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Dietitians share 18 high-protein foods to help you feel strong and satisfied

No matter what dietary plan you're following, we all need to eat protein. This essential nutrient helps keep you feeling strong, full and energized throughout the day. But how much protein do you need? And which high-protein foods should you eat?

"Protein is a macronutrient, meaning we need fairly large amounts to maintain health," Julia Zumpano, a registered dietitian at the Cleveland Clinic, tells TODAY.com.

If you're not getting enough protein in your diet, you might notice frequent muscle fatigue, difficulty building muscle, weak and brittle nails or dry and dull hair, Zumpano says.

And you may find yourself feeling hungry frequently. "Protein is really satisfying," Zumpano explains. So if you find yourself feeling hungry even though you're eating enough calories, that can be a sign that you need more protein in your meals.

Beyond that, protein is made up of amino acids, and those amino acids “do so much in our bodies,” Caroline Susie, a registered dietitian based in Dallas, Texas, and spokesperson for the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, tells TODAY.com.

They repair muscle and tissue, and help build muscle, bones and cartilage, Susie says. Amino acids in protein also help drive metabolic reactions in the body and support the immune system, she adds.

Luckily, there are plenty of high-protein foods to choose from that will keep your meals exciting, satisfying and delicious.

How much protein should you eat?

With the rise of trendy paleo - and keto -style diets, people are generally more conscious of the need for protein compared to the days when low-fat diets were more popular, Zumpano says. "But most people don’t know how much protein they need, and they don’t know how much they’re taking in," she adds.

The right amount of protein to eat in a day will depend on your age, weight, sex and activity level, so protein needs can vary widely from person to person. Be prepared for it to take some work to figure out the right amount of protein for you and your lifestyle.

A good place to start is with the recommended dietary allowance for protein, which is 0.8 grams of protein daily per kilogram of body weight, Susie says. For older adults, that increases to 1.2 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight. "That's the minimal amount, the basic requirement," she explains.

If you're pregnant or breastfeeding, actively trying to build more muscle or have certain other health considerations (such as osteoporosis), you should increase the amount of protein you eat in a day. A registered dietitian can give you specific recommendations based on your individual circumstances, the experts say.

Zumpano says most people she works with need closer to 1 to 2 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight in a day.

Another way to think of it, Zumpano says, is to aim to get between 20 and 40 grams of protein at each meal. "And making sure, if you have a few 20-gram meals, that you have a 40-gram meal and then a few 10-gram snacks," she adds. This also helps space out your protein intake throughout the day, rather than trying to get it all at once.

The best high-protein foods

When you're looking for the best high-protein foods, you'll generally want to reach for lean meats and fish, eggs, dairy, beans, legumes, lentils, nuts and seeds, the experts say.

Poultry, particularly lean chicken breast, is a great source of protein. A 4-ounce serving of skinless, boneless chicken breast contains 26 grams of protein, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and is versatile enough to be incorporated into many different types of cuisine, from salads and pasta dishes to simple roasted sheet pan meals .

As with chicken breast, turkey breast meat comes with plenty of lean protein. Lean ground turkey is also great to use in meatballs , pasta sauces, taco filling and stir-fry dishes.

Easily grilled, pan-fried or eaten raw in sushi, salmon is an excellent fish option that's high in protein. There are about 17 grams of protein in a 3-ounce serving of salmon, the USDA says.

Tuna is another high-protein fish that can be cooked in many ways. Try searing fresh tuna loin with pesto couscous for a light yet filling meal. Or use canned tuna in a salad or sandwich. A 3-ounce tuna steak provides 24 grams of protein and a can of light tuna contains about 16 grams of protein.

Lean beef includes certain cuts of beef, such as round tip roast and top sirloin steak, the Mayo Clinic say s. And the category also includes lean ground beef, which can be used in meatballs, stuffed peppers , burgers, lasagna and more. There are about 18 grams of protein in a 3.5-ounce serving of 90% lean ground beef.

Greek yogurt

A cup of Greek yogurt will give you about 10 grams of protein, Susie says, while a standard single-serving container can come with up to 15 grams. It's an obvious easy choice for breakfast , topped with nutrient-rich berries, seeds and nuts. Try blending it into a smoothie or freezing it in a slab for some frozen yogurt bark.

If you’re looking for vegetarian protein sources, tempeh is a great option, Zumpano says, and it contains a whopping 31 grams of protein per cup.

Made from fermented soybeans formed into a cake-like block, this versatile food has a subtle nutty taste, a slightly chewy texture and can be cooked in virtually any sauce for a flavorful meal .

Cottage cheese

A trendy food yet again, cottage cheese packs plenty of health benefits . Just a half-cup of low-fat cottage cheese will give you 12 grams of filling protein. And, similar to Greek yogurt, cottage cheese can be topped with other healthy ingredients for breakfast or as a snack, or it can be blended into other foods —  including eggs — to boost the protein content.

Black beans

When reaching for high-protein foods, people tend to go straight for meat and dairy, Zumpano says, while overlooking plant-based foods like beans, legumes and lentils.

Three-quarters of a cup of cooked black beans provides about 10 grams of protein, Susie says. "That can be added to salad, served as a side dish or mixed in with meat when you're making tacos," she says. As a bonus, beans are also high in fiber , which is great for gut and heart health.

“I’m just a huge fan of eggs,” Susie says. “They’re very versatile. Whether it’s scrambled or hard-boiled eggs, they are going to be a wonderful option.” One large egg contains about 6 grams of protein.

Lentils come with a ton of nutritional benefits. Just a cup of cooked lentils provides nearly 18 grams of protein and more than 15 grams of fiber, according to the USDA . They're a great addition to soups and stews , and warm lentils can be the base for a filling protein-rich bowl topped with veggies and your choice of egg, cheese and meat or tofu.

Legumes like chickpeas are another excellent plant-based source of protein, the experts say. In a cup of chickpeas, you'll find about 14 grams of protein and more than 12 grams of fiber, the USDA says.

Chickpeas make a great addition to a salad, or you can try roasting them with your favorite spices for a crispy high-protein snack .

Peanut butter

Nuts and nut butters are both good sources of protein and healthy, filling fats. Peanuts, which are technically legumes, provide 12 grams of protein per cup. And 2 tablespoons of peanut butter will give you about 7 grams of protein. That makes both of these easy options for a healthy protein boost.

Flaxseeds are probably some of the most popular high-protein seeds, Susie says, with 2 grams per tablespoon. They can easily be sprinkled on yogurt with granola or blended into a protein and fruit smoothie. But if you prefer sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds or sesame seeds, “that’s fantastic,” she says.

If you're looking for high-protein nuts, almonds are an obvious go-to. Just an ounce of almonds contains 6 grams of protein, 14 grams of fat and 6 grams of fiber — all of which make these crunchy nuts a particularly satisfying and nutritious snack.

Pistachios (6 grams of protein per ounce) and walnuts (4 grams of protein per ounce) are also good options to include in a high-protein and high-fiber homemade trail mix .

Seitan , another meatless source of protein, is made from wheat gluten, Zumpano explains. You can even make it yourself at home just using water and flour.

It has a fibrous texture that can be pulled apart so its similar to shredded chicken or pork, and a 2-ounce serving of seitan contains about 17 grams of protein.

Perhaps the most well-known protein-rich meat alternative, tofu is made from fermented soybeans. And, depending on your chosen tofu texture, it can be fried, baked, stirred into a soup or turned into a sweet pudding .

Adding chia seeds to your morning yogurt or lunchtime salad bowl is an easy way to boost the protein and fiber content. Or try making chia pudding overnight in the fridge , mixed with peanut butter and topped with fresh fruit. An ounce of chia seeds will give you almost 5 grams of protein and nearly 10 grams of filling fiber.

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• What's In Food

Find how much protein to eat per day, what foods are high in protein, and why protein is important.

This page provides lists of which foods have the most and least content of specific nutrients. 

Protein foods include both animal and plant sources. Find tips for including a variety of protein foods in your diet. 

Learn which foods make up the Protein Foods Group and how much protein is needed for a healthy diet. 

Read about protein - what it does, where it is found, and how to use the Nutrition Facts Label to monitor the protein in your diet.

Find the latest news, plus links to overviews, clinical trials and research related to dietary proteins.

Read general information about protein, including food sources and recommendations for a healthy diet. 

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What Does Protein Do? A Guide to This Essential Nutrient

• Role in Weight
• Effects of Too Much Protein

Protein is an essential macronutrient that forms the building blocks of every cell in your body. When you consume animal or plant-based protein, your body breaks it down into amino acids. Your cells use amino acids to build and repair body tissues like muscle, skin, organs, and bones. Proteins also provide fuel for energy, support immune function, and regulate vital body processes like metabolism, growth, and digestion.

This article discusses the numerous functions of protein in the human body, its effect on body weight, protein-rich foods, and ideal intake levels. It also covers what happens to your body when you consume too much protein. 

Alexander Spatari / Getty Images

Protein Functions in the Human Body

Protein is the workhorse of the body’s cells and is crucial for maintaining a healthy and well-functioning body. Made up of amino acid chains, protein plays a role in virtually every body process, from building and repairing tissues to fueling metabolism and regulating the body’s numerous biochemical reactions.

Build and Repair Tissue 

One of protein’s primary roles is forming and maintaining the structural foundation of your body: muscles, bones, skin, hair and nails, and internal organs. Every cell in your body contains protein—it is essential for the structure and function of every part of the human body. The amino acids that make protein are the raw materials for building and repairing body tissues.

Your body continuously breaks down protein; this continuous turnover (replacing old proteins with new ones) is essential for repairing and regenerating body tissues. There are times when your protein needs increase—such as when recovering from an illness, surgery, or injury. Older adults and pregnant or breastfeeding people need more protein to maintain optimal health.

Regulate Metabolic Processes 

Protein is the basis for creating enzymes, which are important for every biochemical reaction and function in your body.

Enzymes are complex proteins that act as catalysts for chemical reactions in the body related to energy production, growth, nutrient digestion, muscle function, and blood clotting. They also play a role in the body’s detoxification process, helping lower your risk of some diseases and conditions (e.g., heart disease, Alzheimer’s disease).

Act as a Chemical Messengers 

Hormones act as chemical messengers that travel in the bloodstream, regulating many body processes. Many hormones, called peptide hormones, are made up of proteins. Peptide hormones are critical in regulating growth, mood, and metabolism. Examples of protein-based hormones include: 

• Insulin : Promotes the uptake of glucose into cells as an energy source.
• Epinephrine (adrenaline) : Helps maintain cardiovascular health and triggers the body’s fight-flight reactions.
• Oxytocin :   Known as the “love hormone,” oxytocin plays a role in human behaviors such as trust, romantic and familial attachments, and sexual arousal.
• Thyroxine : A thyroid hormone that regulates the body’s heart, metabolic rate, digestive function, brain development, and more.
• Human growth hormone : Promotes growth in children and maintains the body’s structure and metabolism in adults.

Support the Immune System 

Many immune system components are protein-based, making protein vital for optimal immune function and protecting your health. Cytokines , for example, are small proteins that control the growth and activity of other immune cells. When cytokines are released into the bloodstream, they send signals and regulate the action and function of other immune cells to protect the body from any potential threat. Cytokines also play a role in the body’s inflammatory response.

Antibodies are proteins circulating through the bloodstream that identify and neutralize foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses, that may threaten your health.

Maintain Fluid Balance

Proteins help maintain and regulate the body’s fluid balance. Albumin is a protein that attracts and holds water within the bloodstream. This creates a pressure called oncotic pressure, which counteracts the outward pressure of fluids pressing against blood vessel walls, preventing fluid from leaking into the surrounding tissues.

Albumin also helps regulate the movement of lymphatic fluid, helping prevent tissue edema (swelling) and ensuring proper fluid distribution throughout the body.

Protein Sources and How to Eat More

Getting enough protein in your diet is an excellent way to support your overall health. There are many food sources of protein, including animal and plant-based protein foods . Whatever you prefer, eating various protein foods is the best way to ensure your body gets the nutrients it needs.

Animal-Based Proteins 

Animal proteins , like those found in meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy, are considered complete proteins. Animal protein foods contain all nine essential amino acids, which your body cannot produce on its own, and you must get through the foods you eat.

Animal-based protein foods include:

• Meats : Beef, pork, goat, ham, lamb, or game meats (e.g., deer, bison) 
• Poultry : Chicken, turkey, Cornish hen, duck, pheasant 
• Seafood : Fish (e.g., tilapia, flounder, haddock, tuna, salmon) and shellfish (e.g., scallops, lobster, oysters, shrimp)
• Dairy : Cow’s milk, cheese, yogurt

Plant-Based Proteins 

Plant-based proteins are incomplete proteins, meaning they lack one or more essential amino acids. By incorporating different plant protein sources into your meals, you can consume complementary proteins to ensure you consume all the essential amino acids.

Plant-based protein foods include:

• Nuts and seeds : Almonds, walnuts, cashews, and pistachios; chia, pumpkin, sesame, and sunflower seeds
• Soy products :   Tofu, tempeh 
• Beans, peas, and lentils :   Black, garbanzo, kidney, lima, pigeon, split, black-eyed peas, and lentils 

Protein: Recommended Dietary Allowance

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) guidelines recommend that between 10% and 35% of an adult’s daily caloric intake should come from protein sources. One gram of protein is four calories, so if you consume 2,000 calories daily, you could eat between 100 and 400 calories of protein.

Remember that these are general recommendations; how much protein you need depends on your age, sex, activity level, and overall health.

Boosting Your Protein Intake 

Getting enough protein is vital for maintaining good health. Here are some tips to boost your protein intake:

• Start your day with protein : Eat a protein-rich breakfast with eggs, yogurt, or a protein smoothie. 
• Snack smart :   Choose snack foods that are good sources of proteins, such as a handful of nuts, seeds, or edamame. 
• Add protein to every meal : Include protein sources, including salads, stir-fries, and soups. 
• Rotate : Mix your protein sources throughout the week to ensure you consume the essential amino acids and satisfy your palate. 

Protein Role in Weight Loss or Weight Gain

While protein doesn’t directly cause weight loss or gain, it does affect your appetite, metabolism, and body composition (e.g., muscle mass)—all factors that play a role in weight management. 

Satiety and Appetite Control

Compared to carbohydrates and fats, protein is more satiating, meaning it can make you feel fuller for longer periods, which may help with appetite control and promote weight loss. Research shows that people with higher-protein diets tend to consume fewer calories overall.

Metabolism Boost 

Digesting and metabolizing protein requires more energy than carbohydrates or fats, leading to a slight increase in calorie burning, known as the thermic effect of food. This may contribute to a small but measurable calorie deficit over time.

Muscle Building

Muscle tissue burns more calories at rest compared to fat. Higher protein intake helps preserve muscle mass during weight loss, which may boost metabolism and maintain calorie burning. However, excessive protein intake beyond recommended levels won’t accelerate weight loss but may contribute to weight gain.

What Does Too Much Protein Do?

While protein is a foundational nutrient for health, exceeding the recommended intake may harm your health. Moderation is key, and following recommended protein intake guidelines is the best approach to protein consumption. 

Effects of a Heavy Meat Diet

Diets high in certain types of protein, including red and processed meats , can put you at risk of certain diseases, including heart disease, chronic kidney disease, and cancer. 

• Heart disease :   Research findings show a strong link between diets high in red meat and processed meat consumption and the risk of cardiovascular (heart) disease, stroke, and heart failure.
• Cancer : Some studies suggest a diet high in red and processed meats increases the risk of colorectal, prostate, and pancreatic cancers.
• Kidney disease : Excess protein intake may adversely affect kidney function, as the kidneys must work harder to filter and remove waste products. A high-meat diet can be dangerous for people with kidney diseases .

Protein Shakes 

Protein shakes can be a convenient way to add protein to your diet, but relying on them as a sole protein source can be more harmful than helpful. Protein shakes are powders made with animal or plant-based sources (e.g., casein, whey, soy, hemp).  

While fitness buffs may tout them as a magic bullet for fueling your body pre or post-workout, consuming protein shakes and powders comes with health risks. 

A 2018 study found high amounts of heavy metals like arsenic, lead, and mercury in several popular protein shakes. These contaminants, likely from contaminated soil or water used in ingredient production, can lead to organ damage, immune system dysfunction, and harm your nervous system.

And while many protein shakes may help increase your protein intake, they also add sugars, such as fructose corn syrup or artificial sweeteners, that can contribute to weight gain, disrupt a healthy gut microbiome, and increase the risk of type 2 diabetes and heart disease.

Beyond providing sustenance, protein is an essential macronutrient your body needs for optimal functioning and maintenance. Protein builds and repairs body tissues like muscles, skin, and bones, provides energy, supports immune function, and regulates important body processes. While protein is important, too much can lead to adverse health outcomes, especially high amounts of red and processed meats. Consuming protein from animal and plant-based sources is the best way to ensure your body gets the protein and other nutrients it needs to support your health and well-being.

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Weiler M, Hertzler SR, Dvoretskiy S. Is it time to reconsider the U.S. recommendations for dietary protein and amino acid intake? Nutrients . 2023;15(4):838. doi:10.3390/nu15040838

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By Lindsay Curtis Curtis is a writer with over 20 years of experience focused on mental health, sexual health, cancer care, and spinal health.

High protein diet: What it is and how to do it

• What is high protein?
• Best protein foods
• Protein powders
• Animal vs plant protein

You may have heard that high protein diets can help with weight loss and metabolic health. That’s why, at Diet Doctor, we feature high protein recipes and meal plans. But how do you know if a higher protein diet is right for you?

Key takeaways

1. What is a high protein diet?

A high protein diet is one where you work on getting plenty of protein — probably more than you are used to getting — as the first focus of your eating patterns. Protein-rich foods include eggs, meat, seafood, legumes, and dairy products. These foods are not only high in protein but high in nutrients in general. That means a high protein diet is also a high nutrition diet.

More high protein guides

Learn what you need to get started with a high protein diet in this video:

How much protein are most people eating now?

Because “high” is a relative term, discussions about whether you should eat a “high” protein diet are based upon a reference point. The typical reference point is the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for daily protein, which is set at 0.8 grams per kilo. 6 For an average 154-pound person (70 kilos), that equates to 56 grams of protein per day — about six ounces of steak. For women, the RDA is even less, around 46 grams.

2. What are the best high protein foods?

The best choices for high protein diets are foods with a high protein percentage . The protein percentage of a food tells you how much protein per calorie a food has. 10 Foods with a lot of protein and less fat and carbohydrate are ranked higher, as are low-fat, low-carb foods with a lot of fiber.

Foods in the middle range of protein percentage can help you maintain your weight and your muscle mass. Going a little higher — over 30 or 35% — may help you lose weight.

Foods with a lower protein percentage may lead to weight gain, while foods with the highest protein percentage may be good choices for someone who is really trying to reduce body fat and become lean and fit.

Fortunately, most high protein foods are delicious and have plenty of vitamins and minerals, too. You can start with this list of the best high protein foods.

• Meat and poultry: beef, chicken, lamb, turkey
• Seafood: shrimp, crab, salmon, tuna
• Eggs: whole eggs or egg whites
• Dairy: cottage cheese, greek yogurt
• Legumes: Beans, lentils, peas, and soy
• Non-starchy vegetables 11 : spinach, cauliflower, broccoli, mushrooms

If your diet consists mainly of the above foods, you are on your way to eating a healthy diet with plenty of protein.

Remember that non-starchy vegetables may have a high protein percentage, but they won’t give you the total protein, calories, or all the nutrients you need. Base your meals around a protein source — whether from animals or plants — and add high-protein-percentage vegetables for a little extra boost of amino acids, the building blocks of protein. Add just enough fat to make your meals delicious and filling. This approach will keep the total protein percentage of your meals high.

Here are a few tips to help you increase how much protein you eat and ensure you get adequate protein without adding too many unnecessary calories:

• Add extra egg whites to your scrambled eggs or omelets.
• Replace lower protein snacks, like nuts and cheese, with higher protein versions like lupini beans, zero-sugar jerky, or cold cuts.
• Include your favorite foods that are higher than 35% protein. Choose from the highest protein foods such as shrimp, chicken breasts, and lean cuts of meat.
• Swap higher fat cheese and yogurt with low-fat cheese or Greek yogurt. The lower-fat versions have higher protein percentages and therefore more protein per calorie.

What about protein powders?

Although our bias is that you should get most of your protein from whole foods, protein powders can still be part of a healthy, high protein diet.

You may not need protein powders if you prioritize the food on our list of best high protein foods. But if you fall short of your daily targets, protein powders are an easy and convenient way to get more protein.

Plus, protein powders are a great way to create high protein versions of your favorite desserts, low-carb bread, or smoothies.

If you are going to use protein powders, make sure they have few additives, such as sweeteners, maltodextrin, seed oils, or fillers.

Animal and plant protein powders are both good options, and you can choose which works best for your taste, preferences, and carbohydrate goals.

• Foods with the highest protein percentage are low in carbs and fat, like lean meat and seafood.
• To increase the protein in your diet, look for easy substitutions — snack on lupini beans or venison jerky, add two egg whites to your two whole eggs in the morning, or add more meat, seafood, dairy, or legumes to your meals.
• Mix protein foods with high-fiber vegetables – and don’t overdo fat – to create meals with a protein percentage above 35%.
• If you struggle to meet your protein goals with whole foods, consider protein powders.

3. High protein benefits

Weight loss

Multiple studies demonstrate higher protein intake helps with weight loss, specifically fat mass loss. 12

Metabolic benefits

Studies show diets higher in protein contribute to better blood sugar control and improved insulin sensitivity when compared to lower protein diets. 13 Can eating more protein raise insulin levels in an unhealthy way? Scientific studies don’t support this idea.

While protein may briefly increase insulin concentrations, high protein diets are not known to cause chronic hyperinsulinemia (high insulin levels). In fact, for people with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes, a higher protein diet may be more beneficial than a lower protein one. 14

Body composition

Strength, bone health, and preventing frailty, 4. how do we define a high protein diet, summary: high protein diets are:.

• Diets with more than 25% of calories from protein
• Over 1.6 grams of protein per kilo of body weight
• Diets with more protein than the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA), which is set at 0.8 grams per kilo.

There is no universally agreed-upon definition of a high protein diet, and what you consider “high” may depend on where you start.

At Diet Doctor, we define adequate protein as over 1.2 grams per kilo per day and high protein as over 1.6 grams per kilo per day or above 25% of calories. We recommend that most people aim for 1.6 to 2 grams of protein per kilo or 25-35% of calories from protein to ensure adequate protein intake. And you should aim for the higher end of that range for a high protein diet.

5. How much protein do I need?

• Calculate your daily protein goal based on your height, activity level, and health goals.
• We recommend a protein intake of 1.6 to 2.0 grams per kilo of reference body weight. 20
• If you are very physically active or taller than 6 feet, consider staying at the higher end of this range.
• Distribute your protein intake throughout the day, with 30 to 40 grams per meal for women and 35 to 50 for men, if you are eating three meals a day.

The first step in eating a higher protein diet is setting your protein targets. We believe most people would benefit by increasing their protein intake to 1.6 to 2.0 grams per kilo per day, or 25 to 35% of daily calories. Use this simple chart to find out what your minimum daily protein target should be, based on your height. 21

Minimum daily protein target

As the chart indicates, you should try to get around 100 grams if you’re a woman and 120 grams if you’re a man of average height and build. Eat more if you’re a man taller than 6 feet (183 cm) or a woman taller than 5’6″ (168 cm) or if you’re very physically active. Eat less if you’re shorter or have a very small frame. 22 If you are very physically active, over 50 years old, or most of your protein comes from plant sources, we recommend aiming for the higher end of the protein range (above 1.6 grams per kilo per day). This means adding another 20 to 30 grams of protein to the targets above.

If you are physically active, want to achieve very low body fat (less than 10% for men or 20% for women), or regularly practice intermittent fasting, you may want to add even more protein. Since there are no credible data showing harm from very high protein diets of over 2.0 grams per kilo of body weight per day — as we discuss later in this article — you can feel confident in adding more!

Read more about spacing your protein out during the day and whether you need to count calories. Read more Next, try to space out your protein intake during the day as it may maximize your absorption efficiency. If you eat three meals each day, aim for at least 30 to 35 grams in each meal if you’re a woman, 45 grams if you’re a man.

If you only eat one or two meals per day, you will need to increase your protein content at each meal significantly. You can also add in high protein snacks to supplement your meals. You can choose from zero-sugar jerky, cold cuts, eggs, edamame, or any of our top 21 high protein snacks .

Keep in mind that eating more protein can fit with any dietary pattern. Whether you eat a vegan, vegetarian, Mediterranean, or keto diet, you may benefit from increasing your protein intake.

6. Common concerns about high protein diets

With respect to lifespan, data from flies, mice, and other animals suggest that restricting protein may increase longevity, while human data are very weak. 29 We need to consume adequate protein to prevent loss of muscle tissue and frailty as we age, so restricting that nutrient in order to increase lifespan may not benefit general health.

High protein diets are safe for most people. The bottom line is, there is no convincing evidence that high protein diets are harmful — although they are not recommended for people who already have severe underlying kidney disease. You can read more in our guides on bone health and kidney health , as well as our guides on red meat and diet and cancer .

Animal versus plant protein

Is all protein the same? No, not really.

Animal proteins are considered complete sources of protein — meaning they supply all nine essential amino acids — whereas all plant sources aside from soy are incomplete. 30 This doesn’t mean you can’t get all essential amino acids from plant sources. It simply means you will need to combine different sources, such as beans with nuts or whole grains.

Lastly, plant sources of protein tend to be higher in carbohydrates than animal sources. If you follow a very low-carb or keto diet, this can make meeting all your goals challenging.

Longevity and chronic diseases

These observational studies are considered very weak evidence. At this time, we cannot say that there is sufficient evidence to recommend getting most of your protein from either plants or animals. It is our opinion that eating a diversity of plant and animal sources of protein should be considered a healthy diet.

Summary: Animal versus plant proteins

• Animals provide complete proteins with better absorption and muscle-building benefits.
• Plant proteins can be combined to form complete proteins but may contain more calories and carbs per gram of protein.
• The data on longevity and chronic diseases may raise concerns about animal protein, but the majority of human evidence is low-quality and inconclusive.

7. FAQ about high protein diets

We get it. All this new information about protein can be confusing. If you have additional questions about why or how to add more protein to your meals, check out our FAQ with the “ Top 20 questions about high protein diets .”

High protein recipes

Top 20 questions about high protein diets

Guide Have questions about high protein diets and high protein foods? We have answers!

Learn more about protein

Eating protein is important to help us grow strong and stay healthy. However, protein is more than just a food group! Proteins are the workers inside of our busy cells. These proteins have some amazing jobs to do, and thousands of proteins work together every day to keep our bodies healthy. In this article, we will discuss how proteins are made and why we need protein to keep our bodies running smoothly.

You have probably heard an adult in your life tell you that protein is brain food or say something like, “Eating protein makes you strong!” Protein is an important part of our diets. There is even a section on the food pyramid called “Protein,” full of meat, beans, peanut butter, and eggs. Protein is all around us, but do you know what a protein is? Are proteins only found in the foods we eat? Why do we need to eat protein to stay healthy?

What is a Protein?

You may already know that your body is made up of trillions of smaller units called cells. Each cell is like a tiny factory. Inside these factories, cells are hard at work doing everything your body needs to stay healthy. For example, cells can turn the food you eat into energy, protect you from germs, and send signals from your brain to the rest of your body. These are just a few of the hundreds of jobs that your cells are doing every second of the day! These action-packed cells are very busy places. Luckily, factories and cells both have workers to get the jobs done.

Proteins are the workers inside of cells ( Figure 1 ). Every protein has its own special job to do [ 1 ]. These jobs are what keep cells running smoothly. Some proteins move around inside the cell. Some proteins grab on to other proteins. Some proteins are even like shapeshifters—they can change size and shape to do their jobs! These thousands of proteins all work together to power those busy cells. Each and every one of these proteins makes the factory run and keeps your body healthy.

• Figure 1 - Proteins are the workers inside your cells.
• Cells are very busy places! They have lots of jobs to do to keep your body healthy. Cells are kind of like factories, and proteins are like the workers that do the important jobs inside the cells.

How Are Proteins Made?

Imagine using a pile of building blocks, like Legos ® , to build a castle. You can follow the instructions to build a tower, or you can make your own design. You can even combine the blocks in different ways to make a car or a bridge. It is up to your imagination—one set of building blocks can be used in a million different ways!

The cells in your body do not build towers out of blocks, but they do build proteins out of amino acids . Just like Legos ® are the building blocks for your castle, amino acids are the building blocks for your proteins ( Figure 2 ). The same basic set of amino acids can be combined to make lots of different proteins. Cells learn how to combine the amino acids into proteins by following an instruction manual called the DNA code . The DNA code tells the cell how to combine amino acids in the correct order. Special machinery inside the cell reads the DNA code and uses it to combine amino acids into a pattern. The pattern of amino acids is what gives the protein its unique shape and size, just like your pattern of Legos ® makes a unique shape. The end result is a protein ready to do one of the many interesting jobs inside the cell.

• Figure 2 - Proteins are made of amino acids.
• Proteins are made by combining amino acids in a certain pattern. This is kind of like making a tower by combining Legos ® . The basic amino acid building blocks can be combined in many ways to make different proteins.

Some Proteins Use Movement to Do Their Jobs

Have you ever thought about what makes your muscles move? Your brain tells your muscles to move, but your muscles need help to spring into action. This help comes from an important protein called myosin . Myosin is an example of a protein that uses movement to do its job ( Figure 3A ) [ 2 ]. Myosin has just the right shape to grab onto your muscle. Then, the myosin protein holds tight and pulls hard on the muscle. When enough myosin proteins are working together, this pull is strong enough to make the muscle move! This amazing protein gives you motion when you run and jump.

• Figure 3 - Proteins have special jobs.
• (A) A protein called myosin powers the muscles in your cells by grabbing onto the muscle and pulling hard! (B) Channel proteins have a shape that looks like a tunnel. This shape lets supplies travel through the channel protein and into the cell.

Some Proteins Have the Right Shapes to Do Their Jobs

Cells do not get to take a break from their hard work. The cell factories are running all the time, and all that work takes a lot of energy! Cells need extra supplies to power the constant action. Your body is full of supplies like water and nutrients, but they are stuck outside of the cell. Those supplies need to get into the cell to give the cell energy. A special type of protein called a channel protein is perfect for this job [ 3 ]. Channel proteins are shaped like a tunnel ( Figure 3B ). This tunnel connects the inside of the cell to the outside environment, so supplies can pass right through the tunnel and into the cell. This job is extremely important because cells need those supplies to power that busy factory!

What Happens When You Eat Protein?

Remember those amino acids? Your body uses amino acids as building blocks to make proteins. Your cells build thousands of proteins every day. That means you need a lot of blocks! There are 22 types of amino acids. You need all of them to build proteins, but there are nine of them that the body cannot make. These are called the essential amino acids because you can only get them from food. When you eat foods with lots of protein, like meat or beans, your body breaks those proteins apart into amino acids. Then, your body can use those amino acids to build other proteins. Imagine taking apart your Lego ® castle to have the parts you need to build an airplane. Your body does the same thing, by taking apart the proteins you eat and using the parts to build new proteins that you need.

Now you may have a better understanding of why it is important to get plenty of protein in your diet. The essential amino acids from the proteins in foods help you to build all the cellular proteins that keep your body running smoothly! Meat-eaters will find lots of protein in foods like chicken, beef, pork, fish, dairy, and eggs. Vegetarians can find protein in peanut butter, beans, nuts, seeds, and green vegetables like broccoli [ 4 ]. No matter what your favorite kind of protein is, remember: proteins are more than a food group!

Proteins : ↑ Molecules that act as “workers,” doing the various jobs inside cells.

Amino Acids : ↑ The basic building blocks that make up proteins.

DNA Code : ↑ Information that acts like an instruction book, telling the cellular machinery how to combine amino acids into proteins.

Myosin : ↑ A protein that attaches to muscle fibers and helps our muscles to move.

Channel Protein : ↑ A type of protein that acts like a tunnel into the cell.

Essential Amino Acids : ↑ The nine amino acids that the human body cannot make. We can only get these amino acids through the foods we eat.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

[1] ↑ Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., and Walter, P. 2002. “Protein function,” in Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th Edn . Available online at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26911/ (accessed July 6, 2020).

[2] ↑ Lodish, H., Berk, A., Zipursky, S. L., Matsudaira, P., Baltimore, D., and Myosin, D. J. 2000. “The actin motor protein,” in Molecular Cell Biology, 4th Edn . Available online at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21724/ (accessed July 6, 2020).

[3] ↑ BD Editors. 2018. Channel Protein . Biology Dictionary. Available online at: https://biologydictionary.net/channel-protein/ (accessed October 12, 2020).

[4] ↑ All About the Protein Foods Group . ChooseMyPlate. Available online at: https://www.choosemyplate.gov/eathealthy/protein-foods (accessed July 6, 2020).

The Protein Content of 230 Common Foods

We all have different protein needs , but it can be difficult knowing precisely how much protein common foods contain.

For this reason, this guide provides a simple overview of the protein content of 230 common foods.

The source of the data is the USDA’s food composite database, and all foods are per 100 grams raw ( 1 ).

Cereal Grains

Cereal grains are moderately high in protein.

Dairy Foods and Eggs

Dairy products are rich sources of complete protein, and cheese can be particularly high in protein depending on the specific type of cheese.

Generally speaking, fruit is a poor source of protein.

However, some fruits do still contain small amounts, with dried goji berries being the most notable.

Legumes are generally the best plant-based source of protein. Legume products, such as extra-firm tofu are also very high in protein.

For meat, these protein amounts are an approximate guide based on USDA data.

Meat products are a complete source of protein, but it is worth noting that the protein density of different meats can significantly vary. For instance, a skinless chicken breast will contain far more protein than a fatty steak or pork belly.

For anyone looking to maximize protein content, leaner meat offers the best protein to calorie ratio.

Nuts and Seeds

Nuts are another plant source of protein, and the amount of protein varies substantially from nut to nut.

In addition to offering lots of omega-3, vitamins, and minerals, seafood is also an excellent source of protein.

Vegetables are generally low in protein and they are not complete sources. However, their amino acids (protein content) still add to the amounts consumed within the meal.

Final Thoughts

Almost every food provides dietary protein, but some options offer a lot more than others. Also, the bioavailability rates differ between animal and plant sources of protein.

Overall, dairy, meat, seafood, and legumes/legume products tend to be the highest protein sources. However, other foods can also contribute.

Focusing on the higher protein choices in this list could help anyone seeking to increase their intake

For more information on the importance of protein, see this guide to the potential effects of inadequate protein intake.

Michael Joseph, MSc

6 thoughts on “the protein content of 230 common foods”.

Thank you for the great at a glance reference lists

No problem, Sandy. Hope they’re useful!

Great references thank you Michael. It would be nice to see some mention of bio-availability and digestibility of the different sources of protein, since plant based proteins can often be somewhat problematic in terms of available proteins

Thanks for the comment! I agree, I did put something at the end but it was more of a passing comment. I will add something to make this clearer.

thanks for putting in in so much work! Legumes- is that dry weight or cooked weight? Sudhir

Thanks! The protein content of legumes is for dried weight.

Comments are closed.

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11 Ridiculously Easy Ways to Bump up Your Protein Intake

Spreading out the muscle-building macro throughout the day is much easier than trying to get all of your grams in one go.

By Karla Walsh • September 18, 2024

How to Get More Protein In Your Diet

Why timing is helpful for getting more protein, how much protein should you aim for every day, again.

All three macronutrients—protein, fat, and carbohydrates—are essential for survival . Fat aids in micronutrient absorption and brain sharpness, carbs give our brains and bodies energy, and protein is key for building and restoring many of our body’s most important structures. 

“Protein contains amino acids, which are building blocks needed to maintain everything in our body, from cells and blood to tissues and muscles,” explains Roxana Ehsani , RD, a board-certified sports dietitian. We require a certain amount of protein to keep our bodies at baseline, adds board-certified sports dietitian Cynthia Sass , RD, but our bodies ask for extra protein after exercise to help heal and strengthen muscles . Because of this, active individuals in particular often seek out solutions for how to get more protein. 

But squeezing more protein into your daily diet can be surprisingly tricky. Fortunately, there are plenty of ways to add more of the muscle-building macro into your everyday meals and snacks. Below, find dietitian-recommended tips for how to get more protein, plus find guidance on protein intake timing and how much of the macro to aim for.

According to the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN), eating 20–40 grams of protein every three to four hours is ideal for muscle growth and performance.

Of course, everyone has unique nutritional needs, and your ideal protein intake may be different from someone else’s. (More on that later.) But generally, “I recommend that my athletes consume 20–40 grams of protein every few hours, along with carbohydrates and fat for steady energy and muscle repair throughout the day,” says Jena Brown, RD, a sports dietitian and owner of Victorem Performance Nutrition who works with endurance athletes for individualized nutrition planning. 

If your daily protein target can feel difficult to reach, check out these simple dietitian-approved solutions for how to get more protein:

1. Add 2 Eggs to Avocado Toast

Avocado toast continues to be one of the most popular ways to start the day—and with a strong dose of energy-boosting carbs and heart-healthy fats, it’s a very healthy breakfast at that. Yet despite the fact that a slice of whole-wheat bread delivers about 4 grams of protein and avocado is among the most high-protein fruits , even two slices of toast with ¼ avocado each will only earn you 9.5 grams of protein. 

Up the ante by topping your avocado toast with two large eggs cooked any which way (over easy, scrambled, or hard-boiled and sliced are stellar options), and you’ll stack on 12.5 grams of extra protein, bringing the total to an impressive 22 grams.

2. Enjoy Your Cereal or Granola with Ultra-Filtered Milk

There are a host of high-protein grains that are ideal if you’re looking for ways to get more protein at breakfast. That’s right: oats, quinoa, seed- and flax-infused flakes, and nut-boosted granola can all provide an extra protein boost in the morning. And if you’re not intolerant to dairy, another way to amp up the staying power (and muscle-building abilities) of any bowl of grains is by serving it with ultra-filtered milk. 

Ultra-filtered milk offers more protein and “almost half of your day’s calcium needs per cup, which helps build stronger muscles and bones,” Brown says. While the exact protein content varies by brand, one cup boasts about 11 grams of the macro (compared to 8 grams in cow’s milk and 1 gram in almond milk). If you don’t do dairy, consider soymilk, which has 7 grams per cup.)

3. Stoke Your Oats with a Dose of Nut Butter

A grab-and-go breakfast like overnight oats is a great way to prime your body with vitamins, minerals, and some fiber-rich carbs. To get a headstart on healthy fats and protein, too, Brown recommends mixing in a serving of nut butter. In just 2 tablespoons, you’ll score 7 grams of protein, which can help supplement the 6 grams in your cup of oats.

4. Seed-ify Your Pancakes, Waffles, Muffins, or Quick Breads

If you’re looking to squeeze more protein into your breakfast of choice, know that it’s a great thing to be seedy. Our dietitians suggest adding a scoop of chia seeds, hemp seeds, or flaxseeds to batter for things like blueberry muffins or buttermilk pancakes to augment them with “protein, fiber, nutrients, antioxidants, and healthy fat that ups the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and boosts satiety, so you’ll feel fuller longer after eating,” Sass says. Try a 3-tablespoon scoop, Ehsani suggests, for 5.5 – 9.5 more grams of protein per batch.

5. Bulk up Any Salad with Beans

A salad is a gut-friendly , micronutrient-rich addition to your day, whether you savor it alongside a sandwich at lunch or love diving into a big bowl of greens as an entrée. You’re probably well aware that ordering or building your salad with something like grilled salmon, chicken, or shrimp on top will amplify the protein element, but Brown is also a fan of adding beans to the mix. Supplement your salad with ½ cup drained and rinsed beans or edamame, she suggests, and you’ll accrue 7 grams of protein and 8 grams of fiber from the plant-based protein source , “which has been shown to be protective against chronic disease,” Brown adds.

Viktoriya Skorikova / Moment via Getty Images

6. Use Greek Yogurt Instead of Sour Cream

Many sandwich spreads, salad dressings, and dips start with sour cream. For a similar consistency and more protein per serving, sub in Greek yogurt . “Plain Greek yogurt tastes the same as regular sour cream,” Brown says, and using it as a swap for something like the creamy base of chicken salad can boost your protein intake quickly. (For reference, a small container of nonfat Greek yogurt has about 16 grams of protein.)

7. Snack On a Zesty Cottage-Cheese Dip

While you’re in the dairy aisle, snag a carton of cottage cheese, which is a surprisingly impactful post-workout food thanks to its high protein-to-calorie ratio and its strong calcium content. If your sweat session wraps up between meals, Brown recommends blending together ½ cup of cottage cheese ( 12 grams of protein) with ¼ cup of salsa. Use veggie sticks to scoop it up. “This makes a great post-workout recovery snack while also boosting antioxidants,” Brown says.

8. Pack Smart ‘Emergency Snacks’

Snack time is a great opportunity to squeeze more protein into your diet. Consider stashing some “emergency snacks” in your bag, desk, or car so you always have a high-protein option on hand. Everything from jerky to a protein bar to a piece of fruit with a nut butter packet (a favorite of Ehsani’s) works great—and allows for a protein boost in a shelf-stable package. 

For anyone who struggles to snooze soundly, Sass awards bonus points to any snacks that include plant-based protein, such as a single-serving bag of pistachios, a handful of roasted chickpeas, or some dried edamame. “ Research shows that eating more plant protein is tied to better sleep quality,” she says.

9. Try Tahini Instead of Mayonnaise

The next time you’re tossing together a slaw or salad, or need a schmear for your sandwich, Sass suggests leaving the mayo on the shelf and reaching for tahini (aka sesame seed paste) instead. “Tahini is a rich, creamy, plant-based spread, dip, or dressing that provides protein, along with good fat and key minerals, like iron, zinc, and calcium,” Sass says. Just 2 tablespoons adds 5 grams of protein to your daily tally.

10. Increase the Protein On Pasta Night—No Extra Ingredients Required

Pasta can be a great base for extra vegetables and lean protein . Ehsani and Sass recommend setting the foundation for a well-balanced bowl by replacing regular pasta with noodles made with pulses, such as beans, lentils, peas, or chickpeas. 

“Pulses, which provide protein, fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, help regulate blood sugar and insulin levels and have been shown to reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes and heart disease and support a healthy gut microbiome,” Sass says. In lieu of approximately 7 grams of protein per cup of rotini, try pulse pasta for 12 grams per 2-ounce dry serving (about 1 cup cooked).

11. Create Easy Vegan ‘Cheesy’ Popcorn

Feeling peckish after dinner, or in the mood for a nosh as you watch TV in the evening? Air-popped popcorn is a high-fiber win , offering about 3 grams each of protein and fiber per 3-cup serving. For 5 grams of additional protein in a matter of a shake or two, toss your popcorn with 2 tablespoons of vegan-friendly nutritional yeast. “In addition to protein, nutritional yeast provides energy-supporting B vitamins, antioxidants, and a special type of fiber called beta-glucan that supports immune function,” Sass says.

MmeEmil / E+ via Getty Images

Anyone who moves more will always need more protein than they did at rest, and one of the best fixes for how to get more protein is adding more of the macro to your diet throughout the day, our experts agree. (The tips listed above can help with that!)

“ Most of the research indicates that our bodies best utilize protein for maintenance, healing, and repair when it’s spread out evenly throughout the day,” Sass says. “Plus, protein is satiating and delays stomach emptying, so it’s difficult for most people to eat large amounts of protein in one meal, meaning you might not hit your target if you try to squeeze more protein into fewer meals.”

Rather than only eating protein after a workout or attempting to “catch up” at dinner when you’ve fallen short, try to prioritize it at every meal and snack. When Ehsani’s clients ask about how to get more protein from morning to night, she recommends that they set a goal of a certain gram amount at every meal (say, 25 grams), and also suggests that they sneak in a couple high-protein snacks between breakfast, lunch, and dinner.

“Providing your body with a constant supply of protein is essential, as we don’t actually store protein in our body,” Ehsani explains. “We can store fat and carb reserves, but not protein.”

Related Articles

Should You Eat Protein Before or After a Workout?

Want to Eat More Protein? Don’t Sleep On These 10 High-Protein Snacks Loved by Dietitians

The 9 Best Plant-Based Protein Sources, According to Dietitians

How Much Protein Should You Eat to Gain Muscle?

The dietitians we spoke with agree that the National Academy of Medicine’s recommended dietary allowance of just 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day for adults (which works out to 54 grams for a 150-pound person) is essentially a baseline for normal function. If you’re active in any way beyond lying in bed, your cells will probably need more. 

The “ideal” amount of protein varies by age, sex, muscle mass, and how long and how hard you exercise, but “people who engage in aerobic or strength training exercise have higher protein needs than an inactive person to support healing and recovery from the ‘wear and tear’ exercise puts on the body,” Sass says. 

As such, the International Society of Sports Nutrition says that 1.4–2 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day should be enough for most active adults. (That works out to 95–136 grams for a 150-pound athlete.)

Want to get more specific? While Sass reminds us that protein targets should be personalized based on an individual’s needs and goals, she suggests the following daily quotas as a rough guide:

If you perform moderate aerobic exercise most days: 1.2–1.4 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight

If you do a mix of moderate aerobic exercise and strength training most days: 1.6–1.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight

If you do heavy strength training most days: 2.2 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight

Important to note: Some experts say that eating more than 2 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight could be considered excessive, so it’s not a bad idea to check in with a dietitian before amping up that high . “A registered dietitian nutritionist can help you figure out your exact needs based on your needs and goals,” Ehsani says.

After all of this discussion about how to get more protein—and why it matters—Sass clarifies that it shouldn’t overshadow other parts of your lifestyle. 

“Keep in mind that protein is only one piece of the puzzle when it comes to exercise recovery and muscle building,” she says. “Don’t forget to pay attention to the quality, balance, and adequacy of your overall diet, in addition to proper hydration , sleep, and other healthy lifestyle habits,” including full rest days and active recovery to allow those muscles time to heal and come back stronger.

This content is for informational and educational purposes only and does not constitute individualized advice. It is not intended to replace professional medical evaluation, diagnosis, or treatment. Seek the advice of your physician for questions you may have regarding your health or a medical condition. If you are having a medical emergency, call your physician or 911 immediately.

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Essay on Proteins: Top 8 Essays | Organic Compounds | Cells | Biology

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Here is an essay on ‘Proteins’ for class 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Proteins’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Proteins

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the Molecular Weights of Proteins

Essay # 1. Introduction to Proteins:

Proteins are essential constituents of protoplasm. They differ from carbohydrates and lipids by always con­taining nitrogen and sometimes phosphorus and sulphur. Proteins contain: carbon-54%; hydrogen-7%; nitrogen-16%; oxygen-22%. Some may contain, sulphur-1%; while others, phosphorus-0.6%.

Proteins are among the most abundant organic molecules; in most living systems they make up 50 percent or more of the dry weight. Only plants, with their high cellulose content, are less than half protein. The protein molecule is built up by the union of a large number of amino acids. The amino acids should be considered as the units with which the protein molecule is composed.

It is to be specially noted that the term protein is applied only to the complex protein molecule responding to the characteristic tests of protein, e.g., copper-protein (biuret) test, etc., due to the presence of two or more peptide linkages whereas amino acids do not respond to the characteristic tests of protein; hence they are called one of the non-protein nitrogenous (NPN) constituents.

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Essay # 2. Functional Importance of Proteins :

Protein has got multiple functions of which certain physiological importance’s are described below:

(a) Protein acts as a growth material for the organism,

(b) Structures of living materials are composed of different types of protein molecules,

(c) It also acts as a part of fuel of the organism,

(d) All the pituitary hormones, hypothalamic-releasing factors (R.F.), certain placental hormones, pancreatic hormones, etc., are proteins in nature,

(e) Similarly all enzymes are proteins in nature.

Essay # 3. Structure of Proteins :

Fibrous Proteins:

In general, fibrous proteins have a regular, repeated sequence of amino acids and so a regular, repetitious structure. An example is collagen, which makes up about one-third of all the protein in vertebrates. The basic collagen molecule is composed of three very long polymers of amino acids-about 1,000 amino acids per chain.

These three polymers, which are made up of repeating groups of amino acids, are held together by hydrogen bonds linking amino acids of different chains in a tight coil. The molecules can coil so tightly because every third amino acid is glycine, the smallest of the amino acids.

Collagen performs many functions in the body. Consider a cow. Tendons, which link muscle to bone, are made up of collagen fibers in parallel bundles; thus arranged, they are very strong but do not stretch. The cow’s hide, by contrast, is made up of collagen fibrils arranged in an interlacing network laid down in sheets.

Even its corneas-the transparent coverings of the eyeballs-are composed of collagen. Boiling in water disperses the polymers of collagen into shorter chains, which we know as gelatin. Other fibrous proteins include elastin, present in the elastic tissue of ligaments, silk, and keratin.

Structural Uses of Globular Proteins:

Some structural proteins are globular. For example, microtubules, which function in a variety of ways inside the cell, are made up of globular proteins. They are long hollow tubes-so long that their entire length can seldom be traced in a single microscopic section.

They apparently act as internal skeletons, stiffening parts of the cell body. They also may serve as tracks along which substances can move inside the cell.

The formation of a new cellulose cell wall in a plant can be predicted by the appearance at the site of large numbers of microtubules; when cellulose fibrils are being laid down outside a plant cell membrane, as a cell wall forms or grows, it is possible to detect microtubules inside the cell aligned in the same direction as the fibrils outside.

Chemical analysis shows that each microtubule consists of a very large number of subunits, each of which is a globular protein made up of two polypeptide chains. The two polypeptides fit together because of their complementary configurations, forming approximately spherical subunits.

For instance:

In this way infinite number of amino acids may join up in straight chains. This junction, CO-NH, through which the ami­no acids become joined together, is called the peptide linkage.

It is obvious that in such a simple chain there will be one free -NH 2 group at one end and another free -COOH group at the other. It sometimes so happens that such a straight chain bends upon itself and the basic radicle at one end combines with the acid radicle on the other by forming the same peptide linkage.

In this way a ring structure is produced. These compounds are called diketopiperazines. The following scheme – shows the formation of diketopiperazine by the condensation of two molecules of glycine.

Amino Acids :

The amino acid is an organic acid in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by -NH, group. Thus it contains at least a free amino group (-NH 2 ) and a carboxyl group (-COOH). The empirical formula is R-CH.NH 2 , COOH. Amino acids are amphoteric in reaction and form salts with both acids and bases.

The amino acids in the body are almost all a-amino acids. They should be regarded as derivatives of saturated fatty acids in which the amino group is attached to that carbon atom which is situated in the a-position, i.e. next to the COOH group. Amino acids are colurless, crystalline substances, soluble in water, easily diffusible and except glycine all are optically active.

Classification of Amino Acids :

Wrinch suggests that the glob­ular type of proteins are also formed in similar lines but vary in detail. She holds that in a folded polypeptide chain a linkage occurs between the NH of one peptide link with the CO of the neighbouring one. Thus a poly­peptide chain of this folded type may be closed into hexagonal loops. Six amino acids in a closed polypeptide chain would give a pattern in which the centre is a hexagon.

Such a molecule is called cyclol. A series of cyclols with 18, 30, 42, 54 etc., amino acids could be formed resulting in a sheet like molecule with repeating pattern. Extension of the sheet may occur in any plain and in this way globular types of protein molecules are formed.

Essay # 7. Post-Translational Processing of Proteins:

Post-translational modifications are the chemical modifications that most of the proteins which undergo before becoming functional in different body cells. It plays a crucial role in generating the heterogeneity in proteins and also helps in utilizing identical proteins for dif­ferent cellular functions in different cell types. The modifications occurring at the peptide terminus of the amino acid chain play an important role in translocating them across biologi­cal membranes. Translocated proteins carry an N-terminal extension of about twenty amino acids, termed a signal peptide; it binds to a receptor in the membrane as soon as it is synthe­sized and emerges from the ribosome.

The signal peptide is recognized by a multi-protein complex termed the signal recognition particle (SRP). This signal peptide is removed follow­ing passage through the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. These include secretory proteins in prokaryotes and eukaryotes and also proteins that are intended to be incorporated in vari­ous cellular and organelle membranes such as lysosomes, chloroplast, mitochondria and plasma membranes.

Sometimes in eukaryotes different types of functional proteins are pro­duced by proteolytic cleavage at multiple points in the protein chain, in which one gene codes for multiple products. The best studied example is the complex of polypeptide hor­mones produced by the pituitary gland.

The major post translational modifications are:

I. Proteolytic Cleavage:

Most proteins undergo proteolytic cleavage following translation. The simplest form of this is the removal of the initiation methionine. Many proteins are syn­thesized as inactive precursors that are activated under proper physiological conditions by limited proteolysis. Inactive precursor proteins that are activated by removal of polypeptides are termed proproteins. Certain proteins particularly of the enzyme class are synthesized as inactive precursors called zymogens. Zymogens are activated by proteolytic cleavage such as is the situation for several proteins of the blood clotting cascade.

The preproprotein insulin secreted from the pancreas has a prepeptide. After cleavage of the 24 amino acid signal peptide the protein folds into proinsulin, which is further cleaved yielding active insulin, composed of two peptide chains linked together through disulfide bonds.

II. Chemical Modification:

The chemical modification mainly includes methylation, sul­fation, phosphorylation, lipid addition, and glycosylation.

(a) Glycosylation:

Many proteins, particularly in eukaryotic cells, are modified by the addi­tion of carbohydrates, a process called glycosylation. Glycosylation in proteins results in addition of a glycosyl group to asparagine, hydroxylysine, serine, or threonine.

(b) Acylation:

Acylation involves of the addition of an acyl group, usually at the N-terminus of the protein. In most cases the initiator methionine is hydrolyzed and an acetyl group is added to the new N-terminal amino acid. Acetyl-CoA is the acetyl donor for these reactions.

(c) Methylation:

The most common methylations are on the s-amine of lysine residues, oc­curs on nitrogen and oxygen. The activated methyl donor is S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). Methylation of the oxygen of the R-group carboxylates of gutamate and aspartate also takes place and forms methyl esters. Proteins can also be methylated on the thiol R- group of cysteine. Methylation of histones in DNA is an important regulator of chromatin structure and consequently of transcriptional activity.

(d) Phosphorylation:

Post-translational phosphorylation occurs as a mechanism to regulate the biological activity of a protein in animal cells. In animal cells, serine, threonine and tyro­sine are the amino acids subject to phosphorylation. As an example, the activity of numerous growth factor receptors is controlled by tyrosine phosphorylation. Other relevant examples are the phosphorylations that occur in glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase in hepatocytes in response to glucagon release from the pancreas. Phosphorylation of synthase inhibits its activity, whereas, the activity of phosphorylase is increased. These two events lead to increased hepatic glucose delivery to the blood.

(e) Sulfation:

Sulfate modification of proteins occurs at tyrosine residues such as in fibrino­gen and in some secreted proteins (e.g.: gastrin). The universal sulfate donor is 3′- phosphoadenosyl-5′-phosphosulphate (PAPS). Since sulfate is added permanently it is neces­sary for the biological activity and not used as a regulatory modification like that of tyrosine phosphorylation.

(f) Vitamin C-Dependent Modifications:

Modifications of proteins that depend upon vita­min C as a cofactor include proline and lysine hydroxylations and carboxy terminal amidation. The hydroxylating enzymes are identified as prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase. The donor of the amide for C-terminal amidation is glycine. The most important hydroxylated proteins are the collagens. Several peptide hormones such as oxytocin and vasopressin have C-terminal amidation.

(g) Vitamin K-Dependent Modifications:

Vitamin K is a cofactor in the carboxylation of glutamic acid residues. The result of this type of reaction is the formation of a γ- carboxyglutamate (gamma-carboxyglutamate), referred to as a gla residue. The formation of gla residues within several proteins of the blood clotting cascade is critical for their normal function. The presence of gla residues allows the protein to chelate calcium ions and thereby render an altered conformation and, biological activity to the protein. The coumarin-based anticoagulants, warfarin and dicumarol function by inhibiting the carboxylation reaction.

(h) Selenoproteins:

Selenium is a trace element and is found as a component of several pro­karyotic and eukaryotic enzymes that are involved in redox reactions. The selenium in these selenoproteins is incorporated as a unique amino acid, selenocysteine, during translation. A particularly important eukaryotic selenoenzyme is glutathione peroxidase. This enzyme is required during the oxidation of glutathione by hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) and organic hydroperoxides.

Essay # 8. Molecular Weights of Proteins :

Protein molecules are large and have varying molecular weights. Their molecular weights cannot be determined by ordinary methods. The most important method for their determination is based upon the measurement of sedi­mentation rates in the ultracentrifuge. They can also be determined by osmotic pressure measurement, light scatter­ing, etc.

Molecular weights of some of the typical proteins from different sources are as follows: salmine (salmon sperm) – 5,600; cytochrome (heart) -156,000; lactalbumin (milk) -17,400; gliadin (wheat) – 27,400; pepsin (stomach) – 35,500; insulin (pancreas) – 40,900; haemoglobin (human) – 63,000; myogen (muscle) -150,000; thyroglobulin (thy­roid) – 628,000; myosin (muscle) -1,000,000; virus (tomato) – 7,600,000; mosaic virus (tobacco) – 60,000,000.

It has been shown by Svedberg that by a change in the protein concentration or in the pH or in the salt concentration of the medium, proteins in solution, may easily dissociated into smaller component units. If the original condition is resorted the fragments may re-associate and form the original molecule. This shows that proteins of higher molecular weights are built up by conglomeration of smaller units.

Virus Proteins :

These are nucleoproteins of special interest. Several varieties of virus proteins with very high molecular weights have been isolated in crystalline form, from the juice of plants suffering from virus diseases. The virus protein of tobacco mosaic disease has a molecular weight of about 60,000,000, an isoelectric point or pH 3.49 and contains about 5% nucleic acid. It is a highly interesting fact that even minute amount of pure recrystallised virus proteins induces the virus disease when injected into healthy plants.

One millionth of a milligram of tobacco mosaic protein invariably infects a healthy plant and from such infected plants large quantities of the same protein can be recovered. This astonishing property of the virus proteins, in directing the metabolism of the plant cells so that they synthesise more of the same protein, is unique in a chemical compound and is suggestive of the reproduction of a living organism rather than the elaboration of a non-living chemical mol­ecule. The evidence accumulated so far indicates that these giant molecules are purely of chemical nature although we have no absolute proof that they are dead.

Electrophoresis :

The property of migration of protein molecules in an electric field has been utilised by Tiselius for electrophoretic method for the separation of protein molecules. Protein solution in an alkaline buffer has maximum number of negative charges and so the pro­tein molecules move towards the positive pole. Different protein molecules, due to the presence of charged particles in different amounts, move towards the pole at different rates which can be optically measured.

This complicated procedure has been simpli­fied by application on paper. Here a strip of filter paper is moist­ened with suitable buffer and placed in between two glass plates The free ends of the paper dip into two small reservoirs of buffer solution, and either positive or negative electrode is placed in each of them. On passing electric current the protein molecules migrate towards the anode. After definite time interval, the paper is taken put and washed, and a suitable stain is applied to localise the presence of difference in protein molecules (Fig. 2.1).

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• Essay on Lipids: Top 5 Essays | Organic Compounds | Cells | Biology
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Effects of Protein Supplementation on Performance and Recovery in Resistance and Endurance Training

Harry p. cintineo.

1 Center for Health and Human Performance, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, United States

Michelle A. Arent

Jose antonio.

2 Department of Health and Human Performance, Nova Southeastern University, Davie, FL, United States

Shawn M. Arent

3 Department of Kinesiology and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, United States

There is robust evidence which shows that consuming protein pre- and/or post-workout induces a significant rise in muscle protein synthesis. It should be noted, however, that total daily caloric and protein intake over the long term play the most crucial dietary roles in facilitating adaptations to exercise. However, once these factors are accounted for, it appears that peri-exercise protein intake, particularly in the post-training period, plays a potentially useful role in terms of optimizing physical performance and positively influencing the subsequent recovery processes for both resistance training and endurance exercise. Factors that affect the utility of pre- or post-workout feeding include but are not necessarily limited to: training status (e.g., novice vs. advanced, or recreational vs. competitive athlete), duration of exercise, the number of training sessions per day, the number of competitive events per day, etc. From a purely pragmatic standpoint, consuming protein post-workout represents an opportunity to feed; this in turn contributes to one's total daily energy and protein intake. Furthermore, despite recent suggestions that one does not “need” to consume protein during the immediate (1 h or less) post-training time frame, it should be emphasized that consuming nothing offers no advantage and perhaps even a disadvantage. Thus, based on performance and recovery effects, it appears that the prudent approach would be to have athletes consume protein post-training and post-competition.

Introduction

Dietary protein plays a critical role in countless physiological processes in the body. The current Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for healthy individuals is 0.8 g/kg/day ( 1 ). It is increasingly evident, however, that protein intake of at least 1.4–1.6 g/kg/day ( 2 ) would be more appropriate for active individuals attempting to optimize training adaptations. In an effort to meet this threshold, protein supplements are often consumed. In 2015, protein powder sales were valued at 4.7 billion U.S. dollars and were second only to sport drinks in the sports nutrition market ( 3 ). The popularity of protein supplements is likely influenced by the claims of increased muscle mass, increased fat loss, improved performance, and improved markers of recovery.

To date several meta-analyses, reviews, and systematic reviews have attempted to quantify and clarify these claims, but with mixed results ( 2 , 4 – 7 ). However, these efforts are complicated by the fact that the populations studied included trained and untrained, healthy normal weight, overweight or obese individuals, as well as injured, movement impaired, and those with metabolic or other diseases states. Additionally, the emphasis of recent reviews has been largely on impacts on muscle protein synthesis (MPS), hypertrophy, and body composition, with most of the outcomes pertaining solely to resistance training ( 2 , 4 – 7 ). Performance and recovery effects have been given secondary consideration at best, and these are areas that would be of particular interest to most athletes or athletic individuals.

Furthermore, performance and recovery outcomes, as well as physiological adaptations, are unique to the modality of training primarily employed. Anaerobic training refers to short bouts of high intensity movements which are often interspersed with longer recovery periods between efforts, with two of the most popular applications being resistance training or interval training ( 8 ). On the other hand, aerobic or endurance training refers to exercise bouts that primarily rely on oxidative phosphorylation and can last from minutes to hours ( 9 ). This latter type of training has received almost no consideration in recent protein reviews. Whether engaging in resistance or endurance training, protein supplementation may have the potential to enhance or complement exercise-induced physiological responses. The purpose of this review is to examine these potential performance and recovery applications of protein supplementation for both resistance and endurance training, with emphasis placed on studies utilizing various “peri-exercise” supplementation protocols within ~60 min pre- or post-training in healthy, exercising individuals.

Protein supplementation and resistance training

A recent comprehensive review by Jager et al. ( 2 ) identified a number of key issues related to protein intake in healthy, exercising individuals. Of particular note, the importance of protein intake during and around a training session for recovery and performance appears to be dependent on total daily protein intake, as well as presence or absence of an energy deficit. While findings do support the effect of post-exercise protein intake on increases in fat free mass (FFM), individuals consuming adequate daily calories and a minimum daily protein intake of 1.6 g/kg may not see any added benefit of immediate post-training protein consumption on muscular strength ( 2 ). However, Morton et al. ( 7 ) suggested that the strength (and hypertrophy) effects of additional post-resistance training protein supplementation may be greater in those with previous resistance training experience and that the magnitude of this effect is somewhat mitigated with aging. Furthermore, it is important to note that resistance-trained individuals in a caloric deficit require significantly more protein to offset any potential loss of lean body mass, with optimal daily protein intake for these individuals potentially being in the range of 2.3–3.1 g/kg FFM ( 10 ). While this recommendation increases total caloric intake from protein, resulting in the necessity to decrease energy intake from fat and carbohydrate, protein appears to have unique characteristics, and overfeeding with protein has been shown to have no negative effects on body composition in trained individuals ( 11 ). Similarly, healthy, older adults also require a greater quantity of total daily protein (0.61 g/kg FFM) compared to their younger counterparts (0.25 g/kg FFM) ( 12 ). Additionally, as a percentage of total daily energy intake, older adults must increase the contribution from protein due to decreases in energy intake, as well as protein's ability to attenuate sarcopenia by increasing muscle hypertrophy, subsequently maintaining or increasing muscular strength and power ( 13 ).

It has previously been demonstrated that ingestion of milk-based protein following a damaging eccentric resistance protocol helps to attenuate the expected decrements in strength and repeated sprint ability from 24 to 72 h following the bout ( 14 – 16 ). Recently, a group of researchers found that whey protein can facilitate muscle recovery following an intense isotonic exercise bout as well and that it is more than just an issue of caloric replacement ( 17 ). They compared the effects of a whey protein supplement (25 g protein, 2.5 g fat, and 3 g CHO) to a calorie-equated carbohydrate drink (32.5 g CHO) in resistance-trained young men performing an acute, total body resistance training protocol, and assessed performance variables at 10- and 24-h post-exercise. A moderate beneficial effect on acute anaerobic power and strength was found in the group that consumed the protein supplement, suggesting that there may have been improvements in rate of recovery over those who consumed the carbohydrate drink ( 17 ). This is particularly notable given that the subjects were already habitually consuming 1.9 g/kg/d of protein and may hold particular relevance for athletes engaging in high-intensity, explosive sports.

It has been suggested that protein quality may have an effect on both acute and chronic adaptations to exercise ( 2 , 18 , 19 ). Protein quality is a measure of a given protein source's ability to provide adequate quantities of the essential amino acids required for protein synthesis ( 20 ). Additionally, leucine, a branched-chain amino acid (BCAA), has been shown to be a prerequisite stimulator of skeletal MPS, which is critical for both the recovery and adaptive processes following a training bout ( 21 ). Given some of the favorable outcomes seen with ingestion of certain complete proteins, particularly milk-based and, more specifically, whey proteins ( 2 ), questions have been raised about the possible application of other protein sources that may be lower in leucine content. Two recent investigations have studied the effects of the quality of a post-exercise protein source on performance and recovery ( 22 , 23 ). Each of these studies took a unique approach to determining the differences in physiological changes following exercise and protein supplementation. Fabre et al. ( 22 ) compared the effects of 20 g of whey protein, 10 g of whey protein plus 10 g of casein protein, and 4 g of whey protein plus 16 g of casein protein consumed post-exercise in 31 recreationally resistance-trained males. Following 9 weeks of resistance training 4 days per week, no differences in changes in body composition, muscular strength, or muscular endurance were found, suggesting all three protein supplements were equally effective. When comparing 16 g of beef protein, 18 g of whey protein, and a calorie-equated carbohydrate drink consumed post-resistance training 3 days per week for 8 weeks in 42 recreationally resistance-trained males, no differences in changes in body composition, muscle thickness, or performance variables were found ( 23 ). One limitation of each of these studies is that they failed to control for total daily energy and macronutrient intake; therefore, subjects may have already been consuming adequate total daily calories and protein so the additional protein, regardless of its source, failed to result in any additional improvements in performance or body composition.

While most protein supplement resistance training studies have used a “post-exercise” administration protocol, it is possible that timing effects extend to the entire peri-workout period. Schoenfeld et al. ( 24 ) examined the effects of consuming 25 g of hydrolyzed whey protein immediately prior to a resistance training session with a 3-h fast post-exercise vs. consuming the same quantity and source of protein immediately following the same training session after having fasted for 3 h in 21 resistance-trained males. All subjects were consuming a 500-kcal surplus and 1.8 g/kg of protein daily. No differences in changes in body composition or one-rep max back squat or bench press were found between the groups after the 8-week intervention. Along with the findings from other studies ( 22 , 23 , 25 ), these data support the idea that protein intake post-workout may not be critical as long as protein is consumed prior to training or total daily protein intake is adequate. However, this does not preclude the possibility that pre- and post-exercise supplementation would be even more beneficial depending on dose.

To interpret the disparate effects of protein supplementation on resistance training performance, a few issues should be taken into account. The training stimulus must be adequate to result in strength improvement, regardless of protein timing, total protein intake, or nutritional status. Protein supplementation by individuals participating in ineffective resistance training programs will be less impactful. The beginning training status of individuals also appears to play a significant a role in any potential benefit seen as a result of protein consumption on strength, hypertrophy, and body composition ( 7 ). While the main focus of this paper is the healthy, trained individual, it is worth noting that protein supplementation for novice individuals may not confer any additional benefit above and beyond that of the training intervention ( 5 ). However, as training status increases, so does the potential effect of protein supplementation for improving performance and recovery.

Alternatively, Reidy and Rasmussen ( 6 ) have proposed the existence of a “protein paradox” wherein well-trained individuals may require less dietary protein due to the increased efficiency of protein turnover in this population. However, it should be noted that this is speculative and has not been fully substantiated by the available research, particularly for performance-related outcomes. Even taking this into account, one factor that appears to be just as important as total daily protein intake in well-trained individuals is the utilization of a specific protein dosing strategy based on body weight or FFM. Additionally, Thomson et al. ( 12 ) showed that healthy, older adults may also benefit from a higher protein intake in addition to a protein dosing strategy to adequately stimulate MPS. Thus, the appropriate timing or pacing of protein intake throughout the day may optimize results from resistance training ( 26 ). While recent critical or meta-analytic reviews have argued that protein timing is inconsequential after accounting for total protein intake ( 6 , 27 ), there are two factors that must be taken into account when considering these conclusions. First, very few “timing” studies have actually been conducted. In most cases, the studies were not designed to compare time of administration, but rather type or quantity of nutrient (or placebo) ingested post-exercise. Second, only a few of the included studies used trained subjects. Most employed novice exercisers. One of the studies that has found a benefit of protein timing ( 28 ) was conducted in experienced resistance-trained males. Again, this may lend credence to the notion that training status matters when considering protein supplementation strategies. Additionally, it should be noted that strength improvements not reaching statistical significance may prove to be significant in areas of individual competition or performance. Very few studies have actually utilized highly trained individuals or athletes, so translating the current findings to this population should be done with caution. Finally, it is worth noting that several studies have shown the addition of carbohydrate and creatine monohydrate to a protein supplement, typically whey protein, results in greater strength and hypertrophy improvements from resistance training programs ( 26 ). Though a detailed discussion of these other macronutrients is beyond the scope of this review, these results do point to an overall “nutrient” impact as well as possible synergistic effects.

Perhaps a driving factor in performance (i.e., strength or power) improvements with peri-workout protein supplementation could be enhanced recovery, which would potentially translate to enhanced capacity for an increased training load stimulus. Recovery from exercise has been measured through many different methods in previous research. Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), which is defined as an aching pain in a given muscle following a novel exercise bout, has been measured subjectively ( 29 ). Though the cause of DOMS is multifaceted and tied to a cascade of events linked to muscle damage, it is not necessarily an indicator of the magnitude of muscle damage and, therefore, cannot be used by itself to determine muscular recovery and adaptations from exercise ( 29 ). Specific biomarkers and MPS rates appear to be the most efficient and widely used methods of objectively determining muscle breakdown, recovery, and adaptation from exercise. Acute elevations of cortisol and creatine kinase (CK) are two biological indicators of muscle damage and the subsequent recovery processes that can be measured through blood sample analysis ( 30 , 31 ). Post-exercise muscle biopsies can be used to determine rates of MPS, which directly measure the magnitude of the recovery process immediately following exercise ( 32 ).

West et al. ( 17 ) measured recovery variables following a total-body resistance training session and found that those subjects who consumed a whey protein supplement (25 g protein, 2.5 g fat, and 3 g CHO) had lower rates of whole body protein breakdown, while those who consumed a carbohydrate supplement (32.5 g CHO) actually had higher rates of whole body protein synthesis. The protein group, however, appeared to improve whole body net protein balance over 24 h post-exercise. As noted previously, the subjects were already consuming 1.9 g/kg/d protein, so additional protein through supplementation may have been less impactful. Interestingly, there was no difference between total body net protein balance between the groups. It should be noted that whole body protein synthesis is not necessarily a reflection of skeletal muscle protein synthesis ( 33 ). Kim et al. ( 33 ) discovered that net protein (whole body) balance was superior with a 70 vs. 40 g dose consumed prior to a resistance-training protocol. However, no differences were found in muscle protein synthesis between the 40 and 70 g dose. Thus, one must not conflate measures of whole body protein metabolism with those of skeletal muscle.

Nevertheless, the recovery of muscle function has been demonstrated in other studies ( 15 , 16 ) of milk protein supplementation after eccentric exercise, perhaps due to myofibrillar protein remodeling. The results of these studies further support the idea that protein consumed post-exercise is crucial for maximizing rates of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle. The effect on total body protein balance, however, is still a bit unclear. Carbohydrates have been shown to have a protein sparing effect, therefore the combination of protein and carbohydrate to decrease rates of muscle protein breakdown (MPB) and increase rates of MPS may be the best strategy for shifting total body protein balance to the net anabolic side ( 34 ), even if carbohydrate itself does not necessarily enhance MPS ( 35 , 36 ). This may partially explain the benefits of the milk supplement used by Cockburn et al. ( 15 ) and Cockburn and Stevenson ( 16 ) as it also contained carbohydrate. Perhaps there is a synergistic effect.

In addition to the investigations discussed earlier regarding post-exercise protein quality and training adaptations, Burd et al. ( 25 ) also measured markers of recovery through protein synthesis. The researchers collected muscle biopsies and measured rates of MPS following resistance training. In the 0–2 h post-exercise window, the group that consumed 30 g of protein in the form of skim milk expressed higher rates of MPS than the group that consumed 30 g of protein from beef ( 25 ). However, rates of MPS in the 2–5 h post-exercise window did not differ. This may be explained by the rate of digestion and absorption of these protein sources. Protein from dairy, specifically the whey portion, appears to be absorbed faster, and elicit a faster MPS response than beef.

The difference between whole egg and protein-equated egg white consumption post-exercise was also studied recently ( 37 ). The researchers measured rates of MPS through muscle biopsies and found that the group that consumed the whole egg exhibited higher rates of MPS. One limitation to this study was the lack of control for total calories and macronutrients. The whole egg treatment consisted of 18 g of protein, 17 g of fat, and 223 kcal, while the egg white treatment consistent of 18 g of protein, 0 g of fat, and only 73 kcal ( 37 ). While the discrepancy in calories between treatment groups may have impacted total daily calories, thus impacting MPS, one cannot ignore the possibility of the role that differences in macronutrients may play.

Lastly, a 2017 investigation looked at the differences between protein-equated native whey protein, whey protein concentrate, and milk ( 38 ). Native whey protein is produced through the filtration of raw milk, while whey protein concentrate is a byproduct of cheese production. Native whey protein consists of undenatured proteins and has a higher leucine content ( 38 ). Each treatment consisted of ~20 g of protein, ~6 g of fat, and ~40 g of carbohydrates but contained 2.7, 2.2, and 2.0 g of leucine, respectively. The supplements were ingested immediately after and again 2 h post-exercise following a moderate intensity lower body resistance training session. Results showed higher blood amino acids concentrations in native whey and whey protein concentrate than in milk. MPS was elevated in the whey protein condition from 1 to 3 h post, while it was elevated 1–5 h post in the native whey condition. There was no difference in MPS 1–5-h post-workout between native whey and whey protein concentrate, though MPS was higher from 1 to 5 h post-workout in the native whey condition compared to milk ( 38 ). Collectively, these data support that whey protein, regardless of its levels of processing (i.e., native whey protein vs. whey protein concentrate), increase MPS by similar magnitudes that are greater than those of milk alone. How this translates to long-term differences remains to be determined.

Protein supplementation and endurance training

While the majority of the literature regarding the effects of protein intake on performance has focused on anaerobic activities, more recent work has examined its role on endurance activities, but this has mostly been absent from the most recent reviews. Similar to resistance training, the impact appears to be at least somewhat dependent on the presence or absence of other nutrients, particularly carbohydrate. A 2010 systematic review and meta-analysis compared 11 studies investigating the effects of consumption of protein and carbohydrate vs. consumption of carbohydrate alone during a bout of cycling on performance during a subsequent bout of cycling ( 39 ). Across the 11 studies, consumption of protein and carbohydrate resulted in an average improvement of 9% in performance (defined as time to exhaustion and time trial performance) compared to consumption of carbohydrate alone ( 39 ). To investigate if the increased caloric intake due to inclusion of protein was responsible for this improved performance, a further analysis of isocarbohydrate and isocaloric conditions was performed. Examination of isocarbohydrate conditions yielded a 10.5% improvement in overall performance, while isocaloric conditions resulted in 3.4% improvement ( 39 ), suggesting that the improvements due to protein inclusion were not simply due to increased calories. When considering only those studies measuring performance by time trial (3), improvements were not statistically significant. However, studies utilizing time to exhaustion protocols (8) did result in statistically significant improvements. It is worth noting that in all studies showing statistically significant improvement, whey protein was the source of protein utilized, though differences between concentrate vs. isolate were not quantified. Again, it is prudent to highlight that performance improvements not reaching statistical significance may have clinical or practical relevance, specifically for athletes. For example, a 1% improvement in performance would have been the difference in winning the Gold Medal instead of the Silver Medal in the men's marathon in the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio. Therefore, even seemingly “trivial” differences do indeed have a significant effect on performance and outcomes at the elite level.

When discussing the impact of protein on performance, it is imperative to include the impact that protein may have on glycogen replenishment and subsequent exercise performance. Standard discussions of glycogen replenishment focus solely on carbohydrate consumption. Recommendations for adequate post-exercise carbohydrate consumption are to consume 0.6–1.0 g/kg carbohydrate within 30 min of cessation of exercise and again every 2 h for the next 4–6 h ( 40 , 41 ). Carbohydrate consumption of 1.2 g/kg every 30 min over 3.5 h also resulted in maximal glycogen replenishment ( 41 , 42 ). In cases of suboptimal post-exercise carbohydrate consumption, the addition of protein can improve glycogen replenishment and decrease symptoms of muscle damage ( 43 ). Practical applications of standard post-exercise carbohydrate consumption recommendations may be limited in real world situations. Moreover, athletes training multiple times daily may have fewer opportunities to consume recovery meals or have an elevated need for “rapid” recovery, including rehydration, to facilitate the subsequent training session. Beyond just glycogen replenishment aspects, it has also been shown that the presence of protein in rehydration beverages can enhance intestinal fluid uptake, aiding in rehydration ( 44 ) and that BCAA consumption during endurance exercise may improve time trial performance and peak power output while improving markers of immune health ( 45 ) and attenuate serotonin levels, subsequently resulting in a delay of central fatigue ( 46 ).

A systematic review by Pasiakos et al. ( 5 ) investigated the relationship between protein, muscle function, and recovery. The authors included studies that measured markers of muscle damage followed by a test of physical performance or muscle function. Populations of the review included healthy individuals with daily dietary protein intake at or above the current RDA of 0.8 g/kg per day. While some of the endurance exercise studies included showed decreases in markers of muscle damage, such as CK, or decreases in muscle soreness in groups consuming protein after initial exercise bout ( 47 – 49 ), many did not ( 50 – 52 ). This may have resulted from the inclusion of studies utilizing both trained and untrained subjects, as well as individuals consuming suboptimal daily protein intakes. Despite the reduced plasma CK levels and muscle soreness, consumption of protein did not result in improvements in subsequent performance measures when repeat performance was tested < 24 h following the initial bout. This evidence suggests that plasma CK levels, perceived level of muscle soreness, and muscle function may only be modestly related or perhaps utilizing a single method of measure paints an inadequate picture of recovery due to individual variability ( 5 ). Without additional studies to clarify these relationships, developing guidelines based on these markers as representing recovery may be ill-advised. Individuals must be cautious when attempting to measure recovery from exercise based on these metrics alone. For example, a recent study of 20 high-level soccer players tested the effects of a milk protein concentrate supplement (80% casein and 20% whey) compared to an isocaloric carbohydrate-containing placebo on high intensity running performance, knee extensor and flexor strength, and antioxidative capacity over the course of a 1-week in-season microcycle consisting of two games separated by 2 days ( 53 ). On game days (days 1 and 4), the supplement was consumed immediately post-, 3 h post-, and 6 h post-match in three different doses of 25, 30, and 25 g, respectively, resulting in a total of 80 g. On training days (days 2, 3, 5, and 6), 20 g of the supplement was consumed with breakfast. High intensity running performance, measured as distance covered at speeds >19 km/h, was greater during the last 15 min of game two following protein supplementation. Additionally, knee extensor concentric strength recovered quicker after the first game following protein supplementation. Endogenous antioxidant concentrations were greater following game two only in the protein-supplemented condition. Though soccer is a “power-endurance” sport rather than simply an endurance sport, these findings hold relevance for understanding the impact of protein intake on recovery and repeated performance in actual athletes.

Since 2014, additional work investigating the impact of protein consumption on biochemical markers of metabolic status, physiological fatigue, and recovery in endurance-trained athletes has been performed ( 54 ). For 5 weeks, elite or experienced marathon runners received either 33.5 g/day of whey protein or maltodextrin 30 min following the completion of each training session leading up to a race covering marathon distance. Blood samples were collected to assess biochemical markers of metabolism, muscle damage, and fatigue and took place prior to beginning the intervention, 1 day following the marathon, and 1 week following the marathon. These markers included CK, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), AST, and ALT. Runners who supplemented with whey protein displayed decreased AST and ALT compared to maltodextrin-supplemented runners. CK and LDH, biochemical indicators of muscle damage, were significantly greater in the maltodextrin group post-marathon compared to the whey protein-supplemented group. Elevations in CK and LDH were still significant 1-week post-marathon in the maltodextrin group compared to the whey protein group ( 54 ). The whey protein group also showed significantly decreased triglycerides (TG) and total cholesterol (TC) compared to the maltodextrin group post-marathon. The maltodextrin group actually showed increased TC levels. Only the whey protein group showed significant decreases in LDL post-marathon and at 1 week post-marathon ( 54 ). The authors suggested that the decrease in TC seen in whey-supplemented runners may indicate that cholesterol was more efficiently converted to steroid hormones, resulting in improved physiological recovery and adaptations from the strenuous exercise bout. One week post-marathon, most biomarkers of damage and stress were still significantly lower in the whey protein group compared to the maltodextrin group ( 54 ). In addition to the more favorable biomarker profiles in the protein supplemented group, performance in the 12-min run/walk test was also greater in the whey protein-supplemented group 1-week post-marathon. Together, these results indicate that whey protein supplementation during marathon preparation and recovery, and that the supplement aids in attenuating metabolic and muscular damage. Daily dietary assessments were not included in this study ( 54 ), thus limiting possible practical applications or recommendations. As we have addressed previously, caloric deficit or daily protein consumption <1.4–1.6 g/kg may potentiate the effect of peri-workout protein consumption on recovery and subsequent performance. Further studies are necessary to elucidate the potential contribution of peri-workout whey protein ingestion on makers of muscle damage, recovery, and subsequent performance measures in endurance athletes.

In real-world sport performance situations, recovery and performance must be evaluated in the context of an accumulated effect. The ability to train consistently while remaining healthy is critical for continued progression and optimal performance. Endurance athletes in particular are at increased risk for upper respiratory tract infections ( 55 ). Factors contributing to this increased risk may include reduced immune function through low circulation of certain T-lymphocytes, especially during periods of increased volume and/or intensity of training. A diet providing a daily protein intake of 3 g/kg, including 60 g/day of casein protein, has been shown to be sufficient in returning circulating immune cell levels to those seen during lighter training periods, while a diet providing a daily protein intake 1.5 g/kg did not result in enhanced immune cell levels ( 56 , 57 ). Kephart et al. ( 45 ) have also found this beneficial effect on the immune system to extend to BCAA supplementation in doses of 12 g/d in trained cyclists.

Additionally, Rowlands et al. ( 58 ) found that consumption of ~64 g protein over 3 h following intense endurance exercise resulted in gene expression favorable for improving substrate, specifically fatty acid, mobilization and mitochondrial proteins for oxidation, especially in the electron transport chain. Post-exercise consumption of protein at levels thought to maximally stimulate MPS would potentially not have this same impact. Post-exercise protein consumption affects other systems and pathways and should not be considered only in terms of stimulating MPS. As further evidence of this notion, Levenhagen et al. ( 59 ) demonstrated that 10 g of casein protein enhanced MPS following 60 min of moderate intensity endurance exercise. Although this supplementation protocol stimulated MPS, subjects were found to be in negative whole-body protein balance. Because prolonged bouts of endurance exercise (i.e., >2 h) result in considerable oxidation of amino acids, specifically leucine, and intense or prolonged bouts of endurance exercise result in hypoxia-mediated small intestinal injury, negative whole-body protein balance may be common in endurance athletes ( 60 – 62 ). Because of this, protein requirements and recommendations for endurance athletes must consider more than MPS, especially since short-term increases in MPS do not fully explain the dynamics of long-term whole-body net protein balance and various training adaptations.

Conclusions and future direction

Overall, total daily energy and protein intake over the long term play the most crucial dietary roles in facilitating adaptations to exercise. However, once these factors are accounted for, it appears that peri-exercise protein intake plays a potentially useful role in optimizing physical performance and positively influencing the subsequent recovery processes. Challenges surround the definition of “performance” and the appropriate metrics by which to measure it based on desired outcomes. Difficulties also arise in attempting to define and quantify the concept of recovery. Additionally, both performance and recovery must be viewed in context depending on whether the emphasis is an immediate, short-term effect (i.e., 24 h or less) or a long-term training response.

It should also be noted that protein timing, whether it is pre-, during, or post-workout, is often framed within the context of bodybuilding (i.e., the singular goal of increasing skeletal muscle mass). It is evident that to use such a narrow frame of reference ignores the potential utility of protein timing within the context of endurance events (i.e., running, cycling, rowing, swimming, triathlon, etc.), as well as the vast majority of individual and team sports in which skeletal muscle hypertrophy is not a pre-eminent concern. For instance, if one competes in a weight-class sport (e.g., boxing, mixed martial arts, weightlifting, powerlifting, etc.), gains in body weight or lean body mass are often avoided; otherwise, the individual athlete would need to compete in a heavier weight class. In these situations, protein timing in particular may serve a useful role in recovery.

Translating research into practical application requires differentiation between novice or trained individuals, healthy normal weight or healthy overweight individuals, special populations, or those with certain metabolic or disease states. Here, we specifically focus on healthy, exercising individuals and limit our conclusions to these individuals. It is important moving forward that the study populations used are appropriate for the goals of the study and desired applications. For example, it is of little use to have a sample of recreationally-trained individuals if the goal is to understand performance in high-level athletes.

Though protein-containing meals result in increase of MPS on their own, as does resistance training, the timing of ingestion of protein around exercise further enhances this increase of MPS ( 63 , 64 ). It is worth noting that an upper limit for this acute dosing has not really been established, though there is evidence that 40 g of protein stimulates MPS to a greater degree than 20 g following whole-body resistance training ( 65 ). A dose higher than this, however, has not been included using the same timing paradigm. In reality, the “ideal” amount of peri-exercise protein consumption depends on many factors, including total caloric intake, total daily protein intake, training status of the individual, age of the individual, FFM, type of protein consumed, type and amount of other nutrients consumed, and the composition and timing of the most recent pre-training meal.

Much attention has been given to daily protein consumption and thresholds that must be met for peri-training protein consumption to exert additional benefit (>1.6–2.2 g/kg/d). As such, pre-, intra-, and post-training nutrient consumption present additional opportunities for athletes to contribute to their daily protein intake total and can be viewed in the context of ways to meet these “larger” daily needs by optimizing intake.

With regard to endurance exercise, protein consumption during exercise may not confer an immediate ergogenic benefit, especially when carbohydrate consumption is adequate. It may, however, aid in delaying central fatigue, reducing MPB, and contributing to a more positive, whole-body nitrogen balance. Additionally, protein consumption in and around intense or prolonged endurance activity may aid in reduction of upper respiratory tract infection incidence and improved immune system function. It may also aid in upregulating gene expression of proteins necessary for improving bioenergetic pathways. The impact of this on subsequent training sessions should not be dismissed and is an important part of improving performance.

The effect of protein consumption on resistance training is highly dependent on many variables not related to protein. The combination of peri-training protein consumption with inadequate or ineffective resistance training protocols will not maximize improvements in strength or hypertrophy. Resistance training protocol interventions must be of adequate intensity, volume, and frequency with an emphasis on progressive overload to produce results. Additionally, adequate training interventions coupled with calorie-restricted nutrition protocols may require increased protein intake of 2.3–3.1 g/kg FFM to yield desired improvements in strength, hypertrophy, or maintenance of FFM ( 10 ). Consideration must also be made for the age of resistance-trained individuals, as older adults require protein intake over and above that of their younger counterparts to receive the same benefits noted above ( 66 ).

In order to fully understand the role of protein (or any substrate for that matter) on performance, the practical application beyond the contrived training or recovery interventions presented must be addressed. Daily training schedules of athletes require an ongoing ability to recover and perform. As an example, most of the studies included in this area utilized a training protocol that took ~3–4 h per week, typically in moderately-trained individuals. For comparative purposes, a competitive athlete may spend 3–10 times this amount of time training per week (if not more). For this reason, the “window” for recovery should be considered to encompass each and every hour between training and competition. Protein dosing strategies need to take this into account. This becomes even more apparent when considering that the uniform distribution of protein throughout the day results in greater MPS than an uneven distribution even when total daily protein intake is equal ( 67 ). Arciero et al. ( 64 ) demonstrated the combination of resistance training and consumption of 4–6 meals per day containing 20–40 g of protein per meal resulted in positive changes in body composition and physical performance. These results suggest that the pattern of daily protein ingestion may also impact results from resistance training protocols and provides further evidence that we must look beyond the few hours following training to determine the impact that protein may have on performance and recovery. Further evidence in support of extending the “recovery window” concept are results from nighttime protein ingestion studies. Madzima et al. ( 68 ) found that consumption of 30 g of casein, 30 g of whey, or 33 g of carbohydrate 30 min prior to sleep resulted in increased resting energy expenditure and improved VO 2 the following morning. While no statistically significant changes were observed between groups, protein groups trended toward greater increases when compared to the carbohydrate group while morning fat oxidation was greatest in the casein supplemented group.

Taken together, these data demonstrate the need for a more comprehensive view and methods of measuring recovery. Increased sensitization of muscle to protein and nutrients for 24–72 h following training coupled with multiple weekly training sessions results in an on-going state of recovery. Because of this, we need to begin considering this longer stimulus window as an opportunity to maximize feeding, rather than as a reason why immediate post-workout ingestion may not be particularly important. In other words, consuming nothing post-workout would be an unwise strategy if the goal is to potentially optimize the adaptive response to exercise training.

Overall, there appears to be no adaptive advantage to avoiding protein intake in the peri-workout period. Stimulation of MPS in the acute period following training may not result in improvements in strength, hypertrophy, body composition, or performance without deliberate implementation of additional strategies during the prolonged recovery period. As such, this much broader view should be considered with regard to future investigations.

Author contributions

JA and SA conceived the topic. HC, MA, JA, and SA wrote the paper.

Conflict of interest statement

SA is on the Advisory Panel for Dymatize. JA is the CEO of the International Society of Sports Nutrition—an academic non-profit that receives grants in part from companies that sell dietary protein.

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The reviewer CK declared a past co-authorship with several of the authors SA and JA to the handling Editor.

Healthy, high-protein pizza recipe contains secret ingredient and people are obsessed

A TikToker has shared a recipe for a 640 calorie, 12-inch pizza that contains 56g of protein – and it's all thanks to an unusual ingredient that's a popular substitute in the healthy eating world

• 13:39, 19 SEP 2024

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Fancy a pizza but on a diet? Turns out you can still enjoy your favourite treat even while on a health journey.

TikTok user @thezachrocheleau has revealed a pizza recipe with a surprising ingredient that will leave you both baffled and intrigued. This "homemade pizza" packs 56g of protein, and the entire thing contains just 640 calories despite being 12 inches in diameter. It's the perfect pizza for a cosy date night at home, a dinner party with friends, or a solo movie night on the sofa.

To whip up this delicious pizza, you'll need to create the dough from 150g 2% cottage cheese (yes, you read that correctly!) and 75g egg white, then blend them until smooth.

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Next, "take a big bowl", add 70g self-raising flour, 12g coconut flour, 5g nutritional yeast, and garlic powder, which he encourages you not to be "shy" with. Then "mix to avoid clumping."

Combine the blended cottage cheese and egg mixture with the dry ingredients and "mix until a wet dough."

You'll then need to spread the mixture onto a piece of parchment paper on a baking tray, shaping it from the inside out to form a pizza crust that's "at least 12 inches."

Finally, pop it into the oven at 220 degrees, and bake for 8-10 minutes, or "until golden".

You must then gently remove it from the parchment paper and spread 90g of pizza sauce over the base. After that, sprinkle 56g of part-skim mozzarella, give the crust a light spritz of olive oil spray, and a dusting of garlic powder, before returning it to the oven until the toppings turn "golden".

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