my body my mind essay

Roe v Wade: a philosopher on the true meaning of ‘my body, my choice’

Professor of Philosophy, University of Southampton

Disclosure statement

Fiona Woollard held a Non-Residential Fellowship in Philosophy of Transformative Experience at the Experience Project (September 2016-February 2017), funded by the Templeton Foundation, the University of Notre Dame, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She has also received funding from the Mind Association, the ESRC, the AHRC, and been on a project funded by the European Research Council.

University of Southampton provides funding as a member of The Conversation UK.

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The overturning of Roe v Wade harms all women and all who can get pregnant around the world by making their body-ownership merely conditional. This undermines their equality with others.

Many people are reeling from the recent decision by the US Supreme Court to overturn Roe v Wade, so that states may now make it illegal to obtain or perform an abortion. For many of us, even if we do not live in the US, this feels like a personal blow. I use my work in moral philosophy to explain this feeling. If we feel personally affected it is because we are personally affected. The ruling diminishes the self-ownership of all women (even if they cannot get pregnant) and all those who can get pregnant, wherever they live.

The decision is likely to leave 33 million people in the US without access to abortion. These are the people most directly affected by the ruling. Evidence shows that being denied an abortion harms a person’s health, finances and family life . Those in the US who are forced to continue pregnancy may lose their dreams, or even their lives .

But the effects of the US ruling are global. Anyone who can get pregnant now knows that they cannot travel or move to the US and be recognised as an equal with equal rights. The same is not true for our male compatriots.

Of course, the US is not the only place where access to abortion is restricted so the development in the US amounts to an additional blow to equality, rather than a loss of what had been perfect equality. But the size and influence of the US make this additional blow very significant.

What is body ownership and why does it matter?

You own your body when you have the authority to make decisions about what is done to it and how it is used on the basis of your own interests and desires.

Body ownership is a fundamental part of moral standing for humans . It is through my body that I act on the world: when I bake a cake, write a book or build a house, I use my body. It is through my body that the world acts on me. When I am struck by the beauty of a sunrise, enjoy a cool breeze, find myself convinced by an argument, these effects on me need to go through my body. How my body is, makes up a major part of how I am: if my body is hurt, I am hurt. Body ownership is needed to respect the unique relationship between me and my body.

Body ownership is needed for a valuable kind of agency that I call full-fledged agency – the freedom to select one’s own ends and adopt a settled course of action in line with those ends. Maybe I value helping the sick and want to become a doctor. This requires me to commit to study for many years. I can only do this if I have at least some authority to decide what happens to my body.

None of this means that you are never required to use your body for others: it’s pretty uncontroversial that I am required to call an ambulance if the person next to me has a heart attack and this does not undermine self-ownership. However, for me to genuinely own my body, there must be limits on these requirements. I must have a say in how my body is used for the benefit of others.

Lack of access to abortion can undermine your body ownership even if you never actually need an abortion. If you can get pregnant but access to abortion is limited, then you only get to decide what happens to your body so long as you are not pregnant. You are not entirely free to decide on the actions needed to achieve your goals.

Indeed, I believe legal restrictions on abortion undermine body ownership for any woman, even if she cannot get pregnant and even if she never plans to travel to the US. Her control over her body still depends on the ability or inability to get pregnant and on where she is in the world. A woman’s right to control her body should not rest on such accidents.

Philosopher T.M. Scanlon discusses a “friend” who would steal a kidney for you if you needed one. Scanlon argues that this person is not a true friend to you, because of what his view must be of your right to your own body parts: “He wouldn’t steal them [from you], but that is only because he happens to like you.”

We need our friends to recognise that we have rights to our body parts because we are people, not just because they happen to like us. As a woman, I need recognition that my body belongs to me because I am a person, not merely because I happen not to be able to get pregnant or happen not to need to go to the US.

So all women and all those who can get pregnant are personally affected by the overturning of Roe v Wade – and all threats to abortion access. Recognition of why this is might help us understand otherwise puzzling feelings, both in ourselves and others. It might also help us to work together to defend reproductive rights .

• US politics
• Abortion rights
• Moral philosophy
• Women's rights
• Abortion access
• bodily autonomy

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Are you a body with a mind or a mind with a body - maryam alimardani.

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Our bodies – the physical, biological parts of us — and our minds — the thinking, conscious aspects — have a complicated, tangled relationship. Which one primarily defines you or your self? Are you a body with a mind or a mind with a body? Maryam Alimardani investigates.

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Essay on My Body

Students are often asked to write an essay on My Body in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on My Body

Introduction.

My body is a complex system that allows me to live, learn, and grow. It is made up of many different parts, all working together to keep me healthy.

Parts of My Body

The main parts of my body are the head, trunk, and limbs. My head houses my brain, eyes, and mouth. The trunk includes my chest and abdomen, containing vital organs. My limbs help me move around.

Importance of My Body

My body is important because it helps me interact with the world. It allows me to see, hear, touch, taste, and smell. It’s also my responsibility to keep it healthy.

Understanding my body helps me appreciate how amazing it is. It’s a wonderful system that deserves care and respect.

250 Words Essay on My Body

The human body, a complex and intricate system, is the physical manifestation of our existence. It’s a marvel of biological engineering, housing billions of cells working in perfect harmony to ensure our survival and well-being.

The Body as a Biological Masterpiece

Our bodies are a collection of systems, each playing a vital role. The circulatory system, for instance, ensures oxygen and nutrients reach every cell. The nervous system, a network of nerves and neurons, serves as our communication hub, while the immune system protects us from foreign invaders.

Body and Mind Connection

The body is not just a physical entity but also an extension of our mind. The mind-body connection is a profound concept, where emotions and thoughts can influence our physical health. Stress, for instance, can trigger physical symptoms like headaches or stomach issues.

Body Autonomy and Respect

Body autonomy, the right to control one’s body, is a fundamental human right. It’s essential to respect our bodies, acknowledging their capabilities and limitations. This includes maintaining a healthy lifestyle and making informed choices about our bodies.

In conclusion, our bodies are more than just physical structures. They are a testament to nature’s ingenuity, a bridge connecting us to our minds, and a personal domain demanding respect and care. Recognizing this multifaceted nature of our bodies can help us better appreciate and take care of them.

500 Words Essay on My Body

Introduction: the marvel of the human body, the body as a system of systems.

The body is made up of multiple systems, each with a specific role. The nervous system acts as the body’s command center, sending and receiving signals to and from different parts of the body. The circulatory system, with the heart as its key player, ensures the efficient distribution of oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. The respiratory system, comprising the lungs, takes in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism. The digestive system breaks down food into simpler substances that the body can use for energy, growth, and cell repair. The skeletal and muscular systems provide structure and mobility, while the endocrine system regulates the body’s metabolism and energy levels.

Cells: The Building Blocks of the Body

At the microscopic level, the body is composed of trillions of cells, each performing specific functions. Cells are the basic building blocks of life, and their collective action ensures the smooth functioning of the body. They are responsible for everything from absorbing nutrients and producing energy to fighting off infections and healing wounds.

The Body’s Adaptability and Resilience

The importance of taking care of our body.

Our body is our most precious asset, and it is essential to take care of it. A healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, adequate sleep, and stress management, can enhance the body’s functioning and longevity. Regular medical check-ups can help detect potential problems early and keep the body in optimal condition.

Conclusion: The Body as a Reflection of Self

In conclusion, the human body is not just a biological entity; it is a reflection of who we are. It embodies our experiences, our actions, and our choices. It is a testament to the miracle of life and the complexity of nature. By understanding and appreciating our body, we can develop a more profound sense of self-awareness and respect for our own existence.

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Why You Should Take Care of Your Body and Health

• Why It Matters
• Eat a Balanced Diet

Make Sleep a Priority

• Stay Active
• Avoid Harmful Substances
• Manage Your Stress

Taking care of your physical body is good for your mental health. The mind and body interact and influence one another in complex ways. Physical illness can make managing your mental well-being more difficult. Stress, lack of energy, poor sleep, and other problems can also take a toll on how you feel mentally.

This article discusses why you should take care of your body and how it can support your mental health. It also explores what you can do to take better care of yourself.

Why Taking Care of Your Body is Good for Mental Health

There are a number of reasons why taking care of your body is good for your mental health:

• Health problems affect functioning : Health problems, even minor ones, can interfere with or even overshadow other aspects of your life. Even relatively minor health issues such as aches, pains, lethargy, and indigestion take a toll on your happiness and stress levels.
• Poor health habits can add stress to your life : They also play a role in how well you are able to cope with stress. The stress that comes from poor health is significant.
• Poor health interferes with daily living : Health challenges also affect other areas of your life. Health problems can make daily tasks more challenging, create financial stress, and even jeopardize your ability to earn a living.
• Stress can worsen health : Stress itself can exacerbate health issues from the common cold to more serious conditions and diseases, so maintaining healthy habits can pay off in the long run. This article looks at some healthy habits that have a positive impact on your life.

One way to improve your ability to cope with stress and feel better is to make a commitment to healthier habits .

Press Play for Advice On Creating Good Habits

This episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast , featuring Katy Milkman, PhD, shares how to build healthy habits to create lasting change. Click below to listen now.

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Eat a Balanced Diet for the Right Reasons

Rather than eating right solely for the promise of looking better in your jeans, you should also make a commitment to eating foods that will boost your energy levels and keep your system running smoothly. This is because what you eat can not only impact your short-term and long-term health, it can affect your stress levels.

It's much harder to cope with stress if you are hungry or malnourished. Hunger can make you more emotionally reactive to stressors, leaving you irritable or even angry in the face of minor daily annoyances. Watching what you eat can be a stress management tool as well as a health preserver.

Another reason it's a good idea to maintain a healthy diet is that your diet can have an effect on your mood.

While the effects of an unhealthy diet are cumulative and become more apparent in the long-term, you are also less likely to feel well in the short-term if you are eating a diet heavy on sugar-laden, fatty, or nutritionally empty foods.

Some of the more immediate effects poor diet include feeling:

Eating well has important long-term consequences, but it may also help you feel more energetic and optimistic in the short-term as well.

Stay Motivated

If you remind yourself that what you eat now will affect how you feel in the coming hours, it may be easier to stick to a healthy diet.

Sleep can have a serious impact on your overall health and well-being. Poor sleep can take a toll on mental health and contribute to problems including anxiety, depression, mood changes, and behavior changes.

Make a commitment to get enough sleep at night. If you haven't gotten adequate sleep, you may be less productive, less mentally sharp, and otherwise more prone to the effects of stress.

Some good habits that can help:

• Try to get a full eight hours of sleep each night
• Avoid caffeine after 2 pm
• Avoid eating foods in the evening that might disrupt your sleep
• Go to bed at the same time each night; wake up at the same time each morning
• Create a restful sleep environment; make sure your bed is comfortable and keep the room at an optimal temperature for sleeping (between 60 and 67 degrees Fahrenheit)
• Adopt a calming technique such as meditation to help yourself relax each night before bed

You may be surprised by how much less stressed you feel when you're not tired. Following good strategies can help if you have trouble getting quality sleep when stressed . Not only will you sleep better, but you’ll feel better all day.

Find a Fitness Habit That Works for You

We've all heard the advice to eat right and exercise. However, it can be difficult to fit in workouts around a busy schedule, particularly when you're feeling exhausted from stress. 

Make It a Habit

One effective strategy for making fitness a regular part of your life is to build an exercise habit around your other habits—either attach a workout to your morning routine, or your lunchtime habits, or make it a regular part of your evening.  

If you make a morning jog part of your getting-ready-for-work routine, for example, it is much more likely to happen than if you wait until you feel like jogging and happen to have a free half-hour, especially if you lead a busy life like most of us and are tired at the end of the day. 

Do Something You Enjoy

Another important way to make exercise easier is to choose an activity that you actually enjoy. Some examples include walking while listening to an audiobook or attending a class at your gym where good music drives up your energy level. Finding an activity that you enjoy means that you are more likely to stick with it.

Find a form of exercise that you'd like to do and then find a time when you can make it work with your schedule.

Watch What You Put Into Your Body

Avoid putting unhealthy substances into your body; nicotine, excess alcohol, and even excessive caffeine can take a toll on your health in the long run, but also make you feel lousy overall in your day-to-day life.

In addition to watching what you put into your body, it also helps if you can avoid allowing toxic thinking patterns from exacerbating your stress levels as well.  Find healthier ways to manage stress, and you'll enjoy double health and stress management benefits .

Find Ways to Manage Your Stress

Stress is an inevitable part of life, but it can take a serious toll on your mind and body if it gets out of hand. Excessive stress is linked to a number of serious health ailments, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, and ulcers.

Stress management strategies that can help include:

• Practicing mindfulness : Mindfulness is an approach that involves focusing more on the here and now instead of fretting over the past or future. It can help increase your self-awareness and improve your ability to handle the daily challenges life throws your way.
• Utilize stress management techniques : Incorporate a variety of stress management tactics into your life, such as deep breathing, guided imagery, and positive self-talk. Making these a habit can help you combat stress in the short-term, as well as later down the road.
• Eat a balanced diet : A poor diet can exacerbate the negative effects of stress. Instead of reaching for high-sugar snacks or fast food meals, focused on following a balanced diet that incorporates fruits and vegetables, lean proteins, and complex carbohydrates. 

Finding ways to manage your stress effectively can minimize the negative impact on your health. It can also be beneficial for your emotional health and reduce your risk of burnout, anxiety, and depression.

A Word From Verywell

These are three important ways to take care of your body that you may not naturally think of as stress relievers. If you set goals to make these ideas a reality in your life, not only will you feel the difference immediately, but you will also see results in multiple areas of your life in the coming weeks and months. Few habits come without effort, but these three can make a significant impact on your life, and are well worth the effort.

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Yau YH, Potenza MN. Stress and eating behaviors .  Minerva Endocrinol . 2013;38(3):255–267.

Owen L, Corfe B. The role of diet and nutrition on mental health and wellbeing . Proc Nutr Soc . 2017;76(4):425-426. doi:10.1017/S0029665117001057

Breymeyer KL, Lampe JW, McGregor BA, Neuhouser ML. Subjective mood and energy levels of healthy weight and overweight/obese healthy adults on high-and low-glycemic load experimental diets .  Appetite . 2016;107:253–259. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.08.008

Choi DW, Chun SY, Lee SA, Han KT, Park EC. Association between sleep duration and perceived stress: salaried worker in circumstances of high workload .  Int J Environ Res Public Health . 2018;15(4):796. doi:10.3390/ijerph15040796

Gardner B, Lally P, Wardle J. Making health habitual: the psychology of 'habit-formation' and general practice .  Br J Gen Pract . 2012;62(605):664–666. doi:10.3399/bjgp12X659466

Rood L, Roelofs J, Bögels SM, Alloy LB. Dimensions of negative thinking and the relations with symptoms of depression and anxiety in children and adolescents .  Cognit Ther Res . 2010;34(4):333–342. doi:10.1007/s10608-009-9261-y

Kriakous SA, Elliott KA, Lamers C, Owen R. The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction on the psychological functioning of healthcare professionals: a systematic review .  Mindfulness (N Y) . 2021;12(1):1-28. doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01500-9

Nguyen-rodriguez ST, Unger JB, Spruijt-metz D.  Psychological determinants of emotional eating in adolescence.   Eat Disord . 2009;17(3):211-24. doi:10.1080/10640260902848543

By Elizabeth Scott, PhD Elizabeth Scott, PhD is an author, workshop leader, educator, and award-winning blogger on stress management, positive psychology, relationships, and emotional wellbeing.

Mind And Body

Patrick Katz PHI 1103 Michael Bruno Word Count-1218 5 May 2016 Me, Myself, and My Body The mind is about mental processes and thought, while the body is the physical aspects of the brain. For years, philosophers have been perplexed by the mind-body problem. The mind is about mental processes and thought, while the body is the physical aspects of the brain. The mind -body problem discusses the mind and body, along with the relationship between them. Dualists and monists are the two types of people that take a stand on the issue. While Dualism may spilt mind and body, monism is the belief that the mind and body are together one. Each of these beliefs can be broken down into types, justifying monism or dualism. Though each have been …show more content…

On the other side of dualism is interaction. Interaction is the way the mind and body interact among each other, so the three variations of this are interactionism, epiphenomenalism, and parallelism. Interactionism is where one believes that the mind and body influence one another. Next, epiphenomenalism dictates that mental occurrences are caused by physical ones, but have no influence on the physical. Now parallelism is different because it shares the view that both mental and physical states are not casually interacting, yet running in harmony with it. These are all the different types of dualism that have been theorized to this day. Many philosophers justify why dualism is the right theory behind the mind-body problem. However, there are others that believe monism is the ideal theory towards the question. Monism is the view that the mind and body are essentially one. Within monism there are several different types; idealistic monism, materialistic monism, neutral monism, reflexive monism, substantial monism, attributive monism, and absolute monism. To begin, the idealistic monism view is one that shows the mind being all that exists and that everything else is simply a part of one’s mental depiction. Materialistic monism on the other hand is the complete opposite in that it holds that only the physical is real and the mind is reduced to the physical. More specific

Rene Descartes ' Concept Of Dualism And Then Defend My Preferred Alternative Among The Options Paul M. Churchland

In essence, Cartesian Dualism attempts to solve the mind-body problem – that is, what is the relationship between the mind and the body? The answer, according to this theory, is that the mind and the body are two distinctly different substances that constitute each person. Here, “mind” can be described as a nonphysical thing that thinks and “body” as a living physical thing that does not think. The mind can also exist independently of the body, and both can causally affect one another.

Phi 2010 Essay

Dualism is defined as the view that hold what exist is either physical or mental. (pg.98). Also dubbed the “two-realms view” by Plato, identifies some things as having both components, it is the most accepted idea since most believe that there has to be a mental connection with physical items. Materialism is the view that only the physical exist (pg.98). There is no connection mentally to the physical material; I believe this is stating that we did not have a real idea towards the material. Idealism is the view that only the mental exist. (pg.99). this is the most farfetched one of them all, that everything we know is a perception not a

Dualism And Belief That The Mind And Brain Essay

The defense of dualism stems from two questions. First, is a human being composed of just one ultimate component or two? The second asks if the answer is two, how do these two relate to one another? This idea starts Moreland argument for dualism over physicalism. Physicalism is a worldview that states that

Where Am I by Daniel Dennett Essay

• 1 Works Cited

The three responses to this longstanding issue in western philosophy include materialism, dualism and idealism. Materialism can be defined simply as the only things there are all material or physical things. Idealists believe that there are no material things; there are only minds, and thoughts and experiences. While dualists think that the mental and physical are deeply different in kind: thus the mental is at least not identical with the physical.

Substance Dualism And Property Dualism : The Mind-Body Problem

The mind-body problem is an age-old topic in philosophy that questions the relationship between the mental aspect of life, such as the field of beliefs, pains, and emotions, and the physical side of life which deals with matter, atoms, and neurons. There are four concepts that each argue their respective sides. For example, Physicalism is the belief that humans only have a physical brain along with other physical structures, whereas Idealism argues that everything is mind-based. Furthermore, Materialism argues that the whole universe is purely physical. However, the strongest case that answers the commonly asked questions such as “Does the mind exist?” and “Is the mind your brain?” is Dualism.

The Mind Body Problem : Interactionism And Physicalism

One of the most talked about concepts of philosophy is that of the mind-body problem. In short, the mind-body problem is the relationship between the mind and the body. Specifically, it’s the connection between our mental realm of thoughts, including beliefs, ideas, sensations, emotions, and our physical realm, the actual matter of which we are made up of the atoms, neurons. The problem comes when we put the emphasis on mind and body. Are the mind and body one physical thing, or two separate entities. Two arguments have stood amongst the rest, Interactionism and physicalism. Interactionism claims that mind and matter are two separate categories with a casual integration between the two. By contrast, physicalism draws from the idea that all aspects of the human body are under one physical being, there are no nonphysical connections that come into play. While both state a clear and arguable statement regarding mind-body problem, Interactionism gives a more plausible answer to the mind-body problem because although it may seem like we are tied as one, our minds have a subconscious that influence our thoughts, actions, ideas, and beliefs, which is completely independent from the realm of our physical matter.

Descartes And The Mind Body Dualism

“The mind-body dualism, in philosophy, is the fact that any theory that the mind and body are distinct kinds of substances or natures. This position implies that mind and body not only differ in meaning, but refer to different kinds of entities (Britannica).” The most basic form of dualism is substance dualism. Substance dualism is the idea that he mind and body are composed of two ontologically distinct substances. According to one who believes and studies dualism, the mind is comprised of a non-physical substance, while the body is constituted of the physical substance, also known as matter. Dualism is closely related to the philosophy of Rene Descartes. Descartes identified the mind with consciousness and self-awareness and distinguished this from the brain. He believed that the brain was the seat of all intelligence. This lead to a great debate over the mind and body. So, ultimately, what is the nature of the mind and consciousness and its relationship to the body?

What are the strengths and weaknesses of dualism and monism?

Dualism and monism is a famous philosophy topic from ancient to now. The word "Dualism" means that our physical and our mental are independent. And our body and our mind cannot be the same. It is because of mind and body is two separate substances. In the contract, the "monism" means that both of the physical and mental are combined being one. And our mind and body are indivisible and are each influenced by the other. The monism and dualism individually has its strengths and weaknesses.

Essay about Monism vs Dualism

• 5 Works Cited

     One type of monism is neutral monism. Neutral monism concludes that neither mental nor physical properties are attributed to reality but rather a substance called neutral stuff (Encyclopedia of Philosophy-Monism). Traditional materialism in monism proposes all things are part of the physical and the mental, the body and the mind (Encyclopedia of Philosophy-Monism). This means that a person’s mind works with their body through a simultaneous connection.

The Argument of Dualism Essay

In my mind, dualism is a more attractive view to take when considering the mind-brain issue. The idea that the mind is a separate entity and that it is independent of the physical body is the central point of dualism. One reason it appeals to me is because of my religion, my Catholic upbringing. Introspection is another good reason why dualism is a little more logical to me than materialism.. It logically explains why the mind and brain are separate. Also, the divisibility argument raises good points to allow dualism to appear to be the more attractive idea in my eyes.

Descartes Mind Body Problem

The mind/body problem is regarding the nature of the relationship between the mind, consciousness, and the physical world. It is a problem because, it brings into question whether the mind and body are separate substances or of the same substance. It also asks whether there is a relationship between the two. The problem also questions what is defined as consciousness, and, how can it arise from normal materials. I don’t believe Descartes has adequately solved it with his concept of dualism because he points out that the pineal gland is responsible for how the two interact since there is no other function for that gland. However biologist have proven Descartes wrong and has no scientific proof that would suggest important functioning in the human body. Also, scientific research discovered

Dualism and Artificial Intelligence

Mind-body dualism is usually seen as the central issue in philosophy of the mind. The problem with mind-body dualism is that it is unknown whether the mind really is a separate entity from the human body as Descartes states in his argument, or whether the mind is the brain itself. Descartes believed that in a person existed two major components, the physical body and the nonphysical body which was called the mind or soul. As a scientist, Descartes believed in mechanical theories of matter, however, he was also very religious and did not believe people could merely be mechanical creatures that ran like “clockwork.” And so, it was Descartes who argued that the mind directed thoughts. To account for this, he split the world into two parts,

Debating the Topics Monism and Vedanta Essay

Philosophical way on humanity, for centuries philosophers have debated on a topic called Monism. Monists hold the principle that being is purely based upon one critic “category of being” this means that either the person is made up of only the body or only the mind (Morris). Because Animists, Hindus, and Buddhists believe that reality is one and that everything that exists is a functioning part of that whole which is spirit are for the most part monists. Western people for the most part may be called a monist also as they believe that God is dead and matter is the only substance to reality. As a consequence, monism is the claim that mind and matter essentially the same. The concept of transcendental reality

Mind and Body

The concept of mind and body interactions has been debated among many modern philosophers. Some believe that our minds and bodies are different things, thus existing separately, while others believe that they exist as a whole. In this paper, I will be introducing two rationalist philosophical views regarding this topic, one which is by Rene Descartes and the other by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Rationalists, in philosophical terms, are the ones who obtain their knowledge through reasoning rather than the human senses. Descartes and Leibniz both have similar perspectives, but Leibniz takes a slightly different approach to improve Descartes’ argument. This paper will first show Descartes’ original argument, an example that proves the argument to be invalid, and then lastly, a revised version of the argument with Leibniz’s help.

The Mind Body And Body

(In class, Schmit used the four elements to explain it.) Materialism is considered a monistic view, since it considers that all things belong to this one fundamental kind of thing. Usually, the philosophers that believe in Materialism presuppose that, if the mind is a material thing, then it is reasonable to relate it to the brain or with the functioning of the brain, since the brain is a material thing and it is certainly associated with thinking.

Related Topics

• Philosophy of mind

Body and Mind Essay examples

The body and mind are both different & separated elements. Descartes explains that he has sensed his head, hands, feet and the other physical objects of his body. The body alone can be affected by sensations which may be harmful or beneficial which relate to sensations that result in pleasure and pain. Along with these emotions or sensations Descartes further explains his physical presence when he is made aware of other experiences such as hunger, thirst and emotions of joy and anger. All these emotions and senses distinguish all humans and how they are observed. The functions of the human body without restriction will often occur. The ability to resist from bodily functions is inevitable. The relationships distinguished with his body alone are special feelings that will not have any connections to others. Instances of the body such as twitching of the stomach or the dry throat leads to actions taken that can be only explained by nature. Nature teaches Descartes that he is not just a pilot lodged inside a body but that he is so conjoined to the body he is the controller. If Descartes was merely a pilot these emotions would not need to be apprehended to when occurred. The senses and emotions that arise from the body and that are given a response on how to act is the body (form) and the mind (matter) working together. The mind plays a vital role and involvement in the essential development of the human. All bodies are individual and unique; these are the bodies that make up our society. The body and mind can be identified as separate as both play their individual role in the body, but still have an influence on each other. This affects the perspective of others as both physical and mental states either have a negative or a positive relation or attraction to surrounding bodies. The body teaches you Show More

Related Documents: Body and Mind Essay examples

Mind and body essays.

Mind and Body Though Descartes was able to portray how the Mind and Body are two separate things, there were lots of rejections regarding his theory. I have my own opinion on Dualism and how Descartes could be wrong, as well as my own opinion on the three rejections I refer to in this paper. I will also talk about how there are similarities in the arguments and how they contradict each other. One way is Radical Behaviorism. This rejection does not completely reject Dualism, but one side of the…

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The Mind-Body Problem

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What Is The Mind Body Problem

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Descartes Mind Vs Body

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Plato's Mind Body Problem

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Mind body problem Essay

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Nagel Mind Body Interaction

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Descartes's Response To The Mind-Body Problem

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Mind over Body- Essay 1

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Dualism Vs. Functionalism: The Mind-Body Problem

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The Mind and the Body Term Paper

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Is mind and the body the same?

Thesis/problem statement, purpose/significance of the study, background of the union between the mind and body, literature review, leibnitz arguments on mind and body, mauriee merleau arguments on mind and body.

The historical perception of the distinction between the body and mind is traceable back to the Greek philosophers. In a close link to Rene Descartes’ theory (1650), the principal of philosophy claims that the human being compromises for the mind and body, which seem to be two distinct and separate substances.

On comparison, the mind does the thinking and thus is the source of reasoning, recognizing, desiring, consciousness and willpower, but it is distinctively immaterial and physically un-extendable. Conversely, the body is material and extendable to accommodate feelings and sensation. Many theories distinguish the body and mind but in most instances end-up creating the “mind-body problem,” thus the need for discussions or counterarguments.

“To think that the mind and the body are distinct substances creates problems, yet to think that they are the same offers no solution either.” This is a research investigating and analyzing the different arguments on philosophical nature of the mind and body by various philosophers, with the aim of providing a personal point of view regarding the subject matter.

The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the consequences and key concepts involved in the development of the mind-body philosophy and offer personal suggestions or opinions over the issue of relationship between the mind and body.

Objectives of the study

This term paper lays down the need for researching the background of the understanding of various theories over the relationship as presented by different great philosophers such as Rene Descartes, John Locke, Leibnitz and, Mauriee Merleau-Ponty. The study is equally an assessment of other issues in relation to personal understanding of the topic.

Significance of the study

The key topics to be covered entail the focus over relationship between the mind and the body. This is in the aim of finding the reasonable argument and conclusion

The Procedure of the Study/Research Methodology

The paper highly utilizes the literature reviews to enable better understanding of the topic. Preparation of the research over the chosen topic also enhances and quantifies the research as a study topic and prepare for respondents.

Information collected will equally tabulate and assist in ranking the findings form various philosophers over a wide period, and help to narrow the scope to the objectives of the study analysis. The analysis will then draw the conclusion from generally analyzed data in the literature review.

The research findings will entail data collected through websites analysing the concerns of some philosophers, as well as books concern with the study area and, observation of the proceedings over the specified data collection period. For the study analysis, the collected data and studies discerns patterns and formulate principles that might guide future action of the study subject.

In this case-study of mind and body the research checks the background information, progress, surveillance and examination of current state of matter and the involvement with other related cases. The analysis of records regarding internal as well as external consequences is equally important.

Comparison of various philosophical points of views offers better understanding and analysis. This term paper will therefore attempt to find or describe aspects of the relationship between the mind and body as theories of various philosophers explain.

There are various theories explaining how the treatment of exceptional aspects fit into Descartes’ theory of material dualism, which forms a strong basis, ever the debate concerning the relationship between the body and the mind. The theory however lacks full explanation of the interaction or union, thus the tentative results.

Various other philosophers have emerged with different perspectives concerning the debate nullifying or supporting the possible facet of Descartes’ philosophy. There are many misconceptions between the union of the body and mind, and the general casual interaction among the Descartes’ readers. Recent philosophers have indicated a strong curious expression with regard to the substantiated unison or intermingling of the body and mind, indicating the theory as un-credential in comparison to other arguments.

A consideration of the interpretation for the first view indicates that an event or substance belongs to the interconnection because of the immediate casual effects the substance has on the mind.

The twenty first century philosophers as well as readers may disagree with Descartes theory out of curiosity or opposition to the dualist theory of the body and mind. The philosophy of mind provides phenomenal character in the line of thoughts that provides a wide range of mental events, which keep stringing the difference between the physical events and conscious experiences.

Ability to consider the face value of these striking differences calls for support or agreement with the dualism. Today the readers and researchers have some interest on the philosophy of dualism and thus the work of Descartes as the person who represented the tradition to modern philosophy.

Rene Descartes arguments on mind and body

The comparison of the two elements of life seems to be the conflict of the inquiry of whether the mind and the body are distinct substances, or they are the same. Arguably, his mind causes the mental state of affairs while body causes the physical state. Then the question is on the correspondence regarding the physical and mental state.

The proposal by Rene Descartes’ is a theory of interactions gets the reference with the intention of asserting that the two are distinct states, which interact by mutually influencing over each other as a result of the function of the pineal gland based in the brain (Moyal, 289, 1991). According to Moyal on the theory of Rene Descartes (290, 1990), the mutual gland seems to be the focal point of influence between mind and the body.

Scientifically the gland produces a solution: melatonin, which is an important neurotransmitter that assists to regulate sleep and forms part of the brain or body. From the scientific point of view, the Pineal gland is not a bridge between the mind and other special material objects, and therefore it is not a real solution to interaction between the body and mind.

Considering various philosophical principals of Descartes, there are many confusing claims regarding body and mind. The claims initially indicates that everything in the world is classifiable into two states namely, thinking and bodily substance.

People react by thinking through things and properties while the other side of living comprises of the body and its characteristics such as shape, size, motion or position. Where would we place the emotions, sensations or passions such as joy, sadness, love, pleasure, smell, taste and feeling? The categorization of the aspects fumbles people, making them to wonder how to classify certain features to the union between the mind and body.

Considering Descartes’ definition of substance, in the practicable sense, the substances do not depend on other substances. Although not clearly indicated in the specification that there exist two distinct types of substances into which all other aspects falls into, the Descartes tries to indirectly or implicitly indicate that certain quality or attribute requires a precise substance for existence.

For instance, in line with Moyal (293, 1991), this means that each substance exists within a principal attribute that constitute its essence with all the other properties of the substance referencing this attribute. For instance, imagination, sensation and, will are intelligible properties referencing the mind or thinking.

According to Descartes’ definitions of the relationships between mind and body, thinking entails understanding, and being in charge of what occurs within. Being aware of the occurrence offers the consideration of ability for existence of meaning, which is a strong indication that there is a connection between thinking and the sensory mechanism.

John Locke arguments on mind and body

Considering John Locke argument regarding the body and mind, he conveys a constant idea that a human being comprise of the conscious mind and a memory, which can extend to reflect the past as a way of enhancing or finding the personal identity.

Through this argument, he does not imply that the human being has the ability to remember each and every minor detail of past experiences, but it means that ability to posses a personal identity can link the conscious understandings to physical state or appearance (Ashcraft, 220, 1991).

This is how the conscious mind joins the physical appearance of the body to come together and form the human experience of life. He places the mind and body as material substances, which come together to give one an experience nurturing human identity.

According to Ashcraft (221, 1991), on John Locke’s theory, the existence of two material substances in the same mental substance as explained by Rene Descartes is inexistence. He specifies that consciousness unite action in the same physical being. The memory and material experiences are similar in a human being, although it is possible to distinguish consciousness from thinking, such as in the instance of Rene Descartes’ insinuation.

In line with Ashcraft (221, 1991), considering Locke’s theory, “thinking, reflection, memory and, intelligence,” uniquely combine to form the human physique but this cannot occur without the presence of consciousness. Consciousness is therefore a unique attribute in each individual human being meaning that it is not possible to inherit or share another’s body or consciousness.

“There is a huge gap between subjective and objective experience,” (Ashcraft, 220, 1991). Ideally, the investigation pertain the relevance of the physical and mental connection in an individual or consciousness. The investigation of how well an objective processes to become subjective is still tentative among many philosophers.

According to Ashcraft (221, 1991), considering Locke’s theory, “subjectivity is the reality and immediacy of individual experience of consciousness, including memory and the capacity for reasoned reflection.” The outside world is independent of the mind. Real sensation comes from the presence of real objects.

In line with Locke, the world is made of two kinds of substances namely the soul and body. The body provides an immediate idea of the soul. People understand the bodies through sensation while understand the soul through reflection. Contemplation infests in the soul as material nourishments while the soul is immaterial. From this perception, there is formation of mental operations and spiritual souls.

Locke’s theory therefore supports the interaction between the body and the mind as real beings. All the ideas we posses are because of the actions of the body on the mind. This means that the body acts on the soul causing some changes. He argues out that people’s perception of existence lacks clarity over the reality of existing soul. They tend to be sure of the existing physical body and the soul.

The existence of the soul and its related actions is more realistic in nature than the material body. The reality of things regarding material bodies does not exist in the knowledge of the bodies we possess. The knowledge therefore comprises of secondary qualities lacking proper representation of reality (Ashcraft, 220, 1991).

The difficulty that Locke lacks solution for regards his perception of the effects on the bodies lacking interference on the mind or consciousness. His theory of representation, which indicates that people perceive the reality of mental images as a representation of the physical substances lacks substantiation.

Classification of attributes of life as matter or conscious entities is tricky but the reality is that essence of nature is consciousness regardless of its existence as matter or soul. His conclusion has commonsense attributing to existence of two substances namely mental and material. Material substances are the primary quantities as essentially active elements of matter and embodiments of the secondary qualities.

The connection between Locke and Descartes’ theories involves their conclusion over the existence of a third substance form the sense of experiences. The third matter is existence of consciousness as a fundamental premise from which the other aspects derive but remains an indistinct or hazy idea and thus remains enclosed in empirical attributes.

Considering Leibnitz thesis on mind and body, there is no body-mind interaction, but a formal relationship pertaining harmony, correspondence or parallelism. His contribution spans a number of topics of this philosophy mainly, materialism, interaction between the mind and body and idealism.

One of the conspicuous topics observes relationship between the body and mind where he denies existence of the interaction but ascertains a pre-established harmony. The earlier discussions of the seventeenth century over the connection between the mind and body spans a great context considered as dualism. This indicated that these are two distinct substances.

Leibnitz remains fundamentally opposed to the aspects of dualism indicating his perception of only one substance of life, thus the mind and body comprising of the same substance but metaphysically distinct. His metaphysical assumption is existence of a distinct substance from the body. Certain mental states may coordinate body states and vices versa. Considering Descartes’ perspective, there is an existence of interaction between the body and the mind.

According to Jolley (112, 2004), on Leibniz’s theory, no state can influence the other thus the technical denial of inter-substantiation. Every state of a substance emerges from an initial substance and its programming occurs at the initial stages during the creation to ensure conformity to natural states of the preceding events. This is the language of minds and body where the natural states occur in mutual coordination.

The reality of metaphysical relationship is the mutual conformity or coordination of mind and body, which seem to be the real casual relationship.

Substances may not casually interact, but their state accommodates each other in a way that implies existence of a casual interaction among them. Leibniz’s theory however conforms to existence of mental events, which influence bodily events. “One particular substance has no physical influence on another … nevertheless, one is quite right to say that my will is the cause of this movement of my arm.”

He continues to state that, “for the one expresses distinctly what the other expresses more confusedly, and one must ascribe the action to the substance whose expression is more distinct.” This is an explanation of what he explains to be metaphysical reality. Every existing substance is available to the entire universe but we only perceive a portion of it distinctly and the rest unconsciously, hence the confusion (Jolley, 112, 2005).

The argument is on existence of programmed substances, which are active or passive at the pertinent moment with incidence of real considerable relations. According to Leibniz’s theory, “nature of an individual substance or of a complete being is to have a notion that is sufficient to contain and to allow us to deduce from it all the predicates of the subject to which this notion is attributed.”

The problem with this theory is on the explanation of the complete concept theory where there seem to be an assumption pertaining lack of a genuine possibility over casual determination. His implication is on the existence of casual interaction between two beings, which requires transmission or transposition of the parts.

Evidently, Leibniz drew a parallel perception with respect to consciousness. However, he lacks clear distinction between conscious and unconscious vision. He initially has a clear care and uniformity to but his commitment lacks clear justification and perception. The Leibnizian theory only supports perception but at close range, there are fundamental divides between consciousness and unconsciousness.

He states, “Insensible perceptions are as important to [the science of minds, souls, and soul-like substances] as insensible corpuscles are to natural science, and it is just as unreasonable to reject the one as the other on the pretext that they are beyond the reach of our senses” (Jolley, 112, 2005).

Most philosophers illustrate the attitude that highly portrays rationalism as a problem on assumption that it ignores situations and nature of thoughts by indicating the world as a mere property of the reflecting mind. Merleau arguments on mind and body strongly reject this approach of rationalism/intellectualism.

Like Leibnitz, Merleau sets out his points to expose the problematic nature of dualism set by the traditional philosophers regarding the body and mind. He has a strong attention to the significance of the body in connection to the world, self and others.

This is a strong emphasis regarding the body’s ability to act independently rather than as influenced by other traits. He picks the problem of dualism in relation to the mind and body as a real problem, because when considering the body as an object links to consideration of the world as objective. Problems regarding the body are general to the whole outside world since it is entirely distinguishable from the philosophical area under discussion (Merleau-Ponty Maurice & Baldwin, 72, 2004).

Merleau criticizes the, philosophers who tend to ignore the situation regarding the delegation styles regarding contemplation. They disregard the world as an immanent property of a reflecting mind. This is illustrative of the traditional philosopher Descartes when he indicates that he is able to indentify people walking in the streets because of their ability to judge them as real men other than dressed ghosts or dummies.

He is able to understand through the sole power of judgement in the mind from what he believes to be passive (Merleau-Ponty Maurice & Baldwin, 10, 2004). This is a priority awarded to the mental above the physical state thus the support for dualism. This aspect lacks a touch over the problem of meaningful judgement.

Merleau refutes rationalism/intellectualism because of the implication of the cultural world as an illusion due to ignorance of the interconnection between the object and the act. Perception is not because of a single body organ but an act through relevant organs. From the philosophical point of view, Merleau lacks a simpler denial over the subjected cognitive relationship between the subject and object, but highly wishes to portray them as phenomenological primitive facts concerning body and mind.

“Empiricism cannot see that we need to know what we are looking for, otherwise we would not be looking for it, and intellectualism fails to see that we need to be ignorant of what we are looking for, or equally again we should not be searching” (Merleau-Ponty Maurice & Baldwin, 28, 2004). If the philosophers were able to constitute terms of duality relationally, then the philosopher would accept them since it would be a support to the “inter-individual world.”

Merleau would support the relation between subject and object through his suggestion that, “the demand for a pure description excludes equally the procedure of analytical reflection on the one hand, and that of scientific explanation on the other.” The discovery of the interior concerning the subject and object is achievable through avoidance of some of the earlier philosophical tendencies.

In close relation to Merleau-Ponty argument, today there are fundamental arguments forming divergence contained by the body, but indicate lack of thorough perception and subjectivity. If the embodied divergence causes the capacity for perception including language along with reflection, then similar divergence ensures that people are not able to overcome similar divergences entirely.

On a different perspective he indicates that people’s “reflection recuperates everything except itself as an effort of recuperation; it clarifies everything except its own role” (Merleau-Ponty Maurice & Baldwin, 72, 2004).

The counter arguments of dualism focus on quantum physics considering that consciousness and awareness has influence over body cells, which influence behaviour. The support upon consciousness as the key determinant of behaviour is an aspect that seems to sustain dualism where the action of the mind is determined by the consciousness, but end up blowing it up. This is for the reason that dualism argue for the existence of a soul and the value of freewill to accompany the soul.

Dualism supports that the mind works independently because in the cases of damage or alteration of its behaviour, awareness still detects functionality of the brain for instance, an altered personality due to illness. There need not to be any influence over awareness especially in distinction from the sensory organ. Awareness is different from memory or personality thus the fiction behind separation of awareness from the physical body.

Ashcraft, Richard. “John Locke: critical assessments, Volume 1.” Routledge Publishers.1991

Jolley, Nicholas. “Leibniz.” Routledge Publishers, 2005

Merleau-Ponty Maurice & Baldwin. “Merleau-Ponty: basic writings” Routledge Publishers.2004

Moyal, George. “Rene Descartes: Critical Assessments, Volume 1.” Routledge Publishers.1991

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The Importance of Physical Fitness: Body and Mind

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TOPIC SENTENCE/ In his numerous writings, Marx critiques capitalism by identifying its flaws. ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE/ By critiquing the political economy and capitalism, Marx implores his reader to think critically about their position in society and restores awareness in the proletariat class. EVIDENCE/ To Marx, capitalism is a system characterized by the “exploitation of the many by the few,” in which workers accept the exploitation of their labor and receive only harm of “alienation,” rather than true benefits ( MER 487). He writes that “labour produces for the rich wonderful things – but for the worker it produces privation. It produces palaces—but for the worker, hovels. It produces beauty—but for the worker, deformity” (MER 73). Marx argues capitalism is a system in which the laborer is repeatedly harmed and estranged from himself, his labor, and other people, while the owner of his labor – the capitalist – receives the benefits ( MER 74). And while industry progresses, the worker “sinks deeper and deeper below the conditions of existence of his own class” ( MER 483).  ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE/ But while Marx critiques the political economy, he does not explicitly say “capitalism is wrong.” Rather, his close examination of the system makes its flaws obvious. Only once the working class realizes the flaws of the system, Marx believes, will they - must they - rise up against their bourgeois masters and achieve the necessary and inevitable communist revolution.

Not every paragraph will be structured exactly like this one, of course. But as you draft your own paragraphs, look for all three of these elements: topic sentence, evidence, and analysis.

• picture_as_pdf Anatomy Of a Body Paragraph

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Body paragraphs: Moving from general to specific information

Your paper should be organized in a manner that moves from general to specific information. Every time you begin a new subject, think of an inverted pyramid - The broadest range of information sits at the top, and as the paragraph or paper progresses, the author becomes more and more focused on the argument ending with specific, detailed evidence supporting a claim. Lastly, the author explains how and why the information she has just provided connects to and supports her thesis (a brief wrap-up or warrant).

Moving from General to Specific Information

The four elements of a good paragraph (TTEB)

A good paragraph should contain at least the following four elements: T ransition, T opic sentence, specific E vidence and analysis, and a B rief wrap-up sentence (also known as a warrant ) –TTEB!

• A T ransition sentence leading in from a previous paragraph to assure smooth reading. This acts as a hand-off from one idea to the next.
• A T opic sentence that tells the reader what you will be discussing in the paragraph.
• Specific E vidence and analysis that supports one of your claims and that provides a deeper level of detail than your topic sentence.
• A B rief wrap-up sentence that tells the reader how and why this information supports the paper’s thesis. The brief wrap-up is also known as the warrant. The warrant is important to your argument because it connects your reasoning and support to your thesis, and it shows that the information in the paragraph is related to your thesis and helps defend it.

Supporting evidence (induction and deduction)

Induction is the type of reasoning that moves from specific facts to a general conclusion. When you use induction in your paper, you will state your thesis (which is actually the conclusion you have come to after looking at all the facts) and then support your thesis with the facts. The following is an example of induction taken from Dorothy U. Seyler’s Understanding Argument :

There is the dead body of Smith. Smith was shot in his bedroom between the hours of 11:00 p.m. and 2:00 a.m., according to the coroner. Smith was shot with a .32 caliber pistol. The pistol left in the bedroom contains Jones’s fingerprints. Jones was seen, by a neighbor, entering the Smith home at around 11:00 p.m. the night of Smith’s death. A coworker heard Smith and Jones arguing in Smith’s office the morning of the day Smith died.

Conclusion: Jones killed Smith.

Here, then, is the example in bullet form:

• Conclusion: Jones killed Smith
• Support: Smith was shot by Jones’ gun, Jones was seen entering the scene of the crime, Jones and Smith argued earlier in the day Smith died.
• Assumption: The facts are representative, not isolated incidents, and thus reveal a trend, justifying the conclusion drawn.

When you use deduction in an argument, you begin with general premises and move to a specific conclusion. There is a precise pattern you must use when you reason deductively. This pattern is called syllogistic reasoning (the syllogism). Syllogistic reasoning (deduction) is organized in three steps:

• Major premise
• Minor premise

In order for the syllogism (deduction) to work, you must accept that the relationship of the two premises lead, logically, to the conclusion. Here are two examples of deduction or syllogistic reasoning:

• Major premise: All men are mortal.
• Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
• Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
• Major premise: People who perform with courage and clear purpose in a crisis are great leaders.
• Minor premise: Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a clear purpose in a crisis.
• Conclusion: Lincoln was a great leader.

So in order for deduction to work in the example involving Socrates, you must agree that (1) all men are mortal (they all die); and (2) Socrates is a man. If you disagree with either of these premises, the conclusion is invalid. The example using Socrates isn’t so difficult to validate. But when you move into more murky water (when you use terms such as courage , clear purpose , and great ), the connections get tenuous.

For example, some historians might argue that Lincoln didn’t really shine until a few years into the Civil War, after many Union losses to Southern leaders such as Robert E. Lee.

The following is a clear example of deduction gone awry:

• Major premise: All dogs make good pets.
• Minor premise: Doogle is a dog.
• Conclusion: Doogle will make a good pet.

If you don’t agree that all dogs make good pets, then the conclusion that Doogle will make a good pet is invalid.

When a premise in a syllogism is missing, the syllogism becomes an enthymeme. Enthymemes can be very effective in argument, but they can also be unethical and lead to invalid conclusions. Authors often use enthymemes to persuade audiences. The following is an example of an enthymeme:

If you have a plasma TV, you are not poor.

The first part of the enthymeme (If you have a plasma TV) is the stated premise. The second part of the statement (you are not poor) is the conclusion. Therefore, the unstated premise is “Only rich people have plasma TVs.” The enthymeme above leads us to an invalid conclusion (people who own plasma TVs are not poor) because there are plenty of people who own plasma TVs who are poor. Let’s look at this enthymeme in a syllogistic structure:

• Major premise: People who own plasma TVs are rich (unstated above).
• Minor premise: You own a plasma TV.
• Conclusion: You are not poor.

To help you understand how induction and deduction can work together to form a solid argument, you may want to look at the United States Declaration of Independence. The first section of the Declaration contains a series of syllogisms, while the middle section is an inductive list of examples. The final section brings the first and second sections together in a compelling conclusion.

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How to Write the Body of an Essay | Drafting & Redrafting

Published on November 5, 2014 by Shane Bryson . Revised on July 23, 2023 by Shona McCombes.

The body is the longest part of an essay . This is where you lead the reader through your ideas, elaborating arguments and evidence for your thesis . The body is always divided into paragraphs .

You can work through the body in three main stages:

• Create an  outline of what you want to say and in what order.
• Write a first draft to get your main ideas down on paper.
• Write a second draft to clarify your arguments and make sure everything fits together.

This article gives you some practical tips for how to approach each stage.

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Table of contents

Start with an outline, write the first draft, write the second draft, other interesting articles.

Before you start, make a rough outline that sketches out the main points you want to make and the order you’ll make them in. This can help you remember how each part of the essay should relate to the other parts.

However, remember that  the outline isn’t set in stone – don’t be afraid to change the organization if necessary. Work on an essay’s structure begins before you start writing, but it continues as you write, and goes on even after you’ve finished writing the first draft.

While you’re writing a certain section, if you come up with an idea for something elsewhere in the essay, take a few moments to add to your outline or make notes on your organizational plans.

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Your goals in the first draft are to turn your rough ideas into workable arguments, add detail to those arguments, and get a sense of what the final product will actually look like.

Write strong body paragraphs

Start wherever you want

Many writers do not begin writing at the introduction , or even the early body paragraphs. Start writing your essay where it seems most natural for you to do so.

Some writers might prefer to start with the easiest section to write, while others prefer to get the most difficult section out of the way first. Think about what material you need to clarify for yourself, and consider beginning there.

Tackle one idea at a time

Each paragraph should aim to focus on one central idea, giving evidence, explanation, and arguments that relate to that idea.

At the start of each paragraph, write a topic sentence that expresses the main point. Then elaborate and expand on the topic sentence in the rest of the paragraph.

When you’ve said everything you have to say about the idea, move onto a new paragraph.

Keep your argument flexible

You may realize as you write that some of your ideas don’t work as well as you thought they would. Don’t give up on them too easily, but be prepared to change or abandon sections if you realize they don’t make sense.

You’ll probably also come up with new ideas that you’d not yet thought of when writing the outline. Note these ideas down and incorporate them into the essay if there’s a logical place for them.

If you’re stuck on one section, move on to another part of the essay and come back to it later.

Don’t delete content

If you begin to dislike a certain section or even the whole essay, don’t scrap it in fit of rage!

If something really isn’t working, you can paste it into a separate document, but keep what you have, even if you don’t plan on using it. You may find that it contains or inspires new ideas that you can use later.

Note your sources

Students often make work for themselves by forgetting to keep track of sources when writing drafts.

You can save yourself a lot of time later and ensure you avoid plagiarism by noting down the name, year, and page number every time you quote or paraphrase from a source.

You can also use a citation generator to save a list of your sources and copy-and-paste citations when you need them.

Avoid perfectionism

When you’re writing a first draft, it’s important not to get slowed down by small details. Get your ideas down on paper now and perfect them later. If you’re unsatisfied with a word, sentence, or argument, flag it in the draft and revisit it later.

When you finish the first draft, you will know which sections and paragraphs work and which might need to be changed. It doesn’t make sense to spend time polishing something you might later cut out or revise.

Working on the second draft means assessing what you’ve got and rewriting it when necessary. You’ll likely end up cutting some parts of the essay and adding new ones.

Check your ideas against your thesis

Everything you write should be driven by your thesis . Looking at each piece of information or argumentation, ask yourself:

• Does the reader need to know this in order to understand or accept my thesis?
• Does this give evidence for my thesis?
• Does this explain the reasoning behind my thesis?
• Does this show something about the consequences or importance of my thesis?

If you can’t answer yes to any of these questions, reconsider whether it’s relevant enough to include.

If your essay has gone in a different direction than you originally planned, you might have to rework your thesis statement to more accurately reflect the argument you’ve made.

Watch out for weak points

Be critical of your arguments, and identify any potential weak points:

• Unjustified assumptions: Can you be confident that your reader shares or will accept your assumptions, or do they need to be spelled out?
• Lack of evidence:  Do you make claims without backing them up?
• Logical inconsistencies:  Do any of your points contradict each other?
• Uncertainty: Are there points where you’re unsure about your own claims or where you don’t sound confident in what you’re saying?

Fixing these issues might require some more research to clarify your position and give convincing evidence for it.

Check the organization

When you’re happy with all the main parts of your essay, take another look at the overall shape of it. You want to make sure that everything proceeds in a logical order without unnecessary repetition.

Try listing only the topic sentence of each paragraph and reading them in order. Are any of the topic sentences too similar? Each paragraph should discuss something different; if two paragraphs are about the same topic, they must approach it in different ways, and these differences should be made clear in the topic sentences.

Does the order of information make sense? Looking at only topic sentences lets you see at a glance the route your paper takes from start to finish, allowing you to spot organizational errors more easily.

Draw clear connections between your ideas

Finally, you should assess how your ideas fit together both within and between paragraphs. The connections might be clear to you, but you need to make sure they’ll also be clear to your reader.

Within each paragraph, does each sentence follow logically from the one before it? If not, you might need to add new sentences to make the connections clear. Try using transition words to clarify what you want to say.

Between one paragraph and the next, is it clear how your points relate to one another? If you are moving onto an entirely new topic, consider starting the paragraph with a transition sentence that moves from the previous topic and shows how it relates to the new one.

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The Problem With Emily Ratajkowski’s My Body

The model and actor’s new book of essays is a fascinatingly solipsistic portrait of the tension between empowerment and objectification.

Rewatching the music video for “Blurred Lines,” the totemic Robin Thicke song, is an interesting project. In 2013, when it was released, the song spawned a new microeconomy of commentary denouncing it as a distillation of rape culture , or fretting over whether enjoying its jaunty hook was defensible . (“I know you want it,” Thicke croons presumptively over and over, even though honestly, no, I do not want it at all.) In the video, directed by the veteran Diane Martel, three models dressed in transparent thongs peacock and pose with a baffling array of props (a lamb, a banjo, a bicycle, a four-foot-long replica of a syringe) while Thicke, the producer and one of the co-writers Pharrell Williams, and the rapper T.I. dance, goofy and fully clothed, around them.

As an artifact of its time, it’s a remarkably deadened and nonsensical thing. But what most surprises me now is how pitiable the men seem, pulling at the models’ hair and playing air guitar for attention, less musical superstars than jejune dads who don’t exactly know what to do with the women they’ve paid to be naked. This is the raw power of the female body, and yet what kind of power is it, really? At one point, Thicke seems to push the model Emily Ratajkowski against a wall, hollering into her ear while she gazes away from him, a picture of barely suppressed disdain.

“Blurred Lines” instantly made Ratajkowski a star. She commands the video in both the PG-13 and unrated versions like a supernova, a vortex of pulchritude and screen presence and sticky red lip gloss. “They were the talent; we were more like props,” Ratajkowski writes of the men in her new book, My Body , and yet the women are the ones viewers can’t look away from. They’re so casual in their nudity, so composed, so unperturbed by the antics of the men objectifying them. Their sexuality seems to exist somehow outside the range of the camera’s gaze, outside the atmosphere of mortal men. But, of course, it doesn’t. In My Body , a collection of essays in which Ratajkowski scrutinizes the blessing and the curse of her physical self, she writes that Thicke groped her during filming that day, and that she said nothing; the incident was, in her eyes, a reminder of “how limited any woman’s power is when she survives and even succeeds in the world as a thing to be looked at.” (Thicke has not publicly responded to the allegations.)

This book is Ratajkowski’s attempt to come to terms with her existence as a person who is, in the words of Derek Zoolander, really, really ridiculously good-looking. This experience is, she knows, particularly fraught for women and girls. Starting in middle school, Ratajkowski writes, she received mixed messages about her body—whether it provoked offense or pleasure, was too big or too small, made her strong or vulnerable. Commodifying it as a model at first brought her satisfaction. She writes: “All women are objectified and sexualized to some degree, I figured, so I might as well do it on my own terms. I thought that there was power in my ability to choose to do so.” Now? She’s not so sure, but nor has she entirely changed her mind.

Read: The unending assaults on girlhood

My Body sits in this liminal space between reappraisal and self-defense. It’s a fascinating work: insightful, maddening, frank, strikingly solipsistic. Ratajkowski admits in her introduction that her awakening is still a half-finished one, and that the purpose of the book wasn’t “to arrive at answers” about the contradictions of selling her own image as a model, actor, and Instagram influencer with 28.5 million followers, but rather to “examine the various mirrors in which I’ve seen myself.” She senses, maybe, that she’s caught in an age-old quagmire (what the academic Sandra Bartky called “the disciplinary project of femininity”), but not that she’s become, by virtue of her fame and self-presentation, potentially complicit in the things she critiques. Writing, for Ratajkowski, seems to let her assert the fullness of her personhood and interiority, a rejection of the world’s determination to make her an object. But the narrowness of her focus—her physical self, essentially, and everything it’s meant for her—is limiting. Even her title, My Body , suggests conflicting things: ownership and depersonalization. What do you do when the subject you know best, the topic upon which you are the ultimate authority, is the same trap you’re trying to write your way out of?

The day I read most of this book was also the day that Ratajkowski uploaded to Instagram a series of photos published by the French magazine M . In the first, she holds a flesh-colored lollipop against her tongue. The third reveals her midriff, her nipple, and her leopard-patterned nails, but not her face. The cover line for the shoot reads: La Feminité à l’Offensive , with faux cils et ongles longs in smaller type, just to clarify that the aesthetic for the revolution is false eyelashes and long fingernails. Ratajkowski’s waist is tiny; her ribs are visible; her lips are pursed.

She has the right to find these pictures, this self-presentation, empowering. (“I love these images so much!” her caption reads.) But we also, as observers, have the right to interpret them—to wonder if doubling down on archaic tropes of female sexuality and the “tyranny of slenderness,” as Bartky put it, is actually good for anyone else. In her book’s epigraph, Ratajkowski pulls a quote on vanity from John Berger’s Ways of Seeing , a seminal BBC series and book that, among other things, crystallizes the bind women find themselves in as objects to be surveyed. The M pictorial made me think of a different Berger argument: Portraits are organized to reinforce the hierarchical status quo, and the women within them are arranged, he wrote, “to feed an appetite, not to have any of their own.” Whose appetite is the lollipop feeding? Does it matter?

Ratajkowski doesn’t say much in the book about how women and girls might respond to images of her. That myopia is frustrating, because she’s so astute on the subject of how her body is interpreted by men. The project that became My Body began as an essay published last year in New York . In “ Buying Myself Back ,” the magazine’s most read story of 2020 (not exactly a quiet news year), Ratajkowski wrote about being sued by a paparazzo who took a picture of her on the street after she subsequently posted the photo on her Instagram, and buying half a Richard Prince “Instagram painting” based on an image of herself. She also alleged that she was sexually assaulted by a photographer who later published a book of nude photos of her without her consent. (The photographer denied the accusations to New York , saying, “You do know who we are talking about right? This is the girl that was naked in Treats! magazine, and bounced around naked in the Robin Thicke video at that time. You really want someone to believe she was a victim?”)

The essay was bracing and sharp. It distilled in careful prose the absurdity and powerlessness of being a product in the internet age. “I have learned that my image, my reflection, is not my own,” Ratajkowski writes. To cope, she starts to think of herself in split form: the “real” Emily and the one whose picture is appropriated by men in ways she can’t control. If Marx were alive, he might refer her to his theory of alienation: Under capitalism, Ratajkowski has essentially lost control of the work she produces, and her sense of self is fragmenting as a result. (Even Marx might be stunned by the audacity of Prince charging $80,000 for a picture he ripped right off Instagram and modified merely with the addition of his own sleazy comment.)

That Ratajkowski’s response to so much injustice might be to seize back control (and the means of production) for herself is understandable. But burning down a house that you are still very much inside is hard, which is maybe why so much of the rest of My Body feels impotent. It’s less a rallying cry for structural change than a dispassionate series of observations by someone who still sees themselves primarily as a commodity. Its tone is measured and numb. In the essay “Bc Hello Halle Berry,” the author develops headaches during a stay in a luxury Maldives resort paid for by a Qatari billionaire (in return for some Instagram uploads). As she posts a photo of herself wearing a bikini from her own line, only slightly mollified by the hundreds of thousands of likes it receives in under an hour, she ponders the ethics of using her body for profit. “Money means power,” she thinks. “And by capitalizing on my sexuality I have money. The whole damn system is corrupt and anyone who participates is just as guilty as I am … I have to make a living somehow.”

Read: The dark side of fitness culture

It seems uncharitable to point out that she’s drawing a false dichotomy—that there are options in between trading pictures of herself for free vacations and starving on the street. But that’s not the point. The issue that kept sticking with me as I read was that Ratajkowski so clearly wants to have it all: ultimate control over the sale of her image; power; money, yes; but also kudos for being more than an object, for being able to lucidly communicate how much she’s suffered because of a toxic system—and is still suffering because of her ongoing participation. It is, as they say, a lot to ask.

To her credit, Ratajkowski seems to occasionally sense the innate hypocrisy of her desires, her impulse “to have my Instagram hustle, selling bikinis and whatever else, while also being respected for my ideas and politics and well, everything besides my body.” In the essay “Beauty Lessons,” a recollection of how her priorities and self-esteem were shaped in part by a mother with her own internalized misogyny, Ratajkowski recalls learning as a child that the suffering attractive women endure at the hands of the world “was actually a good thing, a consequence of being beautiful and having access to male attention.” The world, she realizes, “isn’t kind to women who are overlooked by men.” When she starts modeling, she can’t remember ever actually enjoying the process of it, but she does enjoy the money she’s able to make, and the things she can buy. But the industry and its nebulous edges also present new compromises. In the essay “Transactions,” Ratajkowski writes about being paid $25,000 in 2014 to go to the Super Bowl with a Malaysian financier, a deal brokered by her manager at the time. She’s troubled by the “unspoken task I’d been hired to perform: to entertain the men who had paid me to be there.” To be a beautiful woman, she seems to conclude, is to exist in the hustle between obligation and power, this particular “spectrum of compromise.”

Becoming an author allows her to reject this setup. Writing a book that’s effectively a literary portrait of your own physical self, though, is to risk reinforcing all the preconceptions anyone has ever had about you. Ratajkowski is a graceful and thoughtful writer, and as I read her book I longed for her to turn her gaze outward, to write an essay about marriage plots or coffee or landscape architecture or Scooby-Doo . Or, beyond that, I wanted her to risk fully indicting modeling as a paradigm—to not merely note that her career took off after she lost 10 pounds from stomach flu and kept the weight off, but to probe what looking at images of so many skinny bodies all day does to girls as delicate and unformed as her own teenage self. To wonder not just how the inherently flawed bargain of modeling has damaged her, but how it damages everyone. To risk letting herself feel or uncover something that might be a catalyst for not just observation, but transformation.

What would that kind of growth cost her? At the very least, perfection. In her final essay, “Releases,” Ratajkowski writes about how she has long resisted anger because she sensed that anger makes women physically repulsive. “I try to make anything resembling anger seem spunky and charming and sexy,” she writes. “I fold it into something small, tuck it away. I invoke my most reliable trick—I project sadness—something vulnerable and tender, something welcoming, a thing to be tended to.” Thinking about women’s emotions being modulated by the primacy of staying sexy isn’t exactly new, but it’s dismaying all the same. If Ratajkowski still can’t get angry, unpleasantly angry, even in writing, for fear of sacrificing her power, what about the rest of us?

​When you buy a book using a link on this page, we receive a commission. Thank you for supporting The Atlantic.

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How to Write the Perfect Body Paragraph

A body paragraph is any paragraph in the middle of an essay , paper, or article that comes after the introduction but before the conclusion. Generally, body paragraphs support the work’s thesis and shed new light on the main topic, whether through empirical data, logical deduction, deliberate persuasion, or anecdotal evidence. 

Some English teachers will tell you good writing has a beginning, middle, and end, but then leave it at that. And that’s true—almost all good writing follows an introduction-body-conclusion format. But what no one seems to talk about is that the vast majority of your writing will be middle . That puts a lot of significance on knowing how to write a body paragraph. 

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Don’t get us wrong—introductions and conclusions are crucial. They fulfill additional responsibilities of preparing the reader and sending them off with a lasting impression, which is why every good writer knows how to write an introduction and how to write a conclusion . But in terms of volume , body paragraphs comprise almost all of your work. 

We explain precisely how to write a body paragraph so your writing has substance through and through. After all, it’s what’s on the inside that counts! 

Structure of a body paragraph

Think of individual paragraphs as microcosms of the greater work; each paragraph has its own miniature introduction, body, and conclusion in the form of sentences. 

Let’s break it down. A good body paragraph contains the following four elements, some of which you may recognize from our ultimate guide to paragraphs :

• Transitions: These are a few words at the beginning or end of a paragraph that connect the body paragraph to the others, creating a coherent flow throughout the entire piece.
• Topic sentence: A sentence—almost always the first sentence—introduces what the entire paragraph is about. 
• Supporting sentences: These make up the “body” of your body paragraph, with usually one to three sentences that develop and support the topic sentence’s assertion with evidence, logic, persuasive opinion, or expert testimonial. 
• Conclusion (Summary): This is your paragraph’s concluding sentence, summing up or reasserting your original point in light of the supporting evidence. 

To understand how these components make up a body paragraph, let’s look at a sample from literary icon Kurt Vonnegut Jr. In it, he himself looks to other literary phenoms William Shakespeare and James Joyce. The following sample comes from Vonnegut’s essay “ How to write with style .” It’s a great example of how a body paragraph supports the thesis, which in this case is: To write well, “keep it simple.” 

As for your use of language: Remember that two great masters of language, William Shakespeare and James Joyce, wrote sentences which were almost childlike when their subjects were most profound. “To be or not to be?” asks Shakespeare’s Hamlet. The longest word is three letters long. Joyce, when he was frisky, could put together a sentence as intricate and as glittering as a necklace for Cleopatra, but my favorite sentence in his short story “Eveline” is this one: “She was tired.” At that point in the story, no other words could break the heart of a reader as those three words do.

In this sample, Vonnegut demonstrates the four main elements of body paragraphs in a way that makes it easy to identify them. Let’s take a closer look at each.  

As for your use of language: 

Rather than opening the paragraph with an abrupt change of topic, Vonnegut uses a simple, even generic, transition that softy guides the reader into a new conversation. The point of transitions is to remove any jarring distractions when moving from one paragraph to the next. They don’t need to be complicated; sometimes a quick phrase like “on the other hand” or even a single word like “however” will suffice. 

Topic sentence

Remember that two great masters of language, William Shakespeare and James Joyce, wrote sentences which were almost childlike when their subjects were most profound. 

Here, Vonnegut puts forth his main point, that even the greatest writers sometimes use simple language to convey complex ideas—the thesis of this particular body paragraph.  

Supporting sentences

“To be or not to be?” asks Shakespeare’s Hamlet. The longest word is three letters long. Joyce, when he was frisky, could put together a sentence as intricate and as glittering as a necklace for Cleopatra, but my favorite sentence in his short story “Eveline” is this one: “She was tired.” 

To support his thesis, Vonnegut pulls two direct quotes from respected writers and then dissects the wording to support his initial claim. Notice how there are a few different sentences with each exploring their own points, but they all relate to and support the paragraph’s main thesis. 

At that point in the story, no other words could break the heart of a reader as those three words do.

Vonnegut ends the paragraph with a pithy statement claiming that complex language would have been less effective, reaffirming his central claim that great writers know simple language works best. 

How to start a body paragraph

Often the hardest sentence to write, the first sentence of your body paragraph should act as the topic sentence, introducing the main point of the entire paragraph. Also known as the “paragraph leader,” the topic sentence opens the discussion with an underlying claim (or sometimes a question). 

After reading the opening sentence, the reader should know, in no uncertain terms, what the rest of the paragraph is about. That’s why topic sentences should always be clear, concise, and to the point. Avoid distractions or tangents—there will be time for elaboration in the supporting sentences. At times you can be coy and mysterious to build suspense, opening with a question that ultimately gets answered later in the paragraph. Nonetheless, you should still reveal enough information to set the stage for the rest of the sentences. 

More often than not, your first sentence should also contain a transition to bridge the gap from the preceding paragraph. Under special circumstances, you may also put a transition at the end of the sentence, but in general, putting it at the beginning is better for readability. 

Don’t let transitions intimidate you; they can be quite simple and even easy to apply. Usually, a single word or short phrase will do the job. Just be careful not to overuse the same transitions one after another. To help expand your transitional vocabulary, our guide to connecting sentences collects some of the most common transition words and phrases for inspiration. 

How to end a body paragraph

Likewise, the concluding sentence to your body paragraph holds extra weight. Because the reader takes a momentary pause at the end of each paragraph, that last sentence will “echo” just a bit longer in their minds while their eyes find the beginning of the next paragraph. You can take advantage of those extra milliseconds to leave a lasting impression on your reader. 

In form, your concluding sentence should summarize the thesis of your topic sentence while incorporating the supporting evidence—in other words, it should wrap things up. 

It’s useful to end on a meaningful or even emotional point to encourage the reader to reflect on what was discussed. Vonnegut’s conclusion from our sample makes a strong and forceful statement, invoking heartbreak (“break the heart”) and using absolute language (“no other words”). Powerful language like this might be too climactic for the supporting sentences, but in a conclusion, it fits perfectly. 

How to write a body paragraph

First and foremost, double-check that your body paragraph supports the main thesis of the entire piece, much like the paragraph’s supporting sentences support the topic sentence. Don’t forget your body paragraph’s place in the greater work. 

When it comes to actually writing a body paragraph, as always we recommend planning out what you want to say beforehand, which is a good reason to learn how to write an outline . Crafting a good body paragraph involves organizing your supporting sentences in the optimal order—but you can’t do that if you don’t know what those sentences will be! 

A lot of times, your supporting sentences will dictate their own logical progression, with one naturally leading into the next, as is often the case when building an argument. Other times, you’ll have to make a choice about which evidence to present first and last, as Vonnegut did when choosing between his Shakespeare and Joyce examples. Also as with Vonnegut’s example, your choice of conclusion may help determine the best order. 

This can be a lot of take in, especially if you’re still learning the fundamentals of writing. Luckily, you don’t have to do it alone! Grammarly offers suggestions beyond spelling and grammar, helping you hone clarity, tone, and conciseness in your writing. With Grammarly, ensure your writing is clear, engaging, and polished, wherever you type.

Human Body Essay

Introduction.

It is surprising to see how a human body functions with maximum capability. Whether we are talking, walking or seeing, there are distinct parts in our body that are destined to perform a particular function. The importance of each part is discussed in this human body essay. When we feel tired, we often take a rest and lie down for a moment. But our body continues to work, even when we take a break. Even if you are tired, your heart will not stop beating. It pumps blood and transports nutrients to your body.

The human body is made up of many parts and organs that work together to sustain life in our body. No organ or body part is more important than the other, and if you ignore one of them, then the whole body will be in pain. So, let us teach the significance of different parts of the body to our children through this essay on human body parts in English. To explore other exciting content for kids learning , head to our website.

Different Systems in the Human Body

The human body looks very simple from the outside with hands, legs, face, eyes, ears and so on. But, there is a more complex and significant structure inside the body that helps us to live. The human body is made up of many small structures like cells, tissues, organs and systems. It is covered by the skin, beneath which you could find muscles, veins, and blood. This structure is formed on the base of a skeleton, which consists of many bones. All these are arranged in a specific way to help the body function effectively. In this human body essay, we will see the different systems in the human body and their functions.

The circulatory system, respiratory system, digestive system and nervous system are the main systems of the human body. Each system has different organs, and they function together to accomplish several tasks. The circulatory system consists of organs like the heart, blood and blood vessels, and its main function is to pump blood from the heart to the lungs and carry oxygen to different parts of the body.

Next, we will understand the importance of the respiratory system through this human body essay in English. The respiratory system enables us to breathe easily, and it includes organs like the lungs, airways, windpipe, nose and mouth. While the digestive system helps in breaking down the food we eat and gives the energy to work with the help of organs like the mouth, food pipe, stomach, intestines, pancreas, liver, and anus, the nervous system controls our actions, thoughts and movements. It mainly consists of organs like the brain, spinal cord and nerves.

All these systems are necessary for the proper functioning of the human body, which is discussed in this essay on human body parts in English. By inculcating good eating habits, maintaining proper hygiene and doing regular exercises, we can look after our bodies. You can refer to more essays for kids on our website.

Frequently Asked Questions on Human Body Essay

Why should we take care of our bodies.

Most of the tasks we do like walking, running, eating etc., are only possible if we have a healthy body. To ensure we have a healthy body, all the systems must function properly, which is determined by our lifestyle and eating habits. Only a healthy body will have a healthy mind, and hence, we must take good care of our bodies.

What are some of the body parts and their functions?

We see with our eyes, listen with our ears, walk with our legs, touch with our hands, breathe through our nose and taste with our tongue.

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A Level Philosophy & Religious Studies

Mind, body and soul summary notes

OCR Philosophy

This page contains summary revision notes for the Mind, Body & Soul topic. There are two versions of these notes. Click on the A*-A grade tab, or the B-C grade tab, depending on the grade you are trying to get.

Find the full revision page here.

Plato’s view of the soul

• Plato is a dualist – the view that the mind/soul and the body are different types of thing/existence.
• Plato thinks the world of forms is the real world and this physical world, including our body, is not the real world.
• So, really we are a soul, not a body.
• Plato’s argument from recollection – we have ideas of perfect things – like a perfect circle or perfect justice – but we have never seen a perfect circle or perfect goodness.
• So, we must have got these ideas from the world of forms – where there are perfect forms of circles and goodness.
• So, there must be a part of us – our soul – which was in the world of forms before we were born.
• We now have a dim recollection of those perfect forms, explaining our knowledge of perfect concepts.
• Hume claims we can actually invent the idea of perfection ourselves – even though we haven’t experienced it.
• We take our idea of imperfect beauty or imperfect circles that we have experienced, and simply imagine them without the imperfection – to arrive at the idea of perfection. 
• So, just because we haven’t experienced perfection, doesn’t require the existence of a soul or realm of forms to explain how we got the idea. 
• So, Plato’s argument for the soul seems to fail

Evaluation:

• It’s hard to really tell for sure whether Hume is right about how we got our idea of perfection. 
• However, his theory is a simpler explanation. We can use Ockham’s razor to justify accepting Hume’s theory. This claims that we are justified in believing the simplest explanation that works. Plato’s realm of forms idea is an unnecessary hypothesis.

Aristotle’s materialist view of the soul

• Aristotle thought plato was wrong to think that ‘form’ existed in another world.
• Actually, form is an inseparable part of objects – it is their ‘formal cause’ – e.g. the shape of a chair.
• Aristotle believed in a soul – but thought it was the formal cause of the body.
• For humans, our soul gives us rational thought.
• A thing’s formal cause is its defining feature/essence – which for humans is reason.
• So, the soul is the formal cause of the body
• Stamp in wax analogy – soul is like the imprint left by the stamp, the wax is like the body.
• The soul has no separate existence in itself – it can’t be separated from the body, but it does give form (rational thought in our case) to the body.
• Modern science would reject the idea of formal causation – Francis Bacon argued that only material and efficient causation are scientifically valid.
• There are only material atoms and other particles, and efficient forces operating on them.
• Aristotle thought that rational thought must be our ‘form’ – but modern science would say rational thought is just the result of the material and efficient causation going on in brain processes.
• Rational thoughts are just neuronal activity.
• So, there is no basis for belief in a soul, even of Aristotle’s description.
• This critique from Bacon is successful because modern science has been seen to powerfully explain so much of the world.
• It doesn’t fully yet understand the brain, but it’s reasonable to expect that once it does we will have a full understanding of how the mind works. 
• So, it’s reasonable to conclude that there is nothing more to being human than being a particular collection & structure of atoms. 
• There’s nothing additional that could make up or provide justification for belief in anything like a soul.

Descartes’ view of the soul

• Descartes thought the mind and soul were the same thing.
• Descartes was a dualist – a substance dualist – he thought that the mind and body were distinct substances – meaning distinct fundamental types of existence.
• The Indivisibility argument
• P1. Physical substance is divisible (since it’s extended).
• P2. The mind is indivisible (since it’s non-extended).
• P3. Leibniz’ law is that identical things must have the same properties.
• C1. The mind therefore cannot be identical with any physical substance, such as the body.
• This argument uses Leibniz’ law: that identical things must have the same properties. The physical has the property of being divisible but the mental does not. If the body and mind were identical, then that one identical thing would be both divisible and indivisible, which is impossible. Therefore, the mind and body are not identical.
• At the time, Descartes was criticised with the argument that the mind can be divided into feelings, thoughts, memories, etc. However this criticism misunderstands what Descartes means by the mind. He means consciousness – our sense of awareness. This seems indivisible. 
• A stronger criticism is the modern evidence of split-brain patients. 
• The human brain has two hemispheres which are connected by a single band of neurons. The right hemisphere controls the left arm, and the left hemisphere controls the right arm. Sometimes as a treatment for epilepsy, doctors cut the connecting neurons, separating the two hemispheres.
• In patients who have undergone that procedure, it appears that their mind has been divided into two.
• For example, one patient would pick up food with one hand, and then the other hand would hit it out of that hand. 
• Another patient was with his wife and one hand reached out to hug her, the other hand to push her away.
• So, this is good evidence that Descartes is wrong to think the mind cannot be divided.
• It is good evidence that the mind is the brain and if you divide the brain, you divide the mind.

Descartes’ 2nd argument: conceivability argument

• Things that are identical cannot be imagined as separate – e.g. you can’t imagine a triangle separate from three sides.
• Descartes says he can imagine the mind without a body.
• E.g. imagine being a ghost walking through walls
• If we can imagine the mind without the body, that shows it’s possible for the mind to exist without the body.
• So, the mind cannot be identical to the body.
• So, the mind and body are separate.
• The masked man fallacy shows that we actually can imagine impossible things.
• If someone hears about a masked man robbing a bank – they can imagine that it’s not their father – but if it really was their father, they just imagined the impossible.
• So, when Descartes says he can imagine the mind without the body, that doesn’t prove that it’s possible for the mind to exist without the body – it doesn’t prove that they aren’t identical.
• The person in the masked man fallacy story imagined a possibility where in reality there was none. Descartes could be doing the same when he imagines the mind separate to the body.
• Descartes could be imagining something impossible in that case.
• So, Descartes’ argument fails to prove that the mind and body are separate substances.

G. Ryle’s ‘category error’ critique of dualism

• Ryle rejected dualism as making what he called a ‘category error’.
• A category error is when you talk about a concept as if it belonged to a category that it doesn’t belong to.
• E.g. if I was to ask ‘what is the colour of twenty’ – that is a category error, treating the concept ‘twenty’ as if it belonged to the category of ‘things which have a colour’.
• Ryle illustrated this with someone being shown round a university – saying that they see the physics building and the biology building but then saying they want to be shown the university now! They have mistakenly put ‘university’ into the category of ‘individual buildings’ when really the university is in the category of ‘collection of buildings’.
• Descartes’ arguments essentially work by saying that the mind/soul is not like a physical thing. It’s not divisible, for example. 
• Descartes thinks this shows the mind is not in the category of ‘physical things’ so Descartes concludes that it must be in the category of ‘non-physical things’.
• However, Ryle objects that Descartes assumes that the mind must be in the category of ‘things’ and that since it’s not a physical thing, it must be a non-physical thing.
• But this assumes that the mind must be a thing!
• Ryle is influenced by verificationism (though he isn’t strictly a verificationist..). Verificationists argued the mind itself is meaningless except insofar as it manifests in behaviour which is scientifically observable. 
• This prompts Ryle to conclude the mind is not a thing – he thinks it is a set of dispositions towards certain behaviours.
• Ryle is a ‘soft’ behaviourist – he thinks language about the mind is only valid when explained in terms of behavioural dispositions.
• Talking about the mind is only valid when talking about it in terms of behavioural dispositions.
• E.g. if I say someone is ‘angry’ what that really means is that they are disposed to raising their voice and shaking their first.
• Talking about the mind as if it were a ‘thing’ is like suggesting there is a ghost in the machine of our body – Ryle rejects that as unscientific nonsense.
• Descartes has thus mistakenly put the mind in the category of ‘things’ and concluded that since it’s not a physical thing, it must be a non-physical thing. His mistake was to think it must be a thing at all. 
• Ryle makes an analogy with the brittleness of glass. This refers to the disposition of the glass to behave a certain way under certain conditions. 
• Think about how Descartes’ arguments apply to brittleness. Where is the brittleness of the glass? Is it divisible? Clearly not – but Descartes thought that in the case of the mind, that showed the mind must be a non-physical thing. Clearly when applied to brittleness though, we aren’t tempted to think brittleness is a non-physical thing, because we recognise it is not a thing – it is a disposition. Ryle concludes the same about the mind.
• Ryle’s claim that the mind is not a ‘thing’ seems extreme. My mind ‘feels’ like a thing – it seems that my mind exists as a thing. Ryle, like most behaviourists, is counter-intuitive in going against the common-sense view of the mind as a real thing that exists.
• Ryle may not be a verificationist strictly speaking, but he still relies on their approach that it’s scientifically invalid to talk about the mind by itself. This has come to be regarded as an overly-restrictive extreme form of empiricism.
• It may be difficult to scientifically analyse the mind, but that doesn’t justify reducing it to merely a set of behavioural dispositions.

Dawkins’ view of the soul

• Dawkins is a scientist. He claims there is no scientific evidence for the soul. He thinks we are just DNA and flesh and bones – there is nothing to being a human being other than physical matter.
• He thinks people make up the idea of a soul because they are afraid to die.
• He says the only valid way to talk about a soul is metaphorically. 
• He points out the dictionary has two definitions of a soul – soul 1 is the literal view of a soul – that actually exists as a part of us. He rejects that.
• Soul 2 is the metaphorical view. Dawkins thinks it’s fine to use the word metaphorically to refer to our deep human feelings and our humanity.
• E.g. if I said ‘that is a soul-less person’ – that would be metaphorical. This doesn’t mean souls actually exist, the word ‘soul’ is just a metaphor.
• Dawkins thinks the mind is just the brain and that’s all. When you die, you cease to exist.
• David Chalmers distinguishes between ‘the easy problem of consciousness’ and ‘the hard problem of consciousness’ 
• The ‘easy problem of consciousness’ means figuring out which brain process is responsible for which mental process such as memory, perception or emotion. 
• The ‘hard problem of consciousness’ refers to what brain process is responsible for consciousness itself. 
• Chalmers says that neuroscience has helped with solving the easy problem of consciousness but it hasn’t even begun to explain the hard problem of consciousness. 
• So, scientists like Dawkins can’t claim to know that consciousness is just a physical bodily thing, since science doesn’t currently have a scientific explanation of consciousness. 
• Dawkins is premature in his dismissal of a non-physical aspect to our existence.
• Chalmers could be right. However, it’s still more reasonable to expect that science will one day fully explain consciousness.
• This is because there’s still so much about the brain that science is yet to discover. 
• If science fully understood the brain, but still didn’t understand consciousness, that would be a problem for Dawkins.
• However it’s more reasonable to expect that the explanation of consciousness resides in the as of yet unexplored part of our understanding of the brain.

Plato’s dualism

Critique of the argument from recollection

• Arguably there is no such thing as perfect goodness – what someone thinks is good depends on their culture.
• Perfect goodness will mean different things to different people.
• So, there cannot be a perfect form of goodness – so his argument for the soul fails. 

Aristotle’s view of the soul

• Aristotle is a materialist – thinks only one type of thing exists – material/physical things. 
• But he still believes in a soul as part of our material body – the soul is the ‘form’ of the body.
• The soul is what gives our body rational thought.
• It’s not a separate thing to our body – it is the form of our physical body.
• Stamp in wax analogy – the body is like wax and the soul is like the imprint in wax left by the stamp. 
• The imprint is not a separate unique thing itself – it is just the form the wax has. Same goes for the soul.

Modern science’s rejection of formal causation

• Modern scientists would reject Aristotle’s theory. They would say the body is just material structure – there it has no ‘form’.
• Rational thought is just caused by brain processes, we don’t need the idea of form, so we don’t need the idea of a soul.

Descartes’ substance dualism

• Descartes is a substance dualist. A substance is a type of existence that cannot be broken down into anything else.
• He thinks the soul is our conscious mind. The mind (mental substance) is a different type of substance to the body (physical substance).
• His arguments for this claim that the mind does not seem like a physical thing.
• Physical things can be divided, but the mind cannot be divided. The mind doesn’t really have a location.
• So, the mind cannot be a physical thing.

Responses to Descartes

• The interaction problem – if the mind and body are such separate types of thing – how come they are able to interact with each other? When I have a desire to move my arm, my arm then moves. It looks like my mind caused my body to move – but how can a non-physical thing causally affect a physical thing?

Ryle’s category mistake critique of Descartes

• Ryle is a materialist who doesn’t believe a soul exists and thinks there isn’t anything non-physical about the mind.
• Ryle criticises Descartes’ theory by calling it the theory of the ‘ghost in the machine’.
• Descartes argument is that because the mind is not a physical thing, it must be a non-physical thing.
• However – Ryle says Descartes has not realised that there’s another option.
• The mind might not be a thing at all…
• Descartes has made a ‘category mistake’. He has put the mind in the category of ‘things’ when it might not be in that category.
• Ryle illustrates this with someone being shown round a university who says they have seen the physics building and the biology building etc, but now they want to be shown the university! This person has made a category mistake – they haven’t realised that the term ‘university’ belongs to the category of ‘collection of buildings’ rather than ‘individual building’.

Critique of Ryle

• Ryle is saying that the mind is not really a ‘thing’ – it’s not in the category of ‘things’ – but this doesn’t feel right, my mind does feel like a thing.

Dawkins’ scientific rejection of the soul and metaphorical view of it

• Dawkins is a materialist and scientist 
• He argues that our current scientific view of what we are is that we are merely material physical beings composed of DNA. That is there is scientific evidence for, so we shouldn’t believe in anything supernatural as a soul. 
• He said that there are two types of soul – one is valid (metaphorical) and one is invalid (literal).
• Soul 1 is the view that the soul is a real thing separate from our body, which Dawkins does not agree with due to lack of evidence. 
• Soul 2 is a metaphorical idea of the soul, as a metaphor for the deep part of our mind and personally where the essence of our humanity is. 
• For example, someone who doesn’t believe in a soul might say “I felt that in my soul” or “Hitler was a soulless person”. They are just using the term ‘soul’ metaphorically for our deep important human feelings, not for some non-physical part of soul 1. Dawkins thinks that everything about us, including our minds and consciousness, is nothing more than biological processes in our body and brain. 
• It’s not valid to think the soul ‘literally’ exists, it’s only valid to use the word metaphorically to describe deep human feelings.

Chalmers as a response to Dawkins (criticises Dawkins) 

• He distinguishes between ‘the easy problem of consciousness’ and ‘the hard problem of consciousness’ 
• So, scientists like Dawkins can’t claim to know that consciousness is just a physical bodily thing, since science doesn’t currently have a scientific explanation of consciousness.

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How Substance Abuse Changed my Life

How it works

Substance abuse really messes up your life. It hits your physical health, your mind, your relationships, and even your money situation. My own run-in with substance abuse started in my late teens. Friends got me into alcohol and recreational drugs at parties. At first, it was just for fun and to fit in. But what started as a once-in-a-while thing quickly turned into a habit I couldn’t shake. These substances became my go-to for dealing with stress and insecurities. But soon enough, they took over my life.

I lost control of my actions and decisions, and those substances started calling the shots. I ended up facing a lot of negative stuff I never saw coming.

The physical damage from substance abuse showed up in a bunch of ways. My once healthy body went downhill because I stopped caring about eating right and getting enough sleep. I got sick a lot, my immune system got weak, and I lost a ton of weight. All the substances really hurt my liver and other important organs, causing long-term health problems I still deal with today. I looked different too—pale skin, sunken eyes, and just an overall unhealthy look that freaked out everyone around me. Seeing myself like that was a harsh reminder of how much I’d changed. But it wasn’t just my body. My mental health took a nosedive too. Depression, anxiety, and paranoia became my daily companions. The substances that once helped me escape reality turned into chains that kept me stuck in a miserable life.

My relationships with family and friends took a huge hit because of my substance abuse. I became someone they couldn’t rely on, always lying to hide my addiction. Trust was shattered, and many close relationships fell apart. My family, who used to be proud of me, started seeing me as a constant source of worry and disappointment. Friends began to distance themselves as I got more erratic and unpredictable. This isolation only pushed me deeper into substance abuse. I started hanging out with people who encouraged my addiction, creating a toxic environment that kept feeding my destructive habits. The supportive community I once had was gone, replaced by folks who were just as lost as I was.

The financial impact of my substance abuse was a nightmare. I couldn’t keep a job because I was so unreliable and often absent. Financial stability? Forget about it. Most of my money went on substances. Debts piled up, and I couldn’t hold onto a job, leading to a downward spiral that felt impossible to break. I faced eviction and had to rely on others for a place to stay. The financial stress added to my anxiety, creating a vicious cycle that made me rely even more on substances. It was a never-ending struggle to get my next fix while dealing with the fallout of my addiction.

Getting clean has been the hardest but most rewarding thing I’ve ever done. The first step was realizing just how deep my problem went. I reached out to support groups, went to therapy, and checked into rehab. The road to sobriety was full of relapses and setbacks, but my determination to take back my life kept me going. Support from family and friends, who had once pulled away, started coming back as they saw I was serious about changing. Bit by bit, I began to rebuild my health, fix broken relationships, and regain my self-esteem. Recovery taught me resilience, self-awareness, and the importance of having a strong support system. Today, as I continue my journey of sobriety, I’m grateful for the chance to live a healthier and more fulfilling life. Substance abuse really turned my life upside down, but it also showed me the strength I had inside to overcome challenges and find a path to healing and redemption.

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