lovgren .

Catch shares in the Northeast Groundfishery were illegally imposed on the fishermen, with the help of former NMFS director, Jane Lubchenco, also a former Pew and EDF administrator, board member, and luminary, and of course the money and media influence of the EDF, Pew, and Oceana investors creating a new rapid growth opportunity (see EDF’s David Festa pitching at least a 400% profit margin for Catch Shares at an L.A. Milken conference—looking for investment to “grease the skids” a good 4 months before NOAA imposed them). Ramrodding this privatization of a public resource scheme was in violation of standards in the MSA 303A (D). This standard required a 2/3 referendum vote by license holders—it didn’t happen! That statute was circumvented by calling the catch shares “contributions to sectors” and now the “sectors” are struggling to pay their managers a meager salary. Some integrity in research would go a long way. You have to get out more often and talk to people that have to actually live by how these “commercial fisheries are managed”!

Just a word or two on the “purpose of management”. OY is the purpose of management! Optimum Yield (OY) is actually the stated goal of all this management, mandated by the original MSA (Magnuson-Stevens Act), or as earlier called, the MFCMA (Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act).

Although never adequately defined, OY certainly includes the people aspect of the fisheries, i.e., considering the relevant ecological, economic, and social factors. The Act stated in Sec.3 (18): “The term ‘optimum’, with respect to the yield from a fishery, means the amount of fish – A) which will provide the greatest overall benefit to the Nation, with particular reference to food production and recreational opportunities; and B) which is prescribed as such on the basis of the maximum sustainable yield from such a fishery, as modified by any relevant economic, social, or ecological factor.”

In that above passage what seems most relevant to this discussion of “approach” or “purpose” is that “The Act” clearly states “MSY as modified by economic, social, or ecological factors”. In other words the “scientific” results of MSY oriented assessments become a preliminary starting out place and are to be mitigated by the human factors, economic, social, and ecological.

The National Standards of the Fishery Management Act required that all management plans take into account OY, or the more human side, of the equation:

The Act Sec. 2 (b) (4), “… to provide for the preparation and implementation, in accordance with national standards, of fishery management plans which will achieve and maintain, on a continuing basis, the optimal yield from each fishery.”

PS, and there’s nothing “human” about ITQs—other than, perhaps, their congruence with human Greed! Fishermen are not stupid and they are not greedy stupid! They will not fish on a species “until profit is eliminated”! Northeast fishermen have always been capable of switching gear and fisheries almost on the fly, thus avoiding scarce or cheap fish for any specific period. catch shares ITQs have actually all but eliminated that nimble flexibility (also a built in conservation measure). Fishermen under the catch shares regime must decide which particular species to purchase the allocation for in advance of the trip, and hope those fish are where they thought they would be and the ex-vessel price holds upon landing! This process clearly increases risk factor, both financial and physical, and is counter to what “fishing” actually means to most fishermen and women!

Truly respecting OY and socio-economic-cultural and ecological aspects of the fisheries, would most likely encourage a diverse fleet of privately owned and relatively small boats, not consolidated, commoditized, market capitalized and vertically integrated factory catcher/processor fleets, with far superior weather capabilities and virtually unlimited funding.

Small family owned fishing operations have conservation systems and limits built in. They are restricted by weather and range and limited funding, by market prices, fuel and mechanical repair costs, and consequently they have unavoidable periods of down time (not-fishing). Due to narrow financial margins and weather safety issues, they can only fish for the stocks that are plentiful and within reach of their ports.

It is simply not financially viable for small, independent, family-owned and funded operations to fish on depleted stocks or to stay at sea through dangerous weather conditions. These built-in restraints, coupled with cooperative-surveying (scientists on fishing vessels) and such reasonably accurate science and stock assessments informing regulations, would be intelligent management and do much toward securing the health of the resource and the fishery.

However what we do have that is passed off as “management”, is essentially the brandishing of the “overfishing” war cry, buttressed with faulty MSY assessment “proof”. This has moved management into the privatization and consolidation of the fishery through “Catch Shares”—as a measure to save the stocks from disappearing into “oceans of jellyfish”. The NOAA managers have also found the need to constantly tighten allowable catch quotas, or the amount of fish that fishermen are allowed to land, in order to thwart “rampant overfishing”— not to mention the NOAA/Oceana mandate of industry funded observers and monitors in order to enforce the ridiculous regulations. And oh yes, also the observers/monitors are there to stop the millions upon millions of pounds of “Wasted Catch” (an Oceana masterpiece) discards— due to inefficient and greedy fishing practices, not disproportionate regulations, of course.

Sadly, inadequate and agenda-driven science, “free market environmentalism” catch shares commoditization (see https://www.perc.org/category/fisheries/ for origins of this “approach”), MSY borne whacky assessments, all this self-serving junk passing for “commercial fisheries management” has resulted in the dismantling and disappearance of a large portion of the independent family owned and operated fishing fleets. And a fleet of many fishery-diverse “inefficient” small boats can sustain the fish, preserve jobs, provide a vital source of fresh healthy food, and keep the traditional coastal fishing communities thriving.

The issues and problems facing the fishing industry are not insurmountable; but there needs to be HONEST communication about the purpose and long term goals for the fisheries. There can’t be hidden corporate agendas or personal ambition driven politics if the management endeavor is ever going to succeed in preserving the resource and the fishing communities.

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Commercial Fishing And Overfishing Essay

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The Threats of Overfishing: Consequences at the Commercial Level

According to marine ecologists, overfishing is the greatest threat to ocean ecosystems today (1). Overfishing occurs because fish are captured at a faster rate than they can reproduce (2). Advanced fishing technology and an increased demand for fish have led to overfishing, causing several marine species to become extinct or endangered as a result (3, 4). In the long-term, overfishing can have a devastating impact on ocean communities as it destabilizes the food chain and destroys the natural habitats of many aquatic species (2).

In the past, fishing was more sustainable because fishermen could not access every location and because they had a limited capacity for fish aboard their vessels. Today, however, small trawlers and fishing boats have been replaced by giant factory ships that can capture and process extremely large amounts of prey at a given time (2). These ships use sonar instruments and global positioning systems (GPS) to rapidly locate large schools of fish (1). Fishing lines are deployed with thousands of large hooks that can reach areas up to 120 kilometers deep. The trawling vessels and machines can even reach depths of 170 kilometers and can store an extraordinarily large volume of fish. Each year, these huge trawling ships comb an area twice the size of the United States. They use massive nets 50 meters wide with the capacity to pull the weight of a medium-sized plane (2). They also have several plants for processing and packing fish, large freezing systems, fishmeal processing plants, and powerful engines that can carry this enormous fishing gear around the ocean. Because these ships have all the equipment necessary to freeze and tin fish, they only need to return to their base once they are full. Even when the ships are filled, however, the fish are often transferred to refrigerated vessels in the middle of the ocean and are processed for consumption later (4). As such, industrial fishing has expanded considerably and fishermen can now explore new shores and deeper waters to keep up with the increased demand for seafood. In fact, it has been reported by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) that over 70 percent of the world’s fisheries are either ‘fully exploited’, ‘over exploited’ or ‘significantly depleted’ (5). The annual total global catch of fish is 124 million metric tons, which is equivalent in weight to 378 Empire State Buildings (2).

Fishing gear is often non-selective in the fish it targets. For example, any fish that are too big to get through the mesh of a net are captured. Therefore, overfishing does not only threaten the species of fish that is targeted for food, but also many non-target species. As a result, these other species, including marine mammals and seabirds, are accidentally caught in the fishing gear and killed (6). For example, for every ton of prawn caught, three tons of other fish are killed and thrown away. Those in the trade refer to this practice of inadvertent catching of other species as bycatch (4). The FAO has pointed out that about 25 percent of the world’s captured fish end up thrown overboard because they are caught unintentionally, are illegal market species, or are of inferior quality and size. Many of the fish caught this way include endangered and over exploited species, 95 percent of which are eventually thrown away (2). Bycatch is not just limited to just unwanted fish, but rather affects all types of marine life, including whales, dolphins, porpoises, fur seals, albatrosses, and turtles. For example, tuna fisheries are indirectly responsible for the deaths of an estimated one million sharks annually due to bycatch. Small cetaceans, such as dolphins and porpoises, are also targets of bycatch as they are often caught in fishing nets. In fact, hundreds of dolphin corpses are washed up on the beaches of Europe every year, bringing attention to the growing scale of this problem (6).

Many modern fishing methods are also irreversibly destructive. For example, bottom trawling, a technique that uses extremely wide nets armed with heavy metal rollers, can crush everything in the path of the gear, destroying fragile corals, smashing rock formations, and killing several tons of fish and animals as bycatch (7). As such, these practices can wreak havoc on delicate marine ecosystems.

Not surprisingly, it has been reported that industrial fishing takes between only 10 and 15 years to wipe out a tenth of whichever species it targets (2). In fact, several marine species have already been fished to commercial extinction, and this number is rapidly increasing (1). One of the reasons for this is that the regulation of fishing vessels and the fishing industry is universally inadequate. Roughly two-thirds of the ocean is free of laws and fishing vessels only follow the laws ratified by their country of origin. However, most fishing countries have not ratified any international convention to protect the sea or marine life (2). Moreover, fishing factory ships and companies are given access to fisheries before the long–term impact of their fishing practices is understood (1).

Today, the number of fish caught worldwide is actually shrinking as the fishing industry is in decline from many years of overfishing (2). The year 1988 was the first time in human history that global wild fish catches dropped and they have continued to fall ever since. In European waters, four out of every five known fish stocks are already beyond safe biological limits (7). Illegal and unreported fishing have also contributed a great deal to the depletion of the oceans and continues to be a serious problem.

A new study conducted by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) found that 5 out of the 8 tuna species are at risk of extinction (8). All three species of bluefin tuna, for example, are threatened with extinction and are at a population that makes their recovery practically irreversible (2). The IUCN has also reported that freshwater fish are among the most endangered species, with more than a third facing extinction. Not surprisingly, among those at the greatest risk are species like the Mekong giant catfish, the freshwater stingray, and the European eel, which are used to make some of the most expensive caviars. The Mekong giant catfish is the closest to extinction, with as few as 250 left. Overfishing has reduced the numbers of Mekong freshwater stingray by over 50 percent in Southeast Asia and has reduced the giant Mekong salmon carp population by over 90 percent (9).

As previously mentioned, shark populations have also been greatly affected by overfishing. There are already more than 135 species of shark on the IUCN’s list of endangered animals and more are being added each year. For example, the number of scalloped hammerhead shark has decreased by 99% over the past 30 years. Other species recently added to the endangered list include the smooth hammerhead, shortfin mako, common thresher, big-eye thresher, silky, tiger, bull, and dusky (10). Besides being caught as bycatch, sharks are now also being targeted by commercial fishermen for their fins which can fetch a substantial price on the Asian food market. Sharks are particularly vulnerable to exploitation because they have long life spans, are exceptionally slow to mature (taking as long as 16 years in some cases), and are relatively unprolific breeders (11). Recent reports suggest that over fishing has caused a 90% decline in shark populations across the world’s oceans and up to 99% along the US east coast, which are some of the best managed waters in the world. Because sharks are at the top of the food chain, a decline in their numbers has devastating consequences on marine ecosystems (10).

Overfishing impacts not just the particular species that is exploited, but also damages other species of fish and disrupts local ecosystems. The stability of ecological communities depends largely on the interactions between predators and prey (12). Thereby, the balance of the food chain is disturbed when certain species are removed. As a result, many ocean species are disappearing and losing their habitats. The evolutionary process of marine species is also being altered, causing cycles of premature reproduction and relative decreases in the size of fish across generations. As predators diminish, the populations of smaller fish escalate because they were previously the food source of the bigger fish. In addition, the disappearance of these species affects many other species, like seabirds and sea mammals, which are vulnerable to the lack of food (2).

A recent study found that overfishing is also decreasing the genetic diversity of fish worldwide. Diversity is projected to be reduced further if overfishing continues at the same rate (13). This has serious effects on nutrient recycling in marine ecosystems because fish species vary widely in their rates of nitrogen and phosphorus excretion. As such, altering fish communities creates divergent nutrient recycling patterns and disrupts the functioning of the ecosystem. Recently conducted studies in lakes affected by overfishing show that loss of species contributes to a decline in nutrient recycling and destabilizes the ecosystem (14).

While it is often overlooked for other environmental issues, overfishing has historically caused more ecological extinction than any other human influence on coastal ecosystems, including water pollution (5). Unfortunately, due to a lack of data, the extent of this damage has only recently been recognized (15).

Given that fishing is a food source for millions of people, attempting to solve the problem of overfishing not easy, especially for developing countries. Nevertheless, scientists and the UN Committee for Sustainable Development have called for a restoration of depleted fisheries and continue to stress the importance of stricter fishing regulations in oceans and inland waters (5). Sustainable fishing will be a necessary goal in counterbalancing depletion in fisheries and re–stabilizing coastal ecosystems.

References:

1. Overfishing – Emptying our Seas (2008). Available at http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/oceans/problems/overfishing-emptying-our-seas (25 November 2011).

2. Overfishing: Oceans are Dying (2010). Available at http://www.oceansentry.org/lang-en/overfishing/campaign.html (25 November 2011).

3. M. Floyd. Long-lived deep-sea fishes imperiled by technology, overfishing. (2007). Available at http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-02/osu-ldf021307.php# (25 November 2011).

4. Overfishing Fact Sheet (2011). Available at http://www.ypte.org.uk/environmental/over-fishing/29 (25 November 2011).

5. Overfishing: A Threat to Marine Biodiversity (2006). Available at http://www.un.org/events/tenstories/06/story.asp?storyID=800# (25 November 2011).

6. Bycatch – Wasteful and Destructive Fishing (2008). Available at http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/oceans/problems/bycatch-wasteful-and-destructive-fishing (27 November 2011).

7. Bottom Trawling (2008). Available at http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/oceans/problems/bottom-trawling (27 November 2011).

8. M.G. Richard. More than Half of Tuna Species Facing Extinction, But Over-Fishing Them is Too Profitable to Stop (2011). Available at http://www.treehugger.com/clean-technology/more-than-half-of-tuna-species-facing-extinction-but-over-fishing-them-is-too-profitable-to-stop.html (28 November 2011).

9. R. Gray, Overfishing and Dams Driving Freshwater Fish Towards Extinction (2011). Available at http://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/overfishing-and-dams-driving-freshwater-fish-towards-extinction-20110801-1i875.html . (28 November 2011).

10. A. Jha. Shark Species Face Extinction amid Overfishing and Appetite for Fins (2008). Available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/feb/18/conservation.aaas . (28 November 2011).

11. P. Eccleston. Atlantic Sharks Face Extinction Due to Overfishing and Shark-Finning (2008). Available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/3418281/Atlantic-sharks-face-extinction-due-to-overfishing-and-shark-finning.html . (28 November 2011).

12. J. Bascompte, C. J. Melian, E. Sala, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102, 5443-5447 (2005).

13. B. Holmes. Overfishing Eats Away at Genetic Diversity of Fish (2011). Available at http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20699-overfishing-eats-away-at-genetic-diversity-of-fish.html (03 December 2011).

14. P. B. McIntyre, L. E. Jones, A. S. Flecker, M. J. Vanni, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA . 104, 4461-4466 (2007).

15. J. B. C. Jackson et al. , Science 293, 629-637 (2001).

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The state of Louisiana’s freshwater commercial fishery: a study of fishermen’s attitudes towards fishing and their future

• Open access
• Published: 17 September 2024
• Volume 23 , article number  43 , ( 2024 )

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You have full access to this open access article

• Lauren Bonatakis   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0005-1383-1377 1 ,
• Tiffany Pasco   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1293-2609 2 &
• Julie A. Lively   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0996-9494 1 , 2  

As an important contributor to Louisiana’s economy, the commercial freshwater fisheries have been the subject of growing attention in recent years by resource managers as the industry appears to be on the brink of collapse. Fewer participants are entering the field, fish buyers and processors are closing, and market prices remain stagnant. To better understand this industry, we conducted a study to characterize the commercial freshwater fisheries in Louisiana including the fishermen, the fishing operations, the effort across the state, local knowledge on management issue and barriers and opportunities for the future of the industry. We completed structured interviews at fish houses across Louisiana. The average full-time fisherman was 56 years old with about 34 years of commercial fishing experience, and catfish ( Ictaluridae spp.) and buffalo ( Ictobius spp.) appear to be the most sought-after finfish; however, this slightly differs by region. Overall, this study provides in-depth insight into the trends, problems, and successes of Louisiana’s freshwater commercial fisheries. This information will allow managers and other groups like cooperative extension to identify and design opportunities for the industry and utilize their information in management across the state.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Globally, inland fisheries are one of the most important natural resources. In 2020, inland capture fisheries produced approximately 11.5 million tons of fish worldwide (FAO 2022 ). These fisheries provide a fundamental source of commerce, employment, nutrition and recreation (FAO 2016 ; Funge-Smith and Bennett 2019 ). In developing countries, inland fisheries are the main source of food security (Youn et al. 2014 ) and are economically important. In developed nations where food security is less of an issue, such as the United States (US), inland fisheries have shifted more towards the recreational sector, although niche commercial fisheries still exist (Beard et al. 2011 ).

Inland commercial fisheries in the Mississippi River date back to the mid-1800s. Though inconsistent over the years, there are statistical data describing landings of freshwater fish species for commercial use as early as 1894. The Mississippi River, with the Great Lakes region, are the largest commercial freshwater fishing areas within the United States, but these fisheries are quickly dwindling, as the U.S. continues to increase the importation of seafood (Klein et al. 2018 ; Murray et al. 2020 ). Imported seafood is often less expensive and sold at larger convenient grocery chains. Additionally, many wild-caught commercial species are now competing with aquaculture locally and internationally. Preference for farmed fish is increasing as they are reared in a controlled environment and can be produced in bulk (Bjørndal and Guillen 2016 ).

Currently, Louisiana has some of the most robust marine and inland commercial fisheries in the U.S., landing the most seafood in the contiguous states, more than double the metric tons of the next state (National Marine Fisheries Service [NMFS] 2023 ). Both sectors are economically valuable, with inland commercial fisheries valued at over $19 million dollars in 2021 (Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries [LDWF] 2022 ). Despite this, fisheries interests in Louisiana have overwhelmingly resided in the marine industry. With the relative lack of focus on inland commercial fisheries, the industry has remained stagnant with little to no overall change in landings and a sharp decrease in value (LDWF 2022 ; NMFS 2023 ). Consequently, as fishermen Footnote 1 approach retirement age, there are few younger fishermen entering the field likely due to the expensive startup and maintenance costs (Coleman et al. 2019 ; Cooke and Murchie 2015 ).

The commercial freshwater fisheries industry in Louisiana is cryptic. With minimal fish populations concerns, regulations and management are relatively limited, and commercial licenses relatively inexpensive compared to other sectors and regions. The majority of fishing is in rural regions of the state, and Louisiana is very similar to the rest of the nation in that peer-reviewed publications assessing US freshwater commercial fisheries are a void (Cooke and Murchie 2015 ). The value of these fisheries is in decline, and there are few signs of growth. Because of a general lack of data regarding this industry, the reasons behind this decline are not fully understood. Fish houses have been in decline for many reasons, limiting locations for sale. Federal regulation changes (e.g. move of catfish processing oversight from U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), rather than the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have increased the burden on catfish processors and limited operations (Mandatory Inspection of Fish Rule 2015 ). Overall, there is a lack of understanding of where and how this industry operates as well as the fishermen’s concerns on management, ecology, and other local factors that affect their industry. The fishermen have valuable traditional ecological knowledge that could help inform management of the freshwater species and waterways, but rarely is that knowledge shared with managers. Management agencies and other groups are not sure what action they can take to help with declining industry.

Human dimensions research can help characterize the industry, their operations, and their traditional ecological knowledge. The objective of our study was to characterize (1) the commercial fishermen; (2) the fishing operations; (3) the effort across the state; (4) local knowledge on management issue and (5) barriers and opportunities for the future of the industry. The focus was on the full-time fishermen, or those relying on freshwater commercial fishing for the majority of their income. This information will allow managers and other groups like cooperative extension to identify opportunities for the industry, better design opportunities to fit the fishermen, and utilize their information in management across the state.

Materials and methods

Study locations and methods.

In-person surveys (creel) are usually given at fishing access points, but there are over 600 boat launches in Louisiana (LDWF Office of Fisheries 2019 ; LOSCO 2004 ). These boat launches can be very remote, and the fishermen are usually focused on getting off the water with little time for any distractions (e.g. surveys, interviews). Therefore, we gave in-person structured interviews (hereafter interview) to practicing inland commercial fishermen at the location of sale, i.e. fish houses, for less pressure during the interview process. Our efforts in identifying active fish houses determined that fish houses were constrained to the Southeastern part of Louisiana (Lafayette and east; Simmesport and south). As our focus was on the primarily full-time active fishermen, the fish houses were the logical point of interaction. In-person was selected as this demographic is hard to reach with limited contact information known to managers. Interviews were selected to account for discrepancies in literacy or willingness to do a paper or electronic survey as this demographic often has shown a preference for verbally expressing information.

Trained interviewers intercepted fishermen at selected fish houses during unloading times on days the fish houses were buying (personal communication with fish houses) after the fishermen had unloaded catch. All interviewers were instructed to keep the interview conversational while maintaining a neutral tone and ensuring their personal opinions did not interfere with the interview questions; this was to minimize the occurrence of interviewer bias. In-person interviews are especially vulnerable to interviewer effects such as subconscious body language or subtle change in tone that can influence the respondent (Cullen 2005 ). We accept that there may be a slight impact on responses due to this innate effect.

The interview instrument was designed to characterize the five focus areas. The first three sections (fishermen, operation, and effort) focused on information about the individuals, their businesses, and how they operate. Demographic questions on sex or race were not asked due to the interview audience and the conversational style of the interview. The last two sections (local knowledge and the future of the industry) aimed to capture the views and knowledge of the fishermen. We chose to use a mix of open-ended and closed-ended questions. The majority of questions were close-ended and nominal (Dillman et al. 2009 ) with some yes or no items as filter questions. These were better suited for the oral presentation of the interview. The open-ended questions were still limited in expected responses (e.g. zip code, how many pounds landed in a typical week, which species are overpopulated), and it was more efficient than listing all possible options as we wanted to avoid survey fatigue (Le et al. 2021 ). Additionally, some questions (e.g. age, years in industry) mirrored the previous 2013 LDWF commercial freshwater survey to see how answers may or may not have shifted in five years (LDWF Office of Fisheries 2013 ). Any additional information provided was captured as open comments. The final interview instrument received Louisiana State University Institutional Review Board approval (IRB # E11121) and is available in full in (Bonatakis 2019 ).

After interviews were collected, we coded each interview question with all possible answers and entered responses into an electronic database. Once entry was completed, we used descriptive statistics (raw percentages, averages, and medians) to characterize each question as presented in the Results section. As the state often manages the resource by river basin, many of the results are reported at the river basin level. Averages are reported as ± SD.

We conducted multiple interview efforts at nine preselected fish houses from July 2018 until Feb. 2019 with a total of 34 interview respondents. Fish houses confirmed we encountered their active fishermen, and fewer than five fishermen declined the interview.

Commercial fishermen

Interviewees were asked their age, education level, and home location in order to track the average age as well as understand the background and where the fishermen were located in terms of developing new opportunities. The average age of interview respondents was 56 ± 15 years with a range from 25 to 85 ( n  = 34; Fig.  1 ). Over half of respondents (56%) finished high school while 16% did not attend high school at all, 9% attended high school but did not graduate, and 9% completed some college. 6% of respondents got their GED, and 3% attended trade school. There were no college graduates among the respondents. Through observation, we identified 97% of the respondents presented male and 97% were white. All respondents provided their zip codes which were sorted into river basins.

Percent of respondents within each age and years of fishing decadal bins. Bars refer to the number of years fishing; shaded area plot refers to the age of respondents

Fishermen were asked about their commercial fishing career, including fishing effort and the contributions of commercial fishing to their individual and household incomes as a proxy for understanding level of effort (side business versus primary occupation). On average, respondents worked as a commercial fisherman for 34 ± 15 years, although responses ranged from 2 to 66 years (Fig.  1 ). While all of the respondents fished commercially in freshwater systems, 30% indicated that they also fished commercially in saltwater. When determining how commercial fishing contributes to their income, over half (58%) of respondents reported that all of their individual income comes from commercial fishing alone, while 42% said they have other forms of income. Of this 42%, 67% of respondents said that the majority of their income is from commercial fishing; the rest is supplemental.

For household income, 34% of respondents said that all of their household income comes solely from commercial fishing, while 62% said it does not. Of that 62%, again, 67% of respondents indicated that the majority of their household income comes from fishing.

Fishing operations

All respondents reported that they captain their own boat. Additionally, 48.5% fish alone, while 42.5% have one deckhand, 6% have two deckhands, and 3% have three deckhands.

To understand if commercial freshwater fishermen truly target specific fish species, or if fishermen tend to land whichever species they can sell, interview items required the respondent to indicate which freshwater commercial species they target on a fishing trip, and which species they ultimately land onshore after their fishing trip. The vast majority of respondents (70.59%) targeted catfish, specifically blue catfish ( Ictalurus furcatus ) and channel catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus ), and 73.53% indicated that they land them, whether or not they target them. Flathead catfish ( Pylodictis olivaris ) is the third highest targeted species at 55.88%, followed by buffalo fish ( Ictiobus spp.) at 47.06%. The least targeted finfish are grass carp ( Ctenopharyngodon idella ) and bowfin ( Amia calva ), and most non-finfish were either not targeted at all (turtles, 0%), or minimally targeted (alligator and frogs, 5.88%). The percent of respondents who indicated targeting species versus landing them are close, however for almost every species (except frogs), there is a higher percentage of respondents who land species than who target them (Table  1 ).

From a list of commercial license gear options, hoop nets, gill nets, and trotlines were the most used gear and happen to be the least selective gear types (Table  2 ). Some gear types, such as shad seines and crawfish traps, are specific to an individual species. Other gear types, such as cans, buckets, pipes, and drums, were less popular among the respondents.

Fishing effort

To identify the geography, trips, and landings of fishing effort, respondents identified the Louisiana river basin in which they primarily fished, the number of fishing trips they take per week, and the pounds they land from each trip on average. Of the 12 defined Louisiana river basins, the majority of respondents (53%) fished in the Atchafalaya River Basin (ARB) (Table  3 ). The number of fishing trips in the ARB was also the highest with 73 total trips per week among all respondents with an average of 4 trips per week per respondent while the Lake Pontchartrain Basin (LPB) was the lowest, with a total of three fishing trips per week and three trips on average. Similarly, respondents landed the most in the ARB with 50,000 total pounds landed per week and approximately 2,800 pounds landed per trip. Respondents landed the least from LPB, with 600 total pounds both per week and per trip. Respondents reported fishing for an average of 10.63 ± 2.69 months out of the year.

Local knowledge on management Issues

Resource population.

Two questions in the interview asked for the fishermen’s views about the animal populations they encounter in their area: (1) if they believe either overfishing is occurring (too few of a species) or (2) if over-population of a species is occurring within Louisiana to help track predators, the commercial resource, and invasive species. Only 13% of respondents ( n  = 31) indicated that they do believe commercial species are being overharvested in Louisiana, and all of these respondents identified wild crawfish as the overharvested species. Of these respondents, 75% fish in the ARB, while 25% fish in the Mississippi River Basin (MRB). The other 87% of respondents do not believe overharvesting of any species is occurring. When asked about overpopulation of species, 76% of respondents ( n  = 33) indicated that they believe their basins are overpopulated. Respondents indicated that silver carp (52%), alligator (28%), bighead carp (8%), catfish (4%), bowfin (4%), and red drum (4%) were the most abundant species they experienced while fishing.

When considering the river basin and overpopulation, all basins reporting overpopulation cited silver carp, with the exception of BRB (catfish) (Table  4 ). Fishermen who fish within the ARB were 68% of this question’s responses. Half of ARB respondents (47%) reported alligators as being overpopulated, followed closely by silver carp (35%), and then bighead carp, bowfin, and red drum (all 5.9%). Fishermen from the RRB accounted for 16% of the responses, and all of them indicated that silver carp was overpopulated. MRB, ORB, and TRB each accounted for 4% of the responses, and all fishermen from those basins also identified silver carp as the only overpopulated species. Finally, the BRB accounted for 4% of responses, and blue catfish was the species identified as overpopulated.

Environmental

In order to understand the fishermen’s views on environmental changes that might provide inherent challenges to the commercial fishery, respondents identified from a list which of these affects their fishing success, and if so, whether they have worsened within the past five years (Table  5 ). 45% of respondents indicated that predators, namely alligators, were negatively impacting their fishing success. Some marine species, such as sharks, were also mentioned as predators. Of the respondents that experienced an effect from these environmental factors, about 68% indicated that predators have worsened within the last five years, followed by poor water quality (21%) and habitat loss (5%).

Restoration activities

In order to determine if effects from management and restoration activities common within or around Louisiana waterbodies impact the commercial fishermen, we asked respondents to identify from a list which are negatively impacting their fishing success, and of those, which have worsened within the last five years. Overall, 56% of respondents experienced effects from management and restoration activities. Over one-quarter (27.78%) of these respondents indicated water management projects affect them, followed by regulations and management, drainage, recreational fishing, restoration projects and water access. Of the respondents that experienced effects from management and restoration factors, about 80% indicated that water management projects have affected fishing effort within the last five years, followed by drainage projects (20%). However, most respondents did not believe that these management and restoration effects were worsening fishing effort.

75% of the respondents concerned about water management projects fish within the ARB, while 25% fish in BRB. All the respondents concerned about drainage projects fish predominantly in the LPB.

Invasive species

In order to understand the possible impact from invasive species, we asked respondents to identify from a list which are negatively impacting their fishing success, and of those which have worsened within the last five years. About half (49%) of respondents identified Asian carp in general (not specifying between silver or bighead carp), as a nuisance species. An additional 17% listed silver carp ( Hypophthalmichthys molitrix ) alone, followed by apple snail ( Pomacea maculata ) (10%), giant salvinia ( Salvinia molesta ) (7%), water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) (5%), hydrilla ( Hydrilla verticillata ) (2%) and bighead carp ( Hypophthalmichthys nobilis ) (2%). Of these, 39% of respondents identified Asian carp (generalization) as worsening within the last five years, followed by apple snail (11%), silver carp (8%), giant salvinia (6%), and water hyacinth (3%). 7% of interview respondents did not indicate any invasive species as impacting their fishing success.

Future of the industry

Barriers to success.

In order to identify hardships in the freshwater industry, we asked fishermen to identify which of the following were preventing them from increased success within their industry: places to sell, distance to place of sale, and market prices. Over half (56.5%) of respondents indicated market prices as a concern, followed by places to sell (26%) and distance to place of sale (13%). Only 4% of respondents did not share any of these commercial concerns. Of the respondents that indicated market value as a concern, we asked them to identify which species they are concerned about. 68% of respondents said that the market value of all species was concerning to them, followed by crawfish only (20%) and catfish only (12%). Generally, fishermen did not view hatcheries and hatchery-related activities by the state to be impacting their fishery (68% - No; 16%-Yes).

Current and next generation

We asked respondents if they would become a fisherman again if they could start over. 88% of respondents indicated that they would, while 9% said they would not; 3% were not sure. Similarly, we asked respondents if they would encourage their children (assuming they had children) to become fishermen, knowing the current state of the industry. 72% said they would not encourage their children to become fishermen, while 25% said they would. Again, 3% were not sure if they would encourage their children to enter the industry.

Almost all (98%) of respondents indicated that they do not ever plan on retiring from the industry, while 3% of respondents said they would likely retire within the next 6–10 years.

Future opportunities

In order to understand respondents’ current use of resources that are already available for them, their engagement in decision making, and their willingness to make changes with the goal of progressing their industry, we first asked respondents what mechanisms they use to learn new information about their fisheries. 18% of respondents interact with LDWF to keep up with information about the fisheries, while 6% each use LSU AgExtension, lobby groups, internet resources, or friends and family. 3% of respondents consulted another university for fishery information.

We then asked respondents to indicate whether they have been involved in fisheries management in any way, including attending regulations meetings, submitting public comment, or becoming a member of a lobby group of association. Most respondents, 66%, had not been involved in any of these. 11% had been a member of a lobby group or association, 8.5% had submitted a public comment, and about 6% had attended regulations or task force meetings. 3% of respondents had been involved in all listed options.

To understand whether fishermen would be interested in learning about ways to improve their industry, we asked if they would be interested in attending educational workshops. Over half (53%) of respondents indicated they would attend a workshop, while 40% said they would not.

When asked if they would be interested in learning about value added, direct marketing, or alternative species harvest to improve price, the majority of respondents ( n  = 25) showed interest in alternative species harvest (70%), followed by value added methods (32%), and finally direct marketing (24%). Some respondents already implement direct marketing and value-added methods into their fishing operation (20%, 14% respectively.).

Similar to many areas around the world, the Louisiana freshwater commercial fishing industry has been in decline for decades. This is a cryptic community that often does not engage with management and other resources. While there is interest in finding new opportunities and continuing to harvest the resource, more information on the industry was needed by state managers, non-governmental agencies, and cooperative extension. Our goal was to characterize the full-time industry, their operations, and some of their traditional knowledge. Our results indicate that the industry is aging and in decline, but there are opportunities for the future. While often not engaged in management, this group also has local knowledge valuable for management to consider.

Our sample size represented approximately 4% of the freshwater commercial license holders at the time of the interviews (17% margin of error at 95% confidence level). While the percentage of commercial license holders interviews was low, we believe it accurately represents our target demographic: full time or mostly full-time commercial freshwater fishermen. Within the license holders, there are many part-time crawfish fishermen that only target crawfish during the spring season. The market supply chain is different as often the crawfish buyers will go to those docks to buy directly for those few months (Vargas-Lopez et al. 2020 ). Additionally, there are commercial license holders that fish occasionally and only sell products to family and friends or saltwater commercial license holders that sell a couple freshwater species when salinities drop in their region. These were not the focus demographic for this study. We interviewed all of the major fish houses buying directly from fishermen with feedback from those businesses on the best months, days, and times to interview our target demographic. However, our results should not be extrapolated to all freshwater commercial license holders.

In our study, the average full-time fisherman is 56 years old with about 34 years of commercial fishing experience, and increase from the averages found in the 2013 LDWF survey[51 years, 25 years; (LDWF Office of Fisheries 2013 )] which are both higher than the national labor force average age of 42 years (USBLS 2022 ). This follows similar trends nationally within commercial fisheries and the “graying of the fleet” (Coleman et al. 2019 ; Gho and Farrington 2017 ). The designation of full-time was made by researchers in the question of if the fisherman had supplemental income, including social security income, in addition to fishing efforts. These numbers are also similar to those in the 2013 LDWF survey. The majority of respondents completed their high school degree, but over 40% have not completed or started high school. This is important when considering workforce development programming from the materials created to programs to transition fishermen to other careers. Many in the fishing industry are proud of the career they have had regardless of their education level, but new programs cannot assume these individuals have their high school diploma.

For all commercial freshwater species, the ARB is the location to fish, likely given its size, flow, and flooding regime. Interview results showed it has the most fishermen fishing (53%), the most fishing trips (avg 4 trips per fishermen a week), and the most pounds landed (2800 per trip) compared with all other basins, which corresponds with LDWF trip ticket data ( 2022 ). This central region of the state would be a good location to focus physical programs or resources.

Fishermen do target and ultimately land their targeted species (typically catfish) though percent landings are consistently higher than percent targeted. This is likely reflective of gear-type, as hoops nets are the least selective gear, and fishermen make use of any fishes they catch. The multiple finfish species caught and landed increases the opportunities to develop new markets or programs to try to increase the price per pound or increase fish with market value. The freshwater fishermen have very few species restrictions, unlike their marine counterparts that might be limited by catch shares or quotas for specific species. Understanding the existing gear used and amount allows managers a better understanding of gear in the water.

Local knowledge

With all their time on the water, fishermen have a lot of firsthand knowledge that would be very costly for state managers to duplicate. Capturing their views of what they are seeing can help guide management in multiple ways from a better understanding of fish populations to invasive species spread. In commercial saltwater fisheries, overfishing is a widely known catastrophe that affects marine environmental systems as well as the seafood market (Jackson et al. 2001 ). While some harvesters believe that crawfish are showing signs of overharvesting and would prefer a regulated season, no other fishermen believe that overharvesting was a problem within Louisiana’s freshwater fisheries. In fact, more respondents reported that they believe some species are overpopulated, such as catfishes and Asian carps. These results were supported by LDWF inland managers who have noted Asian carp species in all water bodies within south Louisiana (Kelso 2019 ). Ecologically, overpopulation of fish species can be detrimental to the condition of the fish by stunting growth and reducing length-at-age due to increased competition for food and other resources (Willenberg et al. 2010 ; Ylikarjula et al. 1999 ; Fujimoto et al. 2021 ). This can extend to predators, particularly alligators, as fishermen perceive them to be an issue and that as an issue, they have increased in the last five years. Simultaneously, alligator harvest has declined. Alligator harvest and farming is a well-managed resource in Louisiana. From the 1980s to the mid-2000s, over 90% of allotted tags were filled. As worldwide economic recessions have decreased the demand for alligator skins, often used in luxury goods, the percentage of tags filled dropped below 60% in 2017 (Alligator Management Program 2022 ). Additionally, the number of farmed alligators that must be returned to the wild has been decreased in recent year (Alligator Management Program 2022 ). Therefore, increasing commercial harvest of overpopulated species in Louisiana may improve growth and condition for individuals within that species.

Interview respondents were not overly concerned with pollution, habitat loss, or coastal land loss. Water quality was the most common concern but still only with about a third of respondents. Similarly, though restoration-based activities have increased (“Worsened”) in the last five years and affect fishermen, respondents were not concerned about it affecting their fishing. This was a specific concern of state managers to know if this user group was concerned about restoration activities.

Economics barriers

Fish houses and places to sell are constrained to Southeast Louisiana along the major waterways (Atchafalaya, Mississippi, and coastal areas) (Bonatakis 2019 ). Given that the ARB has the most fishing activity, it also has the most fish houses of any other river basin, making it the current natural hub of Louisiana’s freshwater commercial fisheries. Fishermen often have a loyalty to a particular fish house, on average selling to 1.4 fish houses (Bonatakis 2019 ). Maintaining these relationships can be beneficial to both the fisherman and the fish house, as the fish house will rely on the fisherman to bring in a certain species or number of pounds, and the fishermen can be guaranteed a paycheck. However, during contact with fish houses to inquire about their busiest days, many could not give a definitive “busy” weekday, which is a shift from the more regular saltwater fisheries. Additionally, though loyal to them, about 30% of respondents were concerned with the number of places available to sell their catch or how far they have to travel to sell. Our results also suggest that over half of commercial fishermen are unhappy with market prices of freshwater species. As the average price per pound for freshwater finfish has steadily decreased in the last 30 years, this result is unsurprising (NMFS 2023 ). Many fishermen are usually able to sell their catch; the problem lies within the price at which they can sell, which is determined by the fish houses and market demand. Catfishes were the most harvested catch but have a small price tag. Garfish have one of the highest values per pound, which likely explains why they are one of the most frequently landed species as well. However, they are notoriously difficult to process, and fish houses may choose not to buy garfish from fishermen depending on how many they have already purchased and their recent value. With limited markets and limited places to sell, supply and demand is not on the side of raising prices.

Based on the price per pound and average landings, it is likely that money is a constraint for full-time commercial freshwater fishermen. Approximately 34% of respondents reported that all of their household income comes directly from fishing. Having to support multiple people on the income of a fisherman likely influences their perception of fair market prices, the ability to retire, and encouraging future generations to pursue freshwater commercial fishing.

The demographic responses confirmed what researchers had learned anecdotally: fishermen are aging out of the industry. Rather than new people entering to keep the average age and time in the industry constant, both values are increasing and increasing more than just the number of years between surveys. On top of that, most of the interview respondents indicated they never plan to retire, thus driving up the average age. This could be a reflection of low wages (therefore little retirement savings) or, it is possible they do not plan to retire simply because they love fishing. Many respondents expressed genuine interest in their work, and their long laborious days are evidence of that. However, when asked if they would encourage their children to make the same decision, 72% of respondents said they would not. Fishermen are aware that their profession is currently economically unsustainable (see Economics section). They have come to terms with their choice but would encourage their children to pursue another path which also leads to increasing age values. Though all respondents captained their own vessel, less than half had deckhands, who may be family or a close friend. This suggests limited mentorship to new fishermen through active experience.

Commercial freshwater fishermen are not as connected to local organizations and state agencies as other fisheries. Commercial fishermen have independently obtained updated information about their fisheries. They also are not particularly involved in their industry at the local or state level. Approximately 66% of all respondents had never attended a regulations meeting, task force meeting, or submitted a public comment which is higher than the reported lack of participation by marine recreational anglers (54%) (Crandall et al. 2019 ). This is notable given that commercial fishermen rely on the fisheries for their livelihood, yet recreational anglers in Florida still participate more in regulations and management roles. It is unclear whether respondents choose not to attend these meetings, or if they are unaware of any that occur. When asked if respondents would be interested in attending educational workshops about their fisheries, about 50% of respondents said they would. Those that said they would not be interested mostly cited lack of time as a reason they would not attend.

Many management meetings are held in the capital, Baton Rouge. Time to drive to the meeting, attend the meeting, and return home as well as the expense could be a limiting factor. Other fishery task force meetings have tried to rotate around the coastal region or at least move closer to the marine fishing communities. If managers and others want to engage this sector, it is likely they need to host events much closer to their location across the state.

Opportunities

The commercial freshwater fisheries in Louisiana provide employment to many and contribute substantially to the state’s economy. Despite this, the freshwater fisheries have operated in relative obscurity, likely due to the more prominent constituents that fish recreationally and lack of overfishing concerns. However, from the results of the interview, there are several areas of improvement that may benefit this industry and prevent it from declining past its tipping point.

Value-added techniques are small changes within harvest and post-harvest practices that can increase the value of a product and are part of many extension programs’ outreach efforts. An example of this is vacuum-packing fish filets once they are processed to increase their shelf life. In return, the price of this product is more than it would be if it were not vacuum-packed and would benefit both the processors and the fishermen. Direct marketing is where the fishermen or processors sell their product directly to the consumers. Combining direct marketing with value-added techniques can improve the price of the product and money to the fishermen.

Within the interview, we polled respondents to see if they would be open to learning about value added techniques in the freshwater fishing industry and alternative species harvest (see Environmental Impacts (overpopulation). While interest in alternative species harvest was high (72%), fewer respondents were interested in vacuum packing or direct marketing. Again, most respondents cited not having enough time to learn and implement a new task in addition to fishing. Additional information could help explain the reluctance or if other options could work. For example, many of the marine fishermen participating value-added have someone in their families doing that while they continue to fish. There was a possible bias in the question about direct marketing. As the interview took place at fish houses, respondents might not have been comfortable answering that question as they were currently selling their catch to a buyer. Direct marketing can also apply to the fish houses, and if the buyers can get more money in the next step of the supply chain, which can increase the dockside price.

Engaging practicing freshwater commercial fishermen is the first step towards making change. If participants do not have the motivation or will to help improve the fisheries, then it is unlikely they will thrive. Creating educational material that explains why their product is not increasing in price can lead to action within the community. Providing simple paths to communicate with decision-makers within the industry can be helpful as well. The respondents had a lot of ideas, knowledge, and opinions about freshwater fisheries that are worthy of being discussed. Many fishermen mentioned lack of time as a barrier to participation. Offering straightforward, local, and frequent educational and outreach events may be the easiest way to earn their attention. Though limited, our outreach at places of sale or fishhouses proved to be a successful point of contact. Most of the inland fisheries independent data collection is focused on gamefish rather than commercial species because of the perceived greater stakeholder interest and economic value. Shifting some focus to the commercial species will provide a breadth of data that could potentially improve this industry.

Although the closure of local fish houses is not a new phenomenon (Lagler 1956 ; Garrity-Blake and Nash 2007 , Kros et al. 2013 ), opening more fish houses around the state could create markets in areas where none exist, such as in northern and western Louisiana. Though the number of places to sell their catch was not a top industry concern for the respondents, there may be an untapped market in areas of the state where commercial freshwater fishing does not exist. Additionally, given that catfish are the top wild catch, and that the USDA implemented new handling regulations, increasing the catfish processing locations or capacity could help create a market for wild-caught catfish within and outside Louisiana.

The freshwater commercial industry needs a robust market. Consumer demand will ultimately perpetuate the success of the fisheries. As consumers are becoming more educated about their food choices, fishermen and fish processors need to adjust their methods to appease the market they are catering to. The fish are abundant, the fishermen are hardworking, and the processors are looking for a reason to stay open. Managers and other groups have expressed a willingness to help but do not feel they know enough to create new opportunities. Our results are a first step to help managers and other groups like cooperative extension to identify opportunities for the industry, better design opportunities to fit the fishermen, and utilize their information in management across the state.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the industry members that collaborated in the research as well as LDWF inland biologists and managers for providing background information about Louisiana’s freshwater commercial fisheries. We also thank Nick Haddad, Katheryn Parraga Estrada, Lauren Carter, and Erin Thayer for assistance with the research.

This work was supported by Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries (Contract 2000262206) and partially funded by Louisiana Sea Grant.

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Conceptualization: Julie Lively, Lauren Bonatakis; Methodology: Julie Lively, Lauren Bonatakis; Formal analysis and investigation: Julie Lively, Lauren Bonatakis; Writing - original draft preparation: Lauren Bonatakis, Julie Lively, Tiffany Pasco; Writing - review and editing: Julie Lively, Lauren Bonatakis, Tiffany Pasco; Funding acquisition: Julie Lively.

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Bonatakis, L., Pasco, T. & Lively, J.A. The state of Louisiana’s freshwater commercial fishery: a study of fishermen’s attitudes towards fishing and their future. Maritime Studies 23 , 43 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40152-024-00384-y

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