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The impact of 5G on the evolution of intelligent automation and industry digitization

• Original Research
• Published: 21 February 2021
• Volume 14 , pages 5977–5993, ( 2023 )

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• Mohsen Attaran   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0358-4107 1  

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The mobile industry is developing and preparing to deploy the fifth-generation (5G) networks. The evolving 5G networks are becoming more readily available as a significant driver of the growth of IoT and other intelligent automation applications. 5G’s lightning-fast connection and low-latency are needed for advances in intelligent automation—the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), driverless cars, digital reality, blockchain, and future breakthroughs we haven’t even thought of yet. The advent of 5G is more than just a generational step; it opens a new world of possibilities for every tech industry. The purpose of this paper is to do a literature review and explore how 5G can enable or streamline intelligent automation in different industries. This paper reviews the evolution and development of various generations of mobile wireless technology underscores the importance of 5G revolutionary networks, reviews its key enabling technologies, examines its trends and challenges, explores its applications in different manufacturing industries, and highlights its role in shaping the age of unlimited connectivity, intelligent automation, and industry digitization.

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Purpose Claims about a supposed link between 5G and COVID-19 have been circulating the Internet, arguing that global elites were using 5G to spread the virus. It is needless to say that there’s no evidence to support the theory that 5G networks cause COVID-19 or contribute to its spread. The purpose of this research is to do a literature review and explore the practical implications of 5G revolutionary networks technology for growing industry digitization and intelligent automation.

Practical Implications 5G networks are at the very early stages of adoption. Based on the business applications presented in this paper, practitioners will learn 5G business potentials, challenges addressed by 5G, drivers for change, barriers to entry, and critical areas of concern regarding the adaptation of 5G technologies into their organizations. 

Originality/Value This paper examines the essential roles 5G plays in the success of different industries, including IoT, the auto industry and smart cars, manufacturing and smart factories, smart grids, and smart cities, and healthcare. It discusses how 5G will be critical for growing industry digitization and for addressing the numerous challenges different manufacturing industries will face in this rapidly changing landscape. Finally, this paper presents the crucial role that 5G will play in providing a competent platform to support the widespread adoption of critical communications services and driving the digitization and automation of industrial practices and processes of Industry 4.0.

Research Limitations Although the journey towards 5G networks has already begun, there have been very few reported examples of the business benefits realized by leading-edge manufacturing companies resulting from this new technology. This shortage of reporting has led to incomplete data with effects that are often anecdotal and notably, not thoroughly tested. There are only a few papers published in peer-reviewed academic journals or written as academic working papers exploring the advantages and limitations of firms implementing 5G technologies. This paper is a critical early academic contribution to a field dominated by the narratives and promises of consultants.

1 The evolution of cellular wireless networks

Cellular wireless networks have come a long way since the first 1G system was introduced in 1981, with a new mobile generation appearing approximately every 10 years (Pathak 2013 ; Mishra 2018 ). In the past 30 years, the mobile industry has transformed society through 4 or 5 generations of technology revolution and evolution, namely 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G networking technologies (Fig.  1 ). 1G gave us a mass-market mobile telephony. 2G brought global interoperability and reliable mobile telephony and made SMS text messaging possible. 3G gave us high-speed data transfer capability for downloading information from the Internet. 4G provided a significant improvement in data capability and speed and made online platforms and high-speed mobile internet services available for the masses. 5G technology will be the most powerful cellular wireless networks with extraordinary data capabilities, unrestricted call volumes, and infinite data broadcast (Pathak 2013 ; GSMA 2017 ; Mishra 2018 ).

The evolution of mobile communications

The following section describes each cellular network generation in more detail.

1G -A nalog Cellular Networks The first commercially automated 1G cellular network was launched in Japan by NTT in 1979 and in the US by Bell Labs in 1984. 1G networks were based on analog protocols with the speed of only 2.4 Kbps (1 kilobit = 1000 bits) and were designed for voice only. 1G enabled the use of multiple cell sites, and the ability to transfer calls from one site to the next as the user traveled between cells during a conversation. 1G has several disadvantages, including low capacity, unreliable handoff, and weak voice links. The first phones, which were based on analog technology, were very large. Voice calls were played back in radio towers, making these calls susceptible to unwanted eavesdropping by third parties (Bhalla and Bhalla 2010 ; Mishra 2018 ).

2G - Digital Networks The second-generation (2G) wireless networks were launched in the early 1990 s and were based on digital standards instead of analog. 2G digital networks enabled rapid phone-to-network signaling and helped the advent of prepaid mobile phones. Additionally, 2G made SMS text messaging possible initially on GSM networks and eventually on all digital networks. Other advantages of 2G digital networks include reduced battery power consumption, voice clarity, and reduced noise in the line. Digital encryption provided secrecy and safety to the data and voice calls. Finally, digital signals are considered environment friendly (Bhalla and Bhalla 2010 ; Mishra 2018 ).

3G - High-Speed Data Networks The third-generation (3G) wireless networks were introduced in 1998 to provide high-speed data transfer capability for downloading information from the Internet and for sending videos with the speed of 2 Mbps (1Mbit = 1000 kbit). 3G technology uses a network of phone towers to pass signals, ensuring a stable connection over long distances. 3G systems provided a significant improvement in capability over the 2G networks by using packet switching rather than circuit switching for data transmission. The high connection speeds of 3G technology-enabled media streaming of radio and even television content to 3G handsets. The technology also provided Video-conferencing support and Web browsing at higher speeds (Pathak 2013 ; Bhalla and Bhalla 2010 ; Mishra 2018 ). According to some estimates, 3G offers a real-world maximum speed of 7.2 Mbps for downloads and 2 Mbps for uploads. In the mid-2000s, an enhanced 3G mobile telephony communications protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also coined 3.5G, 3G + or turbo 3G was implemented. 3G + allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity (Mishra 2018 ).

4G — Growth of Mobile Broadband The fourth-generation (4G) wireless networks were commercially deployed in the United States by Verizon in 2011, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. Standard 4G has download speeds of around 14 Mbps and can reach speeds as high as 150 Mbps. 4G networks are IP-based (Internet protocol). It uses IP even for voice data. It uses a standard communications protocol to send and receive data in packets. Using these standardized packets, 4G enables data to traverse all sorts of networks without being scrambled or corrupted. 4G networking technology is an extension of 3G technology with more bandwidth and services and with high-quality audio/video streaming capabilities. 4G provides a significant improvement in data capability and speed over the 3G systems with the data transfer speed of 100 Mbps. 4G systems eliminated circuit switching, and instead employed an all-IP network designed primarily for data. 4G enabled users to browse the web and stream HD videos on mobile devices. The 4G network allows users to download gigabytes of data in minutes or even seconds. The technology turned smartphones into the computers of the modern age (Pathak 2013 ; Bhalla and Bhalla 2010 ; Mishra 2018 ).

5G—Design Innovation Across Diverse Services The fifth-generation (5G) network, with the speed of 1–10 Gbps (1Gbit = 1000 Mbit), denotes the next major phase of mobile telecommunications standards beyond the current 4G Long Term Evolution (LTE). 5G systems are promised to be in the market by the end of 2019. 5G technology offers extraordinary data capabilities and unlimited data broadcast within the latest mobile operating systems. Other features of 5G networks are enhanced mobile broadband, dynamic low latency, wider bandwidths, device-centric mobility, simultaneous redundant, and reliable-device-to-device links (Bhalla and Bhalla 2010 ; Mishra 2018 ).

2 Key features of 5G networks

5G networks provide lower prices, lower battery consumption, and lower latency than 4G wireless networks. It is because 5G uses Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) networks with higher band breadth at low energy levels. Band breadth is 4000 Mbps, which is four hundred times faster than 4G wireless networks. 5G communication networks can also provide hundreds of billions of connections, massive machine communication, and extreme mobile broadband. Additionally, 5G offers ultra-low latency of 1 ms, 90% more energy efficiency, 99.9% ultra-reliability, 10 Gbps peak data rate transmission speeds, and mobile data volume of 10 Tb (Barreto et al. 2016 ; Hu 2016 ; Saha et al. 2016 ; Cero et al. 2017 ).

Following sections highlight key features of 5G networks in detail.

5G networking standards

The 5G networking technology standard is divided into two key parts:

Non-Standalone (NSA) The first 5G networks are based on NSA, which is the basis of commercial launches expected by the end of 2019. The NSA standard uses existing 4G LTE infrastructure to handle the Control Plane and the signal traffic. It can be thought of as just having an extra fast data pipe attached to existing 4G LTE infrastructure. NSA acts as an initial step that will allow carriers to offer commercial service throughout 2019 until the adoption of a 5G Standalone standard.

Standalone (SA) The 5G Standalone (SA) comes with entirely new core architecture. It moved the control plane transition over to the 5G Core and made significant changes for the way that networks operate. SA will be released in 2020—it will support more flexible network slicing and subcarrier encoding. It is designed to be more efficient than 4GLTE and NSA and will lead to lower costs for the carriers and improved performance for users (Cero et al. 2017 ; Saha et al. 2016 ).

Expanding the networking spectrum

According to a 2017 Cisco study, by 2021, wireless networks will increase in usage by a compounded annual growth rate of 47%. Speeds will reach peaks of 10 Gbps and deliver 1 Gbps at 500 km/h (Cisco 2019 ). 4G wireless networks lack enough spectrum bandwidth and network capacity to meet growing market demands. 5G is an evolving standard combining more spectrums and allowing for more bandwidth and much faster speeds for consumers. Consumers can connect to the 5G network and leverage the benefits of a wide range of spectrums.

The most used 5G technology is mmWave. Carriers will also be using a new spectrum in the sub-6 GHz WiFi region, low bands below 1 GHz, and existing 4G LTE bands, as shown in Fig.  2 . At present, there is a significant amount of unused high-frequency spectrum, and the higher the frequency, the more bandwidth is available (Mathias 2019 ; Kamel et al. 2016 ). 5G networking technology also relies on different wave spectrums. Wireless networks are composed of cell sites divided into sectors that send data through radio waves. Fourth-generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) wireless technology requires high-power, large cell towers to radiate signals over long distances. 5G wireless signals, on the other hand, will be transmitted via large numbers of multiple small cell stations located in places like light poles or building roofs. The use of a large number of small cells is necessary since 5G relies on millimeter wave spectrum between 30 and 300 GHz which can only travel over short distances and is subject to interference from weather and physical obstacles (Liu and Jiang 2016 ; De Matos and Gondim 2016 ; Hossain 2013 ).

New technological innovations

Source: Robert Triggs, Online https://www.androidauthority.com/what-is-5g-explained-944868

Networking spectrum bands.

5G is using some key new technological innovations to greatly increase the amount of spectrum used to send and receive data compared to today’s 4G LTE networks. These technologies allow for more bandwidth and much faster speeds for consumers. They are shown in Fig.  3 and are explained below (Bogale and Le 2015 ; Cero et al. 2017 ; Hu 2016 ; 5G Forum 2016 ; Niu et al. 2016 ; Larsson et al. 2014 ):

mmWave It offers a very high frequency between 17 and 110 GHz and high bandwidth for fast data transfer. It is a short-range technology that will be used in densely populated areas. It is also the most referenced 5G technology.

Sub-6   GHz Most of the future 5G networks will likely operate in WiFi-like mid-band frequencies between 3 and 6 GHz. It will cover the medium range spectrum, and it will be useful for small cell hubs for indoor use or more powerful outdoor base stations.

Low-band Operates at a very low frequency below 800 MHz and covers very long distances. It also provides blanket backbone coverage.

Beamforming This key technology allows the beamformer (Router) to transmit signals in the direction of the consumer devices, thus creating stronger, faster, and more reliable wireless communications. Beamforming is a key technology in overcoming the range and direction limitations of the spectrum of high-frequency waveforms.

Massive MIMO Data is sent and received using multiple antennas on base stations to serve multiple end-users. The technology makes high-frequency networks much more efficient. It can also be combined with beamforming.

Sources: Barreto et al. ( 2016 ), Hu ( 2016 ), Saha et al. ( 2016 ), Cero et al. ( 2017 )

5G networks capabilities.

Unique features of 5G networks

5G networks provide improved support of machine to machine communication, aiming at lower prices, reduced battery consumption, and lower latency than 4G instrumentation. 5G uses Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) networks with higher band breadth at low energy levels. Band breadth is of 4000 Mbps, which is four hundred times quicker than today’s 4G wireless networks (Fig.  3 ). 5G communication networks can also provide hundreds of billions of connections, massive machine communication, and extreme mobile broadband. Additionally, 5G offers ultra-low latency of 1 ms, 90% more energy efficiency, 99.9% ultra-reliability, 10 Gbps peak data rate transmission speeds, and a mobile data volume of 10 Tb (Barreto et al. 2016 ; Hu 2016 ; Saha et al. 2016 ; Cero et al. 2017 ).

Impact on download times & streaming

The download speed measured by the rate at which data (e.g., web page, photo, application, or video) can be transferred from the internet to a computer or a smartphone. They are measured in “bits per second” (bps) where a “bit” is a one or zero in binary. More commonly, however, we measure download speeds in “megabits per second” (Mbps), where 1 Megabit is equal to one million bits. A faster download speed supports higher-quality streaming and makes content from the internet load faster and with less of a wait. (Ken’s Tech Tips 2018 ).Today, more and more applications make use of streaming, including voice over IP (e.g., calling via Skype or WhatsApp), online video apps (e.g., Netflix and YouTube), and online radio (Ken’s Tech Tips 2018 ). When the content is not downloaded at a sufficient speed, we will experience pauses during playback (also known as “buffering”). The actual download speeds will depend on several factors, including location (whether you are indoors or outdoors), the distance to nearby masts, and the amount of congestion on the network. The download times for 5G networks for a webpage, an e-mail, a photograph, and a music track are near-instantaneous (Ken’s Tech Tips 2018 ).

Another great advantage of 5G networks is its reduced latency. Latency, also known as the “lag” or “ping,” is an initial delay before the server on the other end starts to respond. The download will progress only once the server has responded. It is a critical concept that affects the experience of end-users on smartphones. High latency connections cause web pages to load slowly. It affects the experience in applications that require real-time connectivity such as voice calling, video calling, and gaming applications). The major benefits of 5G are reduced latency, increased capacity, and faster download speeds. Human reaction time is 200–300 ms. 5G will reduce that to 1 ms or less. That is almost real-time. It means that we can use 5G to replace real-time interactions. The reduction in latency from 5G technology will help overall response for some of the newer embedded applications of mobile technology such as autonomous cars (Ken’s Tech Tips 2018 ).

Wi-Fi 6 vs. 5G networks

Wi-Fi 6 is the latest wireless LAN technology and has been developed parallel with 5G and is expected to hit the market around the same time as 5G. Both technologies are designed to deliver similar services and have a core mission to bring gigabit-plus throughput to end-users.

Wi-Fi 6, like all other Wi-Fi technologies, operates in unlicensed bands where permission is not required (Mathias 2019 ). In the case of licensed bands, individual companies pay a licensing fee for the right to transmit on assigned channels within that band in each geographic area. Licensing ensures that wireless operators do not interfere with each other’s transmissions. Unlicensed wireless technologies are vulnerable to interference. When using an unlicensed technology like Wi-Fi, the end-users will have to adjust to avoid interference. Additionally, the radio environment is likely to continue to change over time (Phifer 2017 ).

5G, on the other hand, is a cellular, carrier-based technology. 5G carriers obtain an exclusive license to specific blocks of spectrum across specific geographies via an auction process. They can configure their specific network to meet their particular coverage, capacity, and business objectives. Therefore, interference shouldn’t be an issue. There are numerous ways that 5G and cellular are superior to Wi-Fi and Wi-Fi6, such as authentication—intercarrier roaming is transparent. Additionally, connecting to cellular is easy; simply turn on the mobile device, whereas Wi-Fi usually requires selecting an available service set identifier and providing a security key.

There is a hope that in the future, both technologies will be used by final consumers and move these customers closer to a superior mobile network. Business-class cell phones, for example, will likely support both technologies starting in 2020 (Mathias 2019 ).

3 Intelligent automation and economic contributions of 5G networks

Manufacturing industries are moving towards digitalization for several reasons, including increasing revenue by better serving their customers, increasing demand, beating the competition, decreasing costs by increasing productivity and efficiency, and decreasing risk by increasing safety and security. A recent study identified the key challenges and requirements in digitization industries digitization (Ericsson 2017 ). These requirements range from:

Ultra-reliable, resilient, instantaneous connectivity for millions of devices.

Low-cost devices with extended battery life.

Asset tracking throughout the ever-changing supply chains.

Performing remote medical procedures.

Using AR/VR to enhance the shopping experiences.

Using AI to enhance operations in multiple areas or enterprise-wide.

5G delivers a high-speed, reliable, and secure broadband experience, and will be a major technology for growing industry digitization. It will provide the networks and platforms to drive the digitization and automation of Industry 4.0. It will support the massive rollout of intelligent IoT and the widespread adoption of critical communications services (GSMA 2017 ).

In summary, 5G networks enable service providers to build virtual networks tailored to applications requirements such as:

Mobile broadband communication, media and entertainment, and the Internet

Machine-to-Machine (Massive IoT ) Retail, shopping, manufacturing

Reliable low latency Automobile, medical, smart cities

Critical communications

Others Industry-specific services, energy, etc.

4 5G for the Internet of Things (IoT)

Internet of Things Defined

The “Internet of things” (IoT) is an extension of the Internet and other network connections to different sensors and devices—or “things”. The concept is based on a general rule that ‘Anything that can be connected will be connected (Attaran 2017b ). This includes everything from industrial equipment such as car engines, jet engines, the drill of an oil rig, washing machines, coffee makers, cellphones, wearable devices, and much more. IoT provides a higher degree of computing and analytical capabilities to even single objects. IoT is a rapidly evolving technology that more and more industries are willing to adapt to improve their efficiency. Smart terminals, mobile broadband, and cloud computing enable widespread connectivity, transforming the way we perceive the world around us people (Attaran 2017b )

IOT architecture and working principle

Figure  4 shows major architectural layers of IoT architecture. Features of each of these layers are discussed below (Opentechdiary 2015 ):

Wireless sensors actuators, and network layer—this layer has sensors, RFID tags, and connectivity network. They form the essential “things” of IoT system and collects real-time information. Sensors convert the data obtained in the outer world into data for analysis. Actuators intervene in the physical reality—they can switch off the light and adjust the temperature in a room. Sensors and actuators cover and adjust everything needed in the physical world to gain the necessary insights for further analysis.

Internet Getaways and Data Acquisition Systems This stage makes data both digitalized and aggregated. Internet getaways work through Wi-Fi, embedded OS, Signal Processors, Micro-Controllers, and the Gateway Networks including LAN (Local Area Network), WAN (Wide Area Network), etc. The responsibility of Gateways is routing the data coming from the sensor, connectivity, and network layer and pass it to the next layer. Data acquisition systems (DAS) connect to the sensor network and aggregate output. This stage processes the enormous amount of information collected on the previous stage and squeeze it to the optimal size for further analysis.

Source: Opentechdiary ( 2015 )

IoT architecture layers.

Edge IT-Management Services This layer is responsible for data mining, text mining, analysis of IoT devices, analysis of information (stream analytics, data analytics) and device management. This stage provides analytics and pre-processing and prepares data before it is transferred to the data center or cloud for further analysis. Edge IT systems are located close to the sensors and actuators, creating a wiring closet.

Datacenter and cloud The main processes of analysis, management, and storage of data happen in the data center or cloud. This stage enables in-depth processing, along with a follow-up revision for feedback

The following sections review how the 5G network can improve processes in different layers of IoT architecture.

Mainstream adoptability

The IoT is a relatively new developing technology. Over the past few years, IoT-enabled devices have become broader, deeper, and more affordable. Sensors and tags are rapidly becoming cheaper. Readers and sensors are using less power, growing more intelligent, operating faster and at longer distances, and able to handle interference. This means better systems performance, greater capability to use sensors and tags with more data, and easier integration into existing systems without reprogramming. According to several recent research, IoT adoption over the next 10 years is on the rise. According to a Cisco estimate, devices connected to the Internet were 11 billion in 2013, 15 billion in 2014, 25 billion in 2016, and will be over 50 billion by 2020—that is seven Internet-connected “things” for every person on the planet (Evans 2011 ).

DBS Group Research has identified IoT technologies to reach the mass adoption stage in Asia over the next 5–10 years (DBS Asian Insights Insights 2018 ). According to this study, the IoT achieved a mainstream global consumer adoption rate of 14% in 2017. With growing uptake, the IoT is likely to reach an adoption rate of 18–20% by the end of 2019. By 2030, the global adoption of consumer IoT technology will reach 100% (DBS Asian Insights 2018 ).

Next stage in IoT development

In the past few years, technologies like Augmented Reality (AR), Industrial IoT (IIoT), edge computing, and Low Power Wide-Area (LPWA) were introduced that shape the next stages in IoT development. Over the next few years, more and more devices will become connected, increasing the application of IoT exponentially (Attaran 2017b ). Additionally, IoT technology is the driving force in our Industry 4.0 revolution. In Industry 4.0, industrial processes and the associated machines are becoming smarter and more modular. They could monitor, collect, exchange, analyze, and instantly act on information to intelligently change their behavior or their environment. Additionally, as the total cost of ownership of IoT devices and solutions decrease, the technology will be affordable for markets of asset tracking, agriculture, and environmental monitoring (ABI Research 2016 ).

The impact of 5G on IoT

A 2017 CEO survey of 5G potential applications revealed five different services that could be supported and would come to maturity when commercial 5G networks are widely deployed. They are highlighted in Fig.  5 (Obiodu and Giles 2017 ). IoT ranked second on the list, with 77% of the respondent of respondents believing that 5G provides broad enablement of IoT use cases. Gartner conducted another survey in 2018 to understand the growing demand and adoption plans for 5G. The results revealed that 65% of organizations had plans to deploy 5G networks to be mainly used for IoT and video communications by 2020. They identified operational efficiency as the key driver for their decision (Omale 2018 ).

A CEO survey of possible 5G applications

Leveraging cyber-physical systems and striving towards ever more automation and autonomous decisions in environments such as the smart factories, autonomous vehicles, smart buildings, smart cities and connected industrial applications, requires substantial resources to deal with the resulting amount of data that needs to be gathered, analyzed, and transferred. Today’s network technologies are not sufficient for the ultra-connectivity needed for the future. We often need to use a mix of fixed and wireless network technologies to realize massive IoT projects. 5G has the potential to bring the reliability, latency, scalability, mobility, and security that is required for mission-critical services in the IoT ecosystem (i-SCOOP 2018 ).

The existing IoT technology solutions are facing challenges such as a large number of connections of nodes and security issues. In order to meet widespread applications and different industry demands, IoT will require improved performance criteria in areas such as security, trustworthiness, wireless coverage, ultra-low latency, and mass connectivity. 5G can improve processes in different stages of IoT architecture (Fig.  2 ). 5G can contribute to the future of IoT through the connection of billions of smart devices to interact and share data independently. 5G is considered as a key enabling technology that will play an important role in the continued success and widespread applications of IoT. 5G will introduce new Radio Access technologies (RAT), smart antennas, and make use of higher frequencies while altering or re-architecting networks. The 5G enabled IoT will help the connection of an enormous number of these IoT devices and will also help to meet market demands for wireless services. The fifth- generation (5G) mobile network will meet the differing prerequisites of the IoT. To meet the growing requirements of IoT, the Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and 5G technologies must provide new connectivity interfaces for future IoT applications. To meet the differing prerequisites of the IoT, 5G mobile networks must guarantee that massive devices and new services such as enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), massive Machine Type Communications, Critical Communications, and Network Operations are effectively upheld. 5G provides essential prerequisites and ubiquitous connectivity for end-clients, including high throughput, low latency, fast information conveyance, high versatility to empower a huge number of gadgets, productive energy utilization systems, etc. The fifth-generation (5G) mobile network will improve the range of IoT applications such as smart TVs, smart security cameras, smart dishwashers, smart thermostats, smart kitchen appliances, and so on.

The existing networks of 4G and 4G LTE cannot support the mobile telecommunications needs of IoT. 5G can also provide a solution to the issue and can provide the fastest network data rate with relatively low expectancy and better communication coverage when compared to present 4G LTE networking technologies. The fast speeds provided by 5G will bring new technological advancements. The next generation of 5G will handle hundreds of billions of connections and will provide transmission speeds of 10 Gbps and ultra-low latency of 1 ms. It also provides more reliable service in rural areas reducing the differences in service between rural and urban areas (Li et al. 2018 ). Although 5G is an extension of the 4G and 4G LTE networks, yet it comes with entirely new network architecture and functions such as virtualization, which offers more than just the impressive fast data rates. Network function virtualization offers the ability to split physical networks into multiple virtual networks where the devices can be reconfigured to create multiple networks. This feature will provide the 5G enabled IoT applications with an immediate processing ability that will allow for improved speed and coverage, and also provide the capacity to meet the demands of applications. Virtualization will also enhance the feasibility of radio access network (RAN) for next-generation voice, video, and data services.

5G networks will integrate mobile tech, big data, IoT, and cloud computing, and will generate a variety of new applications as the technology is rolled out. 5G will support smart devices, including self-driving cars, wearable, telemedicine, and Internet of Things (IoT). Autonomous cars and IoT devices are expected to be major revenue drivers for 5G networks (i-SCOOP 2018 ).

Big data, IoT, and 5G networks

Another area where 5G networking can be very helpful is “Big Data.” Data is flooding in at a rate never seen before—–doubling every 18 months (Rossi and Hirama 2015 ). The International Data Corporation report predicted that there could be an increase in digital data by 40X from 2012 to 2020 (Gantz and Reinsel 2012 ). Public customer data and new data gathered from IoT enabled devices are generating what is broadly known as “Big Data.” The amount of data that IoT devices might report back to a cloud server could easily overwhelm a relational database. Companies offering IoT enabled devices need to be prepared for storing, tracking, and analyzing the vast amounts of data that will be generated. The real value that IoT creates is at the intersection of gathering data and leveraging it. Additionally, the privacy and security of enormous data produced by millions of interconnected devices going to be challenged and private information may leak at any time (Zheng et al. 2019 ). Zheng et al. ( 2019 ). It is anticipated that IoT’s billions of connected objects will generate data volume far in excess of what can easily be processed and analyzed in the cloud, due to issues like limited bandwidth, network latency, etc. 5G has the potential to keep up with consumer and enterprise data demand while lowering carriers’ operating expenses.

IoT performance requirements for 5G networks

An important challenge for 5G networks is to support a variety of performance requirements for IoT applications in a reliable, flexible, and cost-effective way (Zhang and Fitzek 2015 ). Activity-based IoT applications pose many performance requirements, as described in several studies. Energy optimization of streaming applications in IoT has been analyzed, and energy-efficient task mapping and scheduling have been proposed (Ali et al. 2018a , b , 2019 ; Tariq et al. 2019 ). A recent study identified eight key performance indicators and requirements of activity-based IoT (5G Forum 2016 ). These performance requirements range from data rate, mobility, latency, connection density, reliability, positioning accuracy, coverage, and energy efficiency and are usually well described for specific IoT applications. A comprehensive understanding of the performance requirements of each activity based IoT application could facilitate the selection of 5G technologies needed to meet the growing demands of these applications.

Following is a more detailed description of these performance requirements:

Data Rate Data rate is an important evaluation factor for generations of wireless communication networks (Saha et al. 2016 ). 5G core network will support both peak data rate—the maximum achievable data rate by the user, and minimum guaranteed user data rate—the minimum experience data rate by the user (Oughton and Frias 2017 ). The high data rate is important in most activity-based classes of IoT applications. 5G networks support 10 Gbps for minimum peak data rate and 100 Mbps as the minimum guaranteed user data rate (5G Forum 2016 ).

Mobility IoT applications have very diverse requirements for mobility (relative velocity between the receiver and the transmitter) in 5G networks (Oughton and Frias 2017 ). Many IoT use cases require ultra-high mobility, ultrahigh traffic volume density, and ultra-high connection density. These needs may be quite challenging for 5G networks to provide on- demand mobility for all devices and services (Le et al. 2015 ).

Latency latency is perceived by the end-user and is usually expressed in terms of end-to-end (E2E) latency. 5G networks, through significant enhancements and new technology in architecture aspects, enable “zero latency” expressed by the millisecond level of E2E latency (Saha et al. 2016 ; Hu 2016 ; Ford et al. 2017 ). IoT application determines required latency levels. For example, the acceptable delay for use case mobile health and remote surgery application is in order of sub-milliseconds (Le et al. 2015 ; Blanco et al. 2017 ).

Connection Density Connection density is the number of connected and/or accessible devices per unit area, e.g., 1 million connections per square meter (Le et al. 2015 ; NGMN Alliance 2017 ). Connectivity in 5G networks is not limited to mobile devices. 5G networks can satisfy connection density and traffic density of various identified activity-based classes of IoT applications (Amaral et al. 2016 ; NGMN Alliance 2017 ).

Reliability is measured by the maximum tolerable packet loss rate at the application layer. For certain IoT uses cases such as driverless cars, 5G must bring the reliability of 99,999% or higher (Ford et al. 2017 ; Rappaport et al. 2014 ; Ge et al. 2016 ; Elayoubi et al. 2016 ). Similarly, reliability is the main characteristic of monitoring, managing, and controlling activities. Reliability will present many challenges in the future. High-speed trains are just one example of this challenge because of speed, load, and cell distance (Oughton and Frias 2017 ; Erman and Yiu 2016 ),

Position Accuracy Position accuracy is defined as the maximum positioning error tolerated by the IoT application. Accuracy positioning is very important in monitoring-based activities such as monitoring remote cameras and in controlling-based activities such as driving (Blanco et al. 2017 ). 5G networking technology should ensure accurate positioning of the outdoors device with accuracy from 10 m to less than 1 m on 80% of occasions and better than 1 m in indoor deployment (Elayoubi et al. 2016 ).

Coverage 5G core network shall be able to build the network based on the user’s need. It should provide connectivity anytime and anywhere with a minimum user experience data rate of 1 Gbps (Hossain 2013 ). Almost every activity based IoT application requires very high levels of coverage—99,999% availability (NGMN Alliance 2017 ).

Spectrum Efficiency Spectrum efficiency is defined as the aggregate data throughput of all users per unit of spectrum resource per cell or per unit area. The minimum peak spectrum efficiency is 30 bps/Hz for downlink and 15 bps/Hz for uplink (Liu and Jiang 2016 ). IoT enabled 5G networks to require 3–5 times improvement in spectrum efficiency to achieve network sustainability (Liu and Jiang 2016 ; De Matos and Gondim 2016 ; Hossain 2013 ).

Energy Efficiency Energy efficiency is the number of bits that can be transmitted per joule of energy, and it is measured in b/J (Liu and Jiang 2016 ). 5G wireless technology should aim for higher energy efficiency against increased device/network energy consumption required on wireless communications. That means the energy efficiency of the 5G network may need to be improved by a factor of 1000 (Kaur and Singh 2016 ; Akyildiz et al. 2014 ; Kamel et al. 2016 ; Bogale and Le 2015 ). Energy efficiency is a significant factor for the reduction of operating costs of telecom operators, as well as for minimizing the environmental impact of wireless technology (Bogale and Le 2015 ).

End-user willingness to Pay for 5G enabled IoT

In the summer of 2017, Gartner conducted a survey to gauge the willingness among end-user organizations to pay more for 5G networking technology (Gartner 2017 ). A vast majority of correspondents (57%) believed that 5G-capable networks would play an important role in IoT in their organizations and that their intention is to use 5G to drive IoT communication. The video was the next most popular use case, which was chosen by 53% of the respondents. The study also identified the willingness to pay for the 5G networks of surveyed organizations. 57% of surveyed organizations were willing to pay the same cost as 4G and up to 10% higher (Fig.  6 ).

Source: Gartner ( 2017 )

Willingness of Organizations to pay for 5G.

5 5G for automotive industry and smart cars

Rethinking transportation

Henry Ford introduced his first Model T car using interchangeable parts on an assembly line in 1908. This led to a more efficient manufacturing process—the price of cars dropped, and sales picked up. Nearly 7% of American families owned a car in 1918. The number of cars nearly tripled from 8 million to 23 million in the 1920s. By 1929, 80% of American families owned a car. At this time, the auto manufacturing industry was also growing quickly—by 1925, 10% of the U.S. workforce was employed by the auto industry. Cars were the most significant innovation of the twentieth century that shaped our modern lifestyle. The rise of the automobile industry disrupted almost every industry and every aspect of the economy. Affordable cars enabled people to move from cities to the suburbs, which led to economic growth in the construction industry. This new era of transportation remained in place for 100 years (Sears 1977 ). However, a revolution is arriving by way of self-driving vehicles. These autonomous cars are anticipated to disrupt critical areas of the economy and have an even bigger impact than the automobile did in the 1920s. More specifically, self-driving cars are labeled as the fastest, deepest, most consequential disruptions of transportation in history (Arbib and Seba 2017 ).

Consumer mobility behavior is one of the areas that is changing. Individuals are increasingly using multiple modes of transportation to complete their journey(s). The “state of delivery” is another area of customer concern. Consumers are showing an obvious preference for delivered goods and services. The clear result in this practice is a decline in individual shopping trips. In dense big cities like New York City or Los Angeles, car ownership is increasingly becoming more of a burden for many, and the prospect of shared mobility now presents a competitive value proposition (McKinsey & Company 2016 ). According to a 2017 study by RethinkX, an independent think tank and research company, within 10 years of government approval of autonomous vehicles, 95% of the U.S. passenger miles will be covered by fleets of autonomous electric vehicles (Arbib and Seba 2017 ). This will create a new business model called “Transport as-a-Service” (TaaS) and will have enormous implications across the transportation and oil industries, causing oil demand and prices to plummet, and creating trillions of dollars in new business opportunities and GDP growth (Arbib and Seba 2017 ). It is predicted that TaaS will reduce energy demand by 80% and tailpipe emissions by over 90%, thus bringing dramatic reductions or perhaps even the elimination of air pollution and greenhouse gases from the transport sector and improved public health. TaaS will not only dramatically lower transportation costs but increase mobility and access to jobs, education, and health care. It has the potential to create trillions of dollars in consumer surplus and contribute to a cleaner, safer, and more walkable communities (Arbib and Seba 2017 ). According to this study, by 2030, by using the TaaS model, the average American family could save nearly $5600 per year in transportation costs, and the United States will save an additional $1 trillion per year (Arbib and Seba 2017 ).

Autonomous cars disrupt the transportation industry in several ways. Driven by the exponential rise in electric vehicles, improved connectivity services provided by faster networking solutions, and technological breakthrough, consumer mobility behavior is changing. It is predicted that one out of ten cars sold in 2030 will potentially be a shared vehicle. Once regulatory issues have been resolved, up to 15% of new cars sold in 2030 could be fully autonomous (McKinsey & Company 2016 ). Auto production will suffer because autonomous fleets will need far fewer cars than are currently consumed. According to an estimate by RethinkX Sector Disruption Report, the number of U.S. vehicles will drop 82% from 247 to 44 million in the new age of autonomous vehicles. That will lead to a 70% reduction in automotive manufacturing. Moreover, nearly 100 million existing vehicles will be abandoned as they become economically unviable (Arbib and Seba 2017 ). This could result in total disruption and almost complete destruction of the auto industry—specifically car dealers, maintenance, and insurance companies. Automakers’ business models will shift from producing cars for public consumption to producing cars to deploy in their self-driving fleets. Traffic becomes a thing of the past, commute times will decline significantly, and workers can move even further from their place of employment. As a result, real estate will become more accessible, increasing urban sprawl (Arbib and Seba 2017 ). The primary challenges impeding faster market penetration for fully autonomous vehicles are pricing, consumer understanding, and safety/security issues. Fully self-driving vehicles are unlikely to be commercially available before 2020 (McKinsey & Company 2016 ). However, these driverless cars are already here to stay. Tesla recently announced the company’s aspiration to release a fully autonomous Robo taxi fleet next year. Lyft announced that self-driving cars are a central part of its vision for reducing individual car ownership, creating safer streets, and alleviating congestion. In 2018, Lyft partnered with vehicle technology firm Aptiv to begin its driverless car program in Las Vegas. Lyft’s fleet of 30 driverless cars has completed 50,000 rides in Las Vegas, up from 30,000 in January 2019. Passengers rated their trips an impressive average of 4.97 out of 5. Moreover, 92% of riders felt very safe or extremely safe during the ride. 95% of riders indicated it was their first time inside a self-driving vehicle (Lyft Blog 2019 ). Lyft is looking for partnerships to further its self-driving ambitions. It recently announced a deal with self-driving technology firm Waymo for a ridesharing service in Phoenix, Arizona (Mogg 2019 ).

The impact of 5G on automotive industry

According to a 2017 study by Qualcomm, by 2035, 5G networks will enable more than $2.4 trillion in total economic output in the automotive sector, including its supply chain and its customers. 5G economic impacts in this sector will represent about 20% of the total global 5G economic impact by 2035 (Condon 2017 ). According to the World Economic Forum, the digital transformation of the automotive industry will generate $67 billion in value for that sector over the 2015–2025 periods. Additionally, this transformation will generate $3.1 trillion in the societal benefit that includes autonomous vehicles improvement and the transportation enterprise ecosystem over the same period (World Economic Forum 2015 ).

Automakers are racing to improve the technology that will power self-driving cars. 5G networks enable the digital transformation of the automotive industry. Smart cars consume a lot of bandwidth, require quicker responses from the network, and demand continuous connectivity to the network. 5G supports higher bandwidth and lower latencies, which enables Smart Cars to function efficiently. 5G technology improves mobile wireless networks’ capacity and data speeds. It allows network providers to offer much more robust internet connections to devices. As such, 5G will play an important role in the proliferation of self-driving cars, which will produce enormous amounts of data. This technology makes intelligent driving safer and more efficient. As such, 5G networks will help enable the autonomous urban ride services and most self-driving car players. Additionally, 5G networks can offer many services to automakers, including navigation information, traffic information, e-tolling, hazard warning, collision warning, weather updates, and cybersecurity services to monitor vehicles for intrusions.

6 5G for manufacturing sector and smart factory

The constantly changing manufacturing industry

The manufacturing industry is going through a significant period of change driven by rapid technological advancements that have enabled manufacturers to meet consumer demands better. Technology will play a key role in empowering manufacturers to innovate and embrace the opportunities that will present themselves. Manufacturers must keep up with the technological evolution of the products and processes, as they are continually improved. As more and more ‘smart’ devices are integrated into manufacturing, industry 4.0 will continue to dominate the manufacturing process. Industry 4.0 combines artificial intelligence and data science to realize the potential of the Internet of Things (IoT) (Attaran 2017b ). Sensors and tags are attached to parts to track them throughout the manufacturing and assembly process. Sensors are also used to improve the performance of machines, to extend their lives, to predict when equipment is wearing down or in need of repair, and to learn how machines can be redesigned to be more efficient. This could reduce maintenance costs by 40% and cut unplanned downtime by 50% (Hale 2019 ). Furthermore, an increasing amount of data being created by Industry 4.0 provides the opportunity for the manufacturer to significantly enhance the customer experience.

Additionally, during the past years, the use of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies in different industries have increased substantially. AM is used to produce products that can be customized individually. The technology offers several benefits to the manufacturing industry, including shorter production lead times, reduced time to market for new product designs, and faster response to customer demand (Attaran 2017a ).

Finally, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is another technology that is set to have a profound impact on the manufacturing industry in several diverse ways. For example, AI can be used to make more sense of the mountains of data manufacturers are now collecting and storing. It can also be used to improve customer service and support.

5G and manufacturing industry

Manufacturing companies around the world are under extreme competitive pressure due to shorter business and product lifecycles. Margins are being squeezed more than ever, and workforces are aging and becoming costlier to maintain. To compete globally, manufacturing companies have to improve efficiency and reduce costs through new process innovations—technologies like robotics, warehouse automation, smart factories, and flexible manufacturing help. 5G networks and IoT will play crucial roles in enhancing and enabling these manufacturing advances. 5G networking technologies provide the network characteristics essential for manufacturing. 5G will give manufacturing companies a chance to build smart factories and truly take advantage of technologies such as automation, artificial intelligence, and augmented reality for troubleshooting. 5G is a significant technology for industry digitalization that directly enhances connectivity, quality, speed, latency, and bandwidth. 5G could help overcome manufacturing problems and pain points, including connectivity issues such as insufficient bandwidth, speed, and latency issues. 5G will also improve connectivity for a large network of sensors for predictive maintenance of factory floor machines and robots. 5G networks will allow for higher flexibility, lower cost, and shorter lead times for factory floor layout changes and alterations. 5G networks, services, and connectivity capabilities have the potential to transform production, business models, and sales in ways that will benefit manufacturing. Advanced 5G networks and information processing technology can streamline smart factories, improve internal and external communications, and unify full product life cycle management on a single network. Other important pain points and crucial manufacturing use cases 5G can overcome are summarized in Table  1 (Ericsson 2019 ).

7 5G for the healthcare industry

The ever-changing healthcare industry

Allied Market Research estimates that there are 3.7 million connected medical devices in use to enable healthcare decisions. According to its prediction, the worldwide IoT healthcare market will reach $136.8 billion by 2021 (Market Watch 2016 ). The applications of IoT in the healthcare industry are limitless. The concept is referred to as the Internet of Medical Things or “IoMT.” It is the collection of medical devices equipped with Wi-Fi and applications connected to healthcare IT systems through online computer networks. As hospitals struggle to lower operating costs and remain competitive, IoMT has the potential to reduce costs and improve a patient’s journey through a medical facility. The idea of telemedicine or the ability of a doctor with a webcam to diagnose a patient’s problems without an office visit is becoming popular. This is very useful when patients live in remote areas or when they need specialized care. Mobile health can help the healthcare industry improve efficiency and reduce costs in the areas of disease prevention, counseling, treatment, and rehabilitation (Marr 2018 ).

5G advantages for healthcare

5G networks and services provide mobile health platform advantages such as integrated mobility and advanced connectivity so doctors and nurses can achieve patient monitoring anywhere, anytime. 5G technology enables patients to use wearable devices to transmit their health symptoms and status. 5G enhanced mobile broadband with faster speed and more bandwidth can help doctors have access to patient’s information for remote monitoring and diagnosis.

5G networks enable factory robots to communicate their task and position, allowing them to do more tasks efficiently and wirelessly. Drones could fly over a field of crops, using sensors on the ground, to sort, pick, feed, and water individual plants. In April 2019, a Chinese neurosurgeon successfully operated on a patient suffering from Parkinson’s disease. The doctor used a pacemaker-like implant on a patient that was about 1864 miles away during the surgery. This surgery was only possible because of the lightning-fast connection of 5G networks that allows surgeons such as the one in China to control an off-site surgical robot and operate in real-time (China Daily 2019 ).

A recent study by Ericsson identified different ways the healthcare industry can derive value out of 5G networking technology (Ericsson 2018 ). They are summarized below:

Effective capture of the vast amount of patient data.

Real-time mobile delivery of rich medical data.

Improved availability of suitable infrastructure.

Improved security of patient data and superior data storage.

Ability to accurately control remote medical equipment without delay.

Ability to incorporate augmented and virtual reality for enhanced training of interns.

Facilitate the connectivity and operations of smart medical objects and instruments such as syringes, beds, and cabinets.

8 5G for smart grids and smart cities

5G for smart grids

The smart grid is one example of the application of IoT where components of the electric grid from transformers to power lines to home electric meters have sensors and are capable of two-way communication. The electric company can use the smart grid to manage distribution more efficiently, be proactive about maintenance, and respond to outages faster. Smart grids integrate traditional power systems with information, communication, and control technology to improve the power grid’s stability, security, and operating efficiency. Power generation facilities are digitizing form, scale, power management, and control to increase systems and operating efficiency. The communications systems for smart grids cover all nodes on the power system, including power generation, transformation, transmission, distribution, and usage. The new digitized power generation facility attempts to improve the efficiency of power systems by building a high capacity, high-speed, real-time, secure, and stable communications networks. 5G greatly enhances the amount of spectrum used to send and receive data. It can act as an integrator and support the diverse requirements of smart grids. 5G is more efficient and faster than fiber optic and short-range wireless communications technology, supports over-the-air wireless connectivity, and has excellent disaster recovery capabilities. Other advantages like ultra-high bandwidth, wide-area seamless coverage, and roaming make 5G an ideal technology for smart and digital grids.

A recent study by Ericsson identified different ways the Energy and Utilities industry can derive value out of 5G networking technology (Ericsson 2018 ). They are summarized below:

Improves the integration of new technologies within the existing infrastructure.

Improves capturing and handling of the large volume of data.

Facilitates automation across distribution, operations, and energy efficiencies.

Facilitates connecting and monitoring of remote sites such as wind farms.

Improves industrial control and automation systems.

Improves applications to gather and monitor data.

Improves management of distributed energy resources.

Improves integration of sensors in microgrid and distributed generation.

5G for smart cities

In addition, 5G is a critical element in providing better networking in our technological world. For example, a smart city integrates information and communication technology and 5G networking solutions in a secure fashion to manage a city’s different functions. Those functions include, but are not limited to, schools, libraries, transportation systems, hospitals, power plants, water supply networks, waste management, law enforcement, and other community services. There is a need for finding a way of aggregating multiple layers of data, spanning traffic flows, individual transactions, human movement, shifts in energy usage, security activity, and almost any major component of contemporary economies. 5G technology can facilitate this aggregation. 5G technology can facilitate this aggregation. The savings gained from Smart Cities is incredible. For example, smart water technology can save $12 billion annually. Sensors installed in individual vehicles can be linked to broader systems that help to manage traffic congestion across the city.

9 Obstacles to rapid adoption

There are numerous challenges in applying 5G networking technology in a way that would allow for its significant and rapid growth. Security and privacy is the primary concern among consumers and businesses as devices become more connected. The major challenges include technological maturity, global standardization, government regulations, and cost. A recent study conducted by Ericsson revealed that companies are still hobbled when it comes to overcoming barriers to actually using the 5G technology. The significant barriers were identified as data security and privacy, lack of standards, and challenges of end-to-end implementation (Ericsson 2018 ). 5G’s speed will expedite incidents of a breach, and as we add more small cells, there will also be more vulnerable hardware. 5G technology also brings an increase in open-source designs and technologies. Open source brings the speed of innovation and collaboration, but it can also bring security vulnerabilities.

Technology standard is non-consistent and remains fragmented in most areas. Technical and boundary limitations still exist in some areas of technology. Capturing the full potential of 5G networking potentials will require innovation in technologies and business models, as well as investment in new capabilities and talent. Most businesses have not equipped their teams with 5G capable smartphones, scanners, laptops, nor, in the case of manufacturing facilities, smart machines on the factory floor. These devices will need to be upgraded or replaced, which means added training and cost for businesses. Business infrastructures will require updating to reap the full interconnected benefits of 5G. Existing devices will need to be upgraded or replaced with new devices that are enabled for 5G technology.

10 Summary and Conclusions

5G networks and services will be deployed in stages over the next few years to provide a platform on which new digital services and business models can thrive. 5G will mark a turning point in the future of communications bringing high-powered connectivity to billions of devices. It will enable machines to communicate in an IoT environment capable of driving a near-endless array of services. As more devices become connected, and the IoT use cases grow exponentially, 5G networks facilitate the rapid increase of IoT and will bring significant benefits to corporations and consumers. 5G networks will revolutionize transportation and will reliably connect patients and doctors all over the globe providing improved access to medical treatment. As digital transformation is shifting user experience away from the text, image, and video into immersive VR and AR., 5G cellular technology will facilitate this new shift by offering high speed, superior reliability, extreme bandwidth capacity, and low latency.

This paper examined the essential roles 5G plays in the success of different industries, including IoT, the auto industry and smart cars, manufacturing and smart factories, smart grids, and smart cities, and healthcare. It discussed how 5G is critical for growing industry digitization and for addressing the numerous challenges different manufacturing industries face in this rapidly changing landscape. Finally, this paper presented the crucial role that 5G plays in providing a competent platform to support the widespread adoption of critical communications services and driving the digitization and automation of industrial practices and processes of Industry 4.0.

Future directions

5G will continue to evolve as companies work towards its next phase, though it will take some time before 5G networks are fully rolled out and utilized. It is expected that 5G will scale rapidly after launch in 2020, with coverage reaching just over a third of the global population in 5 years.

The implications of the rise of an autonomous electric fleet for the transportation industry, society, and the automotive industry are huge. 5G will play an important role in making electric vehicles and autonomous ride-sharing a reality. 5G will enable networks of self-driving cars with the ability to send data between each other, communicate with traffic lights, road sensors, aerial drones, and so on within a millisecond. Additionally, autonomous trains, delivery trucks, even airplanes could be on the horizon soon.

5G Wireless will also play a crucial role in a growing number of consumer electronics technologies and companies and will transform the fundamental ways industries conduct business. 5G wireless will enable companies to be on the growing side of the growth wave keeping their investors, customers, and workers happy. So, the very near future will be one of the most exciting times for business in our lifetimes, full of challenges, opportunities, and risks.

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Attaran, M. The impact of 5G on the evolution of intelligent automation and industry digitization. J Ambient Intell Human Comput 14 , 5977–5993 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-020-02521-x

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Study and Investigation on 5G Technology: A Systematic Review

Ramraj dangi.

1 School of Computing Science and Engineering, VIT University Bhopal, Bhopal 466114, India; [email protected] (R.D.); [email protected] (P.L.)

Praveen Lalwani

Gaurav choudhary.

2 Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark; moc.liamg@7777yrahduohcvaruag

3 Department of Information Security Engineering, Soonchunhyang University, Asan-si 31538, Korea

Giovanni Pau

4 Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Kore University of Enna, 94100 Enna, Italy; [email protected]

Associated Data

Not applicable.

In wireless communication, Fifth Generation (5G) Technology is a recent generation of mobile networks. In this paper, evaluations in the field of mobile communication technology are presented. In each evolution, multiple challenges were faced that were captured with the help of next-generation mobile networks. Among all the previously existing mobile networks, 5G provides a high-speed internet facility, anytime, anywhere, for everyone. 5G is slightly different due to its novel features such as interconnecting people, controlling devices, objects, and machines. 5G mobile system will bring diverse levels of performance and capability, which will serve as new user experiences and connect new enterprises. Therefore, it is essential to know where the enterprise can utilize the benefits of 5G. In this research article, it was observed that extensive research and analysis unfolds different aspects, namely, millimeter wave (mmWave), massive multiple-input and multiple-output (Massive-MIMO), small cell, mobile edge computing (MEC), beamforming, different antenna technology, etc. This article’s main aim is to highlight some of the most recent enhancements made towards the 5G mobile system and discuss its future research objectives.

1. Introduction

Most recently, in three decades, rapid growth was marked in the field of wireless communication concerning the transition of 1G to 4G [ 1 , 2 ]. The main motto behind this research was the requirements of high bandwidth and very low latency. 5G provides a high data rate, improved quality of service (QoS), low-latency, high coverage, high reliability, and economically affordable services. 5G delivers services categorized into three categories: (1) Extreme mobile broadband (eMBB). It is a nonstandalone architecture that offers high-speed internet connectivity, greater bandwidth, moderate latency, UltraHD streaming videos, virtual reality and augmented reality (AR/VR) media, and many more. (2) Massive machine type communication (eMTC), 3GPP releases it in its 13th specification. It provides long-range and broadband machine-type communication at a very cost-effective price with less power consumption. eMTC brings a high data rate service, low power, extended coverage via less device complexity through mobile carriers for IoT applications. (3) ultra-reliable low latency communication (URLLC) offers low-latency and ultra-high reliability, rich quality of service (QoS), which is not possible with traditional mobile network architecture. URLLC is designed for on-demand real-time interaction such as remote surgery, vehicle to vehicle (V2V) communication, industry 4.0, smart grids, intelligent transport system, etc. [ 3 ].

1.1. Evolution from 1G to 5G

First generation (1G): 1G cell phone was launched between the 1970s and 80s, based on analog technology, which works just like a landline phone. It suffers in various ways, such as poor battery life, voice quality, and dropped calls. In 1G, the maximum achievable speed was 2.4 Kbps.

Second Generation (2G): In 2G, the first digital system was offered in 1991, providing improved mobile voice communication over 1G. In addition, Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and Global System for Mobile (GSM) concepts were also discussed. In 2G, the maximum achievable speed was 1 Mpbs.

Third Generation (3G): When technology ventured from 2G GSM frameworks into 3G universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) framework, users encountered higher system speed and quicker download speed making constant video calls. 3G was the first mobile broadband system that was formed to provide the voice with some multimedia. The technology behind 3G was high-speed packet access (HSPA/HSPA+). 3G used MIMO for multiplying the power of the wireless network, and it also used packet switching for fast data transmission.

Fourth Generation (4G): It is purely mobile broadband standard. In digital mobile communication, it was observed information rate that upgraded from 20 to 60 Mbps in 4G [ 4 ]. It works on LTE and WiMAX technologies, as well as provides wider bandwidth up to 100 Mhz. It was launched in 2010.

Fourth Generation LTE-A (4.5G): It is an advanced version of standard 4G LTE. LTE-A uses MIMO technology to combine multiple antennas for both transmitters as well as a receiver. Using MIMO, multiple signals and multiple antennas can work simultaneously, making LTE-A three times faster than standard 4G. LTE-A offered an improved system limit, decreased deferral in the application server, access triple traffic (Data, Voice, and Video) wirelessly at any time anywhere in the world.LTE-A delivers speeds of over 42 Mbps and up to 90 Mbps.

Fifth Generation (5G): 5G is a pillar of digital transformation; it is a real improvement on all the previous mobile generation networks. 5G brings three different services for end user like Extreme mobile broadband (eMBB). It offers high-speed internet connectivity, greater bandwidth, moderate latency, UltraHD streaming videos, virtual reality and augmented reality (AR/VR) media, and many more. Massive machine type communication (eMTC), it provides long-range and broadband machine-type communication at a very cost-effective price with less power consumption. eMTC brings a high data rate service, low power, extended coverage via less device complexity through mobile carriers for IoT applications. Ultra-reliable low latency communication (URLLC) offers low-latency and ultra-high reliability, rich quality of service (QoS), which is not possible with traditional mobile network architecture. URLLC is designed for on-demand real-time interaction such as remote surgery, vehicle to vehicle (V2V) communication, industry 4.0, smart grids, intelligent transport system, etc. 5G faster than 4G and offers remote-controlled operation over a reliable network with zero delays. It provides down-link maximum throughput of up to 20 Gbps. In addition, 5G also supports 4G WWWW (4th Generation World Wide Wireless Web) [ 5 ] and is based on Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) protocol. 5G provides unlimited internet connection at your convenience, anytime, anywhere with extremely high speed, high throughput, low-latency, higher reliability and scalability, and energy-efficient mobile communication technology [ 6 ]. 5G mainly divided in two parts 6 GHz 5G and Millimeter wave(mmWave) 5G.

6 GHz is a mid frequency band which works as a mid point between capacity and coverage to offer perfect environment for 5G connectivity. 6 GHz spectrum will provide high bandwidth with improved network performance. It offers continuous channels that will reduce the need for network densification when mid-band spectrum is not available and it makes 5G connectivity affordable at anytime, anywhere for everyone.

mmWave is an essential technology of 5G network which build high performance network. 5G mmWave offer diverse services that is why all network providers should add on this technology in their 5G deployment planning. There are lots of service providers who deployed 5G mmWave, and their simulation result shows that 5G mmwave is a far less used spectrum. It provides very high speed wireless communication and it also offers ultra-wide bandwidth for next generation mobile network.

The evolution of wireless mobile technologies are presented in Table 1 . The abbreviations used in this paper are mentioned in Table 2 .

Summary of Mobile Technology.

Table of Notations and Abbreviations.

1.2. Key Contributions

The objective of this survey is to provide a detailed guide of 5G key technologies, methods to researchers, and to help with understanding how the recent works addressed 5G problems and developed solutions to tackle the 5G challenges; i.e., what are new methods that must be applied and how can they solve problems? Highlights of the research article are as follows.

• This survey focused on the recent trends and development in the era of 5G and novel contributions by the researcher community and discussed technical details on essential aspects of the 5G advancement.
• In this paper, the evolution of the mobile network from 1G to 5G is presented. In addition, the growth of mobile communication under different attributes is also discussed.
• This paper covers the emerging applications and research groups working on 5G & different research areas in 5G wireless communication network with a descriptive taxonomy.
• This survey discusses the current vision of the 5G networks, advantages, applications, key technologies, and key features. Furthermore, machine learning prospects are also explored with the emerging requirements in the 5G era. The article also focused on technical aspects of 5G IoT Based approaches and optimization techniques for 5G.
• we provide an extensive overview and recent advancement of emerging technologies of 5G mobile network, namely, MIMO, Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA), mmWave, Internet of Things (IoT), Machine Learning (ML), and optimization. Also, a technical summary is discussed by highlighting the context of current approaches and corresponding challenges.
• Security challenges and considerations while developing 5G technology are discussed.
• Finally, the paper concludes with the future directives.

The existing survey focused on architecture, key concepts, and implementation challenges and issues. In contrast, this survey covers the state-of-the-art techniques as well as corresponding recent novel developments by researchers. Various recent significant papers are discussed with the key technologies accelerating the development and production of 5G products.

2. Existing Surveys and Their Applicability

In this paper, a detailed survey on various technologies of 5G networks is presented. Various researchers have worked on different technologies of 5G networks. In this section, Table 3 gives a tabular representation of existing surveys of 5G networks. Massive MIMO, NOMA, small cell, mmWave, beamforming, and MEC are the six main pillars that helped to implement 5G networks in real life.

A comparative overview of existing surveys on different technologies of 5G networks.

2.1. Limitations of Existing Surveys

The existing survey focused on architecture, key concepts, and implementation challenges and issues. The numerous current surveys focused on various 5G technologies with different parameters, and the authors did not cover all the technologies of the 5G network in detail with challenges and recent advancements. Few authors worked on MIMO (Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access) NOMA, MEC, small cell technologies. In contrast, some others worked on beamforming, Millimeter-wave (mmWave). But the existing survey did not cover all the technologies of the 5G network from a research and advancement perspective. No detailed survey is available in the market covering all the 5G network technologies and currently published research trade-offs. So, our main aim is to give a detailed study of all the technologies working on the 5G network. In contrast, this survey covers the state-of-the-art techniques as well as corresponding recent novel developments by researchers. Various recent significant papers are discussed with the key technologies accelerating the development and production of 5G products. This survey article collected key information about 5G technology and recent advancements, and it can be a kind of a guide for the reader. This survey provides an umbrella approach to bring multiple solutions and recent improvements in a single place to accelerate the 5G research with the latest key enabling solutions and reviews. A systematic layout representation of the survey in Figure 1 . We provide a state-of-the-art comparative overview of the existing surveys on different technologies of 5G networks in Table 3 .

Systematic layout representation of survey.

2.2. Article Organization

This article is organized under the following sections. Section 2 presents existing surveys and their applicability. In Section 3 , the preliminaries of 5G technology are presented. In Section 4 , recent advances of 5G technology based on Massive MIMO, NOMA, Millimeter Wave, 5G with IoT, machine learning for 5G, and Optimization in 5G are provided. In Section 5 , a description of novel 5G features over 4G is provided. Section 6 covered all the security concerns of the 5G network. Section 7 , 5G technology based on above-stated challenges summarize in tabular form. Finally, Section 8 and Section 9 conclude the study, which paves the path for future research.

3. Preliminary Section

3.1. emerging 5g paradigms and its features.

5G provides very high speed, low latency, and highly salable connectivity between multiple devices and IoT worldwide. 5G will provide a very flexible model to develop a modern generation of applications and industry goals [ 26 , 27 ]. There are many services offered by 5G network architecture are stated below:

Massive machine to machine communications: 5G offers novel, massive machine-to-machine communications [ 28 ], also known as the IoT [ 29 ], that provide connectivity between lots of machines without any involvement of humans. This service enhances the applications of 5G and provides connectivity between agriculture, construction, and industries [ 30 ].

Ultra-reliable low latency communications (URLLC): This service offers real-time management of machines, high-speed vehicle-to-vehicle connectivity, industrial connectivity and security principles, and highly secure transport system, and multiple autonomous actions. Low latency communications also clear up a different area where remote medical care, procedures, and operation are all achievable [ 31 ].

Enhanced mobile broadband: Enhance mobile broadband is an important use case of 5G system, which uses massive MIMO antenna, mmWave, beamforming techniques to offer very high-speed connectivity across a wide range of areas [ 32 ].

For communities: 5G provides a very flexible internet connection between lots of machines to make smart homes, smart schools, smart laboratories, safer and smart automobiles, and good health care centers [ 33 ].

For businesses and industry: As 5G works on higher spectrum ranges from 24 to 100 GHz. This higher frequency range provides secure low latency communication and high-speed wireless connectivity between IoT devices and industry 4.0, which opens a market for end-users to enhance their business models [ 34 ].

New and Emerging technologies: As 5G came up with many new technologies like beamforming, massive MIMO, mmWave, small cell, NOMA, MEC, and network slicing, it introduced many new features to the market. Like virtual reality (VR), users can experience the physical presence of people who are millions of kilometers away from them. Many new technologies like smart homes, smart workplaces, smart schools, smart sports academy also came into the market with this 5G Mobile network model [ 35 ].

3.2. Commercial Service Providers of 5G

5G provides high-speed internet browsing, streaming, and downloading with very high reliability and low latency. 5G network will change your working style, and it will increase new business opportunities and provide innovations that we cannot imagine. This section covers top service providers of 5G network [ 36 , 37 ].

Ericsson: Ericsson is a Swedish multinational networking and telecommunications company, investing around 25.62 billion USD in 5G network, which makes it the biggest telecommunication company. It claims that it is the only company working on all the continents to make the 5G network a global standard for the next generation wireless communication. Ericsson developed the first 5G radio prototype that enables the operators to set up the live field trials in their network, which helps operators understand how 5G reacts. It plays a vital role in the development of 5G hardware. It currently provides 5G services in over 27 countries with content providers like China Mobile, GCI, LGU+, AT&T, Rogers, and many more. It has 100 commercial agreements with different operators as of 2020.

Verizon: It is American multinational telecommunication which was founded in 1983. Verizon started offering 5G services in April 2020, and by December 2020, it has actively provided 5G services in 30 cities of the USA. They planned that by the end of 2021, they would deploy 5G in 30 more new cities. Verizon deployed a 5G network on mmWave, a very high band spectrum between 30 to 300 GHz. As it is a significantly less used spectrum, it provides very high-speed wireless communication. MmWave offers ultra-wide bandwidth for next-generation mobile networks. MmWave is a faster and high-band spectrum that has a limited range. Verizon planned to increase its number of 5G cells by 500% by 2020. Verizon also has an ultra wide-band flagship 5G service which is the best 5G service that increases the market price of Verizon.

Nokia: Nokia is a Finnish multinational telecommunications company which was founded in 1865. Nokia is one of the companies which adopted 5G technology very early. It is developing, researching, and building partnerships with various 5G renders to offer 5G communication as soon as possible. Nokia collaborated with Deutsche Telekom and Hamburg Port Authority and provided them 8000-hectare site for their 5G MoNArch project. Nokia is the only company that supplies 5G technology to all the operators of different countries like AT&T, Sprint, T-Mobile US and Verizon in the USA, Korea Telecom, LG U+ and SK Telecom in South Korea and NTT DOCOMO, KDDI, and SoftBank in Japan. Presently, Nokia has around 150+ agreements and 29 live networks all over the world. Nokia is continuously working hard on 5G technology to expand 5G networks all over the globe.

AT&T: AT&T is an American multinational company that was the first to deploy a 5G network in reality in 2018. They built a gigabit 5G network connection in Waco, TX, Kalamazoo, MI, and South Bend to achieve this. It is the first company that archives 1–2 gigabit per second speed in 2019. AT&T claims that it provides a 5G network connection among 225 million people worldwide by using a 6 GHz spectrum band.

T-Mobile: T-Mobile US (TMUS) is an American wireless network operator which was the first service provider that offers a real 5G nationwide network. The company knew that high-band 5G was not feasible nationwide, so they used a 600 MHz spectrum to build a significant portion of its 5G network. TMUS is planning that by 2024 they will double the total capacity and triple the full 5G capacity of T-Mobile and Sprint combined. The sprint buyout is helping T-Mobile move forward the company’s current market price to 129.98 USD.

Samsung: Samsung started their research in 5G technology in 2011. In 2013, Samsung successfully developed the world’s first adaptive array transceiver technology operating in the millimeter-wave Ka bands for cellular communications. Samsung provides several hundred times faster data transmission than standard 4G for core 5G mobile communication systems. The company achieved a lot of success in the next generation of technology, and it is considered one of the leading companies in the 5G domain.

Qualcomm: Qualcomm is an American multinational corporation in San Diego, California. It is also one of the leading company which is working on 5G chip. Qualcomm’s first 5G modem chip was announced in October 2016, and a prototype was demonstrated in October 2017. Qualcomm mainly focuses on building products while other companies talk about 5G; Qualcomm is building the technologies. According to one magazine, Qualcomm was working on three main areas of 5G networks. Firstly, radios that would use bandwidth from any network it has access to; secondly, creating more extensive ranges of spectrum by combining smaller pieces; and thirdly, a set of services for internet applications.

ZTE Corporation: ZTE Corporation was founded in 1985. It is a partially Chinese state-owned technology company that works in telecommunication. It was a leading company that worked on 4G LTE, and it is still maintaining its value and doing research and tests on 5G. It is the first company that proposed Pre5G technology with some series of solutions.

NEC Corporation: NEC Corporation is a Japanese multinational information technology and electronics corporation headquartered in Minato, Tokyo. ZTE also started their research on 5G, and they introduced a new business concept. NEC’s main aim is to develop 5G NR for the global mobile system and create secure and intelligent technologies to realize 5G services.

Cisco: Cisco is a USA networking hardware company that also sleeves up for 5G network. Cisco’s primary focus is to support 5G in three ways: Service—enable 5G services faster so all service providers can increase their business. Infrastructure—build 5G-oriented infrastructure to implement 5G more quickly. Automation—make a more scalable, flexible, and reliable 5G network. The companies know the importance of 5G, and they want to connect more than 30 billion devices in the next couple of years. Cisco intends to work on network hardening as it is a vital part of 5G network. Cisco used AI with deep learning to develop a 5G Security Architecture, enabling Secure Network Transformation.

3.3. 5G Research Groups

Many research groups from all over the world are working on a 5G wireless mobile network [ 38 ]. These groups are continuously working on various aspects of 5G. The list of those research groups are presented as follows: 5GNOW (5th Generation Non-Orthogonal Waveform for Asynchronous Signaling), NEWCOM (Network of Excellence in Wireless Communication), 5GIC (5G Innovation Center), NYU (New York University) Wireless, 5GPPP (5G Infrastructure Public-Private Partnership), EMPHATIC (Enhanced Multi-carrier Technology for Professional Adhoc and Cell-Based Communication), ETRI(Electronics and Telecommunication Research Institute), METIS (Mobile and wireless communication Enablers for the Twenty-twenty Information Society) [ 39 ]. The various research groups along with the research area are presented in Table 4 .

Research groups working on 5G mobile networks.

3.4. 5G Applications

5G is faster than 4G and offers remote-controlled operation over a reliable network with zero delays. It provides down-link maximum throughput of up to 20 Gbps. In addition, 5G also supports 4G WWWW (4th Generation World Wide Wireless Web) [ 5 ] and is based on Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) protocol. 5G provides unlimited internet connection at your convenience, anytime, anywhere with extremely high speed, high throughput, low-latency, higher reliability, greater scalablility, and energy-efficient mobile communication technology [ 6 ].

There are lots of applications of 5G mobile network are as follows:

• High-speed mobile network: 5G is an advancement on all the previous mobile network technologies, which offers very high speed downloading speeds 0 of up to 10 to 20 Gbps. The 5G wireless network works as a fiber optic internet connection. 5G is different from all the conventional mobile transmission technologies, and it offers both voice and high-speed data connectivity efficiently. 5G offers very low latency communication of less than a millisecond, useful for autonomous driving and mission-critical applications. 5G will use millimeter waves for data transmission, providing higher bandwidth and a massive data rate than lower LTE bands. As 5 Gis a fast mobile network technology, it will enable virtual access to high processing power and secure and safe access to cloud services and enterprise applications. Small cell is one of the best features of 5G, which brings lots of advantages like high coverage, high-speed data transfer, power saving, easy and fast cloud access, etc. [ 40 ].
• Entertainment and multimedia: In one analysis in 2015, it was found that more than 50 percent of mobile internet traffic was used for video downloading. This trend will surely increase in the future, which will make video streaming more common. 5G will offer High-speed streaming of 4K videos with crystal clear audio, and it will make a high definition virtual world on your mobile. 5G will benefit the entertainment industry as it offers 120 frames per second with high resolution and higher dynamic range video streaming, and HD TV channels can also be accessed on mobile devices without any interruptions. 5G provides low latency high definition communication so augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR) will be very easily implemented in the future. Virtual reality games are trendy these days, and many companies are investing in HD virtual reality games. The 5G network will offer high-speed internet connectivity with a better gaming experience [ 41 ].
• Smart homes : smart home appliances and products are in demand these days. The 5G network makes smart homes more real as it offers high-speed connectivity and monitoring of smart appliances. Smart home appliances are easily accessed and configured from remote locations using the 5G network as it offers very high-speed low latency communication.
• Smart cities: 5G wireless network also helps develop smart cities applications such as automatic traffic management, weather update, local area broadcasting, energy-saving, efficient power supply, smart lighting system, water resource management, crowd management, emergency control, etc.
• Industrial IoT: 5G wireless technology will provide lots of features for future industries such as safety, process tracking, smart packing, shipping, energy efficiency, automation of equipment, predictive maintenance, and logistics. 5G smart sensor technology also offers smarter, safer, cost-effective, and energy-saving industrial IoT operations.
• Smart Farming: 5G technology will play a crucial role in agriculture and smart farming. 5G sensors and GPS technology will help farmers track live attacks on crops and manage them quickly. These smart sensors can also be used for irrigation, pest, insect, and electricity control.
• Autonomous Driving: The 5G wireless network offers very low latency high-speed communication, significant for autonomous driving. It means self-driving cars will come to real life soon with 5G wireless networks. Using 5G autonomous cars can easily communicate with smart traffic signs, objects, and other vehicles running on the road. 5G’s low latency feature makes self-driving more real as every millisecond is essential for autonomous vehicles, decision-making is done in microseconds to avoid accidents.
• Healthcare and mission-critical applications: 5G technology will bring modernization in medicine where doctors and practitioners can perform advanced medical procedures. The 5G network will provide connectivity between all classrooms, so attending seminars and lectures will be easier. Through 5G technology, patients can connect with doctors and take their advice. Scientists are building smart medical devices which can help people with chronic medical conditions. The 5G network will boost the healthcare industry with smart devices, the internet of medical things, smart sensors, HD medical imaging technologies, and smart analytics systems. 5G will help access cloud storage, so accessing healthcare data will be very easy from any location worldwide. Doctors and medical practitioners can easily store and share large files like MRI reports within seconds using the 5G network.
• Satellite Internet: In many remote areas, ground base stations are not available, so 5G will play a crucial role in providing connectivity in such areas. The 5G network will provide connectivity using satellite systems, and the satellite system uses a constellation of multiple small satellites to provide connectivity in urban and rural areas across the world.

4. 5G Technologies

This section describes recent advances of 5G Massive MIMO, 5G NOMA, 5G millimeter wave, 5G IOT, 5G with machine learning, and 5G optimization-based approaches. In addition, the summary is also presented in each subsection that paves the researchers for the future research direction.

4.1. 5G Massive MIMO

Multiple-input-multiple-out (MIMO) is a very important technology for wireless systems. It is used for sending and receiving multiple signals simultaneously over the same radio channel. MIMO plays a very big role in WI-FI, 3G, 4G, and 4G LTE-A networks. MIMO is mainly used to achieve high spectral efficiency and energy efficiency but it was not up to the mark MIMO provides low throughput and very low reliable connectivity. To resolve this, lots of MIMO technology like single user MIMO (SU-MIMO), multiuser MIMO (MU-MIMO) and network MIMO were used. However, these new MIMO also did not still fulfill the demand of end users. Massive MIMO is an advancement of MIMO technology used in the 5G network in which hundreds and thousands of antennas are attached with base stations to increase throughput and spectral efficiency. Multiple transmit and receive antennas are used in massive MIMO to increase the transmission rate and spectral efficiency. When multiple UEs generate downlink traffic simultaneously, massive MIMO gains higher capacity. Massive MIMO uses extra antennas to move energy into smaller regions of space to increase spectral efficiency and throughput [ 43 ]. In traditional systems data collection from smart sensors is a complex task as it increases latency, reduced data rate and reduced reliability. While massive MIMO with beamforming and huge multiplexing techniques can sense data from different sensors with low latency, high data rate and higher reliability. Massive MIMO will help in transmitting the data in real-time collected from different sensors to central monitoring locations for smart sensor applications like self-driving cars, healthcare centers, smart grids, smart cities, smart highways, smart homes, and smart enterprises [ 44 ].

Highlights of 5G Massive MIMO technology are as follows:

• Data rate: Massive MIMO is advised as the one of the dominant technologies to provide wireless high speed and high data rate in the gigabits per seconds.
• The relationship between wave frequency and antenna size: Both are inversely proportional to each other. It means lower frequency signals need a bigger antenna and vise versa.

Pictorial representation of multi-input and multi-output (MIMO).

• MIMO role in 5G: Massive MIMO will play a crucial role in the deployment of future 5G mobile communication as greater spectral and energy efficiency could be enabled.

State-of-the-Art Approaches

Plenty of approaches were proposed to resolve the issues of conventional MIMO [ 7 ].

The MIMO multirate, feed-forward controller is suggested by Mae et al. [ 46 ]. In the simulation, the proposed model generates the smooth control input, unlike the conventional MIMO, which generates oscillated control inputs. It also outperformed concerning the error rate. However, a combination of multirate and single rate can be used for better results.

The performance of stand-alone MIMO, distributed MIMO with and without corporation MIMO, was investigated by Panzner et al. [ 47 ]. In addition, an idea about the integration of large scale in the 5G technology was also presented. In the experimental analysis, different MIMO configurations are considered. The variation in the ratio of overall transmit antennas to spatial is deemed step-wise from equality to ten.

The simulation of massive MIMO noncooperative and cooperative systems for down-link behavior was performed by He et al. [ 48 ]. It depends on present LTE systems, which deal with various antennas in the base station set-up. It was observed that collaboration in different BS improves the system behaviors, whereas throughput is reduced slightly in this approach. However, a new method can be developed which can enhance both system behavior and throughput.

In [ 8 ], different approaches that increased the energy efficiency benefits provided by massive MIMO were presented. They analyzed the massive MIMO technology and described the detailed design of the energy consumption model for massive MIMO systems. This article has explored several techniques to enhance massive MIMO systems’ energy efficiency (EE) gains. This paper reviews standard EE-maximization approaches for the conventional massive MIMO systems, namely, scaling number of antennas, real-time implementing low-complexity operations at the base station (BS), power amplifier losses minimization, and radio frequency (RF) chain minimization requirements. In addition, open research direction is also identified.

In [ 49 ], various existing approaches based on different antenna selection and scheduling, user selection and scheduling, and joint antenna and user scheduling methods adopted in massive MIMO systems are presented in this paper. The objective of this survey article was to make awareness about the current research and future research direction in MIMO for systems. They analyzed that complete utilization of resources and bandwidth was the most crucial factor which enhances the sum rate.

In [ 50 ], authors discussed the development of various techniques for pilot contamination. To calculate the impact of pilot contamination in time division duplex (TDD) massive MIMO system, TDD and frequency division duplexing FDD patterns in massive MIMO techniques are used. They discussed different issues in pilot contamination in TDD massive MIMO systems with all the possible future directions of research. They also classified various techniques to generate the channel information for both pilot-based and subspace-based approaches.

In [ 19 ], the authors defined the uplink and downlink services for a massive MIMO system. In addition, it maintains a performance matrix that measures the impact of pilot contamination on different performances. They also examined the various application of massive MIMO such as small cells, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) schemes, massive MIMO IEEE 802, 3rd generation partnership project (3GPP) specifications, and higher frequency bands. They considered their research work crucial for cutting edge massive MIMO and covered many issues like system throughput performance and channel state acquisition at higher frequencies.

In [ 13 ], various approaches were suggested for MIMO future generation wireless communication. They made a comparative study based on performance indicators such as peak data rate, energy efficiency, latency, throughput, etc. The key findings of this survey are as follows: (1) spatial multiplexing improves the energy efficiency; (2) design of MIMO play a vital role in the enhancement of throughput; (3) enhancement of mMIMO focusing on energy & spectral performance; (4) discussed the future challenges to improve the system design.

In [ 51 ], the study of large-scale MIMO systems for an energy-efficient system sharing method was presented. For the resource allocation, circuit energy and transmit energy expenditures were taken into consideration. In addition, the optimization techniques were applied for an energy-efficient resource sharing system to enlarge the energy efficiency for individual QoS and energy constraints. The author also examined the BS configuration, which includes homogeneous and heterogeneous UEs. While simulating, they discussed that the total number of transmit antennas plays a vital role in boosting energy efficiency. They highlighted that the highest energy efficiency was obtained when the BS was set up with 100 antennas that serve 20 UEs.

This section includes various works done on 5G MIMO technology by different author’s. Table 5 shows how different author’s worked on improvement of various parameters such as throughput, latency, energy efficiency, and spectral efficiency with 5G MIMO technology.

Summary of massive MIMO-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.2. 5G Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA)

NOMA is a very important radio access technology used in next generation wireless communication. Compared to previous orthogonal multiple access techniques, NOMA offers lots of benefits like high spectrum efficiency, low latency with high reliability and high speed massive connectivity. NOMA mainly works on a baseline to serve multiple users with the same resources in terms of time, space and frequency. NOMA is mainly divided into two main categories one is code domain NOMA and another is power domain NOMA. Code-domain NOMA can improve the spectral efficiency of mMIMO, which improves the connectivity in 5G wireless communication. Code-domain NOMA was divided into some more multiple access techniques like sparse code multiple access, lattice-partition multiple access, multi-user shared access and pattern-division multiple access [ 52 ]. Power-domain NOMA is widely used in 5G wireless networks as it performs well with various wireless communication techniques such as MIMO, beamforming, space-time coding, network coding, full-duplex and cooperative communication etc. [ 53 ]. The conventional orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) used by 3GPP in 4G LTE network provides very low spectral efficiency when bandwidth resources are allocated to users with low channel state information (CSI). NOMA resolved this issue as it enables users to access all the subcarrier channels so bandwidth resources allocated to the users with low CSI can still be accessed by the users with strong CSI which increases the spectral efficiency. The 5G network will support heterogeneous architecture in which small cell and macro base stations work for spectrum sharing. NOMA is a key technology of the 5G wireless system which is very helpful for heterogeneous networks as multiple users can share their data in a small cell using the NOMA principle.The NOMA is helpful in various applications like ultra-dense networks (UDN), machine to machine (M2M) communication and massive machine type communication (mMTC). As NOMA provides lots of features it has some challenges too such as NOMA needs huge computational power for a large number of users at high data rates to run the SIC algorithms. Second, when users are moving from the networks, to manage power allocation optimization is a challenging task for NOMA [ 54 ]. Hybrid NOMA (HNOMA) is a combination of power-domain and code-domain NOMA. HNOMA uses both power differences and orthogonal resources for transmission among multiple users. As HNOMA is using both power-domain NOMA and code-domain NOMA it can achieve higher spectral efficiency than Power-domain NOMA and code-domain NOMA. In HNOMA multiple groups can simultaneously transmit signals at the same time. It uses a message passing algorithm (MPA) and successive interference cancellation (SIC)-based detection at the base station for these groups [ 55 ].

Highlights of 5G NOMA technology as follows:

Pictorial representation of orthogonal and Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA).

• NOMA provides higher data rates and resolves all the loop holes of OMA that makes 5G mobile network more scalable and reliable.
• As multiple users use same frequency band simultaneously it increases the performance of whole network.
• To setup intracell and intercell interference NOMA provides nonorthogonal transmission on the transmitter end.
• The primary fundamental of NOMA is to improve the spectrum efficiency by strengthening the ramification of receiver.

State-of-the-Art of Approaches

A plenty of approaches were developed to address the various issues in NOMA.

A novel approach to address the multiple receiving signals at the same frequency is proposed in [ 22 ]. In NOMA, multiple users use the same sub-carrier, which improves the fairness and throughput of the system. As a nonorthogonal method is used among multiple users, at the time of retrieving the user’s signal at the receiver’s end, joint processing is required. They proposed solutions to optimize the receiver and the radio resource allocation of uplink NOMA. Firstly, the authors proposed an iterative MUDD which utilizes the information produced by the channel decoder to improve the performance of the multiuser detector. After that, the author suggested a power allocation and novel subcarrier that enhances the users’ weighted sum rate for the NOMA scheme. Their proposed model showed that NOMA performed well as compared to OFDM in terms of fairness and efficiency.

In [ 53 ], the author’s reviewed a power-domain NOMA that uses superposition coding (SC) and successive interference cancellation (SIC) at the transmitter and the receiver end. Lots of analyses were held that described that NOMA effectively satisfies user data rate demands and network-level of 5G technologies. The paper presented a complete review of recent advances in the 5G NOMA system. It showed the comparative analysis regarding allocation procedures, user fairness, state-of-the-art efficiency evaluation, user pairing pattern, etc. The study also analyzes NOMA’s behavior when working with other wireless communication techniques, namely, beamforming, MIMO, cooperative connections, network, space-time coding, etc.

In [ 9 ], the authors proposed NOMA with MEC, which improves the QoS as well as reduces the latency of the 5G wireless network. This model increases the uplink NOMA by decreasing the user’s uplink energy consumption. They formulated an optimized NOMA framework that reduces the energy consumption of MEC by using computing and communication resource allocation, user clustering, and transmit powers.

In [ 10 ], the authors proposed a model which investigates outage probability under average channel state information CSI and data rate in full CSI to resolve the problem of optimal power allocation, which increase the NOMA downlink system among users. They developed simple low-complexity algorithms to provide the optimal solution. The obtained simulation results showed NOMA’s efficiency, achieving higher performance fairness compared to the TDMA configurations. It was observed from the results that NOMA, through the appropriate power amplifiers (PA), ensures the high-performance fairness requirement for the future 5G wireless communication networks.

In [ 56 ], researchers discussed that the NOMA technology and waveform modulation techniques had been used in the 5G mobile network. Therefore, this research gave a detailed survey of non-orthogonal waveform modulation techniques and NOMA schemes for next-generation mobile networks. By analyzing and comparing multiple access technologies, they considered the future evolution of these technologies for 5G mobile communication.

In [ 57 ], the authors surveyed non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) from the development phase to the recent developments. They have also compared NOMA techniques with traditional OMA techniques concerning information theory. The author discussed the NOMA schemes categorically as power and code domain, including the design principles, operating principles, and features. Comparison is based upon the system’s performance, spectral efficiency, and the receiver’s complexity. Also discussed are the future challenges, open issues, and their expectations of NOMA and how it will support the key requirements of 5G mobile communication systems with massive connectivity and low latency.

In [ 17 ], authors present the first review of an elementary NOMA model with two users, which clarify its central precepts. After that, a general design with multicarrier supports with a random number of users on each sub-carrier is analyzed. In performance evaluation with the existing approaches, resource sharing and multiple-input multiple-output NOMA are examined. Furthermore, they took the key elements of NOMA and its potential research demands. Finally, they reviewed the two-user SC-NOMA design and a multi-user MC-NOMA design to highlight NOMA’s basic approaches and conventions. They also present the research study about the performance examination, resource assignment, and MIMO in NOMA.

In this section, various works by different authors done on 5G NOMA technology is covered. Table 6 shows how other authors worked on the improvement of various parameters such as spectral efficiency, fairness, and computing capacity with 5G NOMA technology.

Summary of NOMA-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.3. 5G Millimeter Wave (mmWave)

Millimeter wave is an extremely high frequency band, which is very useful for 5G wireless networks. MmWave uses 30 GHz to 300 GHz spectrum band for transmission. The frequency band between 30 GHz to 300 GHz is known as mmWave because these waves have wavelengths between 1 to 10 mm. Till now radar systems and satellites are only using mmWave as these are very fast frequency bands which provide very high speed wireless communication. Many mobile network providers also started mmWave for transmitting data between base stations. Using two ways the speed of data transmission can be improved one is by increasing spectrum utilization and second is by increasing spectrum bandwidth. Out of these two approaches increasing bandwidth is quite easy and better. The frequency band below 5 GHz is very crowded as many technologies are using it so to boost up the data transmission rate 5G wireless network uses mmWave technology which instead of increasing spectrum utilization, increases the spectrum bandwidth [ 58 ]. To maximize the signal bandwidth in wireless communication the carrier frequency should also be increased by 5% because the signal bandwidth is directly proportional to carrier frequencies. The frequency band between 28 GHz to 60 GHz is very useful for 5G wireless communication as 28 GHz frequency band offers up to 1 GHz spectrum bandwidth and 60 GHz frequency band offers 2 GHz spectrum bandwidth. 4G LTE provides 2 GHz carrier frequency which offers only 100 MHz spectrum bandwidth. However, the use of mmWave increases the spectrum bandwidth 10 times, which leads to better transmission speeds [ 59 , 60 ].

Highlights of 5G mmWave are as follows:

Pictorial representation of millimeter wave.

• The 5G mmWave offer three advantages: (1) MmWave is very less used new Band, (2) MmWave signals carry more data than lower frequency wave, and (3) MmWave can be incorporated with MIMO antenna with the potential to offer a higher magnitude capacity compared to current communication systems.

In [ 11 ], the authors presented the survey of mmWave communications for 5G. The advantage of mmWave communications is adaptability, i.e., it supports the architectures and protocols up-gradation, which consists of integrated circuits, systems, etc. The authors over-viewed the present solutions and examined them concerning effectiveness, performance, and complexity. They also discussed the open research issues of mmWave communications in 5G concerning the software-defined network (SDN) architecture, network state information, efficient regulation techniques, and the heterogeneous system.

In [ 61 ], the authors present the recent work done by investigators in 5G; they discussed the design issues and demands of mmWave 5G antennas for cellular handsets. After that, they designed a small size and low-profile 60 GHz array of antenna units that contain 3D planer mesh-grid antenna elements. For the future prospect, a framework is designed in which antenna components are used to operate cellular handsets on mmWave 5G smartphones. In addition, they cross-checked the mesh-grid array of antennas with the polarized beam for upcoming hardware challenges.

In [ 12 ], the authors considered the suitability of the mmWave band for 5G cellular systems. They suggested a resource allocation system for concurrent D2D communications in mmWave 5G cellular systems, and it improves network efficiency and maintains network connectivity. This research article can serve as guidance for simulating D2D communications in mmWave 5G cellular systems. Massive mmWave BS may be set up to obtain a high delivery rate and aggregate efficiency. Therefore, many wireless users can hand off frequently between the mmWave base terminals, and it emerges the demand to search the neighbor having better network connectivity.

In [ 62 ], the authors provided a brief description of the cellular spectrum which ranges from 1 GHz to 3 GHz and is very crowed. In addition, they presented various noteworthy factors to set up mmWave communications in 5G, namely, channel characteristics regarding mmWave signal attenuation due to free space propagation, atmospheric gaseous, and rain. In addition, hybrid beamforming architecture in the mmWave technique is analyzed. They also suggested methods for the blockage effect in mmWave communications due to penetration damage. Finally, the authors have studied designing the mmWave transmission with small beams in nonorthogonal device-to-device communication.

This section covered various works done on 5G mmWave technology. The Table 7 shows how different author’s worked on the improvement of various parameters i.e., transmission rate, coverage, and cost, with 5G mmWave technology.

Summary of existing mmWave-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.4. 5G IoT Based Approaches

The 5G mobile network plays a big role in developing the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT will connect lots of things with the internet like appliances, sensors, devices, objects, and applications. These applications will collect lots of data from different devices and sensors. 5G will provide very high speed internet connectivity for data collection, transmission, control, and processing. 5G is a flexible network with unused spectrum availability and it offers very low cost deployment that is why it is the most efficient technology for IoT [ 63 ]. In many areas, 5G provides benefits to IoT, and below are some examples:

Smart homes: smart home appliances and products are in demand these days. The 5G network makes smart homes more real as it offers high speed connectivity and monitoring of smart appliances. Smart home appliances are easily accessed and configured from remote locations using the 5G network, as it offers very high speed low latency communication.

Smart cities: 5G wireless network also helps in developing smart cities applications such as automatic traffic management, weather update, local area broadcasting, energy saving, efficient power supply, smart lighting system, water resource management, crowd management, emergency control, etc.

Industrial IoT: 5G wireless technology will provide lots of features for future industries such as safety, process tracking, smart packing, shipping, energy efficiency, automation of equipment, predictive maintenance and logistics. 5G smart sensor technology also offers smarter, safer, cost effective, and energy-saving industrial operation for industrial IoT.

Smart Farming: 5G technology will play a crucial role for agriculture and smart farming. 5G sensors and GPS technology will help farmers to track live attacks on crops and manage them quickly. These smart sensors can also be used for irrigation control, pest control, insect control, and electricity control.

Autonomous Driving: 5G wireless network offers very low latency high speed communication which is very significant for autonomous driving. It means self-driving cars will come to real life soon with 5G wireless networks. Using 5G autonomous cars can easily communicate with smart traffic signs, objects and other vehicles running on the road. 5G’s low latency feature makes self-driving more real as every millisecond is important for autonomous vehicles, decision taking is performed in microseconds to avoid accidents [ 64 ].

Highlights of 5G IoT are as follows:

Pictorial representation of IoT with 5G.

• 5G with IoT is a new feature of next-generation mobile communication, which provides a high-speed internet connection between moderated devices. 5G IoT also offers smart homes, smart devices, sensors, smart transportation systems, smart industries, etc., for end-users to make them smarter.
• IoT deals with moderate devices which connect through the internet. The approach of the IoT has made the consideration of the research associated with the outcome of providing wearable, smart-phones, sensors, smart transportation systems, smart devices, washing machines, tablets, etc., and these diverse systems are associated to a common interface with the intelligence to connect.
• Significant IoT applications include private healthcare systems, traffic management, industrial management, and tactile internet, etc.

Plenty of approaches is devised to address the issues of IoT [ 14 , 65 , 66 ].

In [ 65 ], the paper focuses on 5G mobile systems due to the emerging trends and developing technologies, which results in the exponential traffic growth in IoT. The author surveyed the challenges and demands during deployment of the massive IoT applications with the main focus on mobile networking. The author reviewed the features of standard IoT infrastructure, along with the cellular-based, low-power wide-area technologies (LPWA) such as eMTC, extended coverage (EC)-GSM-IoT, as well as noncellular, low-power wide-area (LPWA) technologies such as SigFox, LoRa etc.

In [ 14 ], the authors presented how 5G technology copes with the various issues of IoT today. It provides a brief review of existing and forming 5G architectures. The survey indicates the role of 5G in the foundation of the IoT ecosystem. IoT and 5G can easily combine with improved wireless technologies to set up the same ecosystem that can fulfill the current requirement for IoT devices. 5G can alter nature and will help to expand the development of IoT devices. As the process of 5G unfolds, global associations will find essentials for setting up a cross-industry engagement in determining and enlarging the 5G system.

In [ 66 ], the author introduced an IoT authentication scheme in a 5G network, with more excellent reliability and dynamic. The scheme proposed a privacy-protected procedure for selecting slices; it provided an additional fog node for proper data transmission and service types of the subscribers, along with service-oriented authentication and key understanding to maintain the secrecy, precision of users, and confidentiality of service factors. Users anonymously identify the IoT servers and develop a vital channel for service accessibility and data cached on local fog nodes and remote IoT servers. The author performed a simulation to manifest the security and privacy preservation of the user over the network.

This section covered various works done on 5G IoT by multiple authors. Table 8 shows how different author’s worked on the improvement of numerous parameters, i.e., data rate, security requirement, and performance with 5G IoT.

Summary of IoT-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.5. Machine Learning Techniques for 5G

Various machine learning (ML) techniques were applied in 5G networks and mobile communication. It provides a solution to multiple complex problems, which requires a lot of hand-tuning. ML techniques can be broadly classified as supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning. Let’s discuss each learning technique separately and where it impacts the 5G network.

Supervised Learning, where user works with labeled data; some 5G network problems can be further categorized as classification and regression problems. Some regression problems such as scheduling nodes in 5G and energy availability can be predicted using Linear Regression (LR) algorithm. To accurately predict the bandwidth and frequency allocation Statistical Logistic Regression (SLR) is applied. Some supervised classifiers are applied to predict the network demand and allocate network resources based on the connectivity performance; it signifies the topology setup and bit rates. Support Vector Machine (SVM) and NN-based approximation algorithms are used for channel learning based on observable channel state information. Deep Neural Network (DNN) is also employed to extract solutions for predicting beamforming vectors at the BS’s by taking mapping functions and uplink pilot signals into considerations.

In unsupervised Learning, where the user works with unlabeled data, various clustering techniques are applied to enhance network performance and connectivity without interruptions. K-means clustering reduces the data travel by storing data centers content into clusters. It optimizes the handover estimation based on mobility pattern and selection of relay nodes in the V2V network. Hierarchical clustering reduces network failure by detecting the intrusion in the mobile wireless network; unsupervised soft clustering helps in reducing latency by clustering fog nodes. The nonparametric Bayesian unsupervised learning technique reduces traffic in the network by actively serving the user’s requests and demands. Other unsupervised learning techniques such as Adversarial Auto Encoders (AAE) and Affinity Propagation Clustering techniques detect irregular behavior in the wireless spectrum and manage resources for ultradense small cells, respectively.

In case of an uncertain environment in the 5G wireless network, reinforcement learning (RL) techniques are employed to solve some problems. Actor-critic reinforcement learning is used for user scheduling and resource allocation in the network. Markov decision process (MDP) and Partially Observable MDP (POMDP) is used for Quality of Experience (QoE)-based handover decision-making for Hetnets. Controls packet call admission in HetNets and channel access process for secondary users in a Cognitive Radio Network (CRN). Deep RL is applied to decide the communication channel and mobility and speeds up the secondary user’s learning rate using an antijamming strategy. Deep RL is employed in various 5G network application parameters such as resource allocation and security [ 67 ]. Table 9 shows the state-of-the-art ML-based solution for 5G network.

The state-of-the-art ML-based solution for 5G network.

Highlights of machine learning techniques for 5G are as follows:

Pictorial representation of machine learning (ML) in 5G.

• In ML, a model will be defined which fulfills the desired requirements through which desired results are obtained. In the later stage, it examines accuracy from obtained results.
• ML plays a vital role in 5G network analysis for threat detection, network load prediction, final arrangement, and network formation. Searching for a better balance between power, length of antennas, area, and network thickness crossed with the spontaneous use of services in the universe of individual users and types of devices.

In [ 79 ], author’s firstly describes the demands for the traditional authentication procedures and benefits of intelligent authentication. The intelligent authentication method was established to improve security practice in 5G-and-beyond wireless communication systems. Thereafter, the machine learning paradigms for intelligent authentication were organized into parametric and non-parametric research methods, as well as supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning approaches. As a outcome, machine learning techniques provide a new paradigm into authentication under diverse network conditions and unstable dynamics. In addition, prompt intelligence to the security management to obtain cost-effective, better reliable, model-free, continuous, and situation-aware authentication.

In [ 68 ], the authors proposed a machine learning-based model to predict the traffic load at a particular location. They used a mobile network traffic dataset to train a model that can calculate the total number of user requests at a time. To launch access and mobility management function (AMF) instances according to the requirement as there were no predictions of user request the performance automatically degrade as AMF does not handle these requests at a time. Earlier threshold-based techniques were used to predict the traffic load, but that approach took too much time; therefore, the authors proposed RNN algorithm-based ML to predict the traffic load, which gives efficient results.

In [ 15 ], authors discussed the issue of network slice admission, resource allocation among subscribers, and how to maximize the profit of infrastructure providers. The author proposed a network slice admission control algorithm based on SMDP (decision-making process) that guarantees the subscribers’ best acceptance policies and satisfiability (tenants). They also suggested novel N3AC, a neural network-based algorithm that optimizes performance under various configurations, significantly outperforms practical and straightforward approaches.

This section includes various works done on 5G ML by different authors. Table 10 shows the state-of-the-art work on the improvement of various parameters such as energy efficiency, Quality of Services (QoS), and latency with 5G ML.

The state-of-the-art ML-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.6. Optimization Techniques for 5G

Optimization techniques may be applied to capture NP-Complete or NP-Hard problems in 5G technology. This section briefly describes various research works suggested for 5G technology based on optimization techniques.

In [ 80 ], Massive MIMO technology is used in 5G mobile network to make it more flexible and scalable. The MIMO implementation in 5G needs a significant number of radio frequencies is required in the RF circuit that increases the cost and energy consumption of the 5G network. This paper provides a solution that increases the cost efficiency and energy efficiency with many radio frequency chains for a 5G wireless communication network. They give an optimized energy efficient technique for MIMO antenna and mmWave technologies based 5G mobile communication network. The proposed Energy Efficient Hybrid Precoding (EEHP) algorithm to increase the energy efficiency for the 5G wireless network. This algorithm minimizes the cost of an RF circuit with a large number of RF chains.

In [ 16 ], authors have discussed the growing demand for energy efficiency in the next-generation networks. In the last decade, they have figured out the things in wireless transmissions, which proved a change towards pursuing green communication for the next generation system. The importance of adopting the correct EE metric was also reviewed. Further, they worked through the different approaches that can be applied in the future for increasing the network’s energy and posed a summary of the work that was completed previously to enhance the energy productivity of the network using these capabilities. A system design for EE development using relay selection was also characterized, along with an observation of distinct algorithms applied for EE in relay-based ecosystems.

In [ 81 ], authors presented how AI-based approach is used to the setup of Self Organizing Network (SON) functionalities for radio access network (RAN) design and optimization. They used a machine learning approach to predict the results for 5G SON functionalities. Firstly, the input was taken from various sources; then, prediction and clustering-based machine learning models were applied to produce the results. Multiple AI-based devices were used to extract the knowledge analysis to execute SON functionalities smoothly. Based on results, they tested how self-optimization, self-testing, and self-designing are done for SON. The author also describes how the proposed mechanism classifies in different orders.

In [ 82 ], investigators examined the working of OFDM in various channel environments. They also figured out the changes in frame duration of the 5G TDD frame design. Subcarrier spacing is beneficial to obtain a small frame length with control overhead. They provided various techniques to reduce the growing guard period (GP) and cyclic prefix (CP) like complete utilization of multiple subcarrier spacing, management and data parts of frame at receiver end, various uses of timing advance (TA) or total control of flexible CP size.

This section includes various works that were done on 5G optimization by different authors. Table 11 shows how other authors worked on the improvement of multiple parameters such as energy efficiency, power optimization, and latency with 5G optimization.

Summary of Optimization Based Approaches in 5G Technology.

5. Description of Novel 5G Features over 4G

This section presents descriptions of various novel features of 5G, namely, the concept of small cell, beamforming, and MEC.

5.1. Small Cell

Small cells are low-powered cellular radio access nodes which work in the range of 10 meters to a few kilometers. Small cells play a very important role in implementation of the 5G wireless network. Small cells are low power base stations which cover small areas. Small cells are quite similar with all the previous cells used in various wireless networks. However, these cells have some advantages like they can work with low power and they are also capable of working with high data rates. Small cells help in rollout of 5G network with ultra high speed and low latency communication. Small cells in the 5G network use some new technologies like MIMO, beamforming, and mmWave for high speed data transmission. The design of small cells hardware is very simple so its implementation is quite easier and faster. There are three types of small cell tower available in the market. Femtocells, picocells, and microcells [ 83 ]. As shown in the Table 12 .

Types of Small cells.

MmWave is a very high band spectrum between 30 to 300 GHz. As it is a significantly less used spectrum, it provides very high-speed wireless communication. MmWave offers ultra-wide bandwidth for next-generation mobile networks. MmWave has lots of advantages, but it has some disadvantages, too, such as mmWave signals are very high-frequency signals, so they have more collision with obstacles in the air which cause the signals loses energy quickly. Buildings and trees also block MmWave signals, so these signals cover a shorter distance. To resolve these issues, multiple small cell stations are installed to cover the gap between end-user and base station [ 18 ]. Small cell covers a very shorter range, so the installation of a small cell depends on the population of a particular area. Generally, in a populated place, the distance between each small cell varies from 10 to 90 meters. In the survey [ 20 ], various authors implemented small cells with massive MIMO simultaneously. They also reviewed multiple technologies used in 5G like beamforming, small cell, massive MIMO, NOMA, device to device (D2D) communication. Various problems like interference management, spectral efficiency, resource management, energy efficiency, and backhauling are discussed. The author also gave a detailed presentation of all the issues occurring while implementing small cells with various 5G technologies. As shown in the Figure 7 , mmWave has a higher range, so it can be easily blocked by the obstacles as shown in Figure 7 a. This is one of the key concerns of millimeter-wave signal transmission. To solve this issue, the small cell can be placed at a short distance to transmit the signals easily, as shown in Figure 7 b.

Pictorial representation of communication with and without small cells.

5.2. Beamforming

Beamforming is a key technology of wireless networks which transmits the signals in a directional manner. 5G beamforming making a strong wireless connection toward a receiving end. In conventional systems when small cells are not using beamforming, moving signals to particular areas is quite difficult. Beamforming counter this issue using beamforming small cells are able to transmit the signals in particular direction towards a device like mobile phone, laptops, autonomous vehicle and IoT devices. Beamforming is improving the efficiency and saves the energy of the 5G network. Beamforming is broadly divided into three categories: Digital beamforming, analog beamforming and hybrid beamforming. Digital beamforming: multiuser MIMO is equal to digital beamforming which is mainly used in LTE Advanced Pro and in 5G NR. In digital beamforming the same frequency or time resources can be used to transmit the data to multiple users at the same time which improves the cell capacity of wireless networks. Analog Beamforming: In mmWave frequency range 5G NR analog beamforming is a very important approach which improves the coverage. In digital beamforming there are chances of high pathloss in mmWave as only one beam per set of antenna is formed. While the analog beamforming saves high pathloss in mmWave. Hybrid beamforming: hybrid beamforming is a combination of both analog beamforming and digital beamforming. In the implementation of MmWave in 5G network hybrid beamforming will be used [ 84 ].

Wireless signals in the 4G network are spreading in large areas, and nature is not Omnidirectional. Thus, energy depletes rapidly, and users who are accessing these signals also face interference problems. The beamforming technique is used in the 5G network to resolve this issue. In beamforming signals are directional. They move like a laser beam from the base station to the user, so signals seem to be traveling in an invisible cable. Beamforming helps achieve a faster data rate; as the signals are directional, it leads to less energy consumption and less interference. In [ 21 ], investigators evolve some techniques which reduce interference and increase system efficiency of the 5G mobile network. In this survey article, the authors covered various challenges faced while designing an optimized beamforming algorithm. Mainly focused on different design parameters such as performance evaluation and power consumption. In addition, they also described various issues related to beamforming like CSI, computation complexity, and antenna correlation. They also covered various research to cover how beamforming helps implement MIMO in next-generation mobile networks [ 85 ]. Figure 8 shows the pictorial representation of communication with and without using beamforming.

Pictorial Representation of communication with and without using beamforming.

5.3. Mobile Edge Computing

Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) [ 24 ]: MEC is an extended version of cloud computing that brings cloud resources closer to the end-user. When we talk about computing, the very first thing that comes to our mind is cloud computing. Cloud computing is a very famous technology that offers many services to end-user. Still, cloud computing has many drawbacks. The services available in the cloud are too far from end-users that create latency, and cloud user needs to download the complete application before use, which also increases the burden to the device [ 86 ]. MEC creates an edge between the end-user and cloud server, bringing cloud computing closer to the end-user. Now, all the services, namely, video conferencing, virtual software, etc., are offered by this edge that improves cloud computing performance. Another essential feature of MEC is that the application is split into two parts, which, first one is available at cloud server, and the second is at the user’s device. Therefore, the user need not download the complete application on his device that increases the performance of the end user’s device. Furthermore, MEC provides cloud services at very low latency and less bandwidth. In [ 23 , 87 ], the author’s investigation proved that successful deployment of MEC in 5G network increases the overall performance of 5G architecture. Graphical differentiation between cloud computing and mobile edge computing is presented in Figure 9 .

Pictorial representation of cloud computing vs. mobile edge computing.

6. 5G Security

Security is the key feature in the telecommunication network industry, which is necessary at various layers, to handle 5G network security in applications such as IoT, Digital forensics, IDS and many more [ 88 , 89 ]. The authors [ 90 ], discussed the background of 5G and its security concerns, challenges and future directions. The author also introduced the blockchain technology that can be incorporated with the IoT to overcome the challenges in IoT. The paper aims to create a security framework which can be incorporated with the LTE advanced network, and effective in terms of cost, deployment and QoS. In [ 91 ], author surveyed various form of attacks, the security challenges, security solutions with respect to the affected technology such as SDN, Network function virtualization (NFV), Mobile Clouds and MEC, and security standardizations of 5G, i.e., 3GPP, 5GPPP, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), Next Generation Mobile Networks (NGMN), European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). In [ 92 ], author elaborated various technological aspects, security issues and their existing solutions and also mentioned the new emerging technological paradigms for 5G security such as blockchain, quantum cryptography, AI, SDN, CPS, MEC, D2D. The author aims to create new security frameworks for 5G for further use of this technology in development of smart cities, transportation and healthcare. In [ 93 ], author analyzed the threats and dark threat, security aspects concerned with SDN and NFV, also their Commercial & Industrial Security Corporation (CISCO) 5G vision and new security innovations with respect to the new evolving architectures of 5G [ 94 ].

AuthenticationThe identification of the user in any network is made with the help of authentication. The different mobile network generations from 1G to 5G have used multiple techniques for user authentication. 5G utilizes the 5G Authentication and Key Agreement (AKA) authentication method, which shares a cryptographic key between user equipment (UE) and its home network and establishes a mutual authentication process between the both [ 95 ].

Access Control To restrict the accessibility in the network, 5G supports access control mechanisms to provide a secure and safe environment to the users and is controlled by network providers. 5G uses simple public key infrastructure (PKI) certificates for authenticating access in the 5G network. PKI put forward a secure and dynamic environment for the 5G network. The simple PKI technique provides flexibility to the 5G network; it can scale up and scale down as per the user traffic in the network [ 96 , 97 ].

Communication Security 5G deals to provide high data bandwidth, low latency, and better signal coverage. Therefore secure communication is the key concern in the 5G network. UE, mobile operators, core network, and access networks are the main focal point for the attackers in 5G communication. Some of the common attacks in communication at various segments are Botnet, message insertion, micro-cell, distributed denial of service (DDoS), and transport layer security (TLS)/secure sockets layer (SSL) attacks [ 98 , 99 ].

Encryption The confidentiality of the user and the network is done using encryption techniques. As 5G offers multiple services, end-to-end (E2E) encryption is the most suitable technique applied over various segments in the 5G network. Encryption forbids unauthorized access to the network and maintains the data privacy of the user. To encrypt the radio traffic at Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) layer, three 128-bits keys are applied at the user plane, nonaccess stratum (NAS), and access stratum (AS) [ 100 ].

7. Summary of 5G Technology Based on Above-Stated Challenges

In this section, various issues addressed by investigators in 5G technologies are presented in Table 13 . In addition, different parameters are considered, such as throughput, latency, energy efficiency, data rate, spectral efficiency, fairness & computing capacity, transmission rate, coverage, cost, security requirement, performance, QoS, power optimization, etc., indexed from R1 to R14.

Summary of 5G Technology above stated challenges (R1:Throughput, R2:Latency, R3:Energy Efficiency, R4:Data Rate, R5:Spectral efficiency, R6:Fairness & Computing Capacity, R7:Transmission Rate, R8:Coverage, R9:Cost, R10:Security requirement, R11:Performance, R12:Quality of Services (QoS), R13:Power Optimization).

8. Conclusions

This survey article illustrates the emergence of 5G, its evolution from 1G to 5G mobile network, applications, different research groups, their work, and the key features of 5G. It is not just a mobile broadband network, different from all the previous mobile network generations; it offers services like IoT, V2X, and Industry 4.0. This paper covers a detailed survey from multiple authors on different technologies in 5G, such as massive MIMO, Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA), millimeter wave, small cell, MEC (Mobile Edge Computing), beamforming, optimization, and machine learning in 5G. After each section, a tabular comparison covers all the state-of-the-research held in these technologies. This survey also shows the importance of these newly added technologies and building a flexible, scalable, and reliable 5G network.

9. Future Findings

This article covers a detailed survey on the 5G mobile network and its features. These features make 5G more reliable, scalable, efficient at affordable rates. As discussed in the above sections, numerous technical challenges originate while implementing those features or providing services over a 5G mobile network. So, for future research directions, the research community can overcome these challenges while implementing these technologies (MIMO, NOMA, small cell, mmWave, beam-forming, MEC) over a 5G network. 5G communication will bring new improvements over the existing systems. Still, the current solutions cannot fulfill the autonomous system and future intelligence engineering requirements after a decade. There is no matter of discussion that 5G will provide better QoS and new features than 4G. But there is always room for improvement as the considerable growth of centralized data and autonomous industry 5G wireless networks will not be capable of fulfilling their demands in the future. So, we need to move on new wireless network technology that is named 6G. 6G wireless network will bring new heights in mobile generations, as it includes (i) massive human-to-machine communication, (ii) ubiquitous connectivity between the local device and cloud server, (iii) creation of data fusion technology for various mixed reality experiences and multiverps maps. (iv) Focus on sensing and actuation to control the network of the entire world. The 6G mobile network will offer new services with some other technologies; these services are 3D mapping, reality devices, smart homes, smart wearable, autonomous vehicles, artificial intelligence, and sense. It is expected that 6G will provide ultra-long-range communication with a very low latency of 1 ms. The per-user bit rate in a 6G wireless network will be approximately 1 Tbps, and it will also provide wireless communication, which is 1000 times faster than 5G networks.

Acknowledgments

Author contributions.

Conceptualization: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L. data gathering: R.D., G.C., P.L, I.Y. funding acquisition: I.Y. investigation: I.Y., G.C., G.P. methodology: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L., G.P., survey: I.Y., G.C., P.L, G.P., R.D. supervision: G.C., I.Y., G.P. validation: I.Y., G.P. visualization: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L. writing, original draft: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L., G.P. writing, review, and editing: I.Y., G.C., G.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This paper was supported by Soonchunhyang University.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Additional research areas in 5G technology

While research in battery technology remains important, researchers are also focusing their attention on a number of other areas of concern. This research is likewise aimed at meeting user expectations and realizing the full potential of 5G technology as it gains more footing in public and private sectors. 

Small cell research

For example, researchers are focusing on small cells to meet the much higher data capacity demands of 5G networks. As mobile carriers look to densify their networks, small cell research is leading the way toward a solution.

Small cells are low-powered radio access points that take the place of traditional wireless transmission systems or base stations. By making use of low-power and short-range transmissions in small geographic areas, small cells are particularly well suited for the rollout of high-frequency 5G. As such, small cells are likely to appear by the hundreds of thousands across the United States as cellular companies work to improve mobile communication for their subscribers. The faster small cell technology advances, the sooner consumers will have specific 5G devices connected to 5G-only Internet. 

Security-oriented research

Security is also quickly becoming a major area of focus amid the push for a global 5G rollout. Earlier iterations of cellular technology were based primarily on hardware. When voice and text were routed to separate physical devices, each device managed its own network security. There was network security for voice calls, network security for short message system (SMS), and so forth.

5G moves away from this by making everything more software based. In theory, this makes things less secure, as there are now more ways to attack the network. Originally, 5G did have some security layers built in at the federal level. Under the Obama administration, legislation mandating clearly defined security at the network stage passed. However, the Trump administration is looking to replace these security layers with its own “national spectrum strategy.”

With uncertainty about existing safeguards, the cybersecurity protections available to citizens and governments amid 5G rollout is a matter of critical importance. This is creating a market for new cybersecurity research and solutions—solutions that will be key to safely and securely realizing the true value of 5G wireless technology going forward.

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Cloud Computing, 5G, Metaverse, Electric Vehicles Among the Most Important Areas of Technology in 2023, Says New IEEE Study

Chief information officers, chief technology officers and technology leaders globally surveyed on key technology trends, priorities, and predictions for 2023 and beyond

Piscataway, NJ, October 27, 2022 -- IEEE , the world's largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for humanity, today released the results of "The Impact of Technology in 2023 and Beyond: an IEEE Global Study," a new survey of global technology leaders from the U.S., U.K., China, India, and Brazil. The study, which included 350 chief technology officers, chief information officers and IT directors, covers the most important technologies in 2023 and future technology trends. To learn more about the study and the impact of technology in 2023 and beyond, visit https://transmitter.ieee.org/impact-of-technology-2023 .

A More Connected, Sustainable, and Virtual World Which areas of technology will be among the five most important in 2023? Global technology leaders surveyed said cloud computing (40%), 5G (38%), metaverse (37%), electric vehicles (EVs) (35%), and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) (33%) will be the five most important areas of technology next year.

The top industry sectors that will be most impacted by technology in 2023 are:

(40%) telecommunications 

(39%) automotive and transportation 

(33%) energy 

(33%) banking and financial services

Currently in its nascent stages, the metaverse can be described as an immersive digital network of 3D interactive worlds. Global technologists surveyed said the following innovations will be very important for advancing the development of the metaverse in 2023: 

(71%) 5G and ubiquitous connectivity 

(58%) virtual reality (VR) headsets

(58%) augmented reality (AR) glasses

Technologies that foster sustainability are growing in importance. A strong majority (94%) of those surveyed agree that they have prioritized sustainability goals for 2023 and beyond, and any technologies their company implements are required to be energy-efficient and help shrink their carbon footprint. 

Metaverse-related technologies are also expected to be deployed in various ways: Ninety-one percent of respondents agree that to bring employees together for corporate training across offices, conferences, and hybrid meetings, their company is actively adopting metaverse technology strategies in 2023. In addition, over three-quarters (76%) of global technologists say 26%–75% of interactions with colleagues, customers, and management at their company will be conducted virtually in 2023. 

AI, Robotics, IIoT, and Digital Twins AI has become ubiquitous. So it is not surprising that 98% of survey respondents agree that in 2023 and beyond, AI-powered autonomous, collaborative software and mobile robots will automate processes and tasks, including data analysis, allowing humans to be more efficient and effective. In addition, when asked what percentage of jobs across the entire global economy will be augmented by AI-driven software in 2023, 24% of technologists surveyed said 1–25%; 40% of those surveyed said 26–50%; and 27% of respondents said 51–75%. Related to the IIoT, which optimizes smart industrial machines, sensors, processors, and the real-time data they generate, 98% surveyed say using digital twin technology and virtual simulations in 2023 to more efficiently design, develop, and safely test product prototypes and manufacturing processes will be important, including 68% who say it will be very important.

EVs, 5G, and 6G Because of its fast and high data throughput, 5G will impact vehicle connectivity and automation in 2023, 97% of survey respondents agree.

Respondents also said that 5G will benefit these areas the most in the next year:

(56%) remote learning and education

(54%) telemedicine, including remote surgery, health record transmissions

(51%) entertainment, sports, and live event streaming

(49%) personal and professional day-to-day communications

(29%) transportation and traffic control

(25%) manufacturing/assembly

(23%) carbon footprint reduction and energy efficiency

A strong majority (95%) of global technologists agree that space satellites for remote mobile connectivity will be a game-changer in 2023 because they enable 5G device connections anywhere, 24/7, leapfrogging terrestrial infrastructure. Close to nine out of ten global technologists (88%) agree 6G will primarily be an evolving work in progress in 2023, but that in half a decade 6G will be standardized.

Cybersecurity Concerns Rise The cybersecurity concerns most likely to be in technology leaders’ top three in 2023—which rose as compared to levels of concern in 2022—are issues related to:

(51%) cloud vulnerability (up from 35% in 2022) 

(46%) the mobile and hybrid workforce, including employees using their own devices (up from 39% in 2022)

(43%) data center vulnerability (up from 27% in 2022)

About the Survey "The Impact of Technology in 2023 and Beyond: an IEEE Global Study" surveyed 350 CIOs, CTOs, IT directors, and other technology leaders in the US, UK, China, India, and Brazil at organizations with more than 1,000 employees across multiple industry sectors including banking and financial services, consumer goods, education, electronics, engineering, energy, government, healthcare, insurance, retail, technology, and telecommunications. The surveys were conducted 14–16 September 2022. 

About IEEE IEEE is the world’s largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity. Through its highly cited publications, conferences, technology standards, and professional and educational activities, IEEE is the trusted voice in a wide variety of areas ranging from aerospace systems, computers, and telecommunications to biomedical engineering, electric power, and consumer electronics. Learn more.

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How 6G Can Transform The World and Technology

By advancing extended reality, artificial intelligence, machine learning, digital twinning, and more, 6g shows potential to optimize communications, interoperability, and sustainability..

Purva Rajkotia

• 10 August 2022
• 8 minute read

Technological advances are growing exponentially. New capabilities make everyday tasks easier or in some cases completely eliminate old ways of doing things.

We’re at the beginning of the rollout of 5G, offering greater speed and capacity than ever before. From smart homes and telehealth to immersive games, new and emerging features powered by 5G have elevated our experiences.

While we have yet to experience the full potential of 5G technology, we’re already hearing murmurs of 6G technology. What is 6G, when is 6G coming, and how will it impact us?

What is “G”?

“G” refers to “Generation”. 1G was introduced in 1979 in Tokyo. This first generation of wireless cellular technology was born and by 1984, the entire country of Japan had 1G. 1G was approved in the United States in 1983 with Canada and the United Kingdom following a few years later.

How Do Cell Phones Work?

All wireless devices like cell phones and tablets are connected to phone and Internet services by radio waves through an antenna in a cell tower. Carriers pay to use this “cell” along with others in a geographical area. These successive cells create a spectrum band so users stay connected when moving from one cell to another.

Carriers rely on subscription fees to cover the costs of creating these cell networks whether they are building, maintaining, and upgrading the towers or leasing the bands.

The Path to 5G: How Did Cellular Technology Evolve?

1G facilitated the introduction of the mobile phone to consumers. However, because of the exorbitant cost, it was mostly used by business executives and seen as a status symbol. It was time to make the product and service affordable for greater consumption and address cellular technology inefficiencies. With 1G analog mobile communications standards:

• Coverage was poor.
• Sound quality was subpar.
• There was no compatibility between systems or providers.
• Because an analog wave comes through exactly as it is created, calls between people could be overheard via radio scanners, making for a lack of privacy.
• Maximum speed was 2.4 Kbps.

2G was created on a digital cellular network standard. Because digital converts analog to numbers, 2G offered encrypted calling with better sound quality, text messaging, and picture or multimedia file messages. Enabling these alternative communication types was possible because 2G offered a theoretical maximum transfer speed of 40 Kbps. 2G saw larger-scale construction of cell towers and considerable buy-in from the public as phones and service plans became more affordable.

Demand for better accessibility drove the creation of 3G in 2001. It brought global interoperability. Now, users could access data anywhere in the world via greater web connectivity. Its faster speed added new communications options like video conferencing, streaming, and voice over IP (VoIP). 3G standards were required to provide peak data rates of at least 144 Kbps with a maximum of 14 Mbps.

Now that human-to-human communication was settled, it was time to tackle the need to handle large quantities of data. Reduced latency, the amount of time that information takes to travel from its source to its destination, and then come back to its source, is a major benefit of 4G.

4G offered faster web access and added cloud, gaming, High Definition (HD) videos, and 3D TV to the growing list of amenities devices that it could handle. 4G standards set minimum requirements at 10 Mbps and peak speed at 100 Mbps. However, the quicker data exchange and new features made it necessary to purchase 4G-enabled devices.

Even 4G was not going to be fast enough to advance technology and accommodate the potential of the Internet of Things (IoT) to control thermostats, connected vehicles, smart cities, and more or enable healthcare possibilities with wearables, telehealth, image transfer, and more.

The 5G technology standard for broadband cellular networks to provide connectivity for cellphones began deploying worldwide in 2019. 5G technology increased bandwidth, the capacity on the radio spectrum, to connect more devices in an area and boasts eventual download speeds of 10 Gbps. 5G can operate in 3 frequencies, including low-band (600-900 MHz with download speeds of 30-250 Mbps), mid-band (1.7-4.7 GHz with download speeds of 100-900 Mbps), or, the new addition, high-band millimeter wave (mmW) (24-47 GHz with download speeds of Gbps).

5G vs. Wi-Fi: How are They Related?

Wi-Fi is a local area network (LAN) and cellular networks like 5G are wide area networks (WAN). Wi-Fi was developed about 30 years ago.

Wi-Fi is based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards where 802.11ac is for Wi-Fi 5 and 802.11ax is for Wi-Fi 6, also referred to as High-Efficiency WLAN. These rely on an unlicensed spectrum that is free to use but has a relatively weak signal. An internet service provider (ISP) delivers Internet to our house and the router fills our house with Wi-Fi. The two frequencies that Wi-Fi uses are 2.4 GHz with lower top speed but longer range and 5 GHz which can deliver faster speeds but doesn’t penetrate walls easily.

Most of us rely on a Wi-Fi network at home, in the office, or in coffee shops and cellular networks when we move out of range of a router. 5G and Wi-Fi complement one another. Phones and Internet-connected devices automatically switch between the two to provide a good connection at all times.

Both cellular networks and Wi-Fi will see performance improvements in the future. Development of Wi-Fi 7 is ongoing and IEEE P802.11be can bring enhancements for Extremely High Throughput (EHT) which will provide device manufacturers with design specifications to govern interoperability and performance. For cellular networks, research and development around 6G are on the rise.

What is 6G?

The 6G technology standard for cellular networks will still most likely still be broadband – data transmission over a wide band of frequencies. The service area will most likely remain divided into cells. 6G will continue where 5G left off by improving download speeds, eliminating latency, reducing congestion on mobile networks, and supporting advancements in technology.

Frequencies from 100 GHz to 3 THz are promising bands for the next generation of wireless communication systems because of the wide swaths of unused and unexplored spectrum, according to a paper published on IEEE .

These upgrades bring about new quests. Phones that can accommodate 6G will need to be developed. Connectivity needs to be delivered more efficiently and effectively to more devices. Burgeoning technologies like smart cities, interconnected cars, wearable devices, and robots will need to share bandwidth. This could mean building more cellular networks or finding new ways to deliver millimeter waves.

We’ll begin to experience and envision the potential of 6G with 5G-Advanced in 2024, which will further increase data transfer speeds. 5G-Advanced will enable immersive technologies like AR, VR, and mixed reality (MR) will open new opportunities for how we conduct business, run factories, and protect the environment.

When is 6G Coming?

6G holds the promise to transform how the human, physical, and digital worlds interact. In development for 2030, 6G will likely support virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) , metaverse, and artificial intelligence (AI) .

How we experience everyday life and operate within it will dramatically change based on the enhanced information that will be able to be delivered to us in real-time from sensors, AI, machine learning (ML), and digital twins.

How Will 6G Improve Communications?

• Because 6G will be able to provide even more data transfer from IoT, we can be more productive at work and at home.
• Phones may be further developed into our keys and money.
• Typing may be replaced with voice or movement.
• Implanted sensors, telesurgery, and wearables could transform healthcare.
• Holographic meetings might succeed online conference calls.
• Connected vehicles will have the ability to intercede a car crash.
• Network signals can sense where we are, what is around us, and when combined with AI, ML, and digital twinning, will be able to provide radio frequency (RF) sensing.
• 6G may finally deliver worldwide connectivity by reaching remote locations currently with no Internet access via satellites that may reduce the need to construct cell towers.

How Will 6G Boost Interoperability?

6G could go beyond our current network of cell towers to include new connectivity methods. Backward compatible with current and earlier “G”s and embracing these new ways to connect, 6G can optimize connectivity thereby enabling greater data transfer. This faster data exchange can open up many new possibilities for:

• Interoperability between humans, earth, space, and sea via sensing.
• Human communication with robots, IoT devices, and wearables.
• Robots performing dangerous jobs in place of humans, for example, in mines, and transmitting data easily.
• Education being further reaching and more immersive.
• Robots and drones to supplement the hospital and delivery service industries.
• Radio frequency sensing of where devices are to offer new cybersecurity options.

How Will 6G Affect the Environment and Sustainability?

• IoT will control appliances and reduce electricity usage as well as contribute to optimization for automated manufacturing, connected vehicles, drone agriculture, and more.
• 6G would enable smart transportation where connected electric vehicles, cameras, and roads communicate to optimize traffic flow.
• Connected machines and robots will more efficiently manage supply chains to reduce energy and water usage and carbon emissions.
• Smart agriculture can use sensors to control water, monitor livestock, and provide accurate pesticide use to reduce carbon emissions.
• 6G could assist with the move to renewable energy and smart grids could optimize energy distribution.
• The 6G network will be more efficient than 5G and consume less power. Through digitization, 6G can power future applications and help to achieve energy efficiency .

How is IEEE SA Enabling the Launch of 6G and Future Networks?

The promise of 6G technology is drawing the attention of many industry stakeholders to play a part in the research, development, and application of 6G. While 6G will likely impact virtually every area of our lives and open up new opportunities for businesses, the industry is in great need of standardized frameworks, guidelines, and solutions to deliver optimal user experiences to consumers.

IEEE Standards Association (IEEE SA) brings together experts in telecommunications and connectivity to support the development of 6G technology on multiple fronts, including open RAN, cybersecurity, and building a transdisciplinary communications framework across industries.  Learn more about how IEEE SA is contributing to 6G and future networks .

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Director, Global Business Strategic Initiatives (GBSI); Connectivity and Telecom Practice Lead, IEEE Standards Association (IEEE SA) - Purva Rajkotia is the Director of Global Business Strategy & Intelligence (GBSI) and the Connectivity and Telecom Practice Lead at IEEE SA. Prior to IEEE, Purva held leadership positions with Qualcomm, Samsung, and Disney in various capacities. Purva also held leadership positions in various standards organizations such as ITU, 3GPP, 3GPP2, CENELEC, etc. He has authored more than 100 patents granted by the USPTO (US Patent Office) and other worldwide patent organizations. He is one of the co-authors of the chapter on Powerline Communications in the book "MIMO Power Line Communications Narrow and Broadband Standards, EMC, and Advanced Processing" by CRC Press. He obtained his MSEE degree from the Georgia Institute of Technology.

One Comment

Perhaps a better way to describe WiFi is it is a technology at destination, such as home, school or campus. It is built to cover a small area roughly the size of a 100m circle and does not support mobility. All cellular technologies from 1G to 6G are built for continuous coverage over very large areas. Perhaps the biggest difference is that cellular standards are built to support mobility of speeds up to 500kmph. WiFi is not built for mobility. Also, WiFi is based on the Internet standard of IETF whereas cellular standards of 3GPP are built on completely different standards. Details: The cell phone does not have an IP address, its security aspects are addressed in layers 1 and 2 with further security support at layers 3, 4 and 5. WiFi built on the 802.11 standard does not specify security except basic encryption indicated in 802.11i Therefore, security of WiFi is no more than the wired network security. In comparison, cellular has the highest standard for security which is now acknowledged by the NIST. Future security of networks will be defined by cellular.

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Interference-Aware Intelligent Scheduling for Virtualized Private 5G Networks

Authors: Berk Akgun et al.

Published in IEEE Xplore 05 January 2024 View in IEEE Xplore

Private Fifth Generation (5G) Networks can quickly scale coverage and capacity for diverse industry verticals by using the standardized 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) and Open Radio Access Network (O-RAN) interfaces that enable disaggregation, network function virtualization, and hardware accelerators. These private network architectures often rely on multi-cell deployments to meet the stringent reliability and latency requirements of industrial applications. One of the main challenges in these dense multi-cell deployments is the interference to/from adjacent cells, which causes packet errors due to the rapid variations from air-interface transmissions. One approach towards this problem would be to use conservative modulation and coding schemes (MCS) for enhanced reliability, but it would reduce spectral efficiency and network capacity. To unlock the utilization of higher efficiency schemes, in this paper, we present our proposed machine-learning (ML) based interference prediction technique that exploits channel state information (CSI) reported by 5G User Equipments (UEs). This method is integrated into an in-house developed Next Generation RAN (NG-RAN) research platform, enabling it to schedule transmissions over the dynamic air-interface in an intelligent way. By achieving higher spectral efficiency and reducing latency with fewer retransmissions, this allows the network to serve more devices efficiently for demanding use cases such as mission critical Internet-of-Things (IoT) and extended reality applications. In this work, we also demonstrate our over-the-air (OTA) testbed with 8 cells and 16 5G UEs in an Industrial IoT (IIoT) Factory Automation layout, where 5G UEs are connected to various industrial components like automatic guided vehicles (AGVs), supply units, robotics arms, cameras, etc. Our experimental results show that our proposed Interference-aware Intelligent Scheduling (IAIS) method can achieve up to 39% and 70% throughput gains in low and high interference scenarios, respectively, compared to a widely adopted link-adaptation scheduling approach.

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Fettweis coordinates the 5G Lab Germany and two German Research Foundation (DFG) centers at TU Dresden: the Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (CFAED) and the Highly Adaptive Energy-Efficient Computing (HAEC) research center. He is also a member of the German N ational Academy of Sciences Leopoldina and the German Academy of Science and Engineering (ACATECH). 

He has received multiple IEEE recognitions, as well as the “Ring of Honor,” the highest award from the Institution of German Electrical Engineers (VDE). He cochairs the IEEE 5G Initiative and has helped organized numerous IEEE conferences, most notably as chair of the 2009 International Conference on Communications (ICC) and chair of the 2012 Technology Time Machine (TTM) conference. 

Notably, Fettweis will be a keynote speaker at the upcoming 2020 IEEE 3rd 5G World Forum (5GWF ’20), which will run virtually from September 10 to 12, 2020. 5GWF ’20 aims to bring together experts from industry, academia, and research to exchange their vision for, as well as their achieved advances toward, 5G.

Gerhard Fettweis’s background in engineering

Fettweis obtained his PhD in 1990 from the Rheinish-Westphalian Technical University (RWTH) of Aachen under the supervision of Heinrich Meyr. One of Fettweis’s earliest papers, published by IEEE in 1988 with Meyr, was “ Parallel Viterbi Decoding by Breaking the Compare-Select Feedback Bottleneck .” In that paper, the two researchers explored the use of Viterbi decoders in parallel hardware to achieve high data transmission rates. A Viterbi decoder makes use of the Viterbi algorithm, a maximum likelihood means of decoding convolutional codes.

In 1991, Fettweis served as a visiting scientist with the International Business Machines (IBM) Corporation in San Jose, California. While there, he worked on signal processing for disk drives , developing digital cellular chipsets. A year later, he moved on to Total Computer Solutions Inc. (TSCI) in Berkeley, California, where he focused on developing chip designs for mobile phones. 

What Gerhard Fettweis is most known for

As Vodafone chair professor at TU Dresden, Fettweis has led research on wireless transmission and chip design since his appointment in 1994. During his tenure, he has helped establish eleven tech start-ups and secure €500 million in funding for projects in broadband wireless, network performance measurement, satellite communications, IoT solutions, and machine vision for manufacturing. 

Papers Gerhard Fettweis has published

One of Fettweis’s academic works that researchers have regularly cited is his 1993 paper “ Multicarrier CDMA in Indoor Wireless Radio Networks ,” which introduced the concept of multicarrier code-division multiple access (MC-CDMA), a system for indoor wireless networks that supports multiple users at the same time over the same frequency band.

Another of Fettweis’s regularly cited research papers is “ Coordinated Multipoint: Concepts, Performance, and Field Trial Results ,” which IEEE Communications Magazine published in 2011. The paper details how cooperative multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) exploits the spatial domain of mobile fading channels, bringing significant performance improvements to wireless communication systems. 

With over 1,200 citations, Fettweis’s paper “ Relay-Based Deployment Concepts for Wireless and Mobile Broadband Radio ,” published in 2004 in IEEE Communications Magazine , could be his most cited work. The paper covers ways to exploit the benefits of multihop communications via relays, solutions for radio range extension in mobile and wireless broadband cellular networks (trading range for capacity), and solutions to combat shadowing at high radio frequencies. 

Gerhard Fettweis’s current activities

In recent years, Fettweis has been instrumental in helping design and implement 5G networks. As cochair of the IEEE 5G Initiative and a member of the IEEE Communications Society , he has led research and advocated for this revolutionary new cellular network. 

In a January 2017 interview with IEEE Future Networks , Fettweis said, “If you look at 5G from an IEEE perspective, it’s essentially a connectivity infrastructure that touches the innovation of sensors, integrated circuits, communications, computing, big data, and many further areas…it will impact how we build the computer systems of the future to control interconnected objects.” 

In relation to his work on 5G networks, Fettweis coined the phrase “tactile Internet.” In the 2017 interview with IEEE Future Networks, Fettweis explains, “5G will enable us to build infrastructure for remote controls…this means we can have an interaction with virtual environments just as we are used to from tactile interaction with objects around us. [This] means real and virtual objects will be able to interact with a reaction time of one to ten milliseconds to enable a human to control things in a steady state that mimics reality.” 

In a report published in 2014 for the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) on the tactile Internet, Fettweis and his coauthors describe a vision of the revolutionary advances that extremely low latency in combination with high availability, reliability, and security will achieve via 5G networks. Users will be able to connect a host of devices—from automobiles to household appliances and medical equipment—to an ultrafast network. This technology promises a wide variety of applications in fields ranging from industry automation and transport systems to health care, education, and gaming. 

A visionary for the 5G future

For almost three decades, Gerhard Fettweis has been a leading researcher in wireless technology, helping pioneer key concepts that have led to developments such as emerging 5G cellular networks. His concept of the tactile Internet has helped technology researchers imagine what might be possible with super-fast connection speeds.

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Study and investigation on 5g technology: a systematic review.

1. Introduction

1.1. evolution from 1g to 5g, 1.2. key contributions.

• This survey focused on the recent trends and development in the era of 5G and novel contributions by the researcher community and discussed technical details on essential aspects of the 5G advancement.
• In this paper, the evolution of the mobile network from 1G to 5G is presented. In addition, the growth of mobile communication under different attributes is also discussed.
• This paper covers the emerging applications and research groups working on 5G & different research areas in 5G wireless communication network with a descriptive taxonomy.
• This survey discusses the current vision of the 5G networks, advantages, applications, key technologies, and key features. Furthermore, machine learning prospects are also explored with the emerging requirements in the 5G era. The article also focused on technical aspects of 5G IoT Based approaches and optimization techniques for 5G.
• we provide an extensive overview and recent advancement of emerging technologies of 5G mobile network, namely, MIMO, Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA), mmWave, Internet of Things (IoT), Machine Learning (ML), and optimization. Also, a technical summary is discussed by highlighting the context of current approaches and corresponding challenges.
• Security challenges and considerations while developing 5G technology are discussed.
• Finally, the paper concludes with the future directives.

2. Existing Surveys and Their Applicability

2.1. limitations of existing surveys, 2.2. article organization, 3. preliminary section, 3.1. emerging 5g paradigms and its features, 3.2. commercial service providers of 5g, 3.3. 5g research groups, 3.4. 5g applications.

• High-speed mobile network: 5G is an advancement on all the previous mobile network technologies, which offers very high speed downloading speeds 0 of up to 10 to 20 Gbps. The 5G wireless network works as a fiber optic internet connection. 5G is different from all the conventional mobile transmission technologies, and it offers both voice and high-speed data connectivity efficiently. 5G offers very low latency communication of less than a millisecond, useful for autonomous driving and mission-critical applications. 5G will use millimeter waves for data transmission, providing higher bandwidth and a massive data rate than lower LTE bands. As 5 Gis a fast mobile network technology, it will enable virtual access to high processing power and secure and safe access to cloud services and enterprise applications. Small cell is one of the best features of 5G, which brings lots of advantages like high coverage, high-speed data transfer, power saving, easy and fast cloud access, etc. [ 40 ].
• Entertainment and multimedia: In one analysis in 2015, it was found that more than 50 percent of mobile internet traffic was used for video downloading. This trend will surely increase in the future, which will make video streaming more common. 5G will offer High-speed streaming of 4K videos with crystal clear audio, and it will make a high definition virtual world on your mobile. 5G will benefit the entertainment industry as it offers 120 frames per second with high resolution and higher dynamic range video streaming, and HD TV channels can also be accessed on mobile devices without any interruptions. 5G provides low latency high definition communication so augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR) will be very easily implemented in the future. Virtual reality games are trendy these days, and many companies are investing in HD virtual reality games. The 5G network will offer high-speed internet connectivity with a better gaming experience [ 41 ].
• Smart homes : smart home appliances and products are in demand these days. The 5G network makes smart homes more real as it offers high-speed connectivity and monitoring of smart appliances. Smart home appliances are easily accessed and configured from remote locations using the 5G network as it offers very high-speed low latency communication.
• Smart cities: 5G wireless network also helps develop smart cities applications such as automatic traffic management, weather update, local area broadcasting, energy-saving, efficient power supply, smart lighting system, water resource management, crowd management, emergency control, etc.
• Industrial IoT: 5G wireless technology will provide lots of features for future industries such as safety, process tracking, smart packing, shipping, energy efficiency, automation of equipment, predictive maintenance, and logistics. 5G smart sensor technology also offers smarter, safer, cost-effective, and energy-saving industrial IoT operations.
• Smart Farming: 5G technology will play a crucial role in agriculture and smart farming. 5G sensors and GPS technology will help farmers track live attacks on crops and manage them quickly. These smart sensors can also be used for irrigation, pest, insect, and electricity control.
• Autonomous Driving: The 5G wireless network offers very low latency high-speed communication, significant for autonomous driving. It means self-driving cars will come to real life soon with 5G wireless networks. Using 5G autonomous cars can easily communicate with smart traffic signs, objects, and other vehicles running on the road. 5G’s low latency feature makes self-driving more real as every millisecond is essential for autonomous vehicles, decision-making is done in microseconds to avoid accidents.
• Healthcare and mission-critical applications: 5G technology will bring modernization in medicine where doctors and practitioners can perform advanced medical procedures. The 5G network will provide connectivity between all classrooms, so attending seminars and lectures will be easier. Through 5G technology, patients can connect with doctors and take their advice. Scientists are building smart medical devices which can help people with chronic medical conditions. The 5G network will boost the healthcare industry with smart devices, the internet of medical things, smart sensors, HD medical imaging technologies, and smart analytics systems. 5G will help access cloud storage, so accessing healthcare data will be very easy from any location worldwide. Doctors and medical practitioners can easily store and share large files like MRI reports within seconds using the 5G network.
• Satellite Internet: In many remote areas, ground base stations are not available, so 5G will play a crucial role in providing connectivity in such areas. The 5G network will provide connectivity using satellite systems, and the satellite system uses a constellation of multiple small satellites to provide connectivity in urban and rural areas across the world.

4. 5G Technologies

4.1. 5g massive mimo.

• Data rate: Massive MIMO is advised as the one of the dominant technologies to provide wireless high speed and high data rate in the gigabits per seconds.
• The relationship between wave frequency and antenna size: Both are inversely proportional to each other. It means lower frequency signals need a bigger antenna and vise versa.
• Number of user: From 1G to 4G technology one cell consists of 10 antennas. But, in 5G technologies one cell consist of more than 100 antennas. Hence, one small cell at the same time can handle multiple users [ 45 ]. As shown in Figure 2 .
• MIMO role in 5G: Massive MIMO will play a crucial role in the deployment of future 5G mobile communication as greater spectral and energy efficiency could be enabled.

State-of-the-Art Approaches

4.2. 5g non-orthogonal multiple access (noma).

• NOMA is different than all the previous orthogonal access techniques such as TDMA, FDMA and CDMA. In NOMA, multiple users work simultaneously in the same band with different power levels. As shown in Figure 3 .
• NOMA provides higher data rates and resolves all the loop holes of OMA that makes 5G mobile network more scalable and reliable.
• As multiple users use same frequency band simultaneously it increases the performance of whole network.
• To setup intracell and intercell interference NOMA provides nonorthogonal transmission on the transmitter end.
• The primary fundamental of NOMA is to improve the spectrum efficiency by strengthening the ramification of receiver.

State-of-the-Art of Approaches

4.3. 5g millimeter wave (mmwave).

• In the technological world, everyone uses WiMax, GPS, wifi, 4G, 3G, L-Band, S-Band, C- Band Satellite, etc., for communication. The radio frequency spectrum of these technologies is minimal, which lies between 1 GHz to 6 GHz. Hence, it is very crowded. The spectrum range from 30 GHz to 300 GHz, known as mmWave, is less utilized and still not allocated to other communication technologies. After a long time, the range from 24 GHz to 100 GHz is allocated to 5G. As shown in Figure 4 .
• The 5G mmWave offer three advantages: (1) MmWave is very less used new Band, (2) MmWave signals carry more data than lower frequency wave, and (3) MmWave can be incorporated with MIMO antenna with the potential to offer a higher magnitude capacity compared to current communication systems.

4.4. 5G IoT Based Approaches

• IoT is termed as “Internet of Things.” It provides machine-to-machine (M2M) communication and shares information between heterogeneous devices without human interference. As shown in the Figure 5 .
• 5G with IoT is a new feature of next-generation mobile communication, which provides a high-speed internet connection between moderated devices. 5G IoT also offers smart homes, smart devices, sensors, smart transportation systems, smart industries, etc., for end-users to make them smarter.
• IoT deals with moderate devices which connect through the internet. The approach of the IoT has made the consideration of the research associated with the outcome of providing wearable, smart-phones, sensors, smart transportation systems, smart devices, washing machines, tablets, etc., and these diverse systems are associated to a common interface with the intelligence to connect.
• Significant IoT applications include private healthcare systems, traffic management, industrial management, and tactile internet, etc.

4.5. Machine Learning Techniques for 5G

• Machine learning (ML) is a part of artificial intelligence. It processes and analyses the data that automates a systematic model that finds patterns and carries out decisions with minimum human interference. As shown in the Figure 6 .
• In ML, a model will be defined which fulfills the desired requirements through which desired results are obtained. In the later stage, it examines accuracy from obtained results.
• ML plays a vital role in 5G network analysis for threat detection, network load prediction, final arrangement, and network formation. Searching for a better balance between power, length of antennas, area, and network thickness crossed with the spontaneous use of services in the universe of individual users and types of devices.

4.6. Optimization Techniques for 5G

5. description of novel 5g features over 4g, 5.1. small cell, 5.2. beamforming, 5.3. mobile edge computing, 6. 5g security, 7. summary of 5g technology based on above-stated challenges, 8. conclusions, 9. future findings, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Dangi, R.; Lalwani, P.; Choudhary, G.; You, I.; Pau, G. Study and Investigation on 5G Technology: A Systematic Review. Sensors 2022 , 22 , 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010026

Dangi R, Lalwani P, Choudhary G, You I, Pau G. Study and Investigation on 5G Technology: A Systematic Review. Sensors . 2022; 22(1):26. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010026

Dangi, Ramraj, Praveen Lalwani, Gaurav Choudhary, Ilsun You, and Giovanni Pau. 2022. "Study and Investigation on 5G Technology: A Systematic Review" Sensors 22, no. 1: 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010026

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Margo Anderson is senior associate editor and telecommunications editor at IEEE Spectrum.

In this rendering of a new optical metasurface, a laser beam (green) hits the surface, which creates steerable beams of light at different frequencies (blue).

A new, tunable smart surface can transform a single pulse of light into multiple beams, each aimed in different directions. The proof-of-principle development opens the door to a range of innovations in communications, imaging, sensing, and medicine.

The research comes out of the Caltech lab of Harry Atwater , a professor of applied physics and materials science, and is possible due to a type of nano-engineered material called a metasurface . “These are artificially designed surfaces which basically consist of nanostructured patterns,” says Prachi Thureja , a graduate student in Atwater’s group. “So it’s an array of nanostructures, and each nanostructure essentially allows us to locally control the properties of light.”

The surface can be reconfigured up to millions of times per second to change how it is locally controlling light. That’s rapid enough to manipulate and redirect light for applications in optical data transmission such as optical space communications and Li-Fi , as well as lidar .

“[The metasurface] brings unprecedented freedom in controlling light,” says Alex M.H. Wong , an associate professor of electrical engineering at the City University of Hong Kong . “The ability to do this means one can migrate existing wireless technologies into the optical regime. Li-Fi and LIDAR serve as prime examples.”

Metasurfaces remove the need for lenses and mirrors

Manipulating and redirecting beams of light typically involves a range of conventional lenses and mirrors. These lenses and mirrors might be microscopic in size, but they’re still using optical properties of materials like Snell’s Law , which describes the progress of a wavefront through different materials and how that wavefront is redirected—or refracted—according to the properties of the material itself.

By contrast, the new work offers the prospect of electrically manipulating a material’s optical properties via a semiconducting material. Combined with nano-scaled mirror elements, the flat, microscopic devices can be made to behave like a lens, without requiring lengths of curved or bent glass. And the new metasurface’s optical properties can be switched millions of times per second using electrical signals.

“The difference with our device is by applying different voltages across the device, we can change the profile of light coming off of the mirror, even though physically it’s not moving,” says paper co-author Jared Sisler —also a graduate student in Atwater’s group. “And then we can steer the light like it’s an electrically reprogrammable mirror.”

The device itself, a chip that measures 120 micrometers on each side, achieves its light-manipulating capabilities with an embedded surface of tiny gold antennas in a semiconductor layer of indium tin oxide. Manipulating the voltages across the semiconductor alters the material’s capacity to bend light—also known as its index of refraction . Between the reflection of the gold mirror elements and the tunable refractive capacity of the semiconductor, a lot of rapidly-tunable light manipulation becomes possible.

“I think the whole idea of using a solid-state metasurface or optical device to steer light in space and also use that for encoding information—I mean, there’s nothing like that that exists right now,” Sisler says. “So I mean, technically, you can send more information if you can achieve higher modulation rates. But since it’s kind of a new domain, the performance of our device is more just to show the principle.”

Metasurfaces open up plenty of new possibilities

The principle, says Wong, suggests a wide array of future technologies on the back of what he says are likely near-term metasurface developments and discoveries.

“The metasurface [can] be flat, ultrathin, and lightweight while it attains the functions normally achieved by a series of carefully curved lenses,” Wong says. “Scientists are currently still unlocking the vast possibilities the metasurface has available to us.

“With improvements in nanofabrication, elements with small feature sizes much smaller than the wavelength are now reliably fabricable,” Wong continues. “Many functionalities of the metasurface are being routinely demonstrated, benefiting not just communication but also imaging, sensing, and medicine, among other fields... I know that in addition to interest from academia, various players from industry are also deeply interested and making sizable investments in pushing this technology toward commercialization.”

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Margo Anderson is senior associate editor and telecommunications editor at IEEE Spectrum . She has a bachelor’s degree in physics and a master’s degree in astrophysics.

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