research topics on secondary sources

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In the social sciences, a secondary source is usually a scholar book, journal article, or digital or print document that was created by someone who did not directly experience or participate in the events or conditions under investigation. Secondary sources are not evidence per se, but rather, provide an interpretation, analysis, or commentary derived from the content of primary source materials and/or other secondary sources.

Value of Secondary Sources

To do research, you must cite research. Primary sources do not represent research per se, but only the artifacts from which most research is derived. Therefore, the majority of sources in a literature review are secondary sources that present research findings, analysis, and the evaluation of other researcher's works.

Reviewing secondary source material can be of valu e in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known about a topic. This literature also helps you understand the level of uncertainty about what is currently known and what additional information is needed from further research. It is important to note, however, that secondary sources are not the subject of your analysis. Instead, they represent various opinions, interpretations, and arguments about the research problem you are investigating--opinions, interpretations, and arguments with which you may either agree or disagree with as part of your own analysis of the literature.

Examples of secondary sources you could review as part of your overall study include:     * Bibliographies [also considered tertiary]     * Biographical works     * Books, other than fiction and autobiography     * Commentaries, criticisms     * Dictionaries, Encyclopedias [also considered tertiary]     * Histories     * Journal articles [depending on the discipline, they can be primary]     * Magazine and newspaper articles [this distinction varies by discipline]     * Textbooks [also considered tertiary]     * Web site [also considered primary]

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Primary Sources: A Research Guide

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Primary Sources

Texts of laws and other original documents.

Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did.

Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or wrote.

Original research.

Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic statistics.

Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event.

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include:

Most books about a topic.

Analysis or interpretation of data.

Scholarly or other articles about a topic, especially by people not directly involved.

Documentaries (though they often include photos or video portions that can be considered primary sources).

When is a Primary Source a Secondary Source?

Whether something is a primary or secondary source often depends upon the topic and its use.

A biology textbook would be considered a secondary source if in the field of biology, since it describes and interprets the science but makes no original contribution to it.

On the other hand, if the topic is science education and the history of textbooks, textbooks could be used a primary sources to look at how they have changed over time.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Adapted from Bowling Green State University, Library User Education, Primary vs. Secondary Sources .

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Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources

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What are secondary sources?

Secondary sources depend upon primary sources. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. The important thing to keep in mind when trying to decide if a source is primary or secondary is whether or not the author did the thing they are reporting on. If they did, it is a primary source; if they did not, it is a secondary source.

What is the role of secondary sources in research?

Secondary sources represent the scholarly conversation that has taken place, or is currently taking place, on a given topic. Thus, it is imperative that researchers acquire a comprehensive knowledge of the secondary literature on their topic to be able to then engage with it and offer their own perspective through their writing. Scholars show their deep knowledge of their topic by demonstrating in their writing their awareness of secondary literature. Research that does not include substantial references to both primary and secondary sources is not likely to be authoritative or reliable. For that reason, looking at the listed references in a piece of research can help you determine its value.

What are some examples of secondary sources?

Like primary sources, secondary sources can be lots of different kinds of resources depending on discipline and application. Secondary sources can be:

• Journal articles
• Monographs (books written on a single subject)
• Newspaper or magazine articles
• Book or movie reviews 

In the sciences, secondary sources tend to be things like literature reviews (synthesized descriptions of previous scholarship on a topic), systematic reviews (overviews of primary sources on a topic), or meta analyses (studies in which conclusions are drawn from consideration of systematic reviews).

In the humanities, secondary sources tend to be journal articles that discuss or evaluate someone else's research, monographs, or reviews. 

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Secondary Sources in Research

Other Academics' Observations on Primary Sources

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In contrast to primary sources in  research  activities, secondary sources consist of information that has been gathered and often interpreted by other researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications. 

In her "Handbook of Research Methods , "  Natalie L. Sproull points out that secondary sources "are not necessarily worse than primary sources and can be quite valuable. A secondary source may include more information about more aspects of the event than did a primary source ."

Most often though, secondary sources act as a way to keep up with or discuss progress in a field of study, wherein a writer may use another's observations on a topic to summarize his or her own viewpoints on the matter to progress the discourse further.

The Difference Between Primary and Secondary Data

In the hierarchy of the relevance of the evidence to an argument, primary sources like original documents and first-hand accounts of events provide the strongest support to any given claim. By contrast, secondary sources provide a type of back-up to their primary counterparts.

To help explain this difference, Ruth Finnegan distinguishes primary sources as forming the "basic and original material for providing the researcher's raw evidence" in her 2006 article "Using Documents." Secondary sources, while still highly useful, are written by someone else after an event or about a document and can therefore only serve the purpose of furthering an argument if the source has credibility in the field.

Some, therefore, argue that secondary data is neither better nor worse than primary sources—it's simply different. Scot Ober discusses this concept in "Fundamentals of Contemporary Business Communication," saying "the source of the data is not as important as its quality and its relevance for your particular purpose."

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

Secondary sources also provide advantages unique from primary sources, but Ober posits that the major ones are economic saying that "using secondary data is less costly and time-consuming than collecting primary data."

Still, secondary sources can also provide hindsight to historical events, providing the context and missing pieces of narratives by relating each event to others happening nearby at the same time. In terms of evaluations of documents and texts, secondary sources offer unique perspectives like historians have on the impact of bills such as the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution.

However, Ober warns researchers that secondary sources also come with their fair share of disadvantages including quality and scarcity of sufficient secondary data, going so far as to say "never use any data before you have evaluated its appropriateness for the intended purpose."

A researcher must, therefore, vet the qualifications of the secondary source as it relates to the topic—for instance, a plumber writing an article about grammar may not be the most credible resource, whereas an English teacher would be more qualified to comment on the subject.

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Library Research for Undergraduate History Students: An Introduction

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What are Secondary Sources?

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Secondary sources   are the published work of scholars specializing in the topic. Secondary sources include scholarly books, articles, and essays (both analyses by contemporary scholars as well as older analyses), surveys, criticism, comparative studies, reference sources, and works on theory and methodology; this is also termed the secondary literature . Eventually you will need to decide which interpretation makes the most sense to you and seems consistent with your primary sources, or if you wish to offer a new interpretation. 

When we talk about secondary sources, most of the time we are referring to published scholarship on a subject, rather than supplemental material (bibliographies, encyclopedias, handbooks, etc.). Secondary literature is published in both book form and as articles in periodicals, either in print or digital format. (Digital format includes both reproduction of print material online and original e-text.) This scholarship is analytical and interpretive. It may synthesize the work of other historians to present a totally new interpretation. More likely, it offers a new reading of previously analyzed sources or presents an analysis of previously unknown sources.

Hence, you use secondary sources to identify the main currents of thought on your topic . Which historians have taken up this topic and what were their main arguments? How has our understanding of the subject changed with shifts in the predominant methodologies and theoretical perspectives in the historical profession?

To identify secondary literature, you can search the  online library catalog  to find books or search  article databases and online bibliographies  to find journal articles, book chapters, dissertations and more. Some useful article databases for history are:

• L'Année philologique This link opens in a new window Online searchable database comprised of the print index begun in 1928 by Jules Marouzeau. Vols. 20- of the original print index are currently, with earler vols. to be digitized in the future. Indexes periodical articles as well as articles in collections and conference papers in classics and classical studies. Covers Greek and Latin linguistics and literature and Greek and Roman archaeology, history, mythology, religion, epigraphy, numismatics and palaeography: all aspects of the ancient Mediterranean world.
• Brepolis Medieval and Early Modern Bibliographies This link opens in a new window The Brepolis Medieval and Early Modern Bibliographies are multidisciplinary bibliographies of Europe, North Africa and the Near East (300-1500), founded in 1967 with the aim of providing a comprehensive, current bibliography of articles in journals and miscellany volumes (conference proceedings, essay collections or Festschriften) worldwide. The bibliographies comprise 365,000 articles, all of which are fully classified by date, subject and location, and provide full bibliographical records.
• Historical Abstracts with Full Text This link opens in a new window Covers the history of the world (excluding the United States and Canada) from 1450 to the present, including world history, military history, women's history, history of education, and more. Provides indexing of more than 1,700 academic historical journals in over 40 languages back to 1955. Use Historical Abstracts with Full Text in the NEW EBSCO user interface . more... less... Alternate Access Link

Index of literature covering the history and culture of the United States and Canada, from prehistory to the present. The database indexes journals from 1964 to present and includes citations and links to book and media reviews.  

Alternate Access Link

• Hispanic American Periodicals Index (HAPI) This link opens in a new window Contains citations to articles in more than 400 scholarly journals published in Latin America or treating Latin American and U.S. Hispanic topics.
• Bibliography of Asian Studies This link opens in a new window This on-line version of the Bibliography of Asian Studies (BAS) contains 787,165 records on all subjects (especially in the humanities and the social sciences) pertaining to East, Southeast, and South Asia published worldwide from 1971 to the present... In addition to entries compiled since 1997, the online BAS includes the full data of all of the printed volumes of the BAS issued from the 1971 up to the 1991 volumes (published in 1997)... Through the 1991 printed volume, the BAS included citations to Western-language periodical articles, monographs, chapters in edited volumes, conference proceedings, anthologies, and Festschriften, etc. Monographs published since 1992, however, have not been added to the database, and users seeking such monographs are urged to consult other general resources and databases such as WorldCat.. Use Bibliography of Asian Studies in the NEW EBSCO user interface . more... less... Alternate Access Link

Covers North American scholarship on East-Central Europe, Russia, and the former Soviet Union. Contains bibliographic records for journal articles, books and book chapters, book reviews, dissertations, online resources, and selected government publications.  

Additional suggestions can be found in the research guides created for history classes and special topics .

You can also consult book-length bibliographies , either general overviews such as the American Historical Association Guide to Historical Literature, or specialized bibliographies such as  The Harvard Guide to African-American History .

You can use the article databases listed above to look for review essays (also called review articles ) in which a historian who specializes in the subject analyzes recent scholarship; you may find helpful overviews that appear as chapters in collections, journal articles, or even monographs by using the keyword historiography or historiographic ; you can read about the topic in a subject encyclopedia and look at the bibliography at the end of the entry; and you can find a major work of scholarship on the topic and follow up on the sources used by the author ( footnote tracking ).

Most of the time you will find the secondary literature you need by using the online catalog, the appropriate article databases, subject encyclopedias or bibliographies, and by consulting your instructor.

Most academic research today is at least somewhat interdisciplinary . For historians, theories and methods are sometimes borrowed from other disciplines such as philosophy, literary criticism, and anthropology.

Furthermore, the publications compiled in the service of other disciplines very often serve as valuable source material for historians .

Check these links for helpful introductions to research resources for related disciplines:

African American Research Center

Online Resources for Religious Studies

Philosophy Library Resource Guide

Social Sciences, Health, and Education Library (SSHEL) :

• American Indian Studies
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Primary vs Secondary Sources

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Using Primary Sources

Finding primary sources, evaluating primary sources, video tutorials, image credits.

• Evaluating Sources
• Citations and Plagiarism

Types of Sources: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

This page covers:.

• Identifying Primary vs Secondary Sources

Common Examples of Primary Sources in Academic Subjects

• Understanding Why We Use Primary Sources

What's the point?

Primary sources are an important tool in the research process. However, to use these sources correctly you'll need to be able to identify, find, and evaluate these sources. Using primary sources can help you create original and creative research.

Navigating this page:

• This page is designed with multiple learning pathways. The same information is covered in each pathway, so simply choose whichever fits your learning style best. You can explore the information two ways:
• Text : Read about the information with accompanying screenshot images from the database.
• Watch : Watch a video about the information in the Video Tutorials box at the bottom of the page.

What are Primary Sources?

"Primary sources are materials in a variety of formats, created at the time under study, that serve as original evidence documenting a time period, event, people, idea, or work."  ( Guidelines for Primary Source Literacy.  2018).

Primary sources can include (but are not limited to):

• material artifacts (maps, artwork, archaeological finds, clothing...)
• newspapers and magazines from the time of an event
• audio/visual materials (films, audio recordings, photographs)
• records and statistics (opinion polls, census data, government records, laws...)
• born digital items (emails, chat transcripts, digital photographs...)
• quantitative data (tests, surveys, scientific studies…)

What are Secondary Sources?

Secondary sources are materials that offer a commentary, description, criticism, evaluation, or analysis of a primary or other secondary source. 

Secondary sources can include (but are not limited to):

• reference works
• most scholarly books
• most scholarly journal articles

It is common to associate the idea of using primary sources only with research in the humanities. However, primary sources exist in all academic fields and you will likely utilize them regardless of your academic major. Understanding the common types of secondary and primary sources in your field, will also help you understand the differences between these types of sources.

Can a Source be Both a Primary and Secondary Source? 

Yes. While I provided common examples of primary and secondary sources above, it is more complicated then that. Determining if something is a primary or secondary source will depend upon its original context and your research needs.

This is a complicated concept and it might help to think of it this way. There are ways to categorize sources that depend entirely on  what  the source is: is a it a book? Or a magazine? Or a peer reviewed journal? Or an encyclopedia? Or a web page? This is not how you categorize primary and secondary sources.  Whether a source is a primary or secondary source relies entirely on how you plan to use or what you need from the source. Check out the examples below.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

• Secondary source, if the researcher used the textbook to look up a fact or date about U.S. history.
• Primary source, if the researcher was studying Critical Race Theory and wanted to see how the U.S. was teaching the civil rights movement in the 1990s.
• Secondary source, if the researcher wanted the facts or a summary of the speech, in contrast the transcript or a video of the speech would be the primary source of the speech.
• Primary source, if the researcher wanted public or media reactions to the speech  or  if the original speech has been lost and the newspaper article is the only evidence left of the original speech.

Why Use a Primary Source?

Secondary sources are amazing tools that synthesize existing research and scholarship on a topic. So why bother going to a primary source directly? What can they offer that a secondary source cannot?

Original Research : When you read a secondary source analyzing or interpreting a primary source, you are getting one scholar's perspective (both academically and personally) and analysis of a primary source. If you depend upon a secondary source, you are depending upon the assumption that scholars reading of a primary source matches your perspective, experience, and interest. And this is rarely, if ever, the case. If you go directly to a primary source, you may be the first person to look at it from your background or perspective. What do you think you'll find that others have ignored?

Uncovering Hidden Voices : Often scholars will approach a primary source with a specific research need and when they publish their findings, some voices in the primary source will be left out of their findings. Whose voices could have been ignored by other scholars in your field? Approaching a primary source without an established research goal is sometimes the best way to uncover people or ideas that have forgotten or ignored.

Empathy : Secondary sources, no matter how much they quote, will always remove you from a firsthand account of an event or experience. Your reaction and understanding from an era or event will change depending upon how you learn about it. The emotional connection to an event after reading a history textbook on World War II is not comparable to the connection you'll form after reading The Diary of Anne Frank . This idea also combines view of listening to Own Voices accounts. When learning about a topic, it is often the best policy to hear about the event from someone who experienced it.

Any source can be a primary source, it depends on how you plan to use it in your research. As such, how you search for a primary source will depend on your research topic and what type of source you are working with. Below you'll find on how to find primary sources in the library catalog, archival databases, and Google.

Library Catalog and Databases

There are four main ways to search the library catalog and databases for primary sources.

• Library Catalog Search : Sometimes, if you know exactly what you are looking for, you can find a primary source with a basic book search in the library catalog. For example, you can find Mary Shelley's  Frankenstein  or Frederick Douglass'  Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave  by using the basic search bar in our library catalog for the author and title.

• Go to the  library's advanced search screen.
• On the first line, input these search terms: "Civil War" AND "United States" AND women
• On the second line, input the text: documents OR voices OR narratives
• Click Search and review the search results. While not all of the results will be primary sources, many are.

• On the first line, input these search terms: "Civil War" AND "United States" AND women.
• On the second line, change the "field" drop down menu to "Subject" and insert the text: sources.
• While not all of the results will be primary sources, many are.
• Searching Primary Source Databases : There are also databases that specialize in primary source material that you can search and browse. You can find these databases on the  Databases A-Z page , and then use the Database Type drop-down menu at the top of the page to limit the databases to only primary source databases. Or, you may try limiting the results to only image databases or historical newspaper databases, it depends on what you are looking for. However, remember that any source can be a primary source so this may narrow your search too much and many databases include items that are both primary and secondary sources. So always take a few moment to identify and evaluate the source you are using. 

Citation Mining

Citation mining is a great way to find additional primary and secondary sources on a topic. A credible secondary source will base their research on both primary and secondary sources. So if you find a great secondary source on a topic, look at who the author cites, identify which the primary sources might be useful to you, and then find and evaluate those primary source yourself.

Don't simply copy/paste another author's references into your own work. You'll need to find and evaluate the primary source on your own because the other researcher might have been using the source in a different way then you, missed something, made a mistake, or left something out that will be critical to your research. 

Using Google to Locate Primary Sources and Archival Collections

The Internet can be an excellent place to find primary sources because millions of historical documents have been digitized over the years and are often available to you for free online. However,  when searching the internet it is critical that you get your materials from credible and trusted sources , preferably from a library, museum, or government archive. If you aren't sure if a source is credible, ask a librarian.

Here are a few online search strategies that will help you find credible primary sources online:

• Sometimes there are entire webpages dedicated to collecting primary sources on a specific topic and/or person. LibGuides are what librarians call their research guides. So this search term, along with an accompanying .edu domain will usually indicate that a webpage is from a larger academic website and institution.
• Example: check out this research guide from Christopher Newport University's library website of primary sources on  Civil Rights in the United States . 
• Digital archives are usually digitized documents from museums, libraries, and archival institutions. However, remember that anyone can post anything online, so double check that whoever is posting the digitized materials is a credible source. If you aren't sure if a source is credible, ask a librarian.
• Example:  Calisphere  is an amazing database that compiles the digitized archives of museums, universities, and libraries from all of California.
• Domain Searching: At the end of a webpage's URL is a domain identifier, such as .com or .edu or .gov or .org. In your search results, it's a good idea to lean toward documents that are posted on educational websites ( .edu ) and government websites ( .gov ). However, this is not a perfect method for evaluating website. People often trust .org domains; however, anyone can purchase this domain, it does not signal any type of credibility or authority. Additionally, many museum and archives are valuable sources but will have a .com domain. When in doubt, ask a librarian.

Evaluating a Primary Source

It is a common misconception that we use primary sources so that researchers can go directly to the "truth" or "fact". Yes, primary sources are created at the same time as an event. However, all people have biases and agendas and are capable of misinformation. As primary sources are created by people (and people have chosen and selected which primary sources and voices have survived to today), assume that all sources have some inherent bias or agenda. The goal as a researcher is to investigate what that is, how it affects your research, and decide if and why you should use it.

5 Steps for Evaluating Primary Sources

Here are five key steps on how to evaluate a primary source. These are not all-encompassing and will change depending upon your research needs and the type of source, but they are a good place to start. The critical component in evaluation is to first answer the question and then to next follow up each question with, "what does that tell me?" or "why is this important?"

1. First Impressions

• Identify the type of primary source. (what is it? a letter, memo, speech, advertisement...)
• Before reading the primary source’s content: how can you describe it? (is it typed or handwritten, are there other marks like postage or office stamps, how many types of handwriting, is it edited, was it published, seals…)
• This gives you a wider picture of the item before looking at the details. What do the above questions tell you about your source?

2. Observe (who, where, when)

• Who created the primary source? (author, secretary, do they have a title?)
• Who was the source's intended audience? (scholars, shoppers, sailors, public, aristocracy...)
• Where was the source created?
• When was the source created?

3. Analyze (what)

• What is the source discussing?
• Summarize the contents. (briefly, 2-3 sentences)

4. Interpret (why and how)

• What is the creator’s purpose or motivation? (agenda)
• What is the creator’s point of view? (bias, perspective, opinion)
• Sources are not created in a bubble and they will be directly or indirectly affected by events surrounding them.
• What is not said is often more important (and more interesting) than what is said. It reveals a lot about a place, time, event, and people. This is where you learn about assumed knowledge or social norms for the creator or audience of the source.
• Do you have any questions or comments after reviewing the source?
• What sparked your interest, surprised you, or confused you?
• This is the fun part! Take your interest and use it to craft your research question.

If you'd like examples and more information on how to evaluate a primary source, check out the video tab below. The video "How to Analyse a Historical Source" provides a slightly different method on how to analyze a primary source and can be helpful if you'd like another explanation for this critical skill.

You will eventually be told to include both primary and secondary sources in your research. But what are primary and secondary sources? Watch the two videos below to understand the differences between these sources, examples of how you'd use these sources in your research, an explanation of how a source can be both primary and secondary, and why to use primary sources in your research. 

Video: Understanding Primary and Secondary Sources

Watch this 2:45 video to learn about the differences between primary and secondary sources.

Video Credit: “Understanding Primary & Secondary Sources” by Imagine Easy Solutions .

Video: Primary vs. Secondary Sources: The Differences Explained

Watch this 4:12 video for additional explanations on the differences between primary and secondary sources as well as additional examples of how to use primary and secondary sources.

Video Credit: “Primary vs. Secondary Sources: The Differences Explained” by Scribbr . 

As discussed above, any source can be a primary source, it depends on how you plan to use it in your research. As such, how you search for a primary source will depend on your research topic and what type of source you are working with. Below you'll find a few strategies on how to find primary sources.

Finding Primary Sources Online

The Internet can also be an excellent place to find primary sources because millions of historical documents have been digitized over the years and often available to your for free. However,  when searching the internet it is critical that you get your sources from credible and trusted sources , preferably another library or archival museum. If you aren't sure if a source is credible, ask a librarian.

Watch this 4:03 video to learn how to use Google searches to find digitized historical documents online.

Video Credit: "Tips for Finding Primary Sources Online" by  Mary and Jeff Bell Library

Finding Primary Sources with Citation Mining 

Watch this 9:00 video to learn how to use the citation mining to find primary sources. Note that this video uses screen capture on searching the library catalog and interlibrary loan for Eastern Kentucky University Libraries. Our library catalog looks different but you can follow the steps in the video and use the skills you've learned elsewhere in this module to adapt the videos demonstrations to Broome Library's catalog.

Video Credit: "Citation Mining Techniques: Tracking Down Accessible Primary Sources" by  Eastern Kentucky University Libraries

Finding Primary Sources in the Library Catalog and Databases

Watch this 3:17 video uses screen capture of searching the WorldCat database through Eastern Kentucky University Libraries.  WorldCat  is a great database that searches libraries all over the world (including ours) and provides a quick link to borrow an item found in the database that we don't have. Our WorldCat database looks different but you can follow the steps in the video and use the skills you've learned elsewhere in this module to adapt the videos demonstrations. Additionally, while this video shows how to search for PS in WorldCat, these tips can be transferred to other library databases and the  main library catalog .

Video Credit: "Finding Primary Sources using WorldCat Discovery" by  Eastern Kentucky University Libraries

It is a common misconception that we use primary sources so that researchers can go directly to the "truth" or "fact". Yes, primary sources are created at the same time as an event. However, all people have biases and agendas and are capable of misinformation. As primary sources are created by people (and people have chosen and selected which primary sources and voices have survived to today), you must assume that all sources have some inherent bias or agenda. The goal as a researcher is to investigate what that is, how it affects your research, and decide if and why you should use it.

Watch this 6:22 video to learn how to evaluate a primary source.

Video Credit: "How to Analyse a Historical Source" by  History Skills

If you'd like examples and more information on how to evaluate a primary source, check out the text box above. There you'll find 5 Tips on how to evaluate a primary source. which is a slightly different method on how to analyze a primary source and can be helpful if you'd like another explanation for this critical skill.

• Advertisement for Cocaine Toothache Drops (1885). Retrieved from ArtStor,  https://library.artstor.org/#/asset/28556929 .
• Bauer, Susan Wise.  The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome . New York: W.W. Norton, 2007.
• Goetz, Stewart, and Charles Taliaferro.  The Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Religion . New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2021.
• Gores and Los Angeles Women's University Club. Los Angeles as it appeared in 1871. (1929). Retrieved from the Library of Congress,  https://www.loc.gov/item/75690623.
• Martino, Andy.  Cheated: The Inside Story of the Astros Scandal and a Colorful History of Sign Stealing . New York: Doubleday, 2021.
• Miller, Kenneth R, and Joseph S Levine.  Miller & Levine Biology . Boston, Mass: Pearson, 2010.
• Page from Frida Kahlo’s diary (1950). Retrieved from ArtStor,  https://library.artstor.org/asset/ASCHALKWIJKIG_10313991599 .
• The World Encyclopedia . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
• Three Members of the St. Louis NAACP Holding Protest Signs (c. 1942-1950). Retrieved from ArtStor,  https://library.artstor.org/#/asset/LOCEON_1039799159 .
• Wine Cup for the Passover Meal (18th century). Retrieved from ArtStor,  https://library.artstor.org/#/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822003086293.
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• Last Updated: Aug 21, 2024 8:55 PM
• URL: https://libguides.csuci.edu/research

University Library

Types of Sources and Where to Find Them: Secondary Sources

This is the second video in a two-part tutorial on primary and secondary sources. Historians and other scholars classify sources as primary or secondary. Whereas primary sources are considered the raw material of the historical record, and are usually created around the same time as the events they purport to document, secondary sources are further removed from these historical events or circumstances. Typically, secondary sources offer an interpretation of the past based on analysis and synthesis of primary sources.

Examples of secondary sources include:

• surveys of broad historical periods,
• works that focus on specific events or topics,
• literary and cultural criticism,
• and works on theory and methodology.

Secondary sources can be found in books, journals, or Internet resources.

When we talk about secondary sources, most of the time we are referring to the published scholarship on a subject, rather than supplementary material like bibliographies, encyclopedias, handbooks, and so forth. These supplementary materials are sometimes referred to as tertiary sources.

A secondary source is analytical and interpretive. It may offer a new reading of historical events and primary sources that have been analyzed before, or present an analysis of events and sources that were previously unknown or not written about. A secondary source might also synthesize the work of other historians in order to formulate a totally new interpretation. You will use secondary sources to identify the main currents of thought on your topic, and to answer questions, like:

• Which historians have taken up this topic?
• What were their main arguments?
• How have historians’ understanding of the topic changed over time?

To identify secondary literature, you can do subject searches in the library catalog to find books, or subject searches in article databases to find articles. The most important databases for finding peer-reviewed articles by historians are: America: History and Life, which covers the history of North America and Historical Abstracts, which covers the rest of the world since 1450. You can also consult standard published bibliographies, like the American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature, or specialized bibliographies, like this bibliography of medieval warfare. You may find more lengthy treatments of the topic published as book chapters, journal articles, or even as individual monographs. You can read about the topic in a subject encyclopedia and look at the bibliography at the end of the entry. You can find a major work of scholarship on the topic, and follow up on the sources used by the author.

Most of the time you will find the secondary literature you need by using

• the library catalog,
• the appropriate article databases,
• subject encyclopedias,
• bibliographies,
• and by consulting with your instructor.

Remember to keep track of all the sources you’ve used. At some point, you’ll want to list them in a bibliography of your own.

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• Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips

Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips

Published on May 19, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Throughout the research process , you’ll likely use various types of sources . The source types commonly used in academic writing include:

Academic journals

• Encyclopedias

Table of contents

Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of sources.

Academic journals are the most up-to-date sources in academia. They’re typically published multiple times a year and contain cutting-edge research. Consult academic journals to find the most current debates and research topics in your field.

There are many kinds of journal articles, including:

• Original research articles: These publish original data ( primary sources )
• Theoretical articles: These contribute to the theoretical foundations of a field.
• Review articles: These summarize the current state of the field.

Credible journals use peer review . This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published. Journal articles include a full bibliography and use scholarly or technical language.

Academic journals are usually published online, and sometimes also in print. Consult your institution’s library to find out what academic journals they provide access to.

  Learn how to cite a journal article

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Academic books are great sources to use when you need in-depth information on your research or dissertation topic .

They’re typically written by experts and provide an extensive overview and analysis of a specific topic. They can be written by a single author or by multiple authors contributing individual chapters (often overseen by a general editor).

Books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses are typically considered trustworthy sources. Academic books usually include a full bibliography and use scholarly or technical language. Books written for more general audiences are less relevant in an academic context.

Books can be accessed online or in print. Your institution’s library will likely contain access to a wide selection of each.

Learn how to cite a book

Websites are great sources for preliminary research and can help you to learn more about a topic you’re new to.

However, they are not always credible sources . Many websites don’t provide the author’s name, so it can be hard to tell if they’re an expert. Websites often don’t cite their sources, and they typically don’t subject their content to peer review.

For these reasons, you should carefully consider whether any web sources you use are appropriate to cite or not. Some websites are more credible than others. Look for DOIs or trusted domain extensions:

• URLs that end with .edu are specifically educational resources.
• URLs that end with .gov are government-related

Both of these are typically considered trustworthy.

Learn how to cite a website

Newspapers can be valuable sources, providing insights on current or past events and trends.

However, news articles are not always reliable and may be written from a biased perspective or with the intention of promoting a political agenda. News articles usually do not cite their sources and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience.

Nevertheless, newspapers can help when you need information on recent topics or events that have not been the subject of in-depth academic study. Archives of older newspapers can also be useful sources for historical research.

Newspapers are published in both digital and print form. Consult your institution’s library to find out what newspaper archives they provide access to.

Learn how to cite a newspaper article

Encyclopedias are reference works that contain summaries or overviews of topics rather than original insights. These overviews are presented in alphabetical order.

Although they’re often written by experts, encyclopedia entries are not typically attributed to a single author and don’t provide the specialized knowledge expected of scholarly sources. As a result, they’re best used as sources of background information at the beginning of your research. You can then expand your knowledge by consulting more academic sources.

Encyclopedias can be general or subject-specific:

• General encyclopedias contain entries on diverse topics.
• Subject encyclopedias focus on a particular field and contain entries specific to that field (e.g., Western philosophy or molecular biology).

They can be found online (including crowdsourced encyclopedias like Wikipedia) or in print form.

Learn how to cite Wikipedia

Every source you use will be either a:

• Primary source : The source provides direct evidence about your topic (e.g., a news article).
• Secondary source : The source provides an interpretation or commentary on primary sources (e.g., a journal article).
• Tertiary source : The source summarizes or consolidates primary and secondary sources but does not provide additional analysis or insights (e.g., an encyclopedia).

Tertiary sources are often used for broad overviews at the beginning of a research project. Further along, you might look for primary and secondary sources that you can use to help formulate your position.

How each source is categorized depends on the topic of research and how you use the source.

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

There are many types of sources commonly used in research. These include:

• Journal articles

You’ll likely use a variety of these sources throughout the research process , and the kinds of sources you use will depend on your research topic and goals.

Scholarly sources are written by experts in their field and are typically subjected to peer review . They are intended for a scholarly audience, include a full bibliography, and use scholarly or technical language. For these reasons, they are typically considered credible sources .

Popular sources like magazines and news articles are typically written by journalists. These types of sources usually don’t include a bibliography and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience. They are not always reliable and may be written from a biased or uninformed perspective, but they can still be cited in some contexts.

In academic writing, the sources you cite should be credible and scholarly. Some of the main types of sources used are:

• Academic journals: These are the most up-to-date sources in academia. They are published more frequently than books and provide cutting-edge research.
• Books: These are great sources to use, as they are typically written by experts and provide an extensive overview and analysis of a specific topic.

It is important to find credible sources and use those that you can be sure are sufficiently scholarly .

• Consult your institute’s library to find out what books, journals, research databases, and other types of sources they provide access to.
• Look for books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses, as these are typically considered trustworthy sources.
• Look for journals that use a peer review process. This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published.

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Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved September 2, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/types-of-sources/

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15 Secondary Research Examples

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

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This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

Secondary research is the analysis, summary or synthesis of already existing published research. Instead of collecting original data, as in primary research , secondary research involves data or the results of data analyses already collected.

It is generally published in books, handbooks, textbooks, articles, encyclopedias, websites, magazines, literature reviews and meta-analyses. These are usually referred to as secondary sources .

Secondary research is a good place to start when wanting to acquire a broad view of a research area. It is usually easier to understand and may not require advanced training in research design and statistics.

Secondary Research Examples

1. literature review.

A literature review summarizes, reviews, and critiques the existing published literature on a topic.

Literature reviews are considered secondary research because it is a collection and analysis of the existing literature rather than generating new data for the study.

They hold value for academic studies because they enable us to take stock of the existing knowledge in a field, evaluate it, and identify flaws or gaps in the existing literature. As a result, they’re almost universally used by academics prior to conducting primary research.

Example 1: Workplace stress in nursing: a literature review

Citation: McVicar, A. (2003). Workplace stress in nursing: a literature review.  Journal of advanced nursing ,  44 (6), 633-642. Source: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0309-2402.2003.02853.x

Summary: This study conducted a systematic analysis of literature on the causes of stress for nurses in the workplace. The study explored the literature published between 2000 and 2014. The authors found that the literature identifies several main causes of stress for nurses: professional relationships with doctors and staff, communication difficulties with patients and their families, the stress of emergency cases, overwork, lack of staff, and lack of support from the institutions. They conclude that understanding these stress factors can help improve the healthcare system and make it better for both nurses and patients.

Example 2: The impact of shiftwork on health: a literature review

Citation: Matheson, A., O’Brien, L., & Reid, J. A. (2014). The impact of shiftwork on health: a literature review.  Journal of Clinical Nursing ,  23 (23-24), 3309-3320. Source: https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.12524

In this literature review, 118 studies were analyzed to examine the impact of shift work on nurses’ health. The findings were organized into three main themes: physical health, psychosocial health, and sleep. The majority of shift work research has primarily focused on these themes, but there is a lack of studies that explore the personal experiences of shift workers and how they navigate the effects of shift work on their daily lives. Consequently, it remains challenging to determine how individuals manage their shift work schedules. They found that, while shift work is an inevitable aspect of the nursing profession, there is limited research specifically targeting nurses and the implications for their self-care.

Example 3: Social media and entrepreneurship research: A literature review

Citation: Olanrewaju, A. S. T., Hossain, M. A., Whiteside, N., & Mercieca, P. (2020). Social media and entrepreneurship research: A literature review.  International Journal of Information Management ,  50 , 90-110. Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2019.05.011

In this literature review, 118 studies were analyzed to examine the impact of shift work on nurses’ health. The findings were organized into three main themes: physical health, social health , and sleep. The majority of shift work research has primarily focused on these themes, but there is a lack of studies that explore the personal experiences of shift workers and how they navigate the effects of shift work on their daily lives. Consequently, it remains challenging to determine how individuals manage their shift work schedules. They found that, while shift work is an inevitable aspect of the nursing profession, there is limited research specifically targeting nurses and the implications for their self-care.

Example 4: Adoption of electric vehicle: A literature review and prospects for sustainability

Citation: Kumar, R. R., & Alok, K. (2020). Adoption of electric vehicle: A literature review and prospects for sustainability.  Journal of Cleaner Production ,  253 , 119911. Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119911

This study is a literature review that aims to synthesize and integrate findings from existing research on electric vehicles. By reviewing 239 articles from top journals, the study identifies key factors that influence electric vehicle adoption. Themes identified included: availability of charging infrastructure and total cost of ownership. The authors propose that this analysis can provide valuable insights for future improvements in electric mobility.

Example 5: Towards an understanding of social media use in the classroom: a literature review

Citation: Van Den Beemt, A., Thurlings, M., & Willems, M. (2020). Towards an understanding of social media use in the classroom: a literature review.  Technology, Pedagogy and Education ,  29 (1), 35-55. Source: https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2019.1695657

This study examines how social media can be used in education and the challenges teachers face in balancing its potential benefits with potential distractions. The review analyzes 271 research papers. They find that ambiguous results and poor study quality plague the literature. However, they identify several factors affecting the success of social media in the classroom, including: school culture, attitudes towards social media, and learning goals. The study’s value is that it organizes findings from a large corpus of existing research to help understand the topic more comprehensively.

2. Meta-Analyses

Meta-analyses are similar to literature reviews, but are at a larger scale and tend to involve the quantitative synthesis of data from multiple studies to identify trends and derive estimates of overall effect sizes.

For example, while a literature review might be a qualitative assessment of trends in the literature, a meta analysis would be a quantitative assessment, using statistical methods, of studies that meet specific inclusion criteria that can be directly compared and contrasted.

Often, meta-analysis aim to identify whether the existing data can provide an authoritative account for a hypothesis and whether it’s confirmed across the body of literature.

Example 6: Cholesterol and Alzheimer’s Disease Risk: A Meta-Meta-Analysis

Citation: Sáiz-Vazquez, O., Puente-Martínez, A., Ubillos-Landa, S., Pacheco-Bonrostro, J., & Santabárbara, J. (2020). Cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease risk: a meta-meta-analysis.  Brain sciences ,  10 (6), 386. Source: https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10060386

This study examines the relationship between cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Researchers conducted a systematic search of meta-analyses and reviewed several databases, collecting 100 primary studies and five meta-analyses to analyze the connection between cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease. They find that the literature compellingly demonstrates that low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels significantly influence the development of Alzheimer’s disease, but high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), total cholesterol (TC), and triglycerides (TG) levels do not show significant effects. This is an example of secondary research because it compiles and analyzes data from multiple existing studies and meta-analyses rather than collecting new, original data.

Example 7: The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research

Citation: Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K., & Hattie, J. (2020). The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research.  Frontiers in Psychology ,  10 , 3087. Source: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03087

This meta-analysis examines 435 empirical studies research on the effects of feedback on student learning. They use a random-effects model to ascertain whether there is a clear effect size across the literature. The authors find that feedback tends to impact cognitive and motor skill outcomes but has less of an effect on motivational and behavioral outcomes. A key (albeit somewhat obvious) finding was that the manner in which the feedback is provided is a key factor in whether the feedback is effective.

Example 8: How Much Does Education Improve Intelligence? A Meta-Analysis

Citation: Ritchie, S. J., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2018). How much does education improve intelligence? A meta-analysis.  Psychological science ,  29 (8), 1358-1369. Source: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618774253

This study investigates the relationship between years of education and intelligence test scores. The researchers analyzed three types of quasiexperimental studies involving over 600,000 participants to understand if longer education increases intelligence or if more intelligent students simply complete more education. They found that an additional year of education consistently increased cognitive abilities by 1 to 5 IQ points across all broad categories of cognitive ability. The effects persisted throughout the participants’ lives, suggesting that education is an effective way to raise intelligence. This study is an example of secondary research because it compiles and analyzes data from multiple existing studies rather than gathering new, original data.

Example 9: A meta-analysis of factors related to recycling

Citation: Geiger, J. L., Steg, L., Van Der Werff, E., & Ünal, A. B. (2019). A meta-analysis of factors related to recycling.  Journal of environmental psychology ,  64 , 78-97. Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.05.004

This study aims to identify key factors influencing recycling behavior across different studies. The researchers conducted a random-effects meta-analysis on 91 studies focusing on individual and household recycling. They found that both individual factors (such as recycling self-identity and personal norms) and contextual factors (like having a bin at home and owning a house) impacted recycling behavior. The analysis also revealed that individual and contextual factors better predicted the intention to recycle rather than the actual recycling behavior. The study offers theoretical and practical implications and suggests that future research should examine the effects of contextual factors and the interplay between individual and contextual factors.

Example 10: Stress management interventions for police officers and recruits

Citation: Patterson, G. T., Chung, I. W., & Swan, P. W. (2014). Stress management interventions for police officers and recruits: A meta-analysis.  Journal of experimental criminology ,  10 , 487-513. Source: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9214-7

The meta-analysis systematically reviews randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies that explore the effects of stress management interventions on outcomes among police officers. It looked at 12 primary studies published between 1984 and 2008. Across the studies, there were a total of 906 participants. Interestingly, it found that the interventions were not effective. Here, we can see how secondary research is valuable sometimes for showing there is no clear trend or consensus in existing literature. The conclusions suggest a need for further research to develop and implement more effective interventions addressing specific stressors and using randomized controlled trials.

3. Textbooks

Academic textbooks tend not to present new research. Rather, they present key academic information in ways that are accessible to university students and academics.

As a result, we can consider textbooks to be secondary rather than primary research. They’re collections of information and research produced by other people, then re-packaged for a specific audience.

Textbooks tend to be written by experts in a topic. However, unlike literature reviews and meta-analyses, they are not necessarily systematic in nature and are not designed to progress current knowledge through identifying gaps, weaknesses, and strengths in the existing literature.

Example 11: Psychology for the Third Millennium: Integrating Cultural and Neuroscience Perspectives

This textbook aims to bridge the gap between two distinct domains in psychology: Qualitative and Cultural Psychology , which focuses on managing meaning and norms, and Neuropsychology and Neuroscience, which studies brain processes. The authors believe that by combining these areas, a more comprehensive general psychology can be achieved, which unites the biological and cultural aspects of human life. This textbook is considered a secondary source because it synthesizes and integrates information from various primary research studies, theories, and perspectives in the field of psychology.

Example 12: Cultural Sociology: An Introduction

Citation: Bennett, A., Back, L., Edles, L. D., Gibson, M., Inglis, D., Jacobs, R., & Woodward, I. (2012).  Cultural sociology: an introduction . New York: John Wiley & Sons.

This student textbook introduces cultural sociology and proposes that it is a valid model for sociological thinking and research. It gathers together existing knowledge within the field to prevent an overview of major sociological themes and empirical approaches utilized within cultural sociological research. It does not present new research, but rather packages existing knowledge in sociology and makes it understandable for undergraduate students.

Example 13: A Textbook of Community Nursing

Citation: Chilton, S., & Bain, H. (Eds.). (2017).  A textbook of community nursing . New York: Routledge.

This textbook presents an evidence-based introduction to professional topics in nursing. In other words, it gathers evidence from other research and presents it to students. It covers areas such as care approaches, public health, eHealth, therapeutic relationships, and mental health. Like many textbooks, it brings together its own secondary research with user-friendly elements like exercises, activities, and hypothetical case studies in each chapter.

4. White Papers

White papers are typically produced within businesses and government departments rather than academic research environments.

Generally, a white paper will focus on a specific topic of concern to the institution in order to present a state of the current situation as well as opportunities that could be pursued for change, improvement, or profit generation in the future.

Unlike a literature review, a white paper generally doesn’t follow standards of academic rigor and may be presented with a bias toward, or focus on, a company or institution’s mission and values.

Example 14: Future of Mobility White Paper

Citation: Shaheen, S., Totte, H., & Stocker, A. (2018). Future of Mobility White Paper.  UC Berkeley: Institute of Transportation Studies at UC Berkeley Source: https://doi.org/10.7922/G2WH2N5D

This white paper explores the how transportation is changing due to concerns over climate change, equity of access to transit, and rapid technological advances (such as shared mobility and automation). The authors aggregate current information and research on key trends, emerging technologies/services, impacts on California’s transportation ecosystem, and future growth projections by reviewing state agency publications, peer-reviewed articles, and forecast reports from various sources. This white paper is an example of secondary research because it synthesizes and integrates information from multiple primary research sources, expert interviews, and input from an advisory committee of local and state transportation agencies.

Example 15: White Paper Concerning Philosophy of Education and Environment

Citation: Humphreys, C., Blenkinsop, S. White Paper Concerning Philosophy of Education and Environment.  Stud Philos Educ   36 (1): 243–264. Source: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-017-9567-2

This white paper acknowledges the increasing significance of climate change, environmental degradation, and our relationship with nature, and the need for philosophers of education and global citizens to respond. The paper examines five key journals in the philosophy of education to identify the scope and content of current environmental discussions. By organizing and summarizing the located articles, it assesses the possibilities and limitations of these discussions within the philosophy of education community. This white paper is an example of secondary research because it synthesizes and integrates information from multiple primary research sources, specifically articles from the key journals in the field, to analyze the current state of environmental discussions.

5. Academic Essays

Students’ academic essays tend to present secondary rather than primary research. The student is expected to study current literature on a topic and use it to present a thesis statement.

Academic essays tend to require rigorous standards of analysis, critique, and evaluation, but do not require systematic investigation of a topic like you would expect in a literature review.

In an essay, a student may identify the most relevant or important data from a field of research in order to demonstrate their knowledge of a field of study. They may also, after demonstrating sufficient knowledge and understanding, present a thesis statement about the issue.

Secondary research involves data that has already been collected. The published research might be reviewed, included in a meta-analysis, or subjected to a re-analysis.

These findings might be published in a peer-reviewed journal or handbook, become the foundation of a book for public consumption, or presented in a more narrative form for a popular website or magazine.

Sources for secondary research can range from scientific journals to government databases and archived data accumulated by research institutes.

University students might engage in secondary research to become familiar with an area of research. That might help spark an intriguing hypothesis for a research project of master’s thesis.

Secondary research can yield new insights into human behavior , or confirm existing conceptualizations of psychological constructs.

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Henry Whittemore Library

Understanding scientific literature, primary sources, secondary sources, tertiary sources.

• Identifying a Research Article
• Scholarly vs. Popular Literature

What are primary sources?

In the sciences primary sources are original research or data. Primary sources can include any of the following publications 

• Journal Articles -- Journal articles can be primary sources if they contain original research, but keep in mind that not all journal articles are primary sources.
• Reports -- Reports are publications on research that are published independently of a journal. They are often published by governments or companies.
• Theses and Dissertations -- Theses and Dissertations are the original research of an academic working on a degree. 
• Conference Proceedings -- Conference Proceedings are a collection of papers that have been presented at a conference. 
• Published Data -- Data can be considered a primary source, as it is the product of original research.

Why use primary sources?

  Primary sources are a researchers firsthand account of their research. They provide an in depth view into how the research was conducted, and may contain supplemental materials like questionnaires used. A summary of a study or experiment in a book or review paper may not discuss all the findings, and you can gain more insight into a particular topic or issue by looking at the primary sources. 

How to find primary sources:

Resources for finding primary sources include: 

• Databases and Indexes -- The exact database or index you choose to search will depend on the discipline you are searching in. 
• Review Papers -- Review papers are often synthesized from other researchers to give an in-depth understanding of the current state of knowledge on a topic. If you have found a review paper when you are looking for a research paper don't fear! If the review paper is on the write topic it will cite plenty of research papers on your topic of interest. 

What are secondary sources?

In the sciences secondary sources analyze, interpret, summarize, or evaluate the findings of primary sources. Secondary sources can include any of the following publications: 

• Journal review articles -- A review article summarizes past research on a given topic. Review articles can range from highly intensive systematic or integrative reviews or less rigorous literature reviews.
• Textbooks -- The information in textbooks in the sciences is the product of past research.  
• Monographs -- A monograph is a book-length scholarly publication dedicated to a single topic. 

Secondary sources can save you time by providing information on the current state of knowledge on a given topic, and also as a way to find primary resources. If you are interested to know what are important, seminal papers in on a topic look at what papers are cited in a textbook on that topic. Review papers can give you in-depth information on a particular research area. Secondary resources are also often less technical than primary resources. 

How to find secondary sources:

Resources for finding secondary sources 

• Databases and Indexes -- Databases and indexes are particularly useful for finding review articles.  
• The Library Catalog or Ram Search -- The library catalog or Ram Search will help you locate books on the topic you are interested in. 

What are tertiary sources?

In the sciences tertiary resources are synthesized from primary and secondary resources. They usually provide summaries on the current state of knowledge. Tertiary sources can include the following publications: 

• Encyclopedias
• Dictionaries 
• Factbooks 
• Almanacs 

Why use tertiary sources?

Tertiary sources can be viewed as a jumping off point for your own research. They provide succinct  summaries on topics, and can be a good way to familiarize yourself with the terminology on a topic before you begin searching the databases.

How to find tertiary sources:

Resources for finding tertiary sources include: 

• The Library Catalog or Ram Search -- Keep in mind a majority of our encyclopedias are in the reference room. 
• LibGuides and the Library Website -- We have a number of digital encyclopedias. Check the LibGuide for your field to see what digital encyclopedias we might offer!
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Research 101: Library Research Basics

• Helpful handouts
• Picking a topic
• Background research
• Finding articles, books, and more
• Using Google and evaluating sources
• Scholarly vs. popular sources

What is a Primary Source?

What is a secondary source, what is a tertiary source, open web sources with primary sources.

Library Databases with Primary Sources

Primary Sources in the Library

• Finding statistics
• Chicago Style
• Annotated Bibliographies
• Literature Reviews
• Zotero (Citation Management)

What is a primary source?

• A primary source is a first hand testimony, document, speech or other evidence that gives insight into a particular person or an event.
• They are often created during the time period which is being studied but can also be produced later by eyewitnesses or participants.
• Primary sources are available in their original format in libraries, museums, archives, and are also reproduced online in library databases, books, and on university, government, and museum websites.

Examples include :

• Original documents like: Autobiographies, memoirs, oral histories, diaries, interviews, correspondence, minutes, film footage, official records, photographs, raw research data, speeches, newspapers, government documents, email.
• Creative original works like:  Art (paintings, drawings, sculptures, etc.), drama (plays, scripts, etc.), films, music, novels, poetry.
• Relics or artifacts like:  Buildings, clothing, DNA, furniture, jewelry, pottery.

What is a secondary source?

• Secondary sources interpret historical events by examining primary sources and usually other secondary sources, such as books and journal articles. 

Examples include:

• Non-fiction books
• Magazine articles
• Scholarly articles that interpret original data (the raw data would be a primary source)
• Blog or website posts describing or interpreting an event or person
• Read this alumnae/i post about women's fashion at Vassar College. The article is a secondary source, while the photograph below is a primary source.

Image Source

What is a tertiary source?

• Tertiary sources are "meta" sources that compile information on a given topic.
• Bibliographies, literature reviews, meta-analyses, indices, anthologies, lists, etc.
• The annotated bibliography you compile when researching a topic for a paper is considered a "tertiary" source.
• A Buzzfeed "listicle" (or article that compiles a list linking to other sources) would also be considered a tertiary source.
• In the social sciences, a literature review would also be considered a tertiary source.

Free Digital Collections with Primary Sources

• Internet Archive A non-profit library of millions of free books, movies, software, music, websites, and more
• Digital Public Library of America Many libraries and museums house primary sources. This website will search digital repositories of open-access content!
• Primary Source Sets (DPLA) Primary source collections exploring topics in history, literature, and culture developed by educators — complete with teaching guides for class use.
• Calisphere Historical image, text, and sound collections available online from libraries, museums, and archives across California.
• California Digital Newspaper Collection The California Digital Newspaper Collection contains over 1,500,000 pages of significant historical California newspapers published from 1846-present.
• Library of Congress Digital Collections
• Online Archive of California (OAC) Free public access to detailed descriptions of primary resource collections maintained by more than 200 contributing institutions including libraries, special collections, archives, historical societies, and museums throughout California and collections maintained by the 10 University of California (UC) campuses.
• USC Libraries Digital Collections
• HathiTrust Digital Library HathiTrust is a partnership of academic & research institutions, offering a collection of millions of titles digitized from libraries around the world.
• Project Gutenberg Nearly 48,000 digitized books as of 2015. All in the public domain (in general, published before 1923). Available in epub, kindle, PDF or to be read online. Over 50 languages. Great source for classics and historical works.

• List of Library Databases with Primary Resources

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• Last Updated: Aug 28, 2024 12:27 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.elac.edu/Research101

Reference management. Clean and simple.

Primary and secondary sources: what are they and why do I need them?

What are the main differences between primary and secondary sources?

Why do i need to use both primary and secondary sources in my research, examples of primary and secondary sources, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources, related articles.

Primary and secondary sources are the two main types of source materials that you will use for your research project. They are both important and needed for your project. Whether you are going to use more primary or more secondary sources depends on your academic level - undergrad, postgrad, or professional.

Both types of sources have importance and merits of their own, but they are also immensely different. This guide will help you understand the differences. If you want to learn even more about both source types separately, where and how you can access them, and when and how to use them, check out the links below:

➡️  What is a primary source?

➡️  What is a secondary source?

The main difference between primary and secondary sources is that primary sources are contemporary.

Primary sources are original and originated from the event they refer to. They are not reviews, analyses, or critiques of events that occurred in the past. They are first-hand information.

Secondary sources are summaries, critiques, opinions, and analyses. They are written by people who did not witness, or have any direct part to play in the event they are describing. The information they contain is based on primary sources and is the author’s interpretation of the event/subject they are covering.

Using both types of sources adds to the merit of your research. By including references to secondary sources , you are showing that you have truly engaged with your research topic. You are providing extra information and displaying a well-rounded approach to your topic. You are not relying solely on the work of one person, or one institution, for your analysis to be based upon. You are reading broadly and contextually.

Likewise, including primary source references in your research shows that you are also going back to the roots. You are looking at the event or object as it happened, without being able to teleport through time and space. A primary source is vital because it will enable you to make your own judgement on an event or object. Secondary sources are always biased, in one sense or another, so engaging with the primary source yourself allows you to view the topic objectively.

Primary and secondary sources complement each other - looking at both can give you a deeper understanding of each. A primary source can help you to evaluate a secondary source - you will notice aspects of it which the author dismisses, or washes over in their discussion. Likewise, a secondary source can tell you about current trends in research and analysis, while providing you with a broad overview or summary of an extended period of time, or the works of an artist.

We have put together a list of examples of primary and secondary sources by fields of study. It will help you identify the nature of your source.

Primary sources are original and originated from the event they refer to. They are not reviews, analyses, or critiques of events that occurred in the past. They are first-hand information. For a more detailed description of what a primary source is, where you can access them, and why you need to use them, see this article about primary sources .

Secondary sources are summaries, critiques, opinions, and analyses. They are written by people who did not witness, or have any direct part to play in the event they are describing. The information they contain is based on primary sources, and is the author’s interpretation of the event/subject they are covering. See this article about secondary sources for further information.

Some examples of primary sources are: Poems, diaries, letters, paintings, government records, maps, interviews (transcribed or recorded), photographs, newspaper articles, results of experiments, case studies, results of clinical trials, minutes of meetings, and proceedings of conferences

Some examples of secondary sources are: Biographies, histories, reviews, encyclopaedias, literary criticism, discussions of importance, analysis of clinical trials, and reviews of results.

The one main difference between primary and secondary sources is that primary sources are contemporary and secondary sources are not.

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Secondary Sources: Basic Resources

Searching secondary sources full text, secondary sources: additional resources, periodical indexes: by country/region.

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• Exploring Special Collections at Harvard

America: History and Life  (1955- ) includes books, book chapters, journal art icles, and book reviews for North American history.

Historical Abstracts  (1954- ) includes books, book chapters, journal articles (but not book reviews) for non-North American history, 1450-date.

Oxford Bibliographies Online  are literature guides in several humanities and social sciences areas.  Oxford Bibliographies by subject

When you have an old reference, use it to find more recent works with the Web of Science Citation Indexes .

If you find an online bibliography (Search in Google, say, "Civil War" Medicine Bibliography), run interesting books or articles through the  Web of Science  [Covers: science, 1900- ; social science, 1900- ; arts/humanities, 1975- .]  Cited Reference Search .  This search gives you more recent articles (or books, 2005- ) citing a particular book or article, and which may be available via HOLLIS.

Open Cited Reference Search.  Put your author in the first box (initials only): Harris E.  Specify the work with its date, not its title (Titles are abbreviated variously).  Select the pertinent records, which are largely unordered, in the results screen.  Searching a common name will yield numerous irrelevant results.  Finish search. A guide is available:  Searching the Citation Indexes (Web of Science) .

Several online collections of secondary sources are full text searchable.  Records for articles in them are in HOLLIS, but if you have a specific topic, say a person’s name or organization, these databases may give you online books or articles containing them.

ACLS Humanities E-Book Project  includes over 2200 largely history titles. Largely 1950-1999, some earlier, later.  Browsable and searchable by LC Subject Heading.

Arts & Humanities Full Text  offers about 500 journals and magazines

Cambridge University Press . To search within specific subjects, start from "Browse subjects" (an option in the top nav bar). If you hit a paywall, search for the title in HOLLIS; it's likely that Harvard has licensed the item via a different platform.

JSTOR  offers full-text of the full runs of scholarly journals from a range of disciplines. Harvard's subscription does not include the JSTOR books. There is often a "moving wall" excluding recent issues.  Advanced search is best

Latin American History Collection eBooks  offers full text of monographs on Latin American history, mostly published in Spain

CAIRN (2001- ) is a searchable collection of French-language ejournals for the humanities and social sciences.

Periodicals Archive Online  contains several hundred English and Western European language journals from their inceptions to 1995 or 2005.  Limit to historical journals by adjusting Journal Subject(s) menu to History (General) or History  (various regional categories), although this will exclude historical articles in non-history journals

Project Muse  offers full-text of scholarly journals and books. Primarily humanities and social sciences.

UPSO: University Press Scholarship Online

Torrossa: Casalini offers full text of books and journals in humanities and social sciences from Italian, Spanish, French, Portuguese publishers.

Digitalia Française  is a collection of French language ebooks.

Digitalia Catalan ,  Digitalia Hispanica  and  Digitalia Portuguesa  are e-book collections.

L'Harmatheque  offers ebooks, articles, videos, and audio recordings in the humanities and social sciences from a variety of French publishing imprints.  Contains over 26,000 ebooks, 17,000 articles, 400 films, and 600 audio files. At least 2,300 new titles are added to the collection annually.

Zentrales Verzeichnis Digitalisierter Drucke  (ZVDD) is the German national portal for digitized scholarly imprints. Searches easily limited by century of publication.

Leo S. Olschki eBooks Collection: Post 2000 (2000-2010) includes over 1,000 monographs and conference proceedings published by Leo S.Olschki covering humanities and social sciences. Strongest in Italian literature, history, and philosophy.

Bibliographies

Dissertations

Main General Sources

Other General Sources and Special Topics

Early Modern

• By Country/Region

Look for specialized subject bibliographies which may include secondary sources in the  HOLLIS Catalog : Search, e.g., < "science and state" [Keyword search] AND bibliography [Subject Keyword search] > on Advanced Search screen or in  WorldCat .

Finding Dissertations and Theses

Periodical Indexes

America: History and Life  (1955- ) includes books, book chapters, journal art icles, and book reviews.

Historical Abstracts (1954- ) includes books, book chapters, journal articles (but not book reviews) for non-North American history, 1450-date.

Web of Science Citation Indexes allow citation searching, that is, starting with an article of interest and finding more recent articles that have cited it. Covers: science, 1900- ; social science, 1900- ; arts/humanities, 1975- . More information .

JSTOR offers full-text of complete runs (up to about 5 years ago) of over 1900 journals. Allows simultaneous or individual searching, full-text searching optional, of many historical journals. Included journals are listed under discipline on the Advanced Search page. Harvard does not have access to the JSTOR full text books.

Periodicals Index Online  (PIO) indexes over 5500 English and Western European language journals from their inceptions to 1995. Includes 218 journals in American history and 840 journals in world history . Also numerous journals in related subjects. Limit to historical journals by adjusting Journal Subject(s) menu to History (General) or History (The Americas), although this will exclude historical articles in non-history journal s. Includes book reviews. PIO searches full text Periodicals Archive Online  (PAO)which contains a, roughly 700 journal subset  of the journals in PIO.  PAO extends to 2000, and to 2005 for recently added journals.

Bibliographie internationale de la demographie historique (1978- ) offers references with brief annotations arranged by subject classification, with author, chronological, and geographical indexes. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC HB871.B52x

C.R.I.S.: the combined retrospective index set to journals in history (1838 -1974) indexes historical articles in over 900 journals. World history in vols. 1-4; United States history in vols. 5-9; author index in vols. 10-11. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC D20.Z99 C65 1977x Library has: 11 v.

Current bibliography of urban history (1974- ) is published in Urban history (1992- ) and previously in Urban history yearbook (1974-91) . LOCATION: Loeb Design: Per LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC HT101.U675 Current Issues: Periodicals Reading Room Stacks LOCATION: Loeb Design: NAC 210g85 Ur 1 1974-79 (Urban history yearbook ) LOCATION: Widener: Soc 574.143.30 (Urban history yearbook )

Historische Bibliographie (1986- ) covers the Ancient world through twentieth century. Largely European: small section for Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Includes monographs, journal articles, and articles in collective works. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC D20.Z99 H575x LOCATION: Widener: XVTS 38 CD-ROM, 1990-96

International bibliography of historical sciences (1926- ) is a classified, selected bibliography of historical works, including book reviews, on history, broadly defined. Volume (15) for 1940-1946 has not appeared. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3601.22 Latest 5 years WID-LC D20.Z99 I58x Earlier

JSTOR allows simultaneous or individual searching, full-text searching optional, of several historical journals from their inceptions to about 5 years ago. JSTOR provides a list of included History journals.

Mariner's mirror bibliography (1983- ) lists books and articles on maritime history. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC VK145.Z99 M37x

International Medieval Bibliography .

Feminae: Medieval Women and Gender Index .

Iter Bibliography covers Medieval and Renaissance studies literature, including journal articles (some since 1794), essays, books, and dissertations.

Bibliographie annuelle du moyen-âge tardif , 1991- .

Medioevo latino , 1980- . Medioevo latino (CD-ROM version).

Index of Medieval manuscripts allows location of references to specific medieval manuscripts in secondary works.

Archiv fur Reformationsgeschichte. Beiheft, Literaturbericht (1972- ) includes general as well as religious history. LOCATION: Andover-Harv. Theol: Ref. Z7830.A7 LOCATION: Widener: C 7525.14.5 LOCATION: Widener: C 7525.14.6

Bibliografia italiana di studi sull'umanesimo ed il Rinascimento (1989- ). Bibliographies for 1985-88 were published in the journal, Rinascimento , 2nd ser. vols. 26-29. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC DG533.Z99 B53x LOCATION: Widener: Ital 370.77 ( Rinascimento )

Bibliographie internationale de l'Humanisme et de la Renaissance (1965- ) is an annual bibliography of books and articles on all aspects of the 15th and 16th centuries. There is about a 4 year delay in publication. Print version: LOCATION: Andover-Harv. Theol: Ref. D228.B52 LOCATION: Fine Arts: RFA 246.8 LOCATION: Widener: H 680.7 .

Iter: Gateway to the Middle Ages and Renaissance. The Journals Bibliography contains over 100,000 records for periodical articles in over 200 journals dating 1700 to the present. Includes book reviews.

Literature of the Renaissance (1953-1968) emphasizes literature but with general and historical material as well. Subject classification with index of proper names. LOCATION: Widener: Lit 305.50 (1953-1968 incomplete)

Continues Recent literature of the Renaissance. In: Studies in Philology (April issue), 1939-53. LOCATION: Lamont: Periodicals LOCATION: Widener: Philol 344.5

Eighteenth century , 1975- . LOCATION: Widener: RR 3603.8 Latest WID-LC CB411.E333x Earlier

Continues: Eighteenth century: A current bibliography. In: Philological quarterly , 1926-1974. LOCATION: Lamont: Periodicals LOCATION: Widener: Philol 346.6 LOCATION: Widener: Philol 346.6.2 Cumulated in: English literature, 1660-1800; a bibliography of modern studies. LOCATION: Child Memorial: ChM 1003.12.5 Library has: v.1-4 LOCATION: Lamont: REF.ROOM PR83.Z99 E53x 1950 Library has: 6 v. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC PR437.Z99 E53x Library has: 6 v. LOCATION: Widener: 10441.474 Library has: v.1-2; 1926-50

Bibliographie zur Zeitgeschichte (1953-2009) covers twentieth century world history, but focus is strongly on Germany and the World Wars in Europe. LOCATION: History Dept: Ordered--currently received LOCATION: Law School: ILS D 410.V5 Suppl. 1954- LOCATION: Widener: HP1.4 v.1-30 HP144.2 v.31-36 LOCATION: WID-LC D421.Z99B53x v.37-

Cumulated in: Bibliographie zur Zeitgeschichte , 1953-1980. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC D421.Z99 B52 x, 1982 Library has: 5 v. v. 4 Supplement, -1989 v. 5 Supplement, -1995

Scandinavia

• UK/Commonwealth

Latin America

Middle East

United States

Africa-Wide: NiPAD (NISC) (19th century- ) includes 40 African studies databases

For more sources see Finding Periodical Articles and Book Reviews on Africa

Bibliography of Asian Studies (1971- ) indexes humanities and social sciences literature on East, Southeast, and South Asia. Monographs published since 1992 are not included.

More indexes in: East Asian Studies Research Guide: 4. Journal Literature Finding Periodical Articles and Book Reviews on South and Southeast Asia

See also the reference guides listed under Conducting Research on the Harvard Yenching website .

European National Historical Bibliographies

Bibliographie annuelle de l'histoire de France du cinqième siècle à ... (1953- ) is a classified index to French historical writings. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3731.46 Latest 10 years WID-LC DC38.Z99B53x Earlier

Coverage has changed: Volumes for 1953-1963 cover "cinqième siècle à 1939". Volumes for 1964-1974 cover "cinqième siècle à 1945". Volumes for 1975-current cover "cinqième siècle à 1958". For earlier articles see: Repertoire bibliographique de l'histoire de France . LOCATION: Widener: RR 3731.45 Library has: 1-6, 1920-1931 Repertoire methodique de l'histoire moderne et contemporaine de la France . LOCATION: Widener: RR 3731.43 Library has: 1898-1912 Bibliographie des travaux publies de 1866 a 1897 sur l'histoire de la France de 1500 à 1789 , by E. Saulnier. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3731.42 Library has: v. 1-2 in 1 Bibliographie des travaux publies de 1866 a 1897 sur l'histoire de la France depuis 1789 , by P. Caron. LOCATION: Microforms (Lamont): Harvard Depository Film W 16971 LOCATION: Widener: Harvard Depository XP 6 LOCATION: Widener: RR 3731.42.5

Bibliographie en langue francaise d'histoire du droit (1957- ) is a bibliography of books and periodical articles on French social history from 987 to 1875. LOCATION: Law School: FRA 020 LEP 1960-94 LOCATION: Widener: Fr 55.102 .

Bibliographie générale des travaux historiques et archéologiques: publiés par les sociétés savantes de la France . Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1885-1918. 6 v. Google Books (v 2 & 4 only) Full text in Hathi Trust   (6 v.) Location : Widener WID-LC DC17.Z99 L37 1888x --Contents : t. 1. Ain-Gironde -- t. 2. Hérault-Haute-Savoie -- t. 3. Seine: Paris -- t. 4. Seine: Paris. Seine-et-Marne-Yonne. Colonies. Instituts francais à l’étranger -- t. 5. Supplement. Ain-Savoie (Haute-) -- t. 6. Supplement. Seine: Paris. Seine-et-Marne-Yonne. Colonies. Instituts français à l’étranger. Index des volumes analysés dans les tomes I à VI. Vols. 1-4 cover the literature published to the year 1885; v. 5-6, 1886-1900.

Continued by: Bibliographie générale des travaux historiques et archéologiques publiés par les sociétés savantes de la France: période 1910-1940 , by René Gandilhon and Charles Samaran. Paris: Impr. nationale, 1944-1961. 5 v. Google Books v. 2 only Full text in Hathi Trust   (5 v.) Widener | Harvard Depository HOLLIS Record

Bibliographie zur Zeitgeschichte (1953- ) covers twentieth century world history, but focus is strongly on Germany and the World Wars in Europe. LOCATION: History Dept: Ordered--currently received LOCATION: Law School: ILS D 410.V5 Suppl. 1954- LOCATION: Widener: HP1.4 v.1-30 HP144.2 v.31-36 WID-LC D421.Z99B53x v.37-

Cumulated in: Bibliographie zur Zeitgeschichte , 1953-1980. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC D421.Z99 B52 x, 1982 Library has: 3 v. Available online from 1996 to present . Adjust the menu of one field to Bibliogr. z. Zeitgesch. About the Bibliographie zur Zeitgeschichte .  Note some of the links in this article do not work

Jahresberichte für deutsche geschichte (1925-40, 1949- ) is a list of new publications on German history. Covers Antiquity through World War II. The online version of Jahresberichte für deutsche Geschichte  includes from 1974 forward. Issues from 1925-1938 are also available online . LOCATION: Widener: Ger 55.64.15

Continues: Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissenschaft , 1878-1913. LOCATION: Microforms (Lamont): Film SC 416 Microfilm. 1.-36. Jahrg. (1878-1913) LOCATION: Widener: H 8.78.3 About the Jahresberichte für deutsche geschichte .

Writings on Irish history (1984- ) lists citations by author under major chronological periods. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC DA910.Z99.W75x (1984- ) LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC DA910.Z99 C85 1986x (1984: with addenda from 1973-84) LOCATION: Microforms (Lamont): Microfiche S 407 (1979-82)

Bibliografia storica nazionale , 1939- HOLLIS Record Print 1939-1999, Online 2000-2008.

Bibliografia anual de historia de Portugal: da prehistoria a 1974 . LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC DP538.Z99 B53x (1989-91)

Svensk historisk bibliografi (1977- ; strongest 1994- ) indexes monographs and collections, articles in periodicals and collections, and book reviews. An English version is available.

ABSEES (American Bibliography of Slavic and East European Studies) (Late 1980s-)

European Bibliography of Slavic and East European Studies (EBSEES), 1991-2007.

Continues: European bibliography of Soviet, East European and Slavonic studies . Paris: Editions de l'Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales, Institut d'études slaves. Fung Library | Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies | DJK 9.Z99 E97 x Widener | WID-LC | DJK 9.Z99 E97x

Bibliografía española de revistas científicas de ciencias sociales y humanidades (1995- ) is a CD-ROM LOCATION: Widener: Harvard Depository

Continues: Indice espanol de humanidades. Serie B, Ciencias historicas , 1989-1997. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC D20.Z99 I53x Which continues: Indice espanol de humanidades , 1976-88. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC AS1.I5

Indice historico espanol , 1953- . LOCATION: History Dept: Hist 44.200 LOCATION: Widener: RR3761.6 Latest 5 years WID-LC DP66.Z99 I53x Earlier Online version

For earlier articles see:

Fuentes de la historia espanola e hispanoamericana: ensayo de bibliografia sistematica de impresos y manuscritos que ilustran la historia politica de Espana y sus antiguas provincias de ultramar , by B. Sanchez Alonso. 1952. LOCATION: History Dept: Hist 1300.507 Library has: 3 v. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3761. 4 Library has: 3 v. in 2

UK and Commonwealth

Bibliography of British and Irish History is a comprehensive bibliography of books and periodical articles on British and British colonial history. Most historical society publications were excluded. Includes Writings on British history (1901-1974; Widener: WID-LC DA30.Z99 W75x) but excludes its book reviews (1901-1947). More information from Institute of Historical Research and Royal Historical Society .

Index to journal articles on Australian history for 1979 [-1988]. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC DU110.Z99 C75 x 1981, etc. LOCATION: Widener: Harvard Depository DU110.Z99 C74 x, 1981 (for 1974-78) LOCATION: Widener: Harvard Depository DU110.Z99 H63x (through 1973)

Victorian Database Online (1945- ) emphasizes literature but also covers other aspects of Victorian culture and society in Britain and in the colonies where publications concern political/administrative subjects or relationships with Great Britain. Covers approx. 1830-1914. Includes books, articles, and book reviews.

In printed form: Cumulative bibliography of Victorian studies , 1985-99 LOCATION: Widener: RR 3703.19.25.1 Which continues: A Comprehensive bibliography of Victorian studies , 1970-84. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3703.19.25.05 Library has: 3 v.

Victorian bibliography (1932- ) is a selective, classified bibliography, with author and subject index, on all aspects of the Victorian period. Published in the journal Victorian studies , 1958- . LOCATION: Widener: Br 22.5 Current Issues: Periodicals Reading Room

Cumulated in: Bibliographies of studies in Victorian literature , 1932-1984: LOCATION: Child Memorial: ChM 1047.1 [1945-54] LOCATION: Lamont: PR731.Z99 T4x [1932-44] LOCATION: Widener: 10441.350 [1932-44] LOCATION: Widener: RR 3115.26 [1932-84]

Handbook of Latin American studies (1936- ) is a comprehensive annotated bibliography. Not every subject occurs in each volume. Since 1963, social science and humanities are issued in alternate years. A topical article is included in each volume. Also available in print: LOCATION: Gutman Education: Z1605.I123 1963-1971 LOCATION: Lamont: REF.ROOM F1408.Z99 H23x Latest fifteen years only LOCATION: Tozzer: REF F 1401.Z99 H3 1936- . LOCATION: Widener: RR3653.4 Latest ten years only LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC F1408.Z99 H36x Earlier

HAPI, Hispanic American periodicals index (1970- ) indexes most Latin American periodicals in full, and articles on Latin America and U. S. Hispanics from periodicals worldwide. Includes book reviews. Also available in print: LOCATION: Tozzer: REF F 1408.H3 LOCATION: Widener: RR 663.219 & 663.221.

For more sources see Finding Periodical Articles and Book Reviews on Latin America

Index Islamicus (1906- ) indexes publications in European languages on all aspects of Islam and the Muslim world. It covers journals, series, conference proceedings, monographs, multi-authored works, and book reviews.

For earlier and supplementary material: Index Islamicus, 1665-1905: a bibliography of articles on Islamic subjects in periodicals and other collective publications , by W. H. Behn. LOCATION: Andover-Harv. Theol: Ref. DS44.I36 LOCATION: Fine Arts: Reading Room RFA31.60 LOCATION: Gibb Islamic: DS35.6.Z99 I518 x, 1989 LOCATION: Law School: Islamic Reference DS 44.Z99 I525x 1989 LOCATION: Widener: RR 4881.10.9

Index Islamicus supplement 1665-1980. Bio-bibliographical supplement to Index Islamicus , by W. H. Behn, 1665-1980; 2 pts. LOCATION: Fine Arts: Reading Room RFA31.60.7 LOCATION: Gibb Islamic: DS35.6.Z99 B45 1995x LOCATION: Law School: Islamic Reference DS 44.Z99 I5252x 1995 LOCATION: Widener: RR 4881.10.5

America: History and Life (1955- ) includes books, book chapters, journal articles, and book reviews.

Bibliography of American historical societies (the United States and the dominion of Canada) gives contents of their proceedings and other publications with a subject index. HathiTrust Version HOLLIS Record

Classified bibliography of the periodical literature of the trans-Mississippi West (1811-1957). Classified by subject with author index. No subject index. LOCATION: Widener: Soc 501.461 vol.19 LOCATION: Widener: Soc 501.461 vol.26 A supplement (1957-67), 1970

Cumulated magazine subject index (1907-1949) indexes periodicals not included in other indexes. Good for history, especially local history, outdoor subjects, library science (1918-49), and fine arts. Arranged by subject, except for literary works by major authors, which are listed by author. Minor literary works are omitted. LOCATION: Widener: RR 663. 3.5 F Library has: 2 v.

Periodical source index (1986- ) indexes genealogical periodicals. LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC CS1.P47 (1986-1997)

Retrospective edition: Periodical source index, 1847-1985 covers the United States (fiche 1-20), non-U.S. (fiche 21-23), and families (fiche 24-40). Location :  Microforms (Lamont) Microfiche W 5296 Location :  Widener WID-LC CS9.Z99 P47 1988x (vol. 17 only)

Writings on American history (1902-1990) is a classified bibliography of books (through 1973 only) and articles (book reviews included through 1940). Author, title, and subject indexes. None issued for 1904-1905 and 1941-1947. There is a cumulative index for 1902-1940. Canada was included through 1935. The years 1962-1973 are cumulated in 4 v. Note the lists of periodicals cited for coverage. Contains many items not in America, History and Life, especially those appearing in local publications. HOLLIS Record HathiTrust Version (Full text 1902-1990)

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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources of Information in the Sciences

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What are Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources of Information?

What are the different types of sources of information used in research .

Generally, there are three basic types of information sources in research including primary, secondary, and tertiary.  They are as follows:

Primary Sources:  Primary sources of information are first hand accounts of research or an event including original scholarly research results, raw data, testimony, speeches, historic objects or other evidence that provides unique and original information about a person or an event. These sources were created at the time which the observation or event occurred but can also be created later by an eyewitness.  Primary sources allow researchers direct access to original ideas, events, and data. Some examples of primary sources include published original scholarly research articles, original creative works, and eyewitness accounts of contemporaneous events.

Secondary Sources:    Secondary sources analyze, synthesize, evaluate, and interpret primary sources (or other secondary sources). Secondary sources are created after an event has occurred and are written by someone who did not experience or observe the event first hand.  Some examples of secondary sources include articles that interpret original scholarly research results and critiques of original creative works.  Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather comment on and discuss previous evidence.

Tertiary Sources:   Tertiary sources of information provide broad overviews or condensed narratives of topics. They analyze and summarize the information in primary and secondary sources in order to provide background on a idea, event, or topic. Tertiary resources often provide data in a convenient form and provide context of the topic for a frame of reference.  Some examples of tertiary sources include textbooks, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and almanacs.

Examples of Information Source Types

Elements of a Scholarly Research Article

Common elements of a scholarly article:

• Authors and their credentials
• Introduction including background information on subject, literature review, statement of research problem, and hypothesis
• Limitations of research
• Recommendations for further research

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Integrated Social Sciences Program: Primary and Secondary Sources

A guide to primary and secondary sources.

Spider Martin.   Two Minute Warning . 1965. Photo from the  IIP Photo Archive , licensed under CC BY 2.0  

Primary Sources

A primary source is an original document that contains firsthand information about a topic or an event. Primary sources exist on a spectrum and different fields of study may use different types of primary source documents. For example, the field of History may use diary entries and letters as primary source evidence, while the Sciences may use a publication of original research as a primary source. Being an interdisciplinary program, ISS courses and topics will require a range of understandings and approaches to primary sources. Here are some common examples of primary source documents:

• Historical documents (letters, pamphlets, political tracts, manifestos) 
• Data and Research Results (scientific article presenting original findings, statistics)
• Original works of art
• Video footage & photographs
• Works of literature
• Interview transcripts 
• Eyewitness accounts, newspapers articles & autobiographies 
• Blogs articles, tweets and other social media entries
• Lab notebooks and case studies

Primary Source Research

Primary sources can be found in a plethora of databases and through search engines such as Google. Here are some starting points to searching for historical and primary source documents. When deciding where to look for primary sources, first think about the  type  of information you are seeking, and from what time period. This will help to narrow down your choices.

• Independent Voices This link opens in a new window US alternative press publications dating mostly from the 1960s-1990s; includes ethnic, feminist, underground, antiwar, etc.

• Many Paths, Many Voices: Oral Histories from the UW Special Collections Regional oral histories from various local communities from the 1960s to present
• Primary Sources for History UW Libraries comprehensive list of primary source documents commonly used in History, including government documents, images, letters & diaries, newspapers, magazine articles, maps and oral histories
• UW Special Collections UW Libraries' major resource for rare and archival materials covering a broad range of topics, formats and periods.
• E-Newspaper Databases Global and local information in the news from both past and present

Secondary Sources

A secondary source is an  interpretation, analysis, discussion or  evaluation  of an event or issue that is based on primary source evidence. Secondary sources list, summarize, compare, and evaluate information and studies so as to draw conclusions or present on the current state of knowledge on a topic. Secondary sources are often in the form of scholarly discourse or reviews. Secondary sources are useful to introducing a topic and providing historical or broader context. Common examples of secondary sources are:

• Biographies
• Indexes, Abstracts, Bibliographies
• Journal articles
• Literary criticism
• Monographs written about the topic
• Reviews of books, movies, musical recordings, works of arts, etc
• Newsletters and professional news sources

Secondary Source Research

Like primary sources, secondary sources can be found in a plethora of databases and through search engines such as Google Scholar. Because secondary sources are commentary on other works, they tend to be easier to find through library databases. To make a general search in article databases or the UW Libraries search, make sure to use the filters to choose publication type (peer-review article, newspaper, etc). Below are some starting points to help you begin your search for secondary sources:

• Article Databases Article databases provide a subject-specific search for scholarly articles, conference proceedings, newspaper articles and more. For databases specific to ISS topics, check out the Article Databases tab on this guide.
• Encyclopedia Entries Encyclopedia entries provide a broad overview of a topic or subject. They are always commentary and provide context for a topic at large.
• Newspapers Newspapers can be primary or secondary sources, depending on the context of your research inquiry. This guide provides global and local information in the news both past and present.
• Books Guide to finding and accessing e-books at the UW libraries.
• Google Scholar Provides a simple and free way to broadly search for scholarly literature. Search for articles, theses, nooks, abstracts and court opinions.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

The differences between a primary and a secondary source can be ambiguous. A source may be primary in one context and secondary in another. What determines whether it's a primary source is both the discipline and the research question. For example this article, South Persia and the Great War , was published in 1921 and provides a history of the war (a secondary source). But it is written by Percy Sykes who led a British military force there (a primary source). Here are a set of questions that may help you to determine and evaluate the nature of the source being used: 

• How does the creator of the source know the information? Was the creator present at the event or experience the topic at hand? 
• Where does the information come from? Is it personal experience, eyewitness accounts, reports written by others or commentary/interpretation? 
• Are the author's conclusions based on a single piece of evidence or do they have multiple sources taken into account? 

Research Minute: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

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Primary vs Secondary Research: Differences, Methods, Sources, and More

Table of Contents

Primary vs Secondary Research – What’s the Difference?

In the search for knowledge and data to inform decisions, researchers and analysts rely on a blend of research sources. These sources are broadly categorized into primary and secondary research, each serving unique purposes and offering different insights into the subject matter at hand. But what exactly sets them apart?

Primary research is the process of gathering fresh data directly from its source. This approach offers real-time insights and specific information tailored to specific objectives set by stakeholders. Examples include surveys , interviews, and observational studies.

Secondary research , on the other hand, involves the analysis of existing data, most often collected and presented by others. This type of research is invaluable for understanding broader trends, providing context, or validating hypotheses. Common sources include scholarly articles, industry reports, and data compilations.

The crux of the difference lies in the origin of the information: primary research yields firsthand data which can be tailored to a specific business question, whilst secondary research synthesizes what's already out there. In essence, primary research listens directly to the voice of the subject, whereas secondary research hears it secondhand .

When to Use Primary and Secondary Research

Selecting the appropriate research method is pivotal and should be aligned with your research objectives. The choice between primary and secondary research is not merely procedural but strategic, influencing the depth and breadth of insights you can uncover.

Primary research shines when you need up-to-date, specific information directly relevant to your study. It's the go-to for fresh insights, understanding consumer behavior, or testing new theories. Its bespoke nature makes it indispensable for tailoring questions to get the exact answers you need.

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Secondary research is your first step into the research world. It helps set the stage by offering a broad understanding of the topic. Before diving into costly primary research, secondary research can validate the need for further investigation or provide a solid background to build upon. It's especially useful for identifying trends, benchmarking, and situating your research within the existing body of knowledge.

Combining both methods can significantly enhance your research. Starting with secondary research lays the groundwork and narrows the focus, whilst subsequent primary research delves deep into specific areas of interest, providing a well-rounded, comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Primary vs Secondary Research Methods

In the landscape of market research , the methodologies employed can significantly influence the insights and conclusions drawn. Let's delve deeper into the various methods underpinning both primary and secondary research, shedding light on their unique applications and the distinct insights they offer.

Primary Research Methods:

• Surveys: Survey research is a cornerstone of primary research, offering a quantitative approach to gathering data directly from the target audience. By employing structured questionnaires, researchers can collect a vast array of data ranging from customer preferences to behavioral patterns. This method is particularly valuable for acquiring statistically significant data that can inform decision-making processes and strategy development. The application of statistical approaches for analysing this data, such as key drivers analysis, MaxDiff or conjoint analysis can also further enhance any collected data.
• One on One Interviews: Interviews provide a qualitative depth to primary research, allowing for a nuanced exploration of participants' attitudes, experiences, and motivations. Conducted either face-to-face or remotely, interviews enable researchers to delve into the complexities of human behavior, offering rich insights that surveys alone may not uncover. This method is instrumental in exploring new areas of research or obtaining detailed information on specific topics.
• Focus Groups: Focus groups bring together a small, diverse group of participants to discuss and provide feedback on a particular subject, product, or idea. This interactive setting fosters a dynamic exchange of ideas, revealing consumers' perceptions, experiences, and preferences. Focus groups are invaluable for testing concepts, exploring market trends, and understanding the factors that influence consumer decisions.
• Ethnographic Studies: Ethnographic studies involve the systematic watching, recording, and analysis of behaviors and events in their natural setting. This method offers an unobtrusive way to gather authentic data on how people interact with products, services, or environments, providing insights that can lead to more user-centered design and marketing strategies.

Secondary Research Methods:

• Literature Reviews: Literature reviews involve the comprehensive examination of existing research and publications on a given topic. This method enables researchers to synthesize findings from a range of sources, providing a broad understanding of what is already known about a subject and identifying gaps in current knowledge.
• Meta-Analysis: Meta-analysis is a statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to arrive at a comprehensive conclusion. This method is particularly useful in secondary research for aggregating findings across different studies, offering a more robust understanding of the evidence on a particular topic.
• Content Analysis: Content analysis is a method for systematically analyzing texts, media, or other content to quantify patterns, themes, or biases . This approach allows researchers to assess the presence of certain words, concepts, or sentiments within a body of work, providing insights into trends, representations, and societal norms. This can be performed across a range of sources including social media, customer forums or review sites.
• Historical Research: Historical research involves the study of past events, trends, and behaviors through the examination of relevant documents and records. This method can provide context and understanding of current trends and inform future predictions, offering a unique perspective that enriches secondary research.

Each of these methods, whether primary or secondary, plays a crucial role in the mosaic of market research, offering distinct pathways to uncovering the insights necessary to drive informed decisions and strategies.

Primary vs Secondary Sources in Research

Both primary and secondary sources of research form the backbone of the insight generation process, when both are utilized in tandem it can provide the perfect steppingstone for the generation of real insights. Let’s explore how each category serves its unique purpose in the research ecosystem.

Primary Research Data Sources

Primary research data sources are the lifeblood of firsthand research, providing raw, unfiltered insights directly from the source. These include:

• Customer Satisfaction Survey Results: Direct feedback from customers about their satisfaction with a product or service. This data is invaluable for identifying strengths to build on and areas for improvement and typically renews each month or quarter so that metrics can be tracked over time.
• NPS Rating Scores from Customers: Net Promoter Score (NPS) provides a straightforward metric to gauge customer loyalty and satisfaction. This quantitative data can reveal much about customer sentiment and the likelihood of referrals.
• Ad-hoc Surveys: Ad-hoc surveys can be about any topic which requires investigation, they are typically one off surveys which zero in on one particular business objective. Ad-hoc projects are useful for situations such as investigating issues identified in other tracking surveys, new product development, ad testing, brand messaging, and many other kinds of projects.
• A Field Researcher’s Notes: Detailed observations from fieldwork can offer nuanced insights into user behaviors, interactions, and environmental factors that influence those interactions. These notes are a goldmine for understanding the context and complexities of user experiences.
• Recordings Made During Focus Groups: Audio or video recordings of focus group discussions capture the dynamics of conversation, including reactions, emotions, and the interplay of ideas. Analyzing these recordings can uncover nuanced consumer attitudes and perceptions that might not be evident in survey data alone.

These primary data sources are characterized by their immediacy and specificity, offering a direct line to the subject of study. They enable researchers to gather data that is specifically tailored to their research objectives, providing a solid foundation for insightful data analysis and strategic decision-making.

Secondary Research Data Sources

In contrast, secondary research data sources offer a broader perspective, compiling and synthesizing information from various origins. These sources include:

• Books, Magazines, Scholarly Journals: Published works provide comprehensive overviews, detailed analyses, and theoretical frameworks that can inform research topics, offering depth and context that enriches primary data.
• Market Research Reports: These reports aggregate data and analyses on industry trends, consumer behavior, and market dynamics, providing a macro-level view that can guide primary research directions and validate findings.
• Government Reports: Official statistics and reports from government agencies offer authoritative data on a wide range of topics, from economic indicators to demographic trends, providing a reliable basis for secondary analysis.
• White Papers, Private Company Data: White papers and reports from businesses and consultancies offer insights into industry-specific research, best practices, and market analyses. These sources can be invaluable for understanding the competitive landscape and identifying emerging trends.

Secondary data sources serve as a compass, guiding researchers through the vast landscape of information to identify relevant trends, benchmark against existing data, and build upon the foundation of existing knowledge. They can significantly expedite the research process by leveraging the collective wisdom and research efforts of others.

By adeptly navigating both primary and secondary sources, researchers can construct a well-rounded research project that combines the depth of firsthand data with the breadth of existing knowledge. This holistic approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of the research topic, fostering informed decisions and strategic insights.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Research in Marketing

In the realm of marketing, both primary and secondary research methods play critical roles in understanding market dynamics, consumer behavior, and competitive landscapes. By comparing examples across both methodologies, we can appreciate their unique contributions to strategic decision-making.

Example 1: New Product Development

Primary Research: Direct Consumer Feedback through Surveys and Focus Groups

• Objective: To gauge consumer interest in a new product concept and identify preferred features.
• Process: Surveys distributed to a target demographic to collect quantitative data on consumer preferences, and focus groups conducted to dive deeper into consumer attitudes and desires.
• Insights: Direct insights into consumer needs, preferences for specific features, and willingness to pay. These insights help in refining product design and developing a targeted marketing strategy.

Secondary Research: Market Analysis Reports

• Objective: To understand the existing market landscape, including competitor products and market trends.
• Process: Analyzing published market analysis reports and industry studies to gather data on market size, growth trends, and competitive offerings.
• Insights: Provides a broader understanding of the market, helping to position the new product strategically against competitors and align it with current trends.

Example 2: Brand Positioning

Primary Research: Brand Perception Analysis through Surveys

• Objective: To understand how the brand is perceived by consumers and identify potential areas for repositioning.
• Process: Conducting surveys that ask consumers to describe the brand in their own words, rate it against various attributes, and compare it to competitors.
• Insights: Direct feedback on brand strengths and weaknesses from the consumer's perspective, offering actionable data for adjusting brand messaging and positioning.

Secondary Research: Social Media Sentiment Analysis

• Objective: To analyze public sentiment towards the brand and its competitors.
• Process: Utilizing software tools to analyze mentions, hashtags, and discussions related to the brand and its competitors across social media platforms.
• Insights: Offers an overview of public perception and emerging trends in consumer sentiment, which can validate findings from primary research or highlight areas needing further investigation.

Example 3: Market Expansion Strategy

Primary Research: Consumer Demand Studies in New Markets

• Objective: To assess demand and consumer preferences in a new geographic market.
• Process: Conducting surveys and interviews with potential consumers in the target market to understand their needs, preferences, and cultural nuances.
• Insights: Provides specific insights into the new market’s consumer behavior, preferences, and potential barriers to entry, guiding market entry strategies.

Secondary Research: Economic and Demographic Analysis

• Objective: To evaluate the economic viability and demographic appeal of the new market.
• Process: Reviewing existing economic reports, demographic data, and industry trends relevant to the target market.
• Insights: Offers a macro view of the market's potential, including economic conditions, demographic trends, and consumer spending patterns, which can complement insights gained from primary research.

By leveraging both primary and secondary research, marketers can form a comprehensive understanding of their market, consumers, and competitors, facilitating informed decision-making and strategic planning. Each method brings its strengths to the table, with primary research offering direct consumer insights and secondary research providing a broader context within which to interpret those insights.

What Are the Pros and Cons of Primary and Secondary Research?

When it comes to market research, both primary and secondary research offer unique advantages and face certain limitations. Understanding these can help researchers and businesses make informed decisions on which approach to utilize for their specific needs. Below is a comparative table highlighting the pros and cons of each research type.

Navigating the Pros and Cons

• Balance Your Research Needs: Consider starting with secondary research to gain a broad understanding of the subject matter, then delve into primary research for specific, targeted insights that are tailored to your precise needs.
• Resource Allocation: Evaluate your budget, time, and resource availability. Primary research can offer more specific and actionable data but requires more resources. Secondary research is more accessible but may lack the specificity or recency you need.
• Quality and Relevance: Assess the quality and relevance of available secondary sources before deciding if primary research is necessary. Sometimes, the existing data might suffice, especially for preliminary market understanding or trend analysis.
• Combining Both for Comprehensive Insights: Often, the most effective research strategy involves a combination of both primary and secondary research. This approach allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the market, leveraging the broad perspective provided by secondary sources and the depth and specificity of primary data.

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Primary and Secondary Sources: Foundations of Historical Research

Advertisement for fugitive slave from July 1837 issue of unidentified anti-slavery publication

Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library Digital Collections

Contemporary accounts created by people who were present or intimately involved in historical events – known as primary sources – are the bedrock of historical research and writing. In order to complete the research process, historians also rely on secondary sources: well-researched scholarship written after the historical event in question.  

In this lesson plan, students will learn how to distinguish between primary and secondary sources and how to use them for historical research. The central type of primary sources used in this lesson plan are fugitive slave advertisements: short, concise, detailed, and engaging primary sources that convey the history of slavery and freedom seeking in striking terms. Once completed, students will have cultivated valuable research skills with which further historical questions can be investigated and answered.  

This resource is a product of Claiming Freedom in the Revolutionary Era – a partnership of the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, the National Park Service, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Park Foundation, and the Greening Youth Foundation. 

Guiding questions.

Why do historians use both primary and secondary sources to understand the past? 

How are we creators of primary sources for historians 100 years from now? 

Learning Objectives

Differentiate between a primary and secondary source. 

Analyze a primary source by using a graphic organizer. 

Lesson Plan Details

A familiarity with the historical research method sparks curiosity in students and teaches them to be critical clickers as they combat misinformation on the Internet.    

The Historical Method in Three Phases 

Historians are scrupulous researchers and detailed investigators. Traditionally, historians employ what is called the historical method in three general phases.  

First, historians scour physical and digital archives in search of sources like diary entries, artifacts of clothing, first-hand interviews, or fugitive slave advertisements to obtain a solid idea of what the past was really like. These are primary sources: contemporary accounts created by people who were present or intimately involved in historical events.  

In the second phase of the historical method, historians critically read scholarly articles and books to stay up to date on how their peers have interpreted the same subject. Books and articles are two prime examples of secondary sources. They offer valuable context and fresh insight into historical events after those historical events have ended.  

Thirdly and finally, historians place it all in conversation with each other. The sources they discovered in the archive inform and are informed by the secondary source reading they have completed. The result is a more accurate and inclusive telling of the past.   

The Historical Method and the Digital World 

The same analytical habit of critically reading one’s sources can also be used by students to navigate the digital landscape—the ever evolving and full scope of information accessible through media, online, via applications and social media. Indeed, the historical method can be usefully translated by educators to help students become critical clickers . That is, students who are responsible online researchers and who are adept at distinguishing reliable information from misinformation .   

Many archives in the United States are free and publicly accessible, scholarly books are widely published, and an increasing amount of information is openly available online. But, ironically, because nearly anyone in the world can publish information on the Internet, the digital landscape can be a dangerous place to conduct historical research. With misinformation around every corner, how do historians navigate the digital landscape?  

“The very nature of information on the Internet requires a shift in the way we evaluate the credibility and worthiness of the information we encounter.”   ~ Christy Coleman , on Reframing History  

Unlike the materials one finds in the archive, the Internet is an unregulated space. Not every website found online is subject to a vetting process. So, in addition to critiquing the validity of a single document online, deciphering the veracity of online databases and repositories can be extremely tricky. But how studying historical research methods aid educators in helping students to alternate between critical reading and critical clicking ? 

Some sites are clearly trustworthy. The National Archives and Records Administration or the Library of Congress are two great examples. Just as some digitally accessible academic and government organizations are certainly reliable: articles published in the American Historical Review and the Journal of African American History, or content from the National Park Service .   

But other websites and resources trigger more skepticism. And they must be questioned on a case-by-case basis. Some questions can be answered before the researcher even clicks on a link. Upon launching a question in a search engine, historians can begin to gauge the reliability of a website. What is the ending of the URL? Is it a “.com,” “.org,” “.gov,” or a “.edu” site? But sometimes these inquiries are too superficial to separate an unreliable website from a reliable one . In our current digital age, merely confirming the author of an article or the publisher of a website is not enough to combat misinformation.  

Just like with a physical primary source, the researcher must cross-examine the website. When faced with an unknown resource, online researchers (who are also critical clickers) investigate other websites to determine whether a source is reliable. This method is known as “lateral reading.” Similarly, historians of the Underground Railroad search for plantation records or correspondence to see how a fugitive slave advertisement fits into a history of freedom seeking. The practice of cross-examination is honed through the historical research method becomes invaluable in combatting online misinformation.  

Students are sure to find other examples of how the historical research method can aid in combatting online misinformation as they work their way through this lesson plan. Indeed, one of the main goals of this lesson plan is to foster a curiosity equipped with critical clicking.   

D1.5.9-12. Determine the kinds of sources that will be helpful in answering compelling and supporting questions, taking into consideration multiple points of view represented in the sources, the types of sources available, and the potential uses of the sources. 

D2.His.11.9-12. Critique the usefulness of historical sources for a specific historical inquiry based on their maker, date, place of origin, intended audience, and purpose. 

D2.His.12.9-12. Use questions generated about multiple historical sources to pursue further inquiry and investigate additional sources. 

This lesson is designed to introduce students to primary source analysis. There are no prior concepts that students need to review before implementing this lesson plan.  

However, it may be useful for teachers to review the modeling key for activity three (below) and to read / listen to: “The Case of the Misunderstood Historical Method,” from Reframing History, produced by the American Association of State and Local History. 

Activity 1: Defining primary and secondary sources 

Begin by reading the  Understanding Primary and Secondary Sources  handout independently, in small groups, or with the entire class. This brief document uses engaging language to articulate the key differences between primary and secondary sources. It also poses some common questions that historians ask of primary and secondary sources in order to fully comprehend their value and context. A group discussion is encouraged.  

“Understanding Primary and Secondary Sources” ends with a prompt: If a historian in 2075 wanted to study classrooms in 2023, what objects around us would serve as excellent primary sources in their research? Answers may range, although some common responses might include: desks, chairs, pens, pencils, markers, projectors, lockers, worksheets, textbooks, and school uniforms. Educators then end by reiterating and emphasizing what primary sources add to an individual’s historical research. 

Activity 2: Identifying Primary Sources 

In groups of 3-4, students test their understanding of primary and secondary sources by completing the Matching Primary and Secondary Sources worksheet. In this exercise, they are tasked with correctly labeling 10 sources as either primary or secondary sources. Students will identify the specific information that helped them arrive at their answers. A key with explanations for each of the sources included in the lesson plan materials. After work time, review answers as a class and invite students to share their reasoning. 

Activity 3: Introduction to Primary Source Analysis 

The educator is supplied with two fugitive slave advertisements and is tasked with modeling for the entire class the critical thinking that goes into analyzing a primary source using a graphic organizer. The intellectual life for analyzing the first advertisement and filling in the graphic organizer should be on the educator. The educator should guide students through the second advertisement; however, students should supply the majority of the analysis. An exemplar graphic organizer with key words & phrases to model the thinking is supplied for the educator in the lesson plan materials.  

After the full-class discussion and analysis, students then transition to small groups to analyze different fugitive slave advertisements together. They will be given two to three fugitive slave advertisements observe and analyze, while also putting their thoughts into the graphic organizer. 

Prompt: You are explaining the Underground Railroad and the stories of freedom seekers to a friend. Choose three (3) primary and three (3) secondary sources from the lists below that you think would be most effective at explaining what it was. Write a three-paragraph response that explains your reasoning for choosing your primary and secondary sources. 

Materials & Media

Understanding primary and secondary sources, matching primary and secondary sources, primary source analysis, primary source analysis graphic organizer, related on edsitement, unveiling the past: analyzing primary documents on harry washington's life, lesson 2. “read all about it”: primary source reading in “chronicling america”, ask an neh expert: validating sources, visual records of a changing nation.

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Secondary sources

Secondary sources are works that are not based on direct observation of or evidence directly associated with the subject. They rely on other sources of information. They may also be works that comment on another work, such as a review, criticism, or commentary.

In refining a research topic, we often begin with secondary sources. They help to identify gaps or conflicts in the existing scholarly literature that might prove to be promising topics.

• Created by someone who was either not present when the event occurred or was removed from it in time
• Use for overview information, to familiarize yourself with a topic, and compare that topic with other events in history
• Text books, encyclopedias, and historical dictionaries
• Many academic (scholarly) articles
• Some news articles (see "Primary sources" below for more on this)

Primary sources

Primary (historical) sources are documents, images, objects, or other records that provide firsthand accounts or direct evidence about a historical topic or event. These records were created at the time of an event or were later recalled by an eyewitness; or they were created by someone with a direct connection to the topic.

Primary sources in the sciences can be different from primary sources in the humanities and social sciences. In the sciences, the term "primary sources" often applies to original research or the first (i.e., primary) article to report on new research or data. However, many archives do not retain journal articles as they are readily available from libraries and other digital sources. Review  this guide from Michigan State University  for more on the topic.

Primary sources emphasize the lack of voices and interpretations between the thing or events being studied and reports of those things or events. There is a belief that firsthand accounts are more accurate, but that is not always true.

Primary sources can be digital. Many archives digitize some of their holdings – both for preservation and for access. You don't have to physically handle sources to use them, though that is part of the fun.

Primary sources:

• Come from individuals or groups who took part in or witnessed an event and documented it
• Include records created by people and organizations in the course of living their lives or conducting business
• Letters, emails, telegrams, and other types of communication (this may also include records like websites and social media posts)
• Speeches, memoirs, and diaries
• Research data, primary research articles
• Government, church, and business records
• Oral histories
• Photographs, motion pictures, and videos
• Maps and land records
• Newspaper articles from the time of the event (usually considered primary sources, although the reporter may have gathered the story from witnesses rather than from being an eyewitness)
• Artifacts and specimens may also be primary evidence if they are the focus of study

For more, check out this guide to primary sources from Princeton University.

Primary vs. Secondary

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Penn State University Libraries

Law: a guide to penn state resources.

• About the Penn State Law Collection
• Understanding the Law

Why start with secondary sources?

Encyclopedias, handbooks and dictionaries.

• Federal Law
• Pennsylvania Laws
• Other States
• Specialized Legal Resources
• International Law
• Best free Internet sites for law research
• Need legal help?

Using a good law review article, legal treatise, or legal encyclopedia can jump start your research.  These sources, written by legal experts, will provide an overview of the legal issues you are exploring and cite the most important statutes and court cases you need to explore.  

• Encyclopedias  and Handbooks -- concise overviews of legal topics.  An encyclopedia range from basic explorations of the law that cite a few key cases to comprehensive in-depth explorations of the law with references to many cases and statutes.  
• Treatise -- book that explores an area of law or a legal topic in depth.  
• Law reviews/Scholarly Law Journals  -- Academic journals that cover legal topics.  A particularly good place for current and emerging issues in law.

Encyclopedias

• Westlaw Campus Research - Law This link opens in a new window Use the secondary sources link in Westlaw to find the legal encyclopedia American Jurisprudence and American Law Reports. Both give in depth analysis of legal issues with links to important cases. Also explore the individual states, which will often have state focused legal encyclopedias, e.g. Pennsylvania Jurisprudence. more... less... Thomson Reuters Westlaw Campus Research - Law is a comprehensive database of resources for researching U.S. Law. It includes primary sources including case law, statutes and regulations at the federal and state levels as well as secondary sources, e.g., American Law Reports, American Jurisprudence, and over 800 law reviews.

Dictionaries

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• Last Updated: Aug 30, 2024 9:38 AM
• URL: https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/law_resources

Weekly Hot Take

State of The Secondary OTC Market

The secondary OTC market is a space where people can buy and sell various assets, including locked tokens, equity, or SAFTs, which are hard to trade on public exchanges. Today, the term "secondary OTC market" primarily refers to the buying and selling of locked tokens.

The main sellers in the secondary OTC market include VCs, project teams, and foundations, who are often motivated by the need to secure early profits or manage selling pressure. Buyers typically fall into two categories: "hodlers" who believe in the long-term potential of the tokens and are attracted by the discounts, and hedgers who seek to profit from price differences through strategic financial maneuvers.

The secondary OTC market is gaining prominence as it navigates a more bearish sentiment, with tokens often selling at significant discounts due to limited buyer interest. Despite this, the market plays a critical role in managing liquidity and reducing the immediate sell-pressure on public exchanges, thereby contributing to a more stable and resilient crypto ecosystem.

Figure 1 : Current state of the market Source: imgflip

Introduction

The secondary OTC market, though largely inaccessible to most crypto retail investors, is rapidly gaining importance among industry insiders such as VCs, project teams, and foundations. As the dynamics of the crypto market evolve, the secondary OTC market is emerging as a vital space for managing liquidity and securing profits, particularly in a landscape characterized by high valuations and limited liquidity. With that, this report will discuss: 1) what the secondary OTC market is, 2) who the participants are and their motivations, 3) thoughts on the current market status, and 4) insights from Taran, the founder of STIX, an OTC trading platform for private crypto transactions.

What is the Secondary OTC Market?

The secondary OTC (over-the-counter) market is a private trading space where buyers and sellers directly negotiate and execute transactions for assets like tokens, equity, or investment contracts such as SAFTs (Simple Agreement for Future Tokens), outside of public exchanges. Most of the assets listed on secondary OTC markets can't be traded on regular exchanges like Binance or OKX for a variety of reasons. Since many crypto projects have tokens that are locked up for a certain period, the secondary OTC market provides investors and teams with a way to sell these assets before they become tradable (unlocked). Today, the term "secondary OTC market" mostly refers to the buying and selling of locked tokens for TGE or even pre-TGE projects, and this essay will focus on the buying and selling of locked tokens for TGE projects.

Figure 2 : What the secondary OTC market looks like Source: STIX

Why is it Becoming an Active Market?

The primary driver behind the boom within the secondary OTC market is the strong incentive for stakeholders to sell their holdings. Currently, many top 20 tokens are being traded at nearly a 50% discount with a one-year lock-up, while some tokens from projects outside the top 100 are trading at discounts as steep as 70%. For example, a token priced at $1 on an exchange like Binance may be available for just $0.30 on platforms like STIX, with a lock-up period of one year and an additional two years of monthly vesting.

This trend is consistent with the recent market environment characterized by high FDV-low float, and increasing hate on VC coins. As discussed in the essay " Is FDV a Meme? ," there has been an overwhelming number of new projects entering the market, but without a corresponding influx of participants or liquidity to support this vast supply. Consequently, token prices naturally fall as more tokens are unlocked. Moreover, many of these tokens provide minimal value to the market and are often overvalued in relation to their actual user base and utility. Acknowledging this, project teams and VCs who initially invested in these projects are choosing to sell at a discount now, rather than risk selling at potentially lower prices in the future.

Figure 3 : Current deals available in the market Source: Presto Research

Who are the Buyers and Sellers, and Why?

Sellers and why.

Even with discount rates of 50~70%, project teams often find themselves in a profitable position. Many of these teams consist of small groups, typically 20-30 people, who have built projects over just 2-3 years. Despite the relatively short development period and limited initial investment, these projects are frequently valued at $3 billion or more in FDV. In the Web2 world, it is almost unheard of to create a company valued at $1.5 billion with such a small team in such a short time frame. Given these circumstances, many projects are tempted to sell their tokens at a discount, recognizing the opportunity to secure profits now rather than risking a potential decline in value later.

VCs are in a similar situation. The recent market conditions have led to rapid and significant increases in valuations, often with seed rounds occurring just six months after pre-seed rounds at three times the valuation. In some cases, VCs have even raised multiple rounds simultaneously, offering different valuations for investments made at the same time. As a result, unless they invested at the latest stage, just before the TGE, many VCs find themselves still significantly in profit even after accounting for a 50% discount in the secondary market. This environment has encouraged VCs to sell, capitalizing on the opportunity to lock in their gains. Moreover, with the current market environment, Limited Partners (LPs) in VC funds have started to focus more on DPI (Distributions to Paid-In Capital) metrics, which further motivates VCs to realize returns, reinforcing the trend of selling in the secondary OTC market.

Foundations

Foundations may have slightly different motivations for participating in the secondary OTC market. While some may recognize the overvaluation of their tokens and seek to sell quickly, others might approach the market strategically. A common strategy involves selling unlocked tokens to investors at a discount, paired with a year-long lock-up. This approach reduces immediate selling pressure in the public market while still allowing the foundation to raise necessary funds for operations. In many cases, this type of transaction can be seen as one of the more positive or "bullish" uses of the secondary OTC market, as it balances the need for operational funding with the goal of maintaining market stability.

Buyers and Why

The first type of buyer in the secondary OTC market consists of those who believe in the long-term potential of the token. These individuals, often referred to as "hodlers," are committed to the project's success and are willing to buy tokens at a 50% discount, fully intending to hold them for several years. For these buyers, the opportunity to purchase tokens at a significant discount is attractive because they plan to maintain their exposure to the project over the long term, anticipating that the token's value will increase as the project matures. The high discount rate provides them with an advantageous entry point, allowing them to accumulate more tokens at a lower cost.

The second type of buyer is driven by the opportunity to profit from the discount through strategic financial maneuvers. These buyers, known as hedgers, use perpetual swaps and other financial instruments to lock in profits from the discounted tokens. By purchasing tokens at a 50% discount and simultaneously shorting them, they can secure a return equivalent to the discount. Additionally, they can earn funding fees, which can further increase their returns if the fees are positive. This approach allows hedgers to capitalize on the price difference between the secondary OTC market and the public market, making it a lucrative strategy for those skilled in managing financial risks.

Why Can’t Sellers Be Hedgers?

While it might seem logical for sellers, such as VCs and project teams, to hedge their positions like buyers instead of selling at huge discounts, several factors make this approach impractical, such as regulatory hurdles and liquidity constraints.

When it comes to regulatory challenges, VCs often face strict rules that limit their ability to engage in certain financial activities, such as shorting tokens—an essential component of an effective hedging strategy. Beyond these regulatory constraints, hedging itself requires a substantial amount of capital to avoid the risk of liquidation. Sellers would need to post significant collateral, often exceeding the value of the tokens they are trying to hedge, because, while the downside of a token’s price is limited, the upside is potentially unlimited. This creates a scenario where the financial requirements for hedging are prohibitively high, especially considering that most of the wealth of VCs and project teams is tied up in the tokens themselves rather than in liquid cash. Moreover, hedging is not as straightforward as it might seem. There are numerous complexities to consider, such as counterparty risks—like the potential for platform failures or bankruptcies, as seen with FTX—and the risk associated with funding fees, which could suddenly turn negative, further complicating the strategy and potentially leading to unexpected losses.

Few thoughts

What does the current market situation imply.

The secondary OTC market is currently exhibiting a more bearish sentiment compared to public exchanges, where it struggles to find buyers even when tokens are offered at steep discounts—sometimes as much as 70%. This stands in stark contrast to public exchanges, where investors are often paid to short tokens through positive funding fees. While understanding the intentions of participants in the secondary market is crucial, this trend may reflect a cautious approach by market insiders as they navigate the current conditions.

Figure 4 : Most of the tokens have a positive 1-year accumulated funding rate Source: Coinglass

The Role of the Secondary OTC Market

Despite the bearish sentiment, it’s important to recognize that the activity in the secondary market is not solely negative. In fact, the presence of a vibrant secondary market plays a crucial role in the overall health of the broader crypto ecosystem. By facilitating the transfer of tokens between sellers and buyers, the secondary market allows for profit-taking outside of traditional exchange venues. This process can help mitigate the impact of large token unlocks, which have historically been seen as bearish events due to the increased selling pressure they introduce to the market. By enabling these transactions to occur off-exchange, the secondary market reduces the immediate sell-pressure on retail investors when tokens are unlocked. This shift contributes to a more stable and resilient market, where token unlocks no longer necessarily lead to sharp price declines but instead support a healthier, more balanced market environment.

Q&A with Taran, the Founder of STIX

Who are you, and what is stix.

I’m Taran, Founder of STIX, an OTC trading platform for private crypto transactions. It was founded in early 2023 to build a structured solution for those who want to trade secondaries in crypto. Our primary sellers are team members, early investors and treasuries wanting to sell concentrated, locked token positions. Primary buyers are whales, family offices and hedge funds, amongst others. 

How do you see the role of the secondary OTC market evolving in the broader crypto landscape?

Recent drawdowns in new alts have shown that the protocols skyrocketed in price in early 2024 primarily due to their low floats (demand outweighed supply). However, once the markets turned risk-off in Q2, those same alts took a massive hit and a majority have fallen 75+%. Many of these have been seeing massive continuous unlocks, which have almost immediately been sold off on the market, causing further price impact. Examples include Arbitrum, Starknet, Worldcoin, Wormhole, amongst others. 

In Q1 and Q2, the same assets were being block traded OTC, predominantly by early investors to de-risk and allocate into more liquid assets (BTC, ETH etc), at 70-80% discounts to the highs. This data made it apparent that most alts were over-valued by at least 5x, with further downside upon introduction of new floating supply. 

Our motivation to bring transparency to OTC prices in 2024 (see here ) has brought attention to how important the OTC markets actually are. There are also multiple opportunities for buyers to buy distressed positions as well as for sellers to sell OTC without causing market impact.

There’s a third party to these trades: the project team. Teams could decide to block OTC trades for a variety of reasons (see here ). 

Secondaries are important for:

Removing motivated sellers from your cap table, preventing them from selling on the orderbook

Introducing new, motivated holders with a higher cost basis

Increasing the average cost basis of private holders

Future supply control (introducing new vesting periods, etc)

Ensuring no under-the-table deals, and having complete visibility over OTC trades

What major trends or topics are you seeing in the secondary OTC market right now

Two major trends: 1) Treasuries for protocols that haven’t excessively raised are now looking to build up their cash positions. We have supported multiple protocol treasuries to structure OTC raises, where buyers are buying in at a lucrative price (vested over a certain period), and treasuries are building up their cash reserves. This allows diversification, de-risk and ensures the team has enough runway to outlast their competition. 2) There exists a clear arbitrage for smart trading firms: buy at a lucrative price OTC and manage hedges on exchanges, usually also eating funding rate. This funding rate / OTC arbitrage exists across 100s of alts, and is a very lucrative market-neutral trade for sophisticated trading firms. 

Do you think the buyer’s market trend will continue? What’s your short-term and long-term view?

I do not see the funding rate / OTC arbitrage closing anytime soon for most alts, as they all have 2-3y left in their vesting period and a majority have positive funding rates.

Secondaries are very cyclical: in 2023 the vast majority of OTC volume was for pre-launch assets, primarily due to heavily venture-funded protocols not launching yet. Now that they’ve all mostly launched, the market has shifted to trading locked token blocks, which are overall less riskier as the spot/perp markets are all mostly established for them and there’s a lot of data to analyse.

Because of continuous monthly unlocks, sellers also have an opportunity to continue de-risking on exchanges, and aren’t necessarily pushed to trade OTC. However, the assets which are still in their cliff period (Ethena, Layerzero, IO.net, Aethir, etc), there’s still an opportunity for buyers to hunt for the best deals.

If alts see a run in September and October, lots of sellers will reach out to us at STIX to want to exit as they’ve already realised that de-risking is always smart. Lots of sellers who didn’t want to sell OTC in Q1 would now look to exit at better prices than Q2/Q3. However, I do not see buyers massively optimistic about these premiums, and that’s why I think that the buyers’ market will continue into 2025.