ethnography research question example

15 Great Ethnography Examples

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Ethnography is a research method that involves embedding yourself in the environment of a group or community and recording what you observe. It often involves the researcher living in the community being studied. This leads to a much richer understanding of the people being examined than doing quantitative research.

The thing I love about ethnography is that it paints a thorough picture of people’s lives. It is, in its own way, the most raw, honest, and detailed form of academic research.

In my previous blog posts, I have discussed my admiration for thick description as a way to pierce beyond stereotypes and view the world through the lens of our subjects.

And there’s no doubt that ethnographic research has helped us learn so much more about how people navigate their cultural circumstances.

Below are some examples of ethnography – both abstract (with the hope that it helps students think about some ways they can do ethnography) and real-life (with the hope that you will read some inspiring ethnographic studies).

Ethnography Examples

To start, here are some ways you could potentially do ethnography:

• Ethnography of Indigenous People: There are many examples of ethnographic studies that look at indigenous cultures and how they’re similar or different to Western culture. Beware of the trap of colonialism during this work.
• Mundane Ethnography: Remember, ethnography doesn’t have to happen in a far off land. You can do autoethnography where you study yourself , or a study of somewhere very banal, like your workplace or home.
• Educational Ethnography: There is a rich history of teachers and researchers using ethnographic methods in classrooms to explore how learning happens.
• Ethnography in a Shop: Be the ethnographer within a supermarket by interacting with the people there on a daily basis (maybe as the cashier) and observe how people interact and collide within the space.
• Working-Class and Immigrant Ethnography: Many sociologists use ethnographic methods to take an inside look at how people on the margins of society grapple with global concepts like capitalism, globalization, and race.
• Digital Ethnography: Since the rise of the internet, there have been many researchers interested in the digital lives of people. Some of my favorite studies have revealed how we create our identities online.

My Favorite Ethnographic Research Books

1. learning to labour.

Author: Paul Willis

One of my favorite ethnographic works, Learning to Labour follows working-class ‘lads’ in the British Midlands as they participate in counter-cultural and ‘anti-social’ behaviors.

The most fascinating aspect of this book is the rich elucidation of how these working-class boys reject narratives of upward mobility and revel in rejecting mental work at school. But at the same time, they create their own value hierarchies.

In fact, the boys don’t even leave school when they are legally allowed, despite giving a veneer of being anti-school. Instead, they remain there, because there is their own social and even educational value they can get out of it. They prize the manual labor they do in class and, after leaving school, continue to prize physical labor in the workplace while deriding and dismissing mental labor.

2. Being Maori in the City

Author: Natacha Gagné

When indigenous people live in urban environments, their authenticity as indigenous peoples is often brought into question.

Thus, Gagné’s examination of Maori identity in Auckland presents a valuable insight into how people continue to live out their indigenous identities in a changing, urbanized, and colonized landscape.

Gagné spent two years living with Maori people in Auckland and highlights in the book how their identity continues to be central to how they interact both with one another and with broader society.

3. Ethnography of a Neoliberal School

Author: Garth Stahl

While a wide range of academic research has looked at how neoliberalism can affect education, an ethnographic approach allows Stahl to demonstrate how it turns up as lived experience.

Neoliberalism is an approach to governance that focuses on the corporatization of society. In education, this means that schools should be run like companies.

There is no better example, of course, than charter schools .

In my favorite chapter, Stahl demonstrates within one anonymized charter school how teachers are increasingly subjected to performance quotas, KPIs, and governance that narrow down the purpose of education and give them very little freedom to exercise their expertise and provide individualized support to their students.

4. Coming of Age in Samoa

Author: Margaret Mead

Margaret Mead’s groundbreaking ethnography, Coming of Age in Samoa , had implications for two important reasons:

• It highlighted the importance of feminist perspectives in ethnographic research.
• It challenged a universalizing stage-based conceptualization of human development.

Mead’s work was conducted at a time when the Western world was in a moral panic about adolescents’ stress and emotional behaviors. The prevailing idea – promoted mainly by male psychologists – was that most of those behaviors were a natural part of the developmental cycle.

Mead, however, saw that female Samoan adolescents had much different experiences of adolescence and would not have fitted into the western mold of how a female adolescent would behave or be treated.

The Samoan society’s liberal ideas around intimacy and the lower levels of academic stress placed on the girls meant they lived very different realities with far less stress and social pressure than their Western counterparts.

5. Ghetto at the Center of the World

Author: Gordon Mathews

Mathews’s Ghetto at the Center of the World explores a multiethnic high-density housing complex in Hong Kong.

While seen by many locals as a ghetto (despite its relative safety!), Mathews shows how the motley group of residents, migrants, and tourists in the building live rich lives at what appears to be ground zero of globalization.

For the people in the building, globalization has offered opportunities but hasn’t solved all their problems. Each person that Mathews follows has their own story of how they navigate a globalized world while maintaining hope for a better future.

Additional Influential Ethnographic Studies

• Argonauts of the Western Pacific – This study was notable because it presented a turn toward participant observation in ethnography rather than attempts at fly-on-the-wall objectivity.
• The Remembered Village – A study of caste systems in India, this study is most notable for its methodological influence. Srinivas, the author, lost his field notes, but he continued on with presenting his findings, causing widespread controversy about its methodological merits.
• Space and Society in Central Brazil – This study explores the experiences of the Panará indigenous people of Brazil as they attempt to secure protected space from the colonialization occurring around them. It’s notable for its insights into how the Panará people organize themselves both culturally and spatially.
• White Bound – This book follows two groups, a white anti-racist group and a white nationalist group, and explores how each deals with whiteness. While the groups have fundamentally different goals, even the anti-racist group continue to contribute to white privilege .
• City, Street and Citizen – Suzanne Hall’s study of the mundane city street explores how multiethnicity is played out in globalized cities. It is a fascinating look at how lives take place within shared spaces where social contact occurs.

Ethnography is, in my humble (and of course subjective) opinion, the most exciting form of primary research you can do. It can challenge assumptions, unpick social norms, and make us all more empathetic people.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 20 Montessori Toddler Bedrooms (Design Inspiration)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 21 Montessori Homeschool Setups
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Hidden Talents Examples

3 thoughts on “15 Great Ethnography Examples”

Thanks very much for that. I am an early childhood teacher, already published on the topic of bilingual and multilingual children in our sector. One of my lecturers has suggested an ethnographic study of some of our immigrant children. Not sure where to start with that, but this has put me in the right frame of mind. Thanks again

Dear Chris,

Any suggested topic on ethnographic research i can start with here in the hospital where i am working. I am a nurse for cardiovascular patients undergoing open heart surgeries.

As you’re in a high risk setting, you might be best asking your managers at the workplace about this one. You could also consider an autoethnography where you do a study on yourself within the settings.

Best of luck with the study.

Regards, Chris

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• What Is Ethnography? | Definition, Guide & Examples

What Is Ethnography? | Definition, Guide & Examples

Published on March 13, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organization to observe their behavior and interactions up close. The word “ethnography” also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces afterwards.

Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. However, it also involves some practical and ethical challenges.

Table of contents

What is ethnography used for, different approaches to ethnographic research, gaining access to a community, working with informants, observing the group and taking field notes, writing up an ethnography, other interesting articles.

Ethnographic research originated in the field of anthropology, and it often involved an anthropologist living with an isolated tribal community for an extended period of time in order to understand their culture.

This type of research could sometimes last for years. For example, Colin M. Turnbull lived with the Mbuti people for three years in order to write the classic ethnography The Forest People .

Today, ethnography is a common approach in various social science fields, not just anthropology. It is used not only to study distant or unfamiliar cultures, but also to study specific communities within the researcher’s own society.

For example, ethnographic research (sometimes called participant observation ) has been used to investigate  football fans , call center workers , and police officers .

Advantages of ethnography

The main advantage of ethnography is that it gives the researcher direct access to the culture and practices of a group. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about the behavior and interactions of people within a particular context.

By becoming immersed in a social environment, you may have access to more authentic information and spontaneously observe dynamics that you could not have found out about simply by asking.

Ethnography is also an open and flexible method. Rather than aiming to verify a general theory or test a hypothesis , it aims to offer a rich narrative account of a specific culture, allowing you to explore many different aspects of the group and setting.

Disadvantages of ethnography

Ethnography is a time-consuming method. In order to embed yourself in the setting and gather enough observations to build up a representative picture, you can expect to spend at least a few weeks, but more likely several months. This long-term immersion can be challenging, and requires careful planning.

Ethnographic research can run the risk of observer bias . Writing an ethnography involves subjective interpretation, and it can be difficult to maintain the necessary distance to analyze a group that you are embedded in.

There are often also ethical considerations to take into account: for example, about how your role is disclosed to members of the group, or about observing and reporting sensitive information.

Should you use ethnography in your research?

If you’re a student who wants to use ethnographic research in your thesis or dissertation , it’s worth asking yourself whether it’s the right approach:

• Could the information you need be collected in another way (e.g. a survey , interviews)?
• How difficult will it be to gain access to the community you want to study?
• How exactly will you conduct your research, and over what timespan?
• What ethical issues might arise?

If you do decide to do ethnography, it’s generally best to choose a relatively small and easily accessible group, to ensure that the research is feasible within a limited timeframe.

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There are a few key distinctions in ethnography which help to inform the researcher’s approach: open vs. closed settings, overt vs. covert ethnography, and active vs. passive observation. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Open vs. closed settings

The setting of your ethnography—the environment in which you will observe your chosen community in action—may be open or closed.

An open or public setting is one with no formal barriers to entry. For example, you might consider a community of people living in a certain neighborhood, or the fans of a particular baseball team.

• Gaining initial access to open groups is not too difficult…
• …but it may be harder to become immersed in a less clearly defined group.

A closed or private setting is harder to access. This may be for example a business, a school, or a cult.

• A closed group’s boundaries are clearly defined and the ethnographer can become fully immersed in the setting…
• …but gaining access is tougher; the ethnographer may have to negotiate their way in or acquire some role in the organization.

Overt vs. covert ethnography

Most ethnography is overt . In an overt approach, the ethnographer openly states their intentions and acknowledges their role as a researcher to the members of the group being studied.

• Overt ethnography is typically preferred for ethical reasons, as participants can provide informed consent…
• …but people may behave differently with the awareness that they are being studied.

Sometimes ethnography can be covert . This means that the researcher does not tell participants about their research, and comes up with some other pretense for being there.

• Covert ethnography allows access to environments where the group would not welcome a researcher…
• …but hiding the researcher’s role can be considered deceptive and thus unethical.

Active vs. passive observation

Different levels of immersion in the community may be appropriate in different contexts. The ethnographer may be a more active or passive participant depending on the demands of their research and the nature of the setting.

An active role involves trying to fully integrate, carrying out tasks and participating in activities like any other member of the community.

• Active participation may encourage the group to feel more comfortable with the ethnographer’s presence…
• …but runs the risk of disrupting the regular functioning of the community.

A passive role is one in which the ethnographer stands back from the activities of others, behaving as a more distant observer and not involving themselves in the community’s activities.

• Passive observation allows more space for careful observation and note-taking…
• …but group members may behave unnaturally due to feeling they are being observed by an outsider.

While ethnographers usually have a preference, they also have to be flexible about their level of participation. For example, access to the community might depend upon engaging in certain activities, or there might be certain practices in which outsiders cannot participate.

An important consideration for ethnographers is the question of access. The difficulty of gaining access to the setting of a particular ethnography varies greatly:

• To gain access to the fans of a particular sports team, you might start by simply attending the team’s games and speaking with the fans.
• To access the employees of a particular business, you might contact the management and ask for permission to perform a study there.
• Alternatively, you might perform a covert ethnography of a community or organization you are already personally involved in or employed by.

Flexibility is important here too: where it’s impossible to access the desired setting, the ethnographer must consider alternatives that could provide comparable information.

For example, if you had the idea of observing the staff within a particular finance company but could not get permission, you might look into other companies of the same kind as alternatives. Ethnography is a sensitive research method, and it may take multiple attempts to find a feasible approach.

All ethnographies involve the use of informants . These are people involved in the group in question who function as the researcher’s primary points of contact, facilitating access and assisting their understanding of the group.

This might be someone in a high position at an organization allowing you access to their employees, or a member of a community sponsoring your entry into that community and giving advice on how to fit in.

However,  i f you come to rely too much on a single informant, you may be influenced by their perspective on the community, which might be unrepresentative of the group as a whole.

In addition, an informant may not provide the kind of spontaneous information which is most useful to ethnographers, instead trying to show what they believe you want to see. For this reason, it’s good to have a variety of contacts within the group.

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The core of ethnography is observation of the group from the inside. Field notes are taken to record these observations while immersed in the setting; they form the basis of the final written ethnography. They are usually written by hand, but other solutions such as voice recordings can be useful alternatives.

Field notes record any and all important data: phenomena observed, conversations had, preliminary analysis. For example, if you’re researching how service staff interact with customers, you should write down anything you notice about these interactions—body language, phrases used repeatedly, differences and similarities between staff, customer reactions.

Don’t be afraid to also note down things you notice that fall outside the pre-formulated scope of your research; anything may prove relevant, and it’s better to have extra notes you might discard later than to end up with missing data.

Field notes should be as detailed and clear as possible. It’s important to take time to go over your notes, expand on them with further detail, and keep them organized (including information such as dates and locations).

After observations are concluded, there’s still the task of writing them up into an ethnography. This entails going through the field notes and formulating a convincing account of the behaviors and dynamics observed.

The structure of an ethnography

An ethnography can take many different forms: It may be an article, a thesis, or an entire book, for example.

Ethnographies often do not follow the standard structure of a scientific paper, though like most academic texts, they should have an introduction and conclusion. For example, this paper begins by describing the historical background of the research, then focuses on various themes in turn before concluding.

An ethnography may still use a more traditional structure, however, especially when used in combination with other research methods. For example, this paper follows the standard structure for empirical research: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion.

The content of an ethnography

The goal of a written ethnography is to provide a rich, authoritative account of the social setting in which you were embedded—to convince the reader that your observations and interpretations are representative of reality.

Ethnography tends to take a less impersonal approach than other research methods. Due to the embedded nature of the work, an ethnography often necessarily involves discussion of your personal experiences and feelings during the research.

Ethnography is not limited to making observations; it also attempts to explain the phenomena observed in a structured, narrative way. For this, you may draw on theory, but also on your direct experience and intuitions, which may well contradict the assumptions that you brought into the research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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• Ethnographic Research: Types, Methods + [Question Examples]

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research approach that involves observing variables in their natural environments or habitats in order to arrive at objective research outcomes. As the name suggests, ethnographic research has its roots in ethnography which is the in-depth study of people, cultures, habits and mutual differences. 

This type of systematic investigation interacts continuously with the variables and depends, almost entirely, on the data gathered from the observation of the research variables. Ethnographic research is sometimes referred to as a thick description because of its in-depth observation and description of the subjects.

In recent times, ethnography has been adopted to the internet in the form of netnography. This means that researchers can now study how online communities interact in order to identify social communication patterns. 

What is Netnography?

Simply put, netnography is online ethnography research, that is, it is the conducting of ethnography research via the internet. Netnography adapts the ethnographic research methodology to the study of online communities in order to discover the natural behavioral patterns of internet users. 

As a modern model of ethnographic investigation, netnography uses the data gathered through digital communications in varying online communities to trace and analyze patterns of social interaction. Just like ethnography research, netnography also requires close observation of interactional patterns in order to arrive at the most objective conclusions. 

Types of Ethnographic Research   

There are several types of ethnographic research, namely; business, educational and medical ethnographic research. All based on different fields of human endeavor and each type is defined by specific characteristics. Ethnographic research is a multi-dimensional research design that can be adapted to different fields including business, medicine, education, and psychology. 

Business Ethnographic Research

Business ethnographic research is a research design that involves observing consumer habits and target markets in order to discover true market needs and the overall disposition to your product or service. It is an extremely beneficial research tool that can help your organization identify its customers’ needs and satisfy market demands. 

This research method combines different techniques including fieldwork, physical interviews and online surveys in order to gather useful data on the consumer habits of target markets. Business ethnographers use these techniques to analyze how clients interact with an organization’s services and come up with useful conclusions that can be used to develop effective market strategies. 

In carrying out a business ethnographic research, it is necessary to work with a customer or client-oriented framework that focuses on target markets rather than the business. The aim of this research design is to discover recurring client behavioral patterns that can serve as key market insights.

In order to gather useful data, the researcher must ask the right questions. Some question samples for business ethnographic research include the following:

• What do you enjoy about this product or service?
• Why do you use this product?
• What specific needs does the product meet for you?
• What specific needs does the product fail to meet?
• Does the pricing of the product equate its value?

Educational Ethnographic Research 

Educational ethnographic research is a research design that involves observing teaching and learning methods and how these affect classroom behaviors. This research model pays attention to pedagogy, its effects on learning outcomes and overall engagements by stakeholders within the classroom environment. 

Typically, educational ethnographic research studies students’ attitudes, academic motivations, and dispositions to learning. To do this, the researcher combines non-participant observation methods with direct participant observation techniques in order to gather the most relevant and objective data. 

Question samples for educational ethnography research include:

• Do you enjoy this teaching method?
• Does the teacher allow for feedback in his or her classes?
• Does the teaching method communicate objectives clearly?
• What is the student’s attitude toward learning?

What is Pedagogy: Definition, Principles & Application

Medical Ethnographic Research 

Medical ethnographic research is a type of ethnographic research used for qualitative investigations in healthcare. This research design helps medical practitioners to understand the dispositions of patients ranging from the simplest to the most complex behavioral patterns. 

Medical ethnographic research enables the healthcare provider to have access to a wealth of information that will prove useful for improving a patient’s overall experience. For example, through ethnographic research, a healthcare product manufacturer is able to understand the needs of the target market and this will, in turn, influence the product’s design. 

In addition, medical ethnographic research exposes healthcare professionals to insights on the complex needs of patients, their reaction to prescriptions and treatment methods plus recommendations for improvement. Here are a few questions that can be used for medical ethnographic research:

• For how long have you used this drug?
• For how long have you been on this treatment?
• What positive changes have you noticed so far?
• Have you noticed any side effects so far?
• Does this medication or treatment meet your needs?

Method of Ethnographic Research 

Typically, there are 5 basic methods of ethnographic research which are naturalism, participant observation, interviews, surveys, and archival research. Carrying out ethnographic research will involve one or more research techniques depending on the field, sample size, and purpose of the research

• Live and work

Also known as naturalism, live and work is an ethnography research technique in which the researcher observes the research variables in their natural environment in order to identify and record behavioral patterns. It may involve living in the natural environment of the group or individuals being researched for a period of time in order to record their activities. 

Naturalism is the oldest method of ethnographic research and it may create some degree of rapport between the ethnographer and the research variables . When using this method, the researcher must ensure that he or she limits interference with the subjects to the barest minimum in order to arrive at the most objective research outcomes. 

Naturalistic observation can be disguised or undisguised. Disguised naturalistic observation involves recording the subjects in such a way that they are unaware of being studied while in undisguised naturalistic observation, the research subjects are aware of the fact that they are being understudied. 

The live and work method allows the researcher to gather the most accurate and most relevant data as a result of observing the research subjects in their natural environment. However, this technique is not favored by modern ethnographers, especially in fields like medicine and education, because it is expensive and it takes a lot of time. 

• Participant Observation

Participant observation is a data collection method in ethnography research where the ethnographer gathers information by participating actively and interacting with the research subjects. This method is quite similar to life and work techniques. 

The major difference between participant observation and live and naturalism is that in the former, the ethnographer becomes an active member of the group being observed. This gives the researcher access to information that can only be made available to members of the group. 

There are 2 types of participant observation which are, disguised participant observation and undisguised participant observation. In the former, the ethnographer pretends to be a part of the research subjects while hiding his or her true identity of being a researcher. 

In undisguised participant observation, the ethnographer becomes a part of the group being observed and reveals his or her identity as a researcher to the group. This technique is more prone to reactivity, unlike disguised participant observation. 

The primary advantage of participant observation as a research technique is that the ethnographer is exposed to more information. He or she is better able to understand the experiences and habits of the research subjects from the participant’s point of view. 

There are a number of limitations associated with this research technique. First, the presence of the researcher can affect the behaviors of the research subjects; especially with undisguised participant observation, and this can affect the authenticity of the result. 

In addition, there can be the issue of biased research outcomes. As a result of the relationship between the researcher and the group, the ethnographer may become less objective and this can lead to experimental bias which affects the research outcomes. 

An ethnographic interview is a qualitative research method that merges immersive observation with one-on-one discussions in order to arrive at the most authentic research outcomes. In this research design, the ethnographer converses with members of the research group as they engage in different activities related to the research context. 

During this contextual inquiry, the researcher gathers relevant data related to the goals and behaviors of the members of the research group. As the ethnographer observes the research subject in its natural environment, he or she has the opportunity to ask questions that reveal more information about the research group.

An ethnographic interview is usually informal and spontaneous, and it typically stems from the relationship between the researcher and the subjects. The ethnographic interview often results from the participant observation method where the ethnographer actively engages with the members of the research group in order to find out more about their lives. 

As a two-way research method, an ethnographic interview allows the researcher to gather the most relevant and authentic information from the research group. However, it can also be affected by experimental bias as a result of the relationship between the ethnographer and the subjects. 

 An ethnography survey is an inductive research method that is used to gather information about the research subject. This research design is also referred to as analytic induction and it involves outlining hypotheses in the form of survey questions and administering these questions in the research environment. 

Administering a survey will help the ethnographer gather relevant data, analyze this data and arrive at objective findings. The aim of carrying out an analytic induction is to discover the causative factors of certain habits of the research group and come up with accurate explanations for these behaviors. 

In order to gather the most relevant responses using this, it is best to include different question types in your survey. Likert scale questions , open-ended questions, multiple-choice questions , and close-ended questions are common types of ethnography survey questions. 

To make your ethnography survey even more effective, you can create and administer it online using data-collection tools like Formplus . Formplus allows you to build your ethnography survey form in minutes using the Formplus builder and you can easily share your survey with respondents via available multiple sharing options.

High survey drop-out rates and survey response bias are some of the major limitations of this research method. However, this method is fast and cost-effective especially when carried out online and if done right, it can reveal useful insights about a research group. 

• Archival Research

Archival research is a qualitative approach to ethnographic research in which the researcher analyzes existing research, documents and other sources of information about the research group in order to discover relevant information. This method can also be referred to as understanding.

Archival research adopts ethnography to a collection of related documents from the past which substitute for actual physical presence in the research environment. It pays absolute attention to every piece of information about the research variables. 

As a method of data collection in ethnography, archival research reduces the chances of experimental biases since the researcher does not directly interact with the subjects. Also, it allows the ethnographer to have access to a large repository of research data that results in more accurate findings. 

However, because archival research is often subject to randomization, its findings may not accurately reflect the research group. Also, archival data is not full-proof as there may be biases when the data is recorded and this will affect the research outcomes. 

When to Use Ethnography Research

Ethnographic research should be used in the early stages of user-focused systematic investigations. This is because ethnography research helps you to gather useful information about the dispositions, goals, and habits of the research variables in specific contexts. 

Ethnography research is most suitable for complex research processes especially in markets and customer settings. In market research, ethnography allows organizations to gain insights into consumer habits and receive first-hand feedback on the extent to which their product or service meets the needs of target markets.

This research design is also useful for examining social behaviors and interactions. It is extremely beneficial in the study employees’ disposition to organizational work culture and policies. 

While ethnographic research helps businesses bridge product gaps and improve consumers’ experience, there are certain situations where this research design is counter-productive. Ethnographic research should not be used in processes that require statistically valid analysis, test-runs or group comparisons. 

How to Conduct Ethnographic Research with Online Surveys 

Formplus is a data-gathering tool that allows you to create and administer online surveys for ethnography research easily while saving time and cost, and improving your research sample size. 

Here is a step-by-step guide on how to conduct ethnographic research with online surveys using Formplus: 

Access Formplus Builder

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create your ethnography survey form by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus . 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on “Create Form ” to begin. 

Edit Form Title

• Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “ETHNOGRAPHIC SURVEY”.

• Click on the edit button to edit the form.
• Add Fields: Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for survey forms in the Formplus builder.
• Edit fields
• Click on “Save”
• Preview form.

Customize Form

Formplus allows you to add unique features to your ethnographic survey form. You can personalize your form using various customization options in the builder. Here, you can add background images, your organization’s logo, and other features. You can also change the display theme of your form. 

Save your ethnographic survey form and share the link with respondents. 

Advantages of ethnographic research .

• Ethnographic research allows you to have access to a wider and more accurate data scope than other research designs. This qualitative research approach collects first-hand information about the research variables and gives the ethnographer a wider range of data to work with thereby resulting in more objective research outcomes.
• Ethnography research enables the researcher to partake in the experiences of the research variables in their natural environment.
• Ethnography research accounts for complex group behavioral patterns and highlights interrelationships among research variables.
• It helps researchers understand the scope, reason(s) and context of the habits of research variables.

Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research

• Ethnographic research requires expertise and it is time-consuming. It takes time to observe research variables in order to arrive at cogent findings.
• Ethnographic research is capital-intensive too.
• It is subject to experimental biases stemming from the relationship between the subjects and the researcher.
• Issues of data sample size can also arise with ethnographic research. This is because small data samples can suggest false assumptions about the disposition of the research group while large quantities of data may not be processed effectively.

Risks Associated with Ethnographic Research

Unlike other research methods, ethnographic research tends to be sporadic and extends for a long period of time. And although respondents can stop participating in the research process at any time, there are still a few risks they are likely to encounter during this research

1. Psychological Risks

During uncomfortable topics, respondents may feel psychological triggers like guilt, fear, sadness, etc This can cause them to lose interest in the research or pull out from participating. In some cases, research participants may need constant reassurance to encourage them.

2. Social Risks

Depending on the research subject, there are social risks that are posed to a respondent during ethnographic research. These risks include stigmatization or condemnation from their community particularly if confidential information is shared and friction in personal relationships. This can further lead to a psychological risk. 

3. Physical and Economical Risks

Although these risks are uncommon in ethnographic research, it is imperative that you prepare for them as a researcher. In politically volatile communities, or research that involves tedious physical activity, physical risks are on the high side.

Economic risks can arise when research participants are removed from their jobs or limited from carrying out profitable ventures.

During your study, ensure that you disclose the possible risks to your research participants and elaborate on how you intend to mitigate these risks. 

FAQ’s on Ethnographic Research

• Does Ethnographic research come before or after a survey?

Most research uses data collected from various studies to validate a hypothesis or seek better clarity. So it is often conducted after a large-scale survey or quantitative segmentation study. However, it all largely depends on what the goal of the research is.

• Is ethnographic research qualitative or quantitative?

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method where researchers study their respondents in their own environment

• How long does an ethnographic research project take?

The duration of your ethnographic research completely depends on the scope of your study. However, they usually last for a couple of months.

• Do ethnographers use field guides?

Yes. In ethnographic research, there are field guides to help guide the research process. However, it’s just a tool, and most times, it isn’t followed verbatim on the field. 

• How do I create a database for comparative analysis during Ethnographic?

You can compile your data using the Formplus PDF Builder to create PDFs of your analysis or create forms for documentation and save them using the secure Formplus storage.

Conclusion 

Ethnographic research helps individuals and organizations to gain useful insights into users’ behaviors as influenced by their natural environment. This form of systematic investigation bridges the gap between the ethnographer and the research variables because the researcher has the opportunity to be a part of their experiences. 

Administering online surveys for ethnographic research will speed up your data collection process and would allow you to save costs and have more control over your sample size. You can use Formplus to create and administer online ethnographic research surveys easily. 

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What is Ethnographic Research? Methods and Examples

Ethnographic research , rooted in the discipline of anthropology, is a systematic and immersive approach for the study of individual cultures. Ethnographic research methods involve the examination of cultural phenomena from the perspective of the subjects under investigation. This method of social research places a particular emphasis on participant observation, where researchers engage with the setting or individuals being studied, documenting intricate patterns of social interaction and analyzing the participants’ own interpretations of their behavior within their local contexts.   

While ethnography originated in social and cultural anthropology in the early twentieth century, its application has extended to various disciplines. Widely adopted as a qualitative data collection strategy, ethnographic research design stands out for its reliance on observing life as it naturally unfolds, dispensing with the controlled environment of a laboratory. Ethnographic observation seeks to understand societies and individuals through direct observation and interviews, providing valuable insights into how they interact with their surroundings in their natural environments.  

Here are some ethnographic research examples :  

• An anthropologist observing the people and culture of an Indigenous tribe by living with them for several months.  
• A child psychologist observing the social dynamics of toddlers in a play school (interactions with teachers and with one another).   
• A potential startup looking to create a product and a market for that product by observing how a group of potential customers interact with and discuss similar products in various stores over a specified length of time.

Table of Contents

What is ethnographic research ?  

Ethnographic research systematically studies cultures and behaviors, relying on participant observation and exploring cultural phenomena from the perspective of the subjects. Its versatility and qualitative nature make it a valuable data collection strategy in the social and behavioral research sciences. It has transcended disciplinary boundaries, making its way into various social science disciplines, notably sociology. Some key points to better understand what is ethnographic research ? and what are the advantages of ethnography research ? are as follows:  

• Ethnographic research is an immersive approach that aims to document detailed patterns of social interaction and behavior.   
• Ethnographic observation provides a rich source of qualitative data.  
• Ethnographic research methods acknowledge the unpredictability of real-world situations, offering a more authentic understanding of societal dynamics and individual behaviors.  
• Ethnographic research puts the point of view of the subject of the research first.  

Main aim of ethnographic research  

The main aim of ethnographic research is to deep dive into the perspectives and actions of subjects, capturing the variables that characterize their daily experiences. It offers researchers a comprehensive understanding of how subjects perceive the world and navigate their interactions with the surrounding elements.    

Types of ethnographic research  

Ethnographic observation might be applied in fields of business, medicine, education, psychology, and more. There are various types of ethnographic research , broadly based on the study discipline and the activity under study, with each shedding light on human behavior, experiences, and cultural nuances.  

Below are different types of ethnographic research , which will give you a broad idea about how to conduct ethnographic research in various fields:  

1. Psychology ethnography

To explore human experiences and behaviors within a cultural context, researchers immerse themselves in the natural habitat of individuals, applying ethnographic research methods such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and field notes. 

2. Life history ethnography

Life history ethnography looks at the tapestry of an individual’s life, offering a nuanced understanding of their experiences, challenges, and cultural influences. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews, collect personal documents, and may even observe the subject in their daily life to capture a comprehensive life narrative. By zooming in on a single life, researchers can uncover patterns, transitions, and unique perspectives that might be overlooked in broader ethnographic studies.  

3. Business ethnography

In business and retail, ethnographic research focuses on consumer habits and target markets to discern market demands and attitudes toward products or services. Fieldwork, interviews, and online surveys are used to identify preferences and meet market demands effectively.   

4. Educational ethnography

Researchers employing educational ethnography observe students’ learning attitudes and motivations using non-participant and direct participant observation.  

5. Medical ethnography

In medicine and healthcare, ethnographic research involves qualitative exploration of patient behavior across various healthcare scenarios to understand patient needs, reactions to prescriptions and treatment procedures, suggestions for improvement, etc.  

6. Digital ethnography

Digital ethnography or desk study is conducted remotely. Researchers rely on second- or third-hand information collected by others to compile knowledge about a particular ethnic group without direct observation. This method leverages the wealth of information available online.   

7. Literary ethnography

Novels and books, often overlooked in traditional ethnographic discussions, offer a unique avenue for cultural exploration. Literary ethnography involves analyzing fictional works, autobiographies, and cultural narratives to extract insights into societal norms, values, and historical contexts. This method recognizes the power of storytelling as a medium through which cultural knowledge is transmitted.   

Methods of ethnographic research    

Various methodologies are employed in ethnography, from direct observation, diary studies, video recordings and photography to the analysis of devices used by individuals. The duration of ethnographic studies varies, with observation periods ranging from a few hours to several months, depending on the specific research objectives. Thus, ethnographic research methods employed will depend on the field, the size of the sample, and the research goal.    

So, what are ethnographic methods employed by researchers to answer questions in diverse disciplines? Let’s take a look:  

1. Triangulation  

A researcher used multiple data collection strategies and data sources to obtain a complete picture of the topic in focus and to cross-check information.  

2. Field notes  

A researcher collects, records, and compiles notes on-site during the study. This can be considered a researcher’s primary tool to collect data.  

3. Naturalism  

This is probably the oldest ethnographic research method . In this ethnographic research design , one spends time in the group’s natural environment to observe and record research variables.   

4. Participant observation  

Similar to the above approach, in participant observation, the ethnographer actively interacts with the research subjects. The difference lies in the ethnographer participating in the group. Participant observation gives ethnographers more data. They better understand the research subjects’ experiences and habits from the participant’s perspective.  

5. Interviews  

For authentic and relevant research results, the ethnographer interacts with the research group, asking questions about the research group, while conducting research-related activities.  

6. Surveys  

Ethnography surveys help the researcher obtain and analyze data to arrive at objective conclusions. Multiple choice questions, Likert scale, open-ended, and close-ended ethnography survey questions are commonly used. This approach saves time and costs.   

7. Archival research  

This qualitative ethnographic research method examines existing literature and records of relevant research rather than by the researcher’s physical presence.   

Examples of ethnographic research  

To better understand ethnographic research meaning , methods, and design, let’s take a look at some ethnographic research examples :  

Observing urban street performers: Over the course of several months, a researcher observes urban street performers’ performances and their interactions with passersby, exploring how these individuals collaborate or compete with one another for attention and recognition.  

Studying patterns of coffee shop regulars: Through a combination of direct observation and casual conversations, a researcher might uncover the habits and interactions of regular patrons and the social dynamics that characterize the daily lives of individuals who frequent the establishment.   

Exploring online gaming communities: In the realm of virtual spaces, a researcher might examine online gaming communities to understand the social structures, communication patterns, and shared norms among players. Through active participation and observation within the gaming environment, the researcher might seek insights into how relationships form, conflicts are resolved, and cultural practices evolve within this digital subculture.  

Observing farmers’ market vendors: At a local farmers’ market, a researcher may closely examine the interactions between vendors, customers, and the broader community. This study aims to uncover the cultural nuances of the market environment, exploring aspects such as negotiation tactics, vendor-customer relationships, and the role of the market in creating a sense of community.  

Advantages of ethnography research  

The advantages of ethnography research are manifold. Ethnographic observation allows first-hand observation of subjects’ interactions in their natural environment. This might help uncover subjects’ unconscious or implicit behaviors. Ethnographic research also enables a researcher to gain longitudinal insights as ethnography often involves extended periods of fieldwork, allowing researchers to observe changes and developments over time. Further, this approach often captures the holistic nature of social phenomena by considering various interconnected elements within a cultural context. This holistic approach is beneficial for understanding complex social structures, rituals, and the interplay of different factors influencing behaviors.  

Finally, ethnographic research involves a variety of data collection methods, and this multi-faceted approach yields rich and diverse data, enhancing the depth and validity of the research findings.  

Disadvantages of ethnography research  

Despite its relevance to certain studies, ethnographic research is not without its limitations. One significant challenge lies in the necessity to establish and sustain intimate face-to-face interactions with participants, a task that can prove difficult depending on the study’s nature and the type of participants involved. Prolonged fieldwork might prove costly in terms of time and resources. Second, culture, being an abstract concept, poses difficulties when used as an interpretive lens. Third, ethnographic research lacks reliability and validity since it cannot be easily replicated, and its findings may not extend to other similar situations    

Frequently asked questions  

Q: What are some examples of ethnographic research?

A: Some ethnographic research examples are as follows:  

• Studying yoga retreat participants: An ethnographer may immerse themselves in the experience of a yoga retreat, observing the behaviors, rituals, and social dynamics among participants. This research involves both active participation in yoga sessions and passive observation of communal activities, providing insights into how individuals connect, form bonds, and integrate spiritual practices into their daily lives.  
• Life history ethnography: An in-depth interview of a stroke survivor to obtain an account of their personal struggle for recovery, followed by a narrative analysis based on the transcription, coding, and analysis of transcripts from hours of interviews.  
• Field study on a remote island: A researcher visits a remote island inhabited by an obscure tribe. The researcher then lives and spends a significant amount of time getting to know their daily life customs and practices.  
• Surveying nurses in a trauma hospital: A researcher conducts in-depth surveys to understand the psychological effects of working late-night shifts and dealing with patients with severe trauma.  

Q: What is the main aim of ethnographic research ?

A: The main aim of ethnography is to remain objective and to collect and report what the researcher observes to add to the body of knowledge about the group. It is not to make judgments about the group’s characteristics or methods of interaction or devise approaches to improve or change the group.

Q: Can ethnography be applied to various fields?  

A: Yes, ethnographic research is versatile and can be applied across various disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, marketing, design, education, healthcare, and more. Its adaptability makes it a valuable method for gaining insights into diverse aspects of human behavior and culture.    

Q: Is ethnography only suitable for studying small or isolated communities?  

A: No, while ethnography is often associated with studying small or isolated communities, it can also be applied to larger populations and urban settings. The focus is on understanding the cultural context and social dynamics, regardless of the size or location of the community.  

Q: Can the findings from ethnographic research be generalized to broader populations?  

A: Ethnographic observation is often more concerned with depth than breadth, so generalizability to larger populations may be limited. However, the insights gained can inform broader theories and provide a foundation for further research in similar contexts.  

Q: How should researchers ensure ethical conduct in ethnographic research?  

A: Ethnographers must prioritize ethical considerations by obtaining informed consent from participants, maintaining confidentiality, and being transparent about the research purpose. They also navigate potential conflicts of interest and consider the impact of their presence on the community being studied.  

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Ethnographic Research – Complete Guide with Examples

Published by Carmen Troy at August 14th, 2021 , Revised On August 29, 2023

What is Ethnographic Research?

Ethnography is a  type of research where a researcher observes people in their natural environment.

Ethnographers spend time studying people and their day-to-day lives and cultural activities carefully. It takes a long-term commitment and exciting methods of data collection .

It has two unique features

• The researcher carries out ethnographic research in a natural environment.
• A researcher acts as a participant and researcher at the same time.

History of Ethnographic Research

During the period of colonialism, anthropology emerged as a formal and notable discipline. Anthropologists started to study traditional people and their cultures. There are many types of ethnographic studies used for various purposes.

Uses of Ethnographic Research    

Ethnographic research has the following uses;

• Documentation of endangered cultures
• Studying distant or new cultures.
• Studying and observing people’s behaviour in a specific society or community over a more extended period with changing circumstances.

Example: Malinowski’s six years of research on the people of Trobriand islands in Melanesia.

Today ethnographic research is also used in social sciences.

Examples:                                                                                                                                  Investigations done by detectives, police officers to solve any criminal mystery.        Investigations are carried out to learn the history and details of culture, community, religion, or games. The research was performed to understand the social interactions of the people.                Research to understand the roles of families and organisations.

Advantages of Conducting Ethnographic Research

There are various  methods of research  based on the requirements and aim of the investigation. Here is the list of the key features of  ethnographic research

• You can conduct ethnographic research alone.
• It allows you to observe the changes in people’s behaviour and culture over time and record it.
• You can conduct it in any place.
• It allows you to be a part of the community as a participant and take a close look at their lifestyle.
• You can gather a piece of detailed information with abundant experience, which helps you in further research.
• It provides the opportunity and pleasure of adventure as well as research.
• You don’t need to spend anything on the setup and equipment.
• You can learn to use any language of your choice during the research.
• You can find out about historical  changes and events.
• You can use and enhance your skills and knowledge.
• You are solely responsible for experimenting.
• You get the opportunity to get to know the underlying realities and opinions of the people.
• You get the chance to focus on the verbal and non-verbal behavior of the people.

Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research

• It requires a lot of time.
• It is challenging to conclude the results.
• The researcher needs to work alone.
• It requires patience, skills to interact with people, and staying within the community as a community member.
• Personal safety and privacy would be at risk.

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• Great Research/Sources
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If not, we can help. Our panel of experts makes sure to keep the 3 pillars of Research Methodology strong.

What to do Before Starting your Ethnographic Research?

You need to identify your  research question(s)  and decide the mode of data collection. It’s better to choose a small group of people and aim to complete your studies within a short period. 

It would help if you asked a few questions to yourself.

• Who will be your target participants?
• Do you have enough time to conduct the research?
• What’s the purpose of your study?
• What kinds of resources do you have?
• Do you have enough funds to conduct your research?
• Do you have access to the community you want to study?

Types of Ethnographic Research

Realistic ethnographic research.

It is unbiased documentation written in the third person. You can use the collected notes for interpretations. 

A  case study is a documented history and detailed analysis of a situation concerning organisations, industries, and markets. It aims at discovering new facts of the condition under observation. 

It includes data collection from multiple sources over time.

Critical Ethnographic Research

It focuses on the marginalised community to study inequality and dominance.

How to Conduct Ethnographic Research?

Step 1: problem formulation.

Before conducting any research, the essential step is selecting the problem  you want to carry out your study.

Step 2: Select a Research Setting

After Selecting a research problem, you need to select the location of your research. It will help if you prefer a familiar place and community in which you can fit comfortably.

Step 3: Get Access to the Community

You need to get access to the community you want to study. How do you reach the community you want to study? 

You need to get official permission to conduct your research on a specific group of people. You can also join the community as a volunteer instead of a researcher.

There are two types of access, such as:

Open access: You don’t need to seek permission to conduct your research and  collect data in this type of access. You can observe the population. You need to get accepted by the group to proceed with your research.

Example: Public in market places, parties, concerts, etc., are regarded as open-access groups.

Closed-access:  In this type of access, you need to get permission from the gatekeeper of the community you want to study. 

Example:  Schools, colleges, corporations, etc.

Step 4: Represent yourself to the Group

It would help if you asked yourself a few questions before introducing yourself to the group members.

• How will you introduce yourself to the community you want to study?
• What would be your role in the group?
• How actively do you want to participate in the group’s day-to-day activities?
• Will the group accept you as a researcher and allow you to conduct your research?

You can either inform the participants about the experiment, and it’s called the overt approach. You can hide the research and oversee people’s behaviour. It’s called a covert approach.

You can also act as a participant of the community performing the activities like the group, called active observation. It allows the community to feel more comfortable with the researcher.

Similarly, you can keep yourself away from the group without performing any activities like them and observe them as a researcher. It is called passive observation.

It would help if you tried various approaches until you find a suitable method to proceed with your research.

Step 5: Collecting and Recording the Information

You can collect the data by the following methods;

Observation: You can participate in the group activities or observe the group’s behavior, either informing them about the experiment or keeping them unaware of the investigation.

Interviewing:  You can carry out direct conversations with all group members or obtain information from a specific member of the group. It’s better not to rely on the informants as they may interpret the data according to their perception rather than delivering in its actual context. 

Archival Research:  You can also use existing information stored in the previous researchers’ records to proceed with your research.

It becomes difficult to gather and record the information at the same time. 

What should you do in this situation?

You can maintain a notepad to record your observation immediately or sometimes wait until you leave the setting to record your observation. It’s better to note down your observations as soon as possible before you forget them and struggle to recall them. You can write down your field notes or record the people’s audios or videos while talking to them.

Your notes should include the following features:

Running/Field Notes:  these are the observations that you note down daily. The idea is to record your observation immediately after observing it. It would help if you observed the individual activities of the group members and perspectives.

How to describe Ethnographic Research?

Ethnographic research involves immersing in a community or culture to understand its nuances. Researchers observe, participate, and interview to grasp social practices, beliefs, and behaviors. It provides rich insights into how people experience and interpret their world.

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Ethnographic Research: What is it, Types, Methods + Pros & Cons

The social and behavioral research sciences frequently use ethnography as a qualitative data collection strategy. Data are gathered through observations and interviews to determine how societies and individuals work.

Instead of attempting to control life in a lab, ethnographers observe it as it is. Because life is unpredictable, ethnographers frequently need help summarizing their initiatives in a format that the Board can consider.

However, for the researchers to accept research, it must provide a thorough justification.

Helping researchers understand the research parameters, how participants will be contacted and participate, and the hazards will enable them to embrace flexible research.

This blog will explain ethnographic research, its types, methods to follow, and some pros & cons that might help researchers.

What is ethnographic research?

Ethnographic research examines how a group of people act and interact with each other in their environment. It’s mostly about making observations about people rather than focusing on complex data and numbers.

A classic example of ethnographic research would be for an anthropologist to go to an island, live there for years, and research the people and culture, thereby living with them and observing them for a long time.

This is what Margaret Mead, the most famous anthropologist in history, did for her 1928 book Coming of Age in Samoa.

Even though you probably won’t be going to any remote islands any time soon, you can still learn a lot from this about how to do ethnographic research, such as:

• How important is context
• Putting the subject of the research’s point of view first
• In-depth information about a group of people and their lives
• Observing a society from inside it
• Holistic and based on quality

Type of ethnographic research

Ethnographic research comes in various forms, including business, educational, and ethnographic medical research. They are based on several categories of human activity, and particular traits identify each type.

Business, medicine, education, and psychology are just a few areas where ethnographic research can be applied. It is a multifaceted research design.

1. Psychology Ethnographic Research

This is referred to as psychological ethnography when ethnographic research methodologies are used in psychology to examine human experience and behavior.

This approach may involve observing and engaging with them in their natural habitat to comprehend people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in the context of their culture, community, and social dynamics.

In addition to quantitative methods, psychological ethnographers may utilize qualitative methods to collect information and understand psychological phenomena, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and field notes.

Psychological ethnography offers a thorough and nuanced understanding of psychological processes and experiences influenced by cultural and social influences.

Examples of questions for ethnographic psychology research include:

• How do people’s ideas and behavior differ depending on their cultural background?
• What effects do a person’s social and communal networks have on their mental health and well-being?
• How do cultural values and conventions influence how people feel and express their emotions?
• What strategies do people use to navigate and compromise their cultural identities in various social contexts?

2. Business Ethnographic Research

Business ethnographic research observes consumer habits and target markets to determine market demands and product/service attitudes. It’s a great research technique for identifying client wants and meeting market demands.

This research method uses fieldwork, interviews, and online surveys to obtain target market consumer habits. Business ethnographers utilize these methods to study customer behavior and develop efficient marketing tactics.

Business ethnographic research requires a consumer or client-oriented framework that prioritizes target markets over the business. This research design seeks to identify repeating customer behavior for market insights.

Asking the right questions helps researchers get relevant data. Business ethnographic research question samples:

• What features of this product or service do you like?
• What drives your use of this product?
• What particular requirements does the product satisfy for you?
• What unique needs does the product not satisfy?
• Does the product’s price reflect its value?

3. Educational Ethnographic Research 

Educational ethnography entails studying teaching and learning methods and how they affect classroom behavior. This study paradigm examines how pedagogy affects learning outcomes and stakeholder participation in the classroom.

Educational ethnography research examines students’ learning attitudes, motivations, and dispositions. To get the most relevant and objective data, the researcher uses non-participant observation and direct participant observation.

Educational ethnography research types of question include:

• Do you favor this educational approach?
• Does the educator permit feedback in the classroom?
• Does the teaching approach clearly express the goals?
• How does the student feel about learning?

4. Medical Ethnographic Research

Medical ethnography research is qualitative healthcare research. This research design helps doctors understand patient behavior from simple to sophisticated.

Medical ethnographic research gives healthcare providers valuable information to improve patient care. Ethnographic research helps a healthcare product maker understand target market needs, influencing product design.

Medical ethnographic research also gives healthcare practitioners insights into patients’ complex demands, reactions to prescriptions and treatment procedures, and improvement suggestions. 

Medical ethnographic research questions:

• How long have you been using this drug?
• How long have you been undergoing this therapy?
• What constructive adjustments have you already noticed?
• Do you currently have any side effects?
• Does this prescription or course of treatment fit your needs?

Methods of ethnographic research

Ethnographic research may use one or more research methods depending on the field, the size of the sample, and the research goal. There are usually five main ways to do ethnographic research: 

• Naturalism, 
• Participant observation, 
• Interviews, 
• Surveys, and 
• Research in archives.

So let’s dig into the details:

1. Naturalism

Naturalism, also known as live and work ethnography research, involves observing research variables in their natural context to identify and record behavioral patterns. It may include spending time in the group’s natural habitat to record their activities.

Naturalism, the oldest ethnographic research method, may build rapport between the ethnographer and the variables. The researcher must minimize subject interference to get the most objective results when utilizing this method.

Undisguised naturalistic observation is possible. In disguised naturalistic observation, people are ignorant of being examined, but in undisguised observation, they are aware.

Observing subjects in their native environment in the life and work technique yields the most accurate and relevant data. Modern ethnographers, especially in health and education, avoid this method since it is expensive and time-consuming.

2. Participant observation

Participant observation in ethnography research involves the ethnographer actively interacting with the research subjects. This method resembles life and work.

Participant observation differs from live and naturalistic in that the ethnographer participates in the group. The researcher gets group-only information.

Disguised and undisguised participant observation exists. The ethnographer disguises himself as a research subject in the former.

In undisguised participant observation, the ethnographer joins the gathering and discloses their researcher status. This method is different from hidden participant observation in that it is reactive.

Participant observation gives ethnographers more data. They better understand the research subjects’ experiences and habits from the participant’s perspective.

This research method is limited. First, the researcher’s presence can influence research subjects’ conduct, especially in undisguised participant observation, which might skew results.

Research bias is another concern. Due to their interaction with the group, ethnographers may become less objective, which can lead to experimental bias and impact research results.

3. Interviews

Ethnographic interviews combine profound observation with one-on-one discussions to produce the most authentic research results. The ethnographer talks to the research group while conducting research-related activities in this design.

This contextual inquiry collects data about the research group’s goals and behavior. The ethnographer might ask questions about the research group while observing it in its natural habitat.

The researcher’s relationship with the interviewees frequently leads to an informal, spontaneous ethnographic interview. Participant observation often leads to the ethnographic interview when the ethnographer interacts with the research group to learn about their life.

An ethnographic interview, a two-way research approach, lets the researcher get the most relevant and authentic information from the research group. However, ethnographer-subject relationships can cause experimental bias.

Ethnography surveys are inductive research methods used to learn about the issue. Analytic induction is a research design that uses survey questions to test hypotheses.

A survey will assist the ethnographer in obtaining data, analyzing it, and reaching objective conclusions. Analytic induction seeks to identify the causes of the research group’s habits and provide reliable explanations.

Use multiple question types in your survey to get the most relevant results. Likert scale, open-ended, multiple-choice, and close-ended ethnography survey questions are prevalent.

Softwares like QuestionPro can let you build and run an ethnographic survey online. The QuestionPro survey software enables you to create an ethnographic survey form in minutes and distribute it to respondents.

Survey response bias and high drop-out rates are important drawbacks of this research strategy. However, this strategy is fast and cost-effective online and can give significant insights about a research group.

5. Research in archives

Archival research is a qualitative ethnographic research method that evaluates existing research, records, and other sources concerning the research group to find useful information. Understanding describes this process.

Archival research uses ethnography to research connected historical materials in place of physical presence. It analyzes all research variable data.

Since the ethnographer does not have contact with the subjects, archive research lowers experimental biases. The ethnographer can also use a huge data set for more accurate findings.

Archival research may misrepresent the research group due to randomization. Archival data may be biased, affecting research results.

Pros & cons of Ethnographic Research

At first glance, there are a lot of benefits to ethnographic research. But it’s important to remember that it can also have several research problems . Read on to find out more about ethnography and its pros and cons.

Ethnographic research is a great way to learn more about your users and the problems they might face in their daily lives. The research will show you things about your users that you might have yet to see if you had asked them to do a task in a lab.

Ethnographic research, on the other hand, can be expensive and take a lot of time. You must use the right research method to ensure you get the answers to your research questions .

After you’ve done your research, you need to present your results clearly and effectively so that teams can use the information to make changes. You should also ensure that your opinions have stayed in the results.

QuestionPro Research Suite facilitates ethnographic research. Its tools let you collect and evaluate qualitative data from various sources to learn about human culture, society, and behavior.

QuestionPro simplifies data collection for participant observation, interviews, focus groups, and visual ethnography so that you may focus on insights and comprehension.

Sign up for QuestionPro today to perform ethnographic research with qualitative research power.

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews
• Research question
• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework
• Data collection
• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research
• Case studies
• Introduction

Defining ethnographic research

What are the methods in ethnographic research, how do i conduct an ethnography.

• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

What is ethnographic research?

An ethnographic study is one of the most ambitious endeavors a researcher can pursue in qualitative research . It involves using several ethnographic methods to observe and describe social life, social relations, or human society as a whole. Time-consuming and arduous as the data collection and data analysis might be, conducting an ethnography can be one of the most rewarding challenges in cultural anthropology, social anthropology, and similar qualitative research areas.

Let's look at the fundamentals of ethnographic research, examples of ethnographic studies, and the fundamentals of ethnography as a qualitative research method.

"Culture" is an ambiguous term that resists an easy definition. What defines a culture? What takes place inside a culture? What cultures does a particular individual belong to? Who decides who belongs to any specific culture?

Even within a particular context, there are several layers of cultures. Take the United States, for example. Given how diverse and as big as it is, how can one define American culture in as brief an explanation as possible? What are the different social groups within this one country, and how do those groups interact with each other?

Quantitative research is often incapable of capturing such detail, especially because it is extremely difficult to adequately capture a culture in quantitative terms. As a result, researchers often conduct traditional ethnographic research when they want to understand a culture. A credible, written account of a social group is challenging to produce. It requires looking at participant experiences, interviews , focus groups , and document collection, which are different ways to collect data for ethnographic research.

Ethnography belongs squarely in the realm of observational research . In other words, writing culture and cultural critique cannot be based on experiments performed in controlled settings. Ethnography aims to provide an immersive experience in a culture for audiences who are unfamiliar with it. In that case, the researcher must observe the intricate dimensions of social interaction in its natural environment. In ethnographic research, this observation is active and involves being part of the culture to understand the dimensions of cultural norms from the inside.

That said, even observation alone cannot capture concepts such as social relationships or cultural practices. Researchers conducting ethnographic studies acknowledge that simply observing and describing actions are insufficient to grasp social interaction fully. The concept of thick description, or the description of perspectives and beliefs informing those actions in addition to the actions themselves, guides the use of various methods to capture social phenomena from multiple angles.

What is the purpose of ethnographic research?

Ethnographic studies are heavily used in social and cultural anthropology disciplines to generate and expand theory. Outside of anthropology, the insights uncovered by ethnography help to propose or develop theories that can be verified by further qualitative or quantitative research within the social and human sciences.

In simple terms, ethnographic studies relate what a culture is to audiences who are otherwise unfamiliar outsiders. Armed with this understanding, researchers can illustrate and persuade audiences about patterns that emerge from a community or group of people. These patterns are essential to generating theory and pioneering work.

What are examples of ethnographic research?

Ethnographic research aims to reach a deep understanding of various socially-constructed topics, including:

• Rituals and other cultural practices in everyday life
• Social interaction among people of different cultures
• People's interactions with their natural environment
• Creation of and tensions in social relationships

Ethnography as a qualitative method is common in social and cultural anthropology and any scholarly discipline concerned with social interaction. The traditional role of ethnography is to inform scholars interested in cultures they wouldn't otherwise have contact or experience with. Various topics that have been explored by such research with ethnography include:

• health care workers interacting with patients
• teachers and students constructing classroom dialogue
• workplace relations between employees and managers
• experiences of refugees in conflict zones

Other disciplines, especially in the social sciences, employ ethnographic research methods for varied reasons, including understanding:

• effective teaching practices
• socialization processes
• intercultural cohesiveness
• company-customer relations

The range of inquiries that ethnography can answer is vast, highlighting the importance of ethnographic methods in studies where the researcher seeks a deep understanding of a particular topic.

Even within anthropology, there is a lack of consensus on the particular processes for conducting research through ethnography. Interaction among people is unpredictable to the extent that the researcher might encounter unexpected issues with research participants not foreseen at the outset of a study. Because no observational research can be conducted in a fully controlled setting, it is a challenge to define an exact process for an ethnography beyond the general principles guiding an ethnographic approach.

In broad terms, ethnographic data collection methods are varied. Still, all such methods carry the assumption that a single research method cannot fully capture a thorough understanding of a cultural phenomenon. A systematic study that employs ethnographic research methods collects data from observations, participant observations, and interviews . The researchers' reflections also contribute to the body of data since personal experiences are essential to understanding the unfolding ethnography.

Participant observation

At the core of field research is a method called participant observation . Scholars in contemporary ethnography have long acknowledged the importance of active participation in understanding cultural life. This method allows the researcher to experience activities and interactions alongside participants to establish an understanding they wouldn't otherwise achieve by observing from afar. In active participant observation, the ethnographic researcher takes field notes of what they see and experience. They are essential during fieldwork as they create a record that the researcher can look at later on to structure their analysis and recall crucial developments useful to data analysis .

During participant observation, the researcher may also collect other forms of data, including photographs and audio and video recordings . Sensory data is beneficial to ethnography because it helps the researcher recall essential experiences with vivid detail and provides potentially abundant supporting evidence for the arguments in their findings.

Interviews and focus groups

Participant observation provides data for seeing what people say and do in their natural environment. However, observation has its limits for capturing what people think and believe. As a result, an ethnographic researcher conducts interviews to follow up on what they saw in fieldwork with research participants.

A common type of interview in an ethnography is the stimulated recall interview. In a stimulated recall interview, research participants are asked questions about the events the researcher observed. These questions help research participants remember past experiences while providing the researcher with their way of thinking about those experiences.

A focus group involves interactions between the researcher and multiple research participants. Suppose the researcher is interested in the interpersonal dynamics between research participants. In that case, they might consider conducting focus groups to elicit interactions that are markedly different from one-on-one exchanges between a single research participant and the researcher. Interviews and focus groups also help uncover insights otherwise unfamiliar to the researcher, who can then use those insights to guide their theoretical understanding and further data collection .

Document collection

Documents often make up an essential aspect of cultural practices. Think about these examples:

• student homework
• medical records
• newspaper articles
• informational posters

The visual elements uncovered during an ethnography are potentially valuable to theoretical insights, and a researcher might find it important to incorporate documents in their project data.

Reflections

In any ethnography, the researcher is the main instrument of data collection. Their thoughts and beliefs are consequential to the data analysis in that any theoretical insights are filtered by their interpretations . As a result, a researcher should take field notes during participant observation and reflection notes about any connections between what they saw and what it might mean for generating theory during data analysis.

As with taking field notes, a researcher might not remember all the different things that transpire during an ethnography without being able to refer to some sort of record later on. More importantly, reflecting on theory during participant observation may be challenging. A useful practice involves sitting down after observations or interviews and writing down potential theoretical insights that come to mind.

Reflections guide participant observations during an ethnography and theoretical analysis afterward. They point the researcher toward phenomena that are most relevant to theory and guide discussion of that theory when the time comes to write a description of their ethnographic study.

Organizing data

With a research approach as complex as ethnography, you will likely collect abundant data that require organization to make the analytical process more efficient. Researchers can use ATLAS.ti to store all their data in a single project. Document groups allow you to categorize data into different types (e.g., text, audio, video), different contexts (e.g., hospital room, doctor's office), or even different dates (e.g., February 17th observation, March 21st observation).

Moreover, researchers can integrate text with multimedia in ATLAS.ti, which is ideal for analyzing interviews, because you can look at transcripts and their video or audio recordings simultaneously. This is a valuable feature in ethnographic studies examining how people speak and what they say. Photos and other visual documents can also easily be incorporated and analyzed, adding further valuable dimensions to your research.

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Now that we have established a foundational understanding of the various methods associated with ethnography, let's look at what an ethnographic approach to research might look like.

Defining your research questions

As with any research study, ethnographic studies begin when researchers want to know more about something unfamiliar. Do you want to understand how a particular group of people interact with their natural environment? What about how group members decide on a social structure? How is daily life affected by changing economic conditions over a long period of time?

Ethnographic research may also be appropriate for conducting a comparative study of multiple cultures. For example, consider the different groups of soccer fans in several parts of the world: fans in South America might act differently from fans in Europe or Asia. Teaching and learning in high school are bound to look different than teaching and learning in university settings. Emergency room medicine and hospice care have distinct purposes that affect the nature of interactions between doctors and patients.

Whatever the inquiry, the researcher benefits from defining a focus for their ethnography. A clear research question can help the researcher narrow their field of perception during participant observation . Suppose the research question has to do with doctor-patient interactions. In that case, the ethnographer can lend more focus to those conversations and less emphasis on ancillary developments within their research context. With a more specific view, they can examine how doctors speak to their patients while being less concerned about the hospital executives in earshot or the orderlies passing by unless and until they are relevant to the research inquiry.

Choosing theoretical perspectives

To further narrow the focus of the ethnography, a theoretical lens can direct the ethnographer toward aspects relevant to theory. Continuing with the example regarding doctor-patient interactions, let's imagine that the ethnographic study explores the role of reassuring language in situations regarding dire medical conditions. Are there relevant theories about what people can say to give peace of mind to others?

Typically, theories in qualitative research consist of a framework with discrete indicators you can use to organize knowledge. For example, let's suppose that there exists a concept of reassurance that can be broken down like this:

empathy - understanding and affirming other people's emotions evidence - providing examples of favorable results in similar situations responsiveness - actively listening to and validating others' concerns

With this sort of theory in mind, an ethnography can focus on listening for instances of these particular indicators during participant observation and recording these examples in field notes . Naturally, a theory is more credible if it's grounded in previous research.

Entering ethnographic fieldwork

The next step is to choose an appropriate and accessible context for your ethnography. Ethics are an important part of contemporary research in the social sciences, requiring permission from potential participants to observe and interact with them for research purposes.

Before any meaningful data collection, make sure to obtain informed consent from the research participants you are studying. Essentially, this involves receiving permission from your participants to document what they say and do after explaining the purpose of your study and the rights they have while participating in your ethnography.

Ethnographic collection of data

With a context and theory in mind, it's now time to conduct your ethnography. In general terms, this means entering the field and capturing as much rich data relevant to your research question as possible.

Good ethnographic practice relies on pursuing multiple research methods to capture data. Participant observation can help you document what people say and do, but good ethnographies also capture what people believe about their everyday actions.

However, the research method most associated with ethnographic research is note-taking. Field notes capture the researcher's personal experience with the culture they observe, which is necessary to fully understand the captured data. With the ethnographer as the main instrument of data collection, readers of ethnographic studies can attain a sense of the possible ways they can view cultures through the researcher's eyes.

Moreover, ethnography relies on rapport with research participants. Ethnographers who want to conduct interviews later will benefit from establishing good relationships with their research participants. As a result, more involved interactions during fieldwork can generate deeper and richer data for your study.

Considerations during fieldwork

It's important to remember that the ethnographer's presence can affect how people behave. Especially in participant observation, your interactions with research participants will directly influence what they do in their daily lives. Even our natural environment is affected by what we do in it. When writing your reflections, qualifying your interactions in the field with a sufficient accounting of how your presence might change what others say and do is important.

There are also ethical questions about what to document and how to use the resulting data afterward. Within anthropology, there are issues of representing cultural groups with respect and ensuring you have their permission to use what you observe and collect from the field. Top scholarly journals and academic conferences also want to know how you observed research ethics during fieldwork, so it is necessary to use your reflection memos to document your ethics practices in addition to the data you collect.

Further development in ethnographic fieldwork

Unexpected issues in field research , especially long-term fieldwork, can help you refine your theoretical framework . Returning to the example of the concept of reassurance, you might observe a doctor's explanation of a medical procedure and find that it's similar to providing evidence. Still, it does not fully align with the established theory. In other words, studying real-world episodes of medical explanations may contribute novel insights about reassurance, helping you further develop your focus in subsequent observations.

As you continue your ethnography, refining the scope of your theoretical perspective helps you more easily gather observational data relevant to your research inquiry and thus provide a fully developed framework for your data.

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What Is Ethnographic Research: Methods, Examples, and Applications

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• Key Takeaways

Ethnographic research involves researchers deeply immersing themselves in the culture or community being studied, offering rich, contextual insights.

Key methods include participant observation and in-depth interviews, which help gather detailed, qualitative data on human behaviors and social interactions.

Ensuring informed consent and maintaining participant privacy are crucial ethical aspects of conducting ethnographic research.

Researchers must navigate the challenges of balancing objectivity and subjectivity, constantly reflecting on and mitigating their own biases.

Practical issues such as gaining access, requiring significant time, and securing adequate resources are inherent in ethnographic research.

Ethnographic research is used across various fields, from anthropology to marketing, providing valuable insights that other research methods might overlook.

Ethnographic research deeply explores human cultures. It involves researchers in subjects’ daily lives, offering unique insights. This method, useful in fields like anthropology and marketing, uncovers significant details. So, what sets it apart, and how does it change our view of human behavior?

Introduction to Ethnographic Research

• What is Ethnographic Research?

Ethnographic research is a method to study people and cultures from inside. Researchers live with subjects, learning about their behaviors and social interactions.

This method emphasizes “participant observation.” Researchers stay in the community for long periods. This immersive approach yields deep insights into cultural phenomena. It’s crucial for understanding complex social situations.

• Why Use Ethnographic Research?

Gaining Deep Cultural Understanding

Ethnographic research deepens cultural understanding. Researchers visit people in their daily settings to study social interactions, rituals, and habits. This approach uncovers subtle norms and values. Unlike other methods, it yields rich, detailed data. Thus, it offers both in-depth and genuine insights.

Uncovering Unforeseen Insights

Ethnographic research shines at revealing unexpected insights. Its open and flexible approach allows for exploring unanticipated themes. Researchers can follow leads and adapt as needed.

Being in the field, they spot patterns, behaviors, and meanings missed by traditional methods. This skill is key in suggesting new ideas and deepening our grasp of human behavior.

Contextualizing Quantitative Data

Ethnographic research is key for understanding numbers. It complements quantitative methods. These methods provide stats but often lack context. Ethnography, however, offers stories to explain behaviors.

It shows how culture and society influence actions. By using both, researchers can better understand their findings. This leads to more effective interventions and policies.

Conducting Ethnographic Research

• Research Design

Choosing a Research Site and Population

Ethnographic research begins with selecting an appropriate site and population for study. The chosen site should offer rich cultural or social interactions relevant to the research questions. Researchers typically immerse themselves in environments where participants live, work, or socialize.

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Selecting a population involves identifying a group whose behaviors, practices, and interactions will provide valuable insights. The goal is to gain a deep understanding of the cultural context and social dynamics at play.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are paramount in ethnographic research. Informed consent is essential, ensuring that participants understand the research purpose, procedures, and potential impacts.

Researchers must also guarantee confidentiality, protecting the identity and privacy of participants. Ethical ethnographic research respects the rights and well-being of participants, addressing any ethical dilemmas that may arise during the study.

• Data Collection Methods

1. Participant Observation

Participant observation is vital in ethnographic research. Researchers join participants in their daily routines. This way, they observe behaviors and interactions in natural settings.

It offers direct data on social practices and cultural norms. Also, by engaging in observed activities, researchers gain deeper insights and build community rapport.

2. Interviews (Individual & Group)

Interviews, both individual and group, are critical for collecting detailed personal and collective perspectives. Individual interviews provide in-depth information about personal experiences, beliefs, and motivations.

Group interviews, or focus groups, facilitate discussion among participants, revealing shared and divergent viewpoints within the community. These interviews are often recorded for accuracy and later analysis.

3. Field Notes & Recordings

Field notes and recordings are essential tools for documenting observations and interactions. Researchers take detailed notes during their fieldwork, capturing not only what they observe but also their reflections and interpretations.

Audio or video recordings of interactions and interviews provide an accurate record that can be revisited during analysis. These records form a comprehensive data set for ethnographic research.

4. Document Analysis

Document analysis studies cultural artifacts like texts, images, and objects. It aims to understand their cultural context. These artifacts range from written documents to visual media, adding diverse data. Researchers then explore both symbolic and material aspects of the culture under study.

• Data Analysis Techniques

Coding and Thematic Analysis

Coding and thematic analysis are common techniques for analyzing ethnographic data. Coding involves categorizing data into meaningful segments, often by assigning labels to specific pieces of information.

Thematic analysis identifies patterns and themes across the data, revealing recurring topics and relationships. This method helps researchers organize and interpret complex qualitative data systematically.

Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis looks at stories and accounts shared by participants. It examines how people build and share their experiences. This method focuses on narrative structure and content. By studying these stories, researchers can find deeper meanings and cultural importance.

Conducting ethnographic research needs careful planning, ethics, and varied data methods. It offers a deep look into cultural and social dynamics, shedding light on human behavior.

Examples of Ethnographic Research

• Anthropology: Studying a Remote Tribe’s Social Structure

In anthropology, ethnographic research often means living with a remote tribe. The goal? To understand its social setup. Researchers join tribe activities and watch interactions. This approach uncovers insights.

They document customs, rituals, and social norms shaping the tribe’s culture. By mapping the social hierarchy, kinship systems, and communal roles, researchers grasp how the tribe manages its society and the environment.

• Sociology: Examining Interactions in a Workplace Setting

Sociologists use ethnographic research to study workplace interactions. They spend a long time in an organization, watching and joining in daily activities. This way, they learn about relationships between employees, management, and the culture.

The method reveals behavior patterns, communication styles, and social networks that affect productivity and satisfaction. By focusing on real interactions and the social setting, ethnographic research sheds light on workplace relationships and behavior.

• Design: Understanding User Experience with a New Product

Ethnographic research is key in design, especially for new product user experience. Designers watch users use the product in their own settings. They observe how users navigate, solve problems, and adjust the product.

This process uncovers usability problems, unmet needs, and gathers feedback for improvements. Ultimately, it ensures the design process focuses on users. This leads to products that better suit their needs and preferences.

• Marketing: Analyzing Consumer Behavior in Different Cultures

In marketing, ethnographic research studies consumer behavior in various cultures. Marketers live with consumers to see their shopping habits and how culture impacts choices.

This approach uncovers the values, beliefs, and social norms influencing consumer actions across cultures. By understanding how people from different cultures view and use products, marketers can create better, culturally fitting strategies.

Applications of Ethnographic Research

• 1. Application in Social Sciences

Insights into Cultural Practices

Ethnographic research delves into cultural practices. It involves researchers in subjects’ daily lives. This method reveals rituals, traditions, and social interactions.

These elements shape cultures. By observing and joining activities, researchers can study the meanings and significance of behaviors. They aim to offer a full view of diverse cultural patterns.

Contributions to Sociology and Anthropology

Sociology and anthropology rely on ethnographic research to understand human behavior and social structures. It enables detailed descriptions. These descriptions help compare societies.

Moreover, the method deepens our grasp of social norms, kinship, and power dynamics. This knowledge supports academic studies and applications in social policy and community development.

• 2. Application in Market Research

Understanding Consumer Behavior

Ethnographic research in market research means observing consumers in their environments. This offers real insights into their actions, likes, and buys. It helps businesses see how their products fit into daily life.

By studying these interactions, companies can spot unmet needs and issues. This leads to better marketing and products that match their audience’s real experiences.

Enhancing Product Development

Adding ethnographic research to product development helps companies make designs that users love. By talking with and watching users, researchers get feedback. This feedback guides the design.

In the end, products meet user needs and expectations. This leads to higher satisfaction and better sales. Thus, this research bridges the gap between what users say they want and what they actually use. It results in more innovative, successful products.

• 3. Application in Healthcare

Patient-Centered Research

Ethnographic research in healthcare examines the patient experience fully. Researchers observe patients and providers to understand care complexity. They consider emotional, social, and cultural factors. This approach helps find barriers to care. It also tailors interventions to meet patient needs. As a result, the quality of care improves.

Improving Health Services Delivery

Ethnographic research in healthcare spots inefficiencies and areas for growth. It observes how staff and patients interact, as well as medical facility workflows. This approach pinpoints issues in service delivery.

Then, it suggests improvements in processes and communication. In short, it enhances service quality. Moreover, this research offers a complete view of the healthcare environment. It crafts solutions that boost patient experiences and health outcomes.

• Ethical and Methodological Challenges

Ethical Issues: Informed Consent and Privacy

Ethnographic research requires deep involvement in a community or culture, so ethics are crucial. Getting informed consent is key. It ensures that participants understand the study and join willingly.

Researchers must explain the research’s purpose, data use, and any risks clearly. Protecting participants’ identities and information is vital. This involves securing data and making sensitive information anonymous to prevent harm.

Methodological Issues: Objectivity and Subjectivity

Ethnographic research faces a key challenge: staying objective when deeply involved in the study. Researchers often get close to participants, making their observations biased.

So, they need to regularly check for their biases’ impact on findings. Using many data sources and cross-referencing findings can reduce these biases. It leads to a more balanced and accurate view of the community.

Practical Issues: Access, Time, and Resources

Conducting ethnographic research demands significant time and resources, often posing practical challenges. Gaining access to the community or setting being studied can be difficult, requiring researchers to build trust and rapport with participants. This process can be time-consuming and requires patience and persistence.

Additionally, ethnographic research often involves prolonged periods of fieldwork, which can be resource-intensive. Researchers need adequate funding, support, and flexibility to navigate these practical challenges, ensuring that the study can be conducted effectively and ethically.

Ethnographic research offers deep insights into cultures and communities. Researchers immerse themselves in the lives of participants. They use methods like observation and interviews to collect detailed, qualitative data. Despite challenges in ethics, methods, and practicality, it’s still a major tool for understanding complex social issues. It benefits various fields by providing unique perspectives.

• What is an ethnographic research PDF?

An ethnographic research PDF is a document that provides detailed information about ethnographic studies, including methodologies, case studies, and theoretical frameworks. These PDFs are often used as educational resources or references for researchers and students in social sciences and related fields. They serve as comprehensive guides for conducting and understanding ethnographic research.

• Can you provide some examples of ethnographic research?

Examples of ethnographic research include studying the daily lives of indigenous communities, examining consumer behaviors in retail environments, and investigating classroom dynamics in educational settings. These studies typically involve immersive fieldwork where researchers observe and interact with participants in their natural settings to gather in-depth insights.

• What are the main methods used in ethnographic research?

The main methods used in ethnographic research include participant observation, where researchers immerse themselves in the community they are studying, and conducting interviews, both structured and unstructured, to gather detailed personal insights. Additionally, researchers often take comprehensive field notes and may use audio-visual recordings to document their findings.

• What are the different types of ethnographic research?

Different types of ethnographic research include realist ethnography, which aims to provide an objective account of the culture being studied, and critical ethnography, which focuses on power dynamics and social injustices within the community. There are also autoethnographies, where the researcher reflects on their own experiences within the cultural context, and focused ethnographies, which concentrate on specific aspects of the culture.

• What is ethnography in qualitative research?

Ethnography in qualitative research is a method used to study cultures and communities through direct observation, participation, and interaction. It involves collecting detailed descriptions of people’s behaviors, beliefs, and social interactions to understand their cultural practices and societal structures. This approach provides deep, contextual insights that are often unattainable through other research methods.

• How is ethnography used in research design?

Ethnography in research design involves creating a study framework that emphasizes immersive fieldwork, participant observation, and qualitative data collection. Researchers design their studies to integrate into the community, often living among the participants for extended periods. This design allows for a holistic understanding of the cultural context and nuanced insights into human behaviors and social patterns.

• What is ethnography in sociology?

In sociology, ethnography is a research method used to study the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions of people within their communities. Sociologists use ethnographic methods to explore how individuals and groups navigate their social worlds, providing rich, detailed accounts of societal norms, practices, and power relations. This method helps to uncover the underlying meanings and dynamics of social life.

• What are the aims of ethnographic research?

The aims of ethnographic research are to provide a comprehensive understanding of the cultural practices, beliefs, and social interactions of a community. Researchers seek to uncover the meanings behind these practices and how they shape individuals’ lives within their social contexts. Ethnographic research aims to offer in-depth insights that can inform policy, education, and further academic study.

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15 ethnographic interview questions with examples.

Home » 15 Ethnographic Interview Questions with Examples

Ethnographic interviews are a powerful tool for researchers seeking to uncover deep insights into human behavior and cultural patterns. This guide presents 15 carefully crafted questions designed to elicit rich, meaningful responses from participants. By employing these questions, researchers can delve into the lived experiences, beliefs, and values that shape individuals and communities.

The art of conducting effective ethnographic interviews lies in creating a comfortable atmosphere and asking open-ended questions that encourage detailed narratives. This approach allows interviewees to express themselves freely, revealing nuanced perspectives that might otherwise remain hidden. As we explore these 15 questions, consider how they can be adapted to suit various research contexts and cultural settings, ultimately leading to more comprehensive and authentic ethnographic data.

Understanding Ethnographic Interviews

Ethnographic interviews delve deep into the cultural and social aspects of human behavior, providing researchers with rich, contextual data. These in-depth conversations go beyond surface-level information, allowing interviewers to uncover hidden insights and understand the underlying motivations of their subjects.

To conduct effective ethnographic interviews, researchers must craft thoughtful questions that encourage participants to share their experiences and perspectives freely. Open-ended inquiries that explore daily routines, cultural practices, and personal beliefs can yield valuable information about social norms and individual worldviews. By carefully selecting and phrasing these questions, interviewers can create a comfortable environment for participants to express themselves authentically, leading to more meaningful and accurate research outcomes.

What Are Ethnographic Interviews?

Ethnographic interviews are a powerful qualitative research method used to gain deep insights into people's lives, cultures, and experiences. Unlike traditional interviews, these in-depth conversations allow researchers to immerse themselves in the participant's world, uncovering rich, contextual information that might otherwise remain hidden. By combining observation with open-ended questioning, ethnographic interviews provide a holistic understanding of individuals and communities.

The key to successful ethnographic interviews lies in creating a relaxed, conversational atmosphere where participants feel comfortable sharing their stories and perspectives. Researchers often conduct these interviews in the participant's natural environment, such as their home or workplace, to capture authentic behaviors and interactions. This approach enables the interviewer to gather not just verbal responses but also non-verbal cues and environmental factors that contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

Importance of Ethnographic Interviews in Research

Ethnographic interviews serve as a cornerstone in qualitative research, offering deep insights into people's lived experiences and cultural contexts. These in-depth conversations allow researchers to uncover rich, nuanced data that quantitative methods often miss. By engaging participants in their natural environments, ethnographic interviews capture authentic perspectives and behaviors, providing a holistic understanding of social phenomena.

The power of ethnographic interviews lies in their ability to reveal hidden patterns and meanings within communities. Researchers can explore complex social dynamics, cultural norms, and individual motivations through carefully crafted questions and active listening. This approach not only yields valuable data but also fosters empathy and cultural sensitivity, essential qualities for conducting ethical and impactful research. As such, mastering the art of ethnographic interviewing is crucial for researchers seeking to produce meaningful, people-centric insights that can inform policy, design, and social interventions.

Crafting Your Ethnographic Interview Guide

Crafting an effective ethnographic interview guide is crucial for conducting insightful research. This guide serves as a roadmap, helping researchers navigate complex cultural landscapes and uncover rich, qualitative data. To create a comprehensive guide, consider the following key elements:

Open-ended questions: Design questions that encourage detailed responses and allow participants to share their experiences freely. Example: "Can you describe a typical day in your community?"

Cultural sensitivity: Frame questions in a way that respects the participant's cultural background and avoids potential misunderstandings. Example: "How do important celebrations in your culture differ from everyday life?"

Probing follow-ups: Prepare follow-up questions to delve deeper into interesting topics that arise during the interview. Example: "You mentioned a specific ritual. Could you explain its significance in more detail?"

Non-verbal cues: Include reminders to observe and note non-verbal communication, which can provide valuable context. Example: "Pay attention to facial expressions when discussing family traditions."

Flexibility: Allow room for unexpected topics to emerge, adapting your questions as needed to explore new avenues of inquiry. Example: "What aspects of your daily life would you like to share that we haven't discussed?"

By incorporating these elements, your ethnographic interview guide will help you gather rich, meaningful data while maintaining respect for your participants' cultural contexts.

Preparing Effective Questions

Crafting effective questions is crucial for a successful ethnographic interview. The art of inquiry lies in striking a balance between open-ended exploration and focused probing. When preparing your ethnographic interview guide, consider the cultural context and research objectives. Start with broad, descriptive questions that encourage participants to share their experiences freely. These initial queries set the tone for a comfortable conversation and provide valuable insights into the interviewee's perspective.

As the interview progresses, delve deeper with more specific questions that address your research goals. Pay attention to nonverbal cues and be prepared to adapt your questions based on the participant's responses. Remember, the goal is to uncover rich, qualitative data that illuminates the cultural patterns and social dynamics you're studying. By carefully constructing your questions and remaining flexible during the interview process, you'll create an environment conducive to gathering meaningful ethnographic data.

Encouraging In-Depth Responses

Encouraging in-depth responses during ethnographic interviews requires a delicate balance of curiosity and patience. As an interviewer, your goal is to create a comfortable atmosphere where participants feel at ease sharing their experiences and perspectives. One effective technique is to use open-ended questions that invite detailed explanations rather than simple yes or no answers. For example, instead of asking, "Do you like your job?" try "Can you walk me through a typical day at work?"

Another key strategy is active listening. Pay close attention to the interviewee's responses and use follow-up questions to delve deeper into interesting points they raise. Phrases like "That's fascinating, could you tell me more about that?" or "What made you feel that way?" can encourage participants to elaborate on their initial answers. Remember, the richest insights often come from allowing interviewees the space to reflect and share their thoughts without interruption.

Ethnographic interviews are a powerful tool for gaining deep insights into people's lives, cultures, and experiences. To conduct effective ethnographic interviews, researchers need a well-crafted set of questions that encourage open dialogue and rich storytelling. Here are 15 example questions to help guide your ethnographic interviews:

• "Can you walk me through a typical day in your life?"
• "What are some of the most important traditions in your community?"
• "How has your environment shaped your daily routines?"
• "What challenges do you face in your work or personal life?"
• "Can you describe a recent experience that was particularly meaningful to you?"
• "How do you see your role within your family or community?"
• "What values are most important to you, and why?"
• "How have recent changes in technology affected your lifestyle?"
• "What do you think outsiders misunderstand about your culture?"
• "Can you tell me about a time when you felt proud of your heritage?"
• "How do you make important decisions in your life?"
• "What rituals or practices do you engage in regularly?"
• "How has your perspective on [specific topic] changed over time?"
• "What do you hope for future generations in your community?"
• "Can you share a story that exemplifies your cultural identity?"

These questions serve as a starting point for crafting an ethnographic interview guide. Remember to adapt them to your specific research context and remain flexible during the interview process, allowing for follow-up questions and unexpected avenues of exploration.

Exploratory Questions

Crafting effective exploratory questions is crucial for conducting insightful ethnographic interviews. These questions serve as the foundation for uncovering rich, qualitative data about people's experiences, beliefs, and behaviors. To create a comprehensive ethnographic interview guide, consider incorporating a mix of open-ended and specific inquiries that encourage participants to share detailed narratives.

Here are some examples of exploratory questions to include in your ethnographic interview guide:

• "What challenges do you face in your daily routine?"
• "How do you feel about [specific topic or experience]?"
• "Can you describe a recent situation where you encountered [relevant issue]?"
• "What factors influence your decision-making process when it comes to [topic]?"

These questions are designed to elicit in-depth responses, allowing interviewers to gain a deeper understanding of participants' perspectives and experiences. By using a combination of broad and focused inquiries, researchers can uncover valuable insights that inform their ethnographic studies.

Uncovering Cultural Norms

Cultural norms play a crucial role in shaping the responses and behaviors of interviewees during ethnographic research. To uncover these hidden influences, researchers must craft questions that delve into the subtle nuances of a society's customs and beliefs. By exploring topics such as family dynamics, social hierarchies, and traditional practices, interviewers can gain valuable insights into the cultural fabric of a community.

One effective approach is to ask open-ended questions that encourage participants to share personal experiences and anecdotes. For example, inquiring about childhood memories or family traditions can reveal deeply ingrained cultural values. Additionally, observing non-verbal cues and body language during these discussions can provide further context to the verbal responses. By combining careful questioning techniques with keen observation skills, ethnographers can uncover the hidden cultural norms that shape individual and collective behaviors within a given society.

Understanding Personal Experiences

Ethnographic interviews delve deep into personal experiences, offering rich insights into individuals' lives and perspectives. These interviews go beyond surface-level information, uncovering the nuances of human behavior and cultural contexts. By asking thoughtful, open-ended questions, researchers can gain a holistic understanding of their subjects' worldviews.

To conduct effective ethnographic interviews, it's crucial to create a comfortable environment where participants feel at ease sharing their stories. This approach allows for authentic responses and helps build rapport between the interviewer and interviewee. As you prepare your ethnographic interview guide, consider questions that explore daily routines, personal values, and significant life events. These inquiries will help paint a vivid picture of the participant's lived experiences and cultural background.

Probing Questions

Probing questions are the backbone of effective ethnographic interviews. These inquiries delve deeper into the respondent's experiences, thoughts, and feelings, uncovering rich insights that might otherwise remain hidden. By asking thoughtful follow-up questions, researchers can peel back layers of meaning and context, revealing the nuances of cultural practices and individual perspectives.

Consider the following examples of probing questions:

• "Can you tell me more about that experience?"
• "How did that make you feel?"
• "What led you to make that decision?"
• "Could you walk me through your thought process?"
• "What do you mean by…?"

These questions encourage participants to elaborate on their initial responses, providing valuable details and personal anecdotes. By mastering the art of probing, ethnographers can create a more comprehensive and authentic portrait of the communities they study, leading to richer, more insightful research outcomes.

Delving into Daily Routines

Ethnographic interviews delve deep into the daily routines and habits of participants, offering rich insights into their lives. To uncover these valuable details, researchers must craft questions that prompt interviewees to reflect on their everyday activities. Consider asking, "Walk me through a typical day in your life, from the moment you wake up until you go to bed." This open-ended query encourages participants to share their daily rituals, highlighting patterns and behaviors they might otherwise overlook.

Another effective approach is to focus on specific aspects of their routine. For instance, "How do you prepare for work or school in the morning?" or "What does your evening routine look like?" These questions can reveal cultural norms, personal preferences, and lifestyle choices. By exploring daily routines, ethnographers gain a holistic understanding of participants' lives, uncovering the subtle nuances that shape their experiences and worldviews.

Exploring Social Interactions

Ethnographic interviews offer a window into the social fabric of communities, revealing intricate patterns of human interaction and cultural norms. These in-depth conversations allow researchers to delve beyond surface-level observations and uncover the rich tapestry of lived experiences. By crafting thoughtful questions, interviewers can explore the nuances of social dynamics, cultural practices, and individual perspectives.

To conduct effective ethnographic interviews, researchers must prepare a diverse set of questions that encourage open dialogue and reflection. These questions should be designed to elicit detailed responses, prompting participants to share personal anecdotes, beliefs, and insights. Examples might include: "Can you describe a typical day in your community?" or "How do you think your cultural background influences your interactions with others?" By employing such questions, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of social interactions and the factors that shape them.

Conclusion: Enhancing Research with an Ethnographic Interview Guide

Ethnographic interview guides are invaluable tools for researchers seeking to uncover deep insights into human behavior and culture. By employing carefully crafted questions, these guides facilitate meaningful conversations that reveal rich, contextual data. As we've explored various examples and techniques, it's clear that the art of ethnographic interviewing lies in balancing structure with flexibility.

The key to successful ethnographic research is not just in asking the right questions, but in creating an environment where participants feel comfortable sharing their experiences. By incorporating open-ended queries, follow-up prompts, and observational techniques, researchers can paint a vivid picture of their subjects' lives. Remember, the goal is to understand the world through the eyes of your participants, capturing nuances that might otherwise go unnoticed in traditional research methods.

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Practices of Ethnographic Research: Introduction to the Special Issue

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Qualitative study design: Ethnography

• Qualitative study design
• Phenomenology
• Grounded theory

Ethnography

• Narrative inquiry
• Action research
• Case Studies
• Field research
• Focus groups
• Observation
• Surveys & questionnaires
• Study Designs Home

To describe the characteristics of a particular culture/ethnographic group. 

Ethnography is the study of culture (Taylor & Francis, 2013) it is in many ways similar to anthropology; this being the study of human societies and cultures. 

Exploration and data collection can occur in either an emic or etic approach. Emic meaning that the observation happens from within the culture. Etic meaning the observation is external looking in (Taylor et al., 2006) 

Used to explore questions relating to the understanding of a certain group's beliefs, values, practices and how they adapt to change. (Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

Ethnographic studies can be about identifying inequalities. For example exploring racial and cultural aspects of how a cultural group functions and the rules that guide behaviours. (Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

One form of ethnography is an auto-ethnography which involves exploration of the self as the topic being explored. 

The researcher places themselves as a ‘participant observer’ amidst the culture. 

The setting is a very important consideration within ethnographic studies as the exploration of the people and their behaviours must be within the context of that cultural situation. 

Methods used include, but are not limited to: observation, interviews, focus groups, review of documentary evidence and keeping field notes. (Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

Steps involved include:  

Identify the culture to be studied  

Identify the significant variables within the culture 

Review existing literature 

Gain entrance 

Immerse within the culture or observe the culture 

Acquire the informants 

Gather data 

Describe the culture 

Develop theories. 

(Taylor & Francis, 2013) 

Direct insight into the lives and experiences of the people and the group of interest. 

Allows for rich detailed data to be collected (Howitt, 2019). 

Provides an opportunity for researchers to uncover new unknown ways of thinking. Researchers may become aware of behaviors, trends and beliefs that are present within one culture although these may be previously unknown to other cultures. This enables new opportunities for improved ways of viewing and solving issues within other cultures.   

Limitations

Biases can be apparent because a researcher will always bring with them their own culture and own perspective which may impact their interpretations of the experiences they observe within this different culture. 

Genuine co-operation and engagement from the people of interest may not always be forthcoming and rapport might be difficult to establish. 

There can be a greater cost involved for this study type than others. Due to the need for transport, accommodation and researcher time that is spent in the field among the participants. This can be greater than what would be spent in a different research methodology where the engagement may be limited to a laboratory or shorter duration. 

Certain logistics can pose challenges for this type of research approach, such as travelling and gaining access to communities depending on their unique cultural values, for example there are many indigenous societies that only permit people of certain genders to have access. 

As the setting may be very specific to a particular group or community of people it may not be possible to generalise and apply the findings very broadly. 

Researchers need to be aware of the impact that their presence can have on the behaviours of the population they are investigating. 

The “Hawthorne effect” can be a limitation to observing genuine behaviours within a group. This is a situation founded by Dickson and Roethlisberger in 1966 when they reviewed previous experiments conducted at the Hawthorne factory. These experiments observed the ways that different influences, such as the level of lighting, impacted on the efficiency of factory workers. Their re-examination demonstrated that participants can behave differently to what they usually would when they are aware that they are being studied or recorded. As such, the methods selected need to counteract this effect for all study types, but for ethnographic studies especially, as authenticity of the cultural experience is quite important to ethnographic methodology. 

Example questions

What expectations and beliefs do people within specific communities hold about their healthcare options? 

What practices are being undertaken by healthcare professionals in specific settings and are these consistent with best practice? 

What barriers are certain communities experiencing in relation to different healthcare access? 

Are people within a specific community receiving the appropriate information and communication about aspects of their health for them to then make informed educated decisions? 

Example studies

Coughlin, C. (n.d.). An ethnographic study of main events during hospitalisation: perceptions of nurses and patients . Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22(15–16), 2327–2337.  

Molloy, L., Walker, K., Lakeman, R., & Lees, D. (2019). Mental Health Nursing Practice and Indigenous Australians: A Multi-Sited Ethnography. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 40(1), 21–27. 

Rainsford, S., Phillips, C. B., Glasgow, N. J., MacLeod, R. D., & Wiles, R. B. (2018). The ‘safe death’: An ethnographic study exploring the perspectives of rural palliative care patients and family caregivers. Palliative Medicine, 32(10), 1575–1583. 

Newnham, E., McKellar, L., & Pincombe, J. (2017). ‘It’s your body, but…’ Mixed messages in childbirth education: Findings from a hospital ethnography. Midwifery, 55, 53–59 

King, P. (2019). The woven self: An auto-ethnography of cultural disruption and connectedness . International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 8(3), 107–123.  

Howitt, D. (2019). Introduction to qualitative research methods in psychology: putting theory into practice. Pearson Education.

Taylor, B. J., & Francis, K. (2013). Qualitative research in the health sciences: methodologies, methods and processes: Routledge.

Taylor, B. J., Kermode, S., & Roberts, K. L. (2006). Research in nursing and health care: creating evidence for practice (Third edition. ed.): Thomson. 

O’Connor, S. J. (2011). Context is everything: The role of auto‐ethnography, reflexivity and self‐critique in establishing the credibility of qualitative research findings. European Journal of Cancer Care, 20(4), 421–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2354.2011.01261.x 

Dickson, W. J & Roethlisberger, F. J., (1966) Counseling in an organization: a sequel to the Hawthorne researches. 1898-1974 & Western Electric Company (U.S.) Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University, Boston   

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Breaking Down Barriers – Using Ethnography to Build Cultural Understanding

Ethnography is a research method used to study human cultures and societies. At its core, ethnography is the study of human cultures and societies through observation and participation in their day-to-day activities.

Ethnographers aim to gain an in-depth understanding of the culture they are studying by immersing themselves in it and observing it from within. This approach allows them to gather rich qualitative data that can help explain how people think, behave, interact with one another, and make sense of their world.

This research method is widely used across various fields such as anthropology, sociology , education, business, and more to gain insights into different cultures and ways of life.

Ethnography – An Introduction

Ethnography is a research method that involves the systematic study of human cultures and societies through observation and participation in their daily activities. It typically requires immersion in the culture being studied, often for an extended period of time, to gain a deep understanding of its norms, values, beliefs, and practices.

The key components of ethnography include participant observation, fieldwork, and data analysis.

Participant observation involves the researcher taking an active role in the culture they are studying by participating in its activities and observing its members’ behaviour. Fieldwork refers to the process of collecting data through direct observation, interviews, and other methods while living among the people being studied. Data analysis involves interpreting the data collected during fieldwork to develop insights into the culture under study.

Ethnography differs from other research methods like surveys or interviews in several ways. Surveys typically involve collecting data from a large group of people using standardized questions or measurements. Interviews involve asking individuals about their experiences or opinions on a particular topic. In contrast, ethnography emphasizes direct observation of cultural practices and behaviors within their natural context rather than relying on self-reported information.

Overall, ethnography provides a unique perspective on human cultures and societies that cannot be obtained through other research methods. By immersing themselves in a culture and experiencing it first-hand, ethnographers can gain insights into how people think, behave, and interact with one another that would be difficult to obtain through any other means.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is a research method used in ethnography and other social sciences that involves the researcher taking an active role in the culture or group being studied.

In participant observation, the researcher immerses themselves in the culture and participates in its activities while observing and recording their experiences. This approach allows the researcher to gain a deep understanding of the culture’s norms, values, beliefs, and practices from an insider’s perspective.

Participant observation typically involves several stages, including gaining entry into the culture or group being studied, establishing trust with its members, learning about its social structure and dynamics, participating in its activities while observing them, and collecting data through field notes or other methods.

The process is time-consuming and challenging, but it can provide rich qualitative data that would be difficult to obtain through other means.

Fieldwork is a research method used in ethnography and other social sciences that involves conducting research in the natural environment or “field” where the culture or group being studied is located. In the context of ethnography, fieldwork typically involves immersing oneself in the culture being studied to gain a deep understanding of its norms, values, beliefs, and practices.

During fieldwork, researchers may engage in participant observation by actively participating in the activities of the culture they are studying while observing and recording their experiences. They may also conduct interviews with members of the culture to gain additional insights into their perspectives and experiences.

Cultural Informant Interviews

Cultural informants are individuals who are knowledgeable about the culture being studied and can provide valuable information to researchers. The ethnographer interviews them to gain insights into their perspectives, experiences, and beliefs.

During cultural informant interviews, researchers ask open-ended questions to gather information about the society’s norms, values, beliefs, and practices. The goal is to gain a deep understanding of the culture from the perspective of its members. Informants may be chosen based on their expertise in specific areas or because they are representative of particular groups within the culture being studied.

Cultural informant interviews can be conducted individually or in groups and may take place in person or remotely. They typically involve building rapport with informants over time to establish trust and create an open dialogue.

Analysing and Describing Ethnographic Findings

Analyzing and describing ethnographic findings involves interpreting the data collected during fieldwork in order to draw conclusions about the culture being studied. The anthropologist begins by organizing their field notes, transcripts, and other data into categories or themes that emerge from the data itself. This involves identifying recurring patterns, themes, or ideas that arise during observation or interviews.

Once the anthropologist has organized their data into categories or themes, they identify the key cultural concepts that emerge from their analysis. These may include values, beliefs, practices, symbols, or social structures that are central to the culture being studied.

The anthropologist then uses their data to describe the norms and behaviors that are common within the culture being studied. This could involve discussing how people interact with each other in social settings or how they communicate with one another.

To understand cultural practices and beliefs fully, it’s important for the anthropologist to provide context for them. One of the ways anthropologists achieve this aim is by using a style known as thick description .

Thick description refers to the practice of providing detailed, contextualized accounts of cultural phenomena. When writing anthropological reports, ethnographers aim to provide readers with enough information to understand the cultural context in which events or activities took place. This type of detailed description is essential for understanding the complexities of human cultures and societies.

Based on their analysis of the data, the anthropologist draws conclusions about what they have learned about the culture being studied. This could involve making generalizations about cultural values or identifying unique features of a particular group within the culture.

Finally, the anthropologist presents their findings in a clear and concise manner using appropriate qualitative research methods such as narrative description, thematic analysis, or grounded theory.

Best Practices for Conducting Ethnographic Research

Develop a clear research question: Before beginning your research, it’s important to have a well-defined research question that will guide your study and help you stay focused on what you want to learn.

Build rapport with participants: Ethnography often involves spending extended periods of time in the field and building relationships with members of the community being studied. It’s essential to establish trust and create an open dialogue with participants.

Use multiple methods: Ethnographers use a variety of data collection methods, including observation, interviews, surveys, and document analysis. Using multiple methods can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the culture being studied.

Maintain detailed field notes: Accurate and detailed field notes are crucial for ethnographic research as they provide a record of observations, conversations, and experiences that can be analyzed later.

Practice reflexivity: Reflexivity is the process of reflecting on one’s own role in the research process and how this may impact data collection and analysis. Ethnographers should be aware of their own biases and assumptions and actively work to minimize their influence on the study.

Ensure confidentiality: Confidentiality is critical in ethnographic research as participants may share personal information or engage in behaviors that could put them at risk if made public. Researchers must take steps to protect participant privacy and ensure that any information shared is kept confidential.

Analyze data systematically: After collecting data, it’s essential to analyze it systematically using established qualitative research methods such as coding, thematic analysis, or grounded theory.

By following these best practices, ethnographers can conduct rigorous and ethical research that provides valuable insights into human cultures and societies while also respecting the rights and privacy of participants.

How Ethnography Differs from Other Qualitative Methods

Ethnography differs from other qualitative research methods, such as focus groups or interviews, in two key ways.

First, the main aim of ethnographic research is the interpretation of the shared norms and beliefs of the community under study. This means that ethnographers are more interested in understanding how a group interacts with each other and their cultural worlds than they are in individual perspectives.

Second, ethnography relies heavily on fieldwork. This means that ethnographers must immerse themselves in the daily lives of the people they are researching in order to understand their culture. This can be done through direct observation or participation in activities. This means that ethnographers often live with the people they are researching for extended periods of time in order to really understand their culture.

The Ethical Considerations of Ethnographic Research

When conducting ethnographic research, there are a number of ethical considerations that need to be taken into account in order to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner. This is especially important when working with vulnerable populations.

The following are some of the challenges involved in conducting ethnographic research and the ethical considerations that need to be taken into account.

Informed Consent

Conducting anthropological research requires gaining the trust of those being studied. This can be a challenge, especially if the researcher is coming from a different culture.

It is important to build relationships of trust and mutual respect in order to conduct ethical research. This can be done by spending time getting to know the people you will be working with, learning about their culture and customs, and respecting their way of life. If people do not trust you, they will not participate in your research.

It is also important to obtain informed consent from those who will be participating in your research. This means that participants must be made aware of what the research entails, what their role in the research will be, and how their personal information will be used. Participants must also be given the opportunity to ask questions and withdraw from the study at any time.

Respecting Privacy and Confidentiality

Another ethical consideration is protecting the confidentiality of participants. This means keeping their information safe and ensuring that it will not be used for any purpose other than what was originally agreed upon.

In some cases, researchers may need to change the names of participants or use pseudonyms in order to protect their identity. Any recordings or notes that are made during the course of the research should also be kept confidential.

This can be a challenge in ethnographic research because the very nature of the methodology involves observing people in their natural environment. This means that researchers may inadvertently collect personal information about participants without their knowledge or consent. One way to overcome this challenge is to establish clear boundaries with participants at the beginning of the research process and make sure they are aware of what information will be collected and how it will be used.

Code of Ethics

All anthropologists are bound by a code of ethics which sets out principles for conducting responsible and ethical research. The code of ethics includes principles such as respect for human dignity, protecting participant welfare, minimizing harm, upholding confidentiality, and obtaining informed consent.

The Challenges of Conducting Ethnographic Research

The goal of ethnographic research is to understand how people interact with each other and the world around them. In order to do this, ethnographers immerse themselves in the lives of the people they are studying. This can be a challenge, both logistically and emotionally. Here are some of the challenges involved in conducting ethnographic research.

Gaining access to the people being studied

One of the biggest challenges in conducting ethnographic research is gaining access to the necessary people and places. This can be difficult for a number of reasons, including language barriers, unfamiliarity with local customs, and lack of personal connections.

One way to overcome this challenge is to partner with someone who is already familiar with the community you’re researching. This person can act as a guide and introduce you to key members of the community who can provide valuable insights into your research topic.

Another challenge faced by many ethnographers is gaining the cooperation of research subjects. This can be difficult because people are often reluctant to talk about sensitive topics or share personal information with strangers. One way to overcome this challenge is to build rapport with your research subjects by establishing trust and demonstrating your understanding of their culture and values. Only once you have gained their trust should you begin asking questions about your research topic.

Time Commitment

Another challenge is the time commitment required. In order to really understand a culture, an ethnographer needs to spend a significant amount of time observing and interacting with the people in that culture. This can be logistically difficult, especially if the society under study is located in a different country or region. It can also be emotionally challenging, as it requires an ethnographer to be open and vulnerable with the people they are studying.

Analysis and Interpretation

Once an ethnographer has collected their data, they then face the challenge of analysis and interpretation. This is difficult because ethnographers must not only understand the culture they are studying, but also their own culture and biases.

In addition, ethnographic data often takes the form of unstructured observations, interviews, and field notes, which can be challenging to organize and interpret. One way to overcome this challenge is to use data management software like NVivo or Atlas.ti to help you organize and analyse your data.

And finally, the ethnographer must find a way to communicate their findings to others who have not experienced the society first hand. This is where thick description is crucial.

Conclusion – Ethnography is a Powerful Tool

Ethnography is a powerful research method that allows anthropologists to study human cultures and societies in depth. Its strength lies in its ability to provide rich, detailed descriptions of cultural practices, beliefs, and values while also providing context for these phenomena.

Ethnography differs from other qualitative research methods in that it emphasizes the importance of long-term fieldwork and participant observation as a way of gaining deep insights into cultural phenomena. By immersing themselves in the culture being studied, ethnographers can gain a nuanced understanding of complex social processes and interactions.

As such, ethnography continues to be an important tool for anthropologists seeking to understand the diverse ways in which people live and interact with one another around the world.

Related Terminology:

Thick description: A type of ethnographic data that provides highly detailed, contextualized accounts of social phenomena.

Triangulation: A method used by ethnographers to corroborate their findings by collecting data from multiple sources.

Qualitative research : A type of research that uses inductive, observational methods to generate rich, detailed data about a particular phenomenon.

Quantitative research: A type of research that uses deductive, statistical methods to generate numerical data about a particular phenomenon.

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• What Is Ethnography? | Meaning, Guide & Examples

What Is Ethnography? | Meaning, Guide & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 6 April 2023.

Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organisation to observe their behaviour and interactions up close. The word ‘ethnography’ also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces afterwards.

Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. However, it also involves some practical and ethical challenges.

Table of contents

What is ethnography used for, different approaches to ethnographic research, gaining access to a community, working with informants, observing the group and taking field notes, writing up an ethnography.

Ethnographic research originated in the field of anthropology, and it often involved an anthropologist living with an isolated tribal community for an extended period of time in order to understand their culture.

This type of research could sometimes last for years. For example, Colin M. Turnbull lived with the Mbuti people for three years in order to write the classic ethnography The Forest People .

Today, ethnography is a common approach in various social science fields, not just anthropology. It is used not only to study distant or unfamiliar cultures, but also to study specific communities within the researcher’s own society.

For example, ethnographic research (sometimes called participant observation ) has been used to investigate football fans , call centre workers , and police officers .

Advantages of ethnography

The main advantage of ethnography is that it gives the researcher direct access to the culture and practices of a group. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about the behavior and interactions of people within a particular context.

By becoming immersed in a social environment, you may have access to more authentic information and spontaneously observe dynamics that you could not have found out about simply by asking.

Ethnography is also an open and flexible method. Rather than aiming to verify a general theory or test a hypothesis , it aims to offer a rich narrative account of a specific culture, allowing you to explore many different aspects of the group and setting.

Disadvantages of ethnography

Ethnography is a time-consuming method. In order to embed yourself in the setting and gather enough observations to build up a representative picture, you can expect to spend at least a few weeks, but more likely several months. This long-term immersion can be challenging, and requires careful planning.

Ethnographic research can run the risk of observer bias . Writing an ethnography involves subjective interpretation, and it can be difficult to maintain the necessary distance to analyse a group that you are embedded in.

There are often also ethical considerations to take into account: for example, about how your role is disclosed to members of the group, or about observing and reporting sensitive information.

Should you use ethnography in your research?

If you’re a student who wants to use ethnographic research in your thesis or dissertation , it’s worth asking yourself whether it’s the right approach:

• Could the information you need be collected in another way (e.g., a survey , interviews)?
• How difficult will it be to gain access to the community you want to study?
• How exactly will you conduct your research, and over what timespan?
• What ethical issues might arise?

If you do decide to do ethnography, it’s generally best to choose a relatively small and easily accessible group, to ensure that the research is feasible within a limited time frame.

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There are a few key distinctions in ethnography which help to inform the researcher’s approach: open vs closed settings, overt vs covert ethnography, and active vs passive observation. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Open vs closed settings

The setting of your ethnography – the environment in which you will observe your chosen community in action – may be open or closed.

An open or public setting is one with no formal barriers to entry. For example, you might consider a community of people living in a certain neighbourhood, or the fans of a particular football team.

• Gaining initial access to open groups is not too difficult …
• … but it may be harder to become immersed in a less clearly defined group.

A closed or private setting is harder to access. This may be for example a business, a school, or a cult.

• A closed group’s boundaries are clearly defined and the ethnographer can become fully immersed in the setting …
• … but gaining access is tougher; the ethnographer may have to negotiate their way in or acquire some role in the organisation.

Overt vs covert ethnography

Most ethnography is overt . In an overt approach, the ethnographer openly states their intentions and acknowledges their role as a researcher to the members of the group being studied.

• Overt ethnography is typically preferred for ethical reasons, as participants can provide informed consent …
• … but people may behave differently with the awareness that they are being studied.

Sometimes ethnography can be covert . This means that the researcher does not tell participants about their research, and comes up with some other pretence for being there.

• Covert ethnography allows access to environments where the group would not welcome a researcher …
• … but hiding the researcher’s role can be considered deceptive and thus unethical.

Active vs passive observation

Different levels of immersion in the community may be appropriate in different contexts. The ethnographer may be a more active or passive participant depending on the demands of their research and the nature of the setting.

An active role involves trying to fully integrate, carrying out tasks and participating in activities like any other member of the community.

• Active participation may encourage the group to feel more comfortable with the ethnographer’s presence …
• … but runs the risk of disrupting the regular functioning of the community.

A passive role is one in which the ethnographer stands back from the activities of others, behaving as a more distant observer and not involving themselves in the community’s activities.

• Passive observation allows more space for careful observation and note-taking …
• … but group members may behave unnaturally due to feeling they are being observed by an outsider.

While ethnographers usually have a preference, they also have to be flexible about their level of participation. For example, access to the community might depend upon engaging in certain activities, or there might be certain practices in which outsiders cannot participate.

An important consideration for ethnographers is the question of access. The difficulty of gaining access to the setting of a particular ethnography varies greatly:

• To gain access to the fans of a particular sports team, you might start by simply attending the team’s games and speaking with the fans.
• To access the employees of a particular business, you might contact the management and ask for permission to perform a study there.
• Alternatively, you might perform a covert ethnography of a community or organisation you are already personally involved in or employed by.

Flexibility is important here too: where it’s impossible to access the desired setting, the ethnographer must consider alternatives that could provide comparable information.

For example, if you had the idea of observing the staff within a particular finance company but could not get permission, you might look into other companies of the same kind as alternatives. Ethnography is a sensitive research method, and it may take multiple attempts to find a feasible approach.

All ethnographies involve the use of informants . These are people involved in the group in question who function as the researcher’s primary points of contact, facilitating access and assisting their understanding of the group.

This might be someone in a high position at an organisation allowing you access to their employees, or a member of a community sponsoring your entry into that community and giving advice on how to fit in.

However,  i f you come to rely too much on a single informant, you may be influenced by their perspective on the community, which might be unrepresentative of the group as a whole.

In addition, an informant may not provide the kind of spontaneous information which is most useful to ethnographers, instead trying to show what they believe you want to see. For this reason, it’s good to have a variety of contacts within the group.

The core of ethnography is observation of the group from the inside. Field notes are taken to record these observations while immersed in the setting; they form the basis of the final written ethnography. They are usually written by hand, but other solutions such as voice recordings can be useful alternatives.

Field notes record any and all important data: phenomena observed, conversations had, preliminary analysis. For example, if you’re researching how service staff interact with customers, you should write down anything you notice about these interactions – body language, phrases used repeatedly, differences and similarities between staff, customer reactions.

Don’t be afraid to also note down things you notice that fall outside the pre-formulated scope of your research; anything may prove relevant, and it’s better to have extra notes you might discard later than to end up with missing data.

Field notes should be as detailed and clear as possible. It’s important to take time to go over your notes, expand on them with further detail, and keep them organised (including information such as dates and locations).

After observations are concluded, there’s still the task of writing them up into an ethnography. This entails going through the field notes and formulating a convincing account of the behaviours and dynamics observed.

The structure of an ethnography

An ethnography can take many different forms: It may be an article, a thesis, or an entire book, for example.

Ethnographies often do not follow the standard structure of a scientific paper, though like most academic texts, they should have an introduction and conclusion. For example, this paper begins by describing the historical background of the research, then focuses on various themes in turn before concluding.

An ethnography may still use a more traditional structure, however, especially when used in combination with other research methods. For example, this paper follows the standard structure for empirical research: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion.

The content of an ethnography

The goal of a written ethnography is to provide a rich, authoritative account of the social setting in which you were embedded – to convince the reader that your observations and interpretations are representative of reality.

Ethnography tends to take a less impersonal approach than other research methods. Due to the embedded nature of the work, an ethnography often necessarily involves discussion of your personal experiences and feelings during the research.

Ethnography is not limited to making observations; it also attempts to explain the phenomena observed in a structured, narrative way. For this, you may draw on theory, but also on your direct experience and intuitions, which may well contradict the assumptions that you brought into the research.

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Qualitative research methodologies: ethnography

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• Scott Reeves , associate professor 1 ,
• Ayelet Kuper , assistant professor 2 ,
• Brian David Hodges , associate professor and vice chair (education) 3
• 1 Department of Psychiatry, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, Centre for Faculty Development, and Wilson Centre for Research in Education, University of Toronto, 200 Elizabeth Street, Eaton South 1-565, Toronto, ON, Canada M5G 2C4
• 2 Department of Medicine, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, and Wilson Centre for Research in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M4N 3M5
• 3 Department of Psychiatry, Wilson Centre for Research in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M5G 2C4
• Correspondence to: S Reeves scott.reeves{at}utoronto.ca

The previous articles (there were 2 before this 1) in this series discussed several methodological approaches commonly used by qualitative researchers in the health professions. This article focuses on another important qualitative methodology: ethnography. It provides background for those who will encounter this methodology in their reading rather than instructions for carrying out such research.

What is ethnography?

Ethnography is the study of social interactions, behaviours, and perceptions that occur within groups, teams, organisations, and communities. Its roots can be traced back to anthropological studies of small, rural (and often remote) societies that were undertaken in the early 1900s, when researchers such as Bronislaw Malinowski and Alfred Radcliffe-Brown participated in these societies over long periods and documented their social arrangements and belief systems. This approach was later adopted by members of the Chicago School of Sociology (for example, Everett Hughes, Robert Park, Louis Wirth) and applied to a variety of urban settings in their studies of social life.

The central aim of ethnography is to provide rich, holistic insights into people’s views and actions, as well as the nature (that is, sights, sounds) of the location they inhabit, through the collection of detailed observations and interviews. As Hammersley states, “The task [of ethnographers] is to document the culture, the perspectives and practices, of the people in these settings. The aim is to ‘get inside’ the way each group of people sees the world.” 1 Box 1 outlines the key features of ethnographic research.

Box 1 Key features of ethnographic research 2

A strong emphasis on exploring the nature of a particular social phenomenon, rather than setting out to test hypotheses about it

A tendency to work primarily with “unstructured data” —that is, data that have not been coded at the point of data collection as a closed set of analytical categories

Investigation of a small number of cases (perhaps even just …

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What is Ethnographic Research? Definition, Methods, Examples

Appinio Research · 05.01.2024 · 38min read

Ever wondered how researchers immerse themselves in the intricacies of different cultures, communities, and human behaviors to uncover profound insights? In ethnographic research, the quest to understand the richness of human experience takes center stage. This guide will unravel the techniques, challenges, and transformative potential of ethnographic research. From delving into the foundations of this captivating methodology to exploring real-world applications, we'll journey through the captivating world of ethnography, offering you a passport to an in-depth understanding of people, societies, and the intricate tapestry of their lives.

What is Ethnographic Research?

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method that seeks to understand and interpret the social and cultural behaviors, practices, and beliefs of individuals or groups within their natural context. Unlike other research approaches, ethnography emphasizes immersion in the research setting, allowing researchers to observe and interact with participants to gain deep insights into their lives. It is a holistic and participant-focused approach that aims to uncover the underlying meanings and significance of cultural phenomena.

The primary purpose of ethnographic research is to explore and describe the complexities of human behavior, culture, and society. This research method allows researchers to:

• Gain In-Depth Understanding : Ethnography enables researchers to immerse themselves in the lives of participants, gaining a profound understanding of their experiences, perspectives, and worldviews.
• Contextualize Behavior : By observing and interacting with individuals or groups within their natural settings, ethnographers can contextualize behavior and cultural practices, understanding why and how they occur.
• Uncover Hidden Insights : Ethnographic research often uncovers insights that may be hidden from traditional research methods. It sheds light on the nuances, contradictions, and subtleties of human behavior and culture.
• Inform Decision-Making : Findings from ethnographic studies can inform decision-making processes in various fields, such as education, healthcare, marketing, and community development. This research method provides practical insights that can drive positive change.
• Challenge Assumptions : Ethnography challenges preconceived notions and stereotypes, promoting a more nuanced and empathetic understanding of diverse cultures and societies.

Historical Context and Development

Ethnographic research has deep historical roots, dating back to the late 19th century when anthropologists and sociologists began conducting fieldwork among various cultures and societies. Pioneers like Bronisław Malinowski and Franz Boas played instrumental roles in shaping the discipline.

Over the years, ethnographic research has evolved and diversified. While its early focus was primarily on remote and non-Western societies, contemporary ethnographers explore various settings, including urban environments, workplaces, educational institutions, and healthcare facilities.

The development of ethnography has also been influenced by technological advances, allowing for new data collection and analysis methods. Ethnographers now have access to digital tools, audiovisual recording devices, and qualitative analysis software, enhancing the depth and breadth of their research.

Importance of Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research holds immense importance in today's interconnected and multicultural world. Its significance lies in its ability to:

• Bridge Cultural Gaps : Ethnography fosters cross-cultural understanding by enabling researchers to immerse themselves in the lived experiences of others, transcending cultural barriers.
• Inform Policy and Practice : Findings from ethnographic studies inform the development of policies, interventions, and practices that are culturally sensitive and effective.
• Humanize Research : Ethnography humanizes research by focusing on the stories, voices, and perspectives of individuals, making research more relatable and impactful.
• Challenge Stereotypes : It challenges stereotypes and assumptions, promoting a more inclusive and respectful appreciation of diverse cultures and societies.
• Enhance Empathy : Ethnographic research cultivates empathy by encouraging researchers to see the world through the eyes of their participants, fostering a deeper connection and understanding of the human experience.

As we delve deeper into the world of ethnographic research, these foundational concepts, historical context, and the significance of this research method will serve as a solid framework for our exploration of its techniques, applications, and impact.

How to Prepare for Ethnographic Research?

Ethnographic research is a journey of discovery that begins long before you step into the field. Proper preparation is vital to ensure the success of your study. Let's delve into the essential aspects of preparation.

Research Planning and Objectives

Before embarking on your ethnographic research, you must clearly define your research objectives. Ask yourself what you hope to achieve through this study. Are you seeking to gain insights into consumer behavior, understand the dynamics of a particular community, or explore cultural practices within an organization? Your objectives will guide your research design and methodology.

To set effective objectives:

• Start with a clear and concise statement of what you want to learn.
• Ensure your objectives are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
• Consider the practical implications of your research and its potential impact on your field or industry.

Selection of Study Population

Choosing the right study population is a critical decision that will shape the trajectory of your ethnographic research. The demographics, location, and characteristics of your participants should align with your research objectives.

• Demographics : Who are the people you want to study? Consider factors such as age, gender, socio-economic status, and cultural background.
• Location : Where will you conduct your research? Is it a specific geographic area, an online community, or a workplace?
• Characteristics : What unique qualities or experiences do your participants possess that are relevant to your study?

Your study population is the lens through which you will observe and understand the world you are researching, so choose wisely.

Data Collection Methods and Tools

Ethnographic research relies on a variety of data collection methods to capture the richness of human experiences and behaviors. Familiarize yourself with these methods and select the ones that best align with your research objectives. Some standard methods include:

• Participant Observation : Immerse yourself in the community or setting you are studying, actively participating and recording your observations.
• In-depth Interviews : Conduct open-ended interviews to gather personal narratives and insights from participants.
• Focus Groups : Bring together a small group of participants to engage in discussions about specific topics, revealing group dynamics and shared beliefs.
• Surveys and Questionnaires : Use structured surveys to collect quantitative data alongside qualitative findings, allowing for broader insights.

Choosing the correct data collection methods and tools is essential for capturing the depth and breadth of your research subject. Each method has its strengths and limitations, so consider a mix of approaches to obtain a comprehensive view.

Ethical Considerations in Ethnographic Research

Ethical integrity is at the core of ethnographic research. As you immerse yourself in the lives and experiences of others, it's essential to uphold ethical principles and protect the well-being and rights of your participants.

• Informed Consent : Obtain informed consent from participants, ensuring they understand the purpose, scope, and potential consequences of the research.
• Anonymity and Confidentiality : Safeguard the identities and sensitive information of participants, using pseudonyms if necessary.
• Respect for Cultural Sensitivity : Be culturally sensitive and aware of potential biases when conducting research in diverse communities or settings.
• Balancing Observation and Intervention : Strive for a balance between observing and intervening, ensuring your presence does not harm or disrupt the environment.

Ethical dilemmas can arise during ethnographic research, and addressing them transparently and responsibly is essential. Seek guidance from ethical review boards or colleagues when faced with complex ethical decisions. Your commitment to ethical conduct will enhance the credibility and impact of your research.

With these essential preparations in place, you are ready to embark on your ethnographic research journey with confidence and purpose.

How to Conduct Ethnographic Research?

Now that you've laid the groundwork in preparation, it's time to delve into the heart of ethnographic research: data collection and analysis. We will explore the various methods used to gather insights into the world you are studying.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is a hallmark of ethnographic research, where you become an active participant in the community or setting you are studying. It involves immersing yourself in the culture and environment, actively engaging with the people and events.

• Engage and Build Rapport : Establish trust and build relationships with the participants. Engage in conversations and activities to gain access to their perspectives.
• Taking Field Notes : Document your observations, experiences, and interactions meticulously. Keep a field journal to record your thoughts, emotions, and key events.
• Participate and Reflect : Actively participate in the community's activities while reflecting on your experiences. Be mindful of your role as an observer and its potential impact on the environment.
• Maintain Objectivity : Strive to maintain objectivity while acknowledging your own biases and perspectives. Balance immersion with the critical distance necessary for analysis.

In-depth Interviews

In-depth interviews provide a window into individual experiences and perspectives. They offer a deeper understanding of specific aspects of your research subject. To conduct effective in-depth interviews:

• Develop Open-ended Questions : Craft questions encouraging participants to share their stories, experiences, and insights. Avoid leading or closed-ended questions.
• Active Listening : Be an active listener, allowing participants to express themselves fully. Show empathy and curiosity to elicit rich responses.
• Establish Trust : Create a comfortable and non-judgmental environment. Assure participants of confidentiality and their right to withdraw from the interview at any time.
• Sampling Diversity : Consider diversity in your interviewee selection to capture a range of perspectives and experiences within the community or setting.

Focus Groups

Focus groups are a valuable method for understanding group dynamics, shared beliefs, and diverse opinions within a community or setting.

• Define Clear Objectives : Specify the goals of the focus group and the topics to be discussed. Ensure participants understand the purpose of the discussion.
• Moderation Skills : Be an effective moderator, guiding the conversation while allowing participants to interact freely. Encourage open dialogue and diverse viewpoints.
• Small and Diverse Groups : Keep focus groups small (typically 6-10 participants) and diverse to stimulate discussions and explore varying perspectives.
• Record and Analyze : Record focus group discussions and transcribe them for analysis. Identify common themes, disagreements, and emerging ideas.

Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires can complement qualitative data with quantitative insights, allowing for a broader understanding of your research subject. To use surveys effectively:

• Design with Clarity : Craft clear and concise questions. Ensure survey items are free from ambiguity and bias. Pilot-test the survey to identify any issues.
• Sampling Strategy : Define your target audience and select a representative sample. Consider using random or stratified sampling techniques to minimize bias.
• Data Analysis : Use statistical tools to analyze survey data. Identify trends, correlations, and patterns that can enhance your qualitative findings.

Data Recording and Analysis

Accurate data recording and thorough analysis are essential to extract meaningful insights from your ethnographic research.

• Organized Data Collection : Maintain well-organized records of your data, including field notes, interview transcripts, and survey responses. Use digital tools to assist with data management.
• Thematic Coding : Employ thematic coding to categorize and organize qualitative data. Identify recurring themes, patterns, and concepts within your data.
• Narrative Analysis : Dive into the narratives and stories within your data. Explore the cultural context and underlying meanings embedded in the narratives.
• Triangulation : Consider using multiple data sources and methods to enhance the credibility and validity of your findings. Triangulation involves cross-referencing information to ensure accuracy.
• Iterative Process : Data analysis is often an iterative process. Continuously revisit your research questions and objectives as you delve deeper into your findings.

In ethnographic research, data collection and analysis are the tools that help you uncover the hidden layers of culture, behavior, and society. Remember that each method has its strengths and limitations, so choose and adapt your approach based on your research goals and the nature of your study population.

Data Analysis in Ethnographic Research

Once you've gathered a wealth of ethnographic data, the next crucial step is to analyze it effectively. Let's examine the various methods and tools used to make sense of the rich qualitative data you've collected.

Thematic Coding

Thematic coding is a systematic approach to organizing and categorizing qualitative data. It helps you identify recurring themes, patterns, and concepts within your data.

• Data Familiarization : Begin by thoroughly familiarizing yourself with your data—this may include field notes, interview transcripts, and survey responses.
• Code Development : Create a set of codes or keywords representing key ideas, concepts, or themes in your data. These codes serve as labels for different aspects of your data.
• Coding Process : Go through your data systematically, assigning relevant codes to specific portions of text or data points. Be consistent in your coding approach.
• Coding Software : Consider using qualitative data analysis software like NVivo or MAXQDA to streamline the coding process and manage large datasets.
• Theme Emergence : As you code, pay attention to emerging themes and patterns. These may be unexpected and can lead to deeper insights.
• Data Reduction : Once coding is complete, summarize and condense the data under each code. This helps in the later stages of analysis.
• Cross-referencing : Cross-reference coded data to see how themes relate to one another. This can reveal complex relationships within your data.

Thematic coding is a powerful tool for identifying the core ideas and concepts that emerge from your ethnographic research. It provides a structured framework for further analysis.

Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis focuses on the stories and narratives within your ethnographic data. It delves into the cultural context and underlying meanings embedded in the narratives.

• Story Identification : Identify the narratives or stories within your data. Look for personal experiences, anecdotes, and accounts that reveal cultural insights.
• Contextualization : Understand the cultural, social, and historical context in which the narratives are situated. This context provides crucial insights into the meaning of the stories.
• Character Analysis : Analyze the characters within the narratives, their roles, and their relationships. Pay attention to how they shape the narrative.
• Plot and Structure : Examine the narrative structure, including the beginning, middle, and end. Identify any patterns or shifts in the storytelling.
• Themes and Motifs : Identify recurring themes, motifs, or symbols within the narratives. These elements often carry cultural significance.
• Interpretation : Interpret the narratives by considering the cultural norms, values, and ideologies embedded in the stories. Analyze the implications of these narratives for your research.

Narrative analysis allows you to dig deep into the storytelling aspect of your data, uncovering the cultural narratives that shape the experiences and perspectives of your participants.

Comparative Analysis

Comparative analysis involves comparing different cases or groups within your ethnographic study. This method can highlight variations and similarities, shedding light on significant trends.

• Case Selection : Select specific cases or groups within your study that you intend to compare. Ensure these cases are relevant to your research objectives.
• Data Comparison : Compare data from different cases or groups systematically. Look for patterns, differences, and commonalities in their behaviors, experiences, or beliefs.
• Pattern Recognition : Identify recurring patterns and themes that emerge through comparison. These patterns may relate to cultural practices, behaviors, or attitudes.
• Contextual Understanding : Consider the context in which each case or group operates. Understanding the unique context is crucial for accurate interpretation.
• Cross-case Analysis : Conduct a cross-case analysis to draw meaningful conclusions about the overarching themes or trends in your data.

Comparative analysis allows you to gain a broader perspective on your research subject by examining how different contexts or groups influence the phenomena you're studying.

Qualitative Data Software

Qualitative data analysis software is valuable for managing and analyzing ethnographic data, particularly when dealing with large datasets. These software programs, such as NVivo, MAXQDA, and Dedoose, offer several advantages:

• Data Management : Store and organize your data in a structured manner, making it easy to locate and retrieve specific information.
• Efficient Coding : Streamline the coding process by using features that allow you to tag and categorize data quickly.
• Cross-referencing : Easily cross-reference coded data, facilitating in-depth analysis and exploration of relationships.
• Visualization Tools : Create visual representations of your data, such as charts and graphs, to aid in data interpretation and presentation.
• Collaboration : Collaborate with other researchers by sharing your data and analysis within the software platform.
• Project Documentation : Keep track of your research process, coding decisions, and analysis notes within the software, ensuring transparency and reproducibility.

Using qualitative data software can save you time and enhance the rigor of your ethnographic data analysis. It offers a user-friendly interface and various features tailored to the needs of qualitative researchers.

With these tools and techniques at your disposal, you can confidently embark on the journey of data analysis in ethnographic research, unraveling the intricate tapestry of insights hidden within your qualitative data. Remember that the depth of your analysis will determine the richness of the stories you uncover.

How to Report Ethnographic Findings?

Having conducted your ethnographic research and analyzed the data, the next critical step is to communicate your findings effectively. Here are some strategies and techniques for reporting and presenting ethnographic insights.

Writing Ethnographic Research Reports

Writing a well-structured and comprehensive research report is essential for conveying the depth and significance of your ethnographic findings. To craft an impactful ethnographic research report:

• Clear Structure : Begin with an introduction that sets the stage for your research. Provide a clear statement of your objectives and research questions. Outline the structure of your report.
• Detailed Methodology : Describe your research methodology in detail, including data collection methods, participant selection, and ethical considerations. Transparency is key.
• Rich Description : Present your findings using rich descriptions, incorporating quotes, anecdotes, and narratives to illustrate key points. Paint a vivid picture of the cultural and social context.
• Thematic Presentation : Organize your report thematically, presenting key themes and patterns that emerged from your data. Use clear headings and subheadings to guide the reader.
• Interpretation and Analysis : Offer thoughtful interpretation and analysis of the themes, connecting them to your research objectives. Discuss the implications of your findings.
• Visual Aids : Supplement your text with visuals such as photographs, charts, and graphs where appropriate. Visual aids can enhance understanding and engagement.
• Recommendations : Provide practical recommendations or insights that can be applied in relevant fields, whether it's marketing, healthcare, education, or community development.
• Conclusion : Summarize your key findings and their significance. Highlight the contributions of your research and suggest avenues for future studies.
• Citations and References : Ensure proper citation of sources and references. Use a consistent citation style (e.g., APA, MLA) throughout your report.
• Appendices : Include any supplementary materials, such as interview transcripts, in an appendix for those who wish to delve deeper into your data.

Writing an ethnographic research report is not just about presenting facts; it's about telling a compelling and informative story that captures the essence of your research subject.

Visual Presentation of Data

In addition to a written report, visual presentation of data can be a powerful way to convey your ethnographic findings. Visuals can make complex information more accessible and engaging.

• Charts and Graphs : Use charts and graphs to illustrate quantitative data or show trends and comparisons. Bar charts, pie charts, and line graphs are commonly used for this purpose.
• Photographs and Images : Include relevant pictures and images that provide visual context to your findings. Ensure proper permissions and ethical considerations for using participant photos.
• Infographics : Create infographics that condense key information into visually appealing and easy-to-understand formats. Infographics can be particularly useful for summarizing complex data.
• Maps : If your research involves geographic elements, use maps to visually represent locations and spatial relationships. Geographic information systems (GIS) can assist in creating informative maps.
• Flowcharts and Diagrams : Utilize flowcharts and diagrams to illustrate processes, workflows, or relationships within your research subject.
• Visual Consistency : Maintain a consistent visual style throughout your presentation to enhance readability and professionalism. Use colors, fonts, and formatting consistently.
• Accessibility : Ensure your visual elements are accessible to all audiences, including those with disabilities. Provide alternative text for images and use accessible design principles.
• Captions and Labels : Include clear captions and labels for all visuals to provide context and explanations.

Visual presentation of data can be a powerful supplement to your ethnographic research report, enabling your audience to grasp the essence of your findings at a glance.

Effective Communication of Ethnographic Insights

Effectively communicating ethnographic insights goes beyond the written report and visual aids. It involves engaging with various stakeholders and tailoring your communication to your target audience.

• Know Your Audience : Understand who will be consuming your research findings. Are they academics, business professionals, community members, or policymakers? Tailor your communication to their needs and interests.
• Engage Stakeholders : Actively engage with stakeholders throughout your research process. Involve them in discussions, share preliminary findings, and gather their input.
• Storytelling : Use the power of storytelling to convey your ethnographic insights. Share compelling anecdotes and narratives that resonate with your audience and illustrate key points.
• Visual Presentations : When presenting your findings in person, consider using visual aids like slideshows or posters. Ensure these visuals complement your spoken narrative.
• Interactive Workshops : Organize workshops or interactive sessions to engage your audience actively. Encourage discussions and collaboration to deepen understanding.
• Plain Language : Avoid jargon and academic language. Use plain language that is accessible to a broader audience. Explain technical terms when necessary.
• Feedback and Q&A : Be open to questions and feedback from your audience . Address their inquiries with clarity and patience.
• Actionable Insights : Highlight actionable insights your audience can use in their respective fields or decision-making processes. Emphasize the practical implications of your research.

Effective communication ensures that your ethnographic insights have a meaningful impact and can drive positive change in the areas to which they apply. It bridges the gap between research and real-world application.

In summary, reporting and presenting ethnographic findings is about translating your in-depth research into formats that are accessible, engaging, and relevant to your intended audience. Whether through written reports, visual elements, or interpersonal communication, the goal is to convey the richness of your ethnographic research in a compelling and informative manner.

Ethnographic Research Applications

Ethnographic research is a versatile and robust method that can be applied across various fields and disciplines. We'll delve into some applications of ethnographic research, shedding light on how it can provide valuable insights in diverse areas.

Marketing and Consumer Behavior Studies

Ethnographic research is pivotal in understanding consumer behavior , preferences, and decision-making processes. By immersing researchers in the consumer's world, it uncovers hidden motivations and contextual factors that drive choices. Here's how ethnographic research is applied in marketing:

• Consumer Insights : Ethnography allows marketers to gain deep insights into the daily lives, habits, and aspirations of their target audience. This understanding helps in tailoring products and marketing strategies.
• Observing Purchase Behaviors : Researchers can observe and analyze how consumers behave in real-life shopping situations . This includes tracking shopping patterns, in-store navigation, and product selections.
• Brand Perception : Ethnography uncovers how consumers perceive and interact with brands . It provides insights into brand loyalty, trust, and the emotional connections that drive consumer choices.
• Product Innovation : Ethnographic research can inspire product innovation by identifying unmet needs and opportunities. By witnessing how products fit into consumers' lives, companies can design solutions that truly resonate.
• Market Segmentation : Ethnographic insights enable the creation of more refined market segments based on actual behaviors and lifestyles rather than demographic data alone.

Healthcare and Medical Anthropology

Ethnographic research is instrumental in healthcare and medical anthropology, offering a holistic understanding of health-related practices, patient experiences, and cultural factors influencing health outcomes.

• Patient-Centered Care : Ethnographic studies explore patient perspectives, beliefs, and healthcare-seeking behaviors. This information helps healthcare providers offer patient-centered care that respects cultural norms and values.
• Cultural Competency : Healthcare professionals and policymakers use ethnographic insights to develop cultural competency, ensuring that healthcare services are sensitive to diverse cultural backgrounds.
• Public Health Interventions : Ethnographic research informs the design and implementation of public health interventions. It identifies barriers to health behavior change and effective strategies for outreach.
• Medical Decision-Making : Understanding how patients and families make medical decisions helps medical professionals communicate effectively and provide tailored care plans.
• Healthcare Disparities : Ethnography uncovers disparities in access to healthcare, highlighting social, economic, and cultural factors that impact health outcomes.

Education and Classroom Observations

In education, ethnographic research provides valuable insights into classroom dynamics, teaching methods, and student experiences. It helps educators and researchers improve educational practices.

• Understanding Learning Environments : Ethnography offers a window into the daily experiences of students and teachers in the classroom. Researchers can observe interactions, teaching styles, and learning challenges.
• Curriculum Development : Insights from ethnographic research can inform curriculum development by tailoring educational content to meet the needs and interests of students.
• Teacher-Student Relationships : Ethnography allows for the exploration of teacher-student relationships, identifying factors that enhance or hinder effective teaching and learning.
• Cultural Awareness : Teachers can benefit from ethnographic studies highlighting cultural diversity within classrooms. This awareness helps create inclusive and culturally sensitive teaching practices.
• Policy and Reform : Ethnographic research provides data that informs education policy and reforms. It helps policymakers understand the realities of classrooms and make evidence-based decisions.

Urban Planning and Community Development

Ethnographic research is vital in urban planning and community development initiatives, offering insights into the dynamics of neighborhoods, communities, and urban spaces.

• Community Engagement : Ethnography involves engaging with community members, listening to their concerns, and involving them in the planning process. This participatory approach fosters community buy-in and empowers residents.
• Understanding Neighborhoods : Researchers use ethnographic methods to understand the social, economic, and cultural dynamics of neighborhoods. This knowledge informs urban development projects and revitalization efforts.
• Public Spaces : Ethnography can shed light on how public spaces are used and experienced by residents. It guides the design of parks, plazas, and other community areas.
• Social Services : Ethnographic research helps identify social service needs within communities, allowing for targeted interventions and support programs.
• Cultural Preservation : In culturally diverse urban areas, ethnography assists in preserving and celebrating cultural traditions, languages, and heritage.

Ethnographic research empowers urban planners and community developers to create more vibrant, inclusive, and sustainable urban environments by considering the perspectives and needs of the people who inhabit them.

Ethnographic Research Examples

To truly grasp the power and potential of ethnographic research, let's delve into some compelling real-world examples where this methodology has been employed to gain profound insights and drive impactful decisions.

Example 1: Enhancing User Experience in a Social Media Platform

Research Focus : Improving the user experience (UX) of a popular social media platform.

Methodology : Ethnographers embedded themselves within the platform's user community. They observed how users interacted with the platform, from posting content to engaging with others. In-depth interviews and surveys were conducted to understand user preferences and pain points.

Findings : The ethnographic study revealed that users valued real-time interaction and visual content. However, they felt overwhelmed by the sheer volume of information. Armed with these insights, the platform redesigned its algorithms to prioritize relevant content and introduced features that encouraged more meaningful interactions. As a result, user engagement and satisfaction significantly increased.

Example 2: Transforming Healthcare Delivery in Rural Areas

Research Focus : Improving healthcare delivery in underserved rural communities.

Methodology : Ethnographic researchers spent months immersed in rural healthcare clinics. They observed patient journeys, interactions with healthcare providers, and the challenges faced by both patients and medical staff. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with community members.

Findings : The ethnographic study unveiled barriers such as limited access to transportation and healthcare information, which hindered timely medical care. Armed with these insights, healthcare organizations partnered with local transportation providers and launched educational outreach programs. These interventions led to improved healthcare access and better health outcomes for rural residents.

Example 3: Revitalizing an Urban Neighborhood

Research Focus : Revitalizing a declining urban neighborhood.

Methodology : Ethnographic researchers integrated themselves into the neighborhood's fabric, attending community events, engaging with residents, and documenting their daily lives. They also conducted surveys and interviews to understand the aspirations and concerns of residents.

Findings : The ethnographic study highlighted the importance of community pride and a desire for safer public spaces. With these insights, urban planners and community leaders initiated projects to refurbish parks, enhance street lighting, and promote local cultural events. These efforts not only transformed the neighborhood aesthetically but also fostered a sense of belonging and community cohesion.

These real-world examples demonstrate the versatility and impact of ethnographic research in diverse contexts. From digital platforms to healthcare and urban planning, ethnography uncovers hidden truths, informs strategic decisions, and drives positive change. It's a methodology that celebrates the human experience, one immersive observation at a time.

Ethnographic Research Best Practices

To overcome the challenges and maximize the effectiveness of ethnographic research, researchers can follow best practices that have evolved over time. These practices are instrumental in ensuring the quality and rigor of ethnographic studies.

• Clear Research Objectives : Begin with well-defined research objectives and questions to guide your study.
• Participant Observation : Immerse yourself in the research setting, actively engaging with participants and gaining their trust.
• Triangulation : Use multiple data sources and methods to enhance the reliability and validity of your findings.
• Ethical Considerations : Prioritize ethical conduct, obtain informed consent, and protect the privacy and dignity of participants.
• Continuous Reflexivity : Reflect on your role as a researcher and your potential biases throughout the research process.
• Transparency : Document your research methods, decisions, and any changes made during the study to ensure transparency and replicability.
• Member Checking : Consider involving participants in the research process by sharing findings with them and seeking their input.
• Pilot Testing : Pilot-test your data collection instruments and methods to identify and address potential issues.
• Data Management : Organize and manage your data systematically, using qualitative analysis software if needed.
• Collaboration : Collaborate with colleagues and seek peer feedback to enhance the quality of your research.
• Contextualization : Always place your findings in the broader cultural, social, and historical context to enhance their meaning and significance.
• Interdisciplinary Approach : Consider drawing from other disciplines and approaches to enrich your ethnographic research.

By adhering to these best practices, ethnographic researchers can navigate challenges and ensure the integrity and impact of their studies. Ethnography remains a dynamic and adaptable research method that continues to evolve and adapt to the complexities of the modern world.

Ethnographic Research Challenges and Limitations

While ethnographic research offers invaluable insights, it also presents unique challenges and limitations researchers must navigate. Understanding these challenges is essential to conduct ethnographic research effectively.

• Time-Intensive : Ethnographic research can be time-consuming, requiring extended periods of immersion and data collection. Researchers must commit to long-term fieldwork.
• Resource Demands : Conducting ethnography often demands significant resources, including funding, research assistants, and access to the research site.
• Subjectivity : The researcher's presence and subjectivity can influence the data collected. It's essential to acknowledge and manage biases and maintain objectivity.
• Access and Trust : Gaining access to certain communities or settings may be challenging, and building trust with participants can take time.
• Ethical Dilemmas : Ethnographic research may present ethical dilemmas, especially when observing sensitive or vulnerable populations. Researchers must navigate these ethical complexities.
• Generalizability : Ethnographic findings are often context-specific and may not be easily generalized to broader populations. Researchers must be cautious about overgeneralization.
• Limited Sample Size : Due to the intensive nature of ethnography, sample sizes tend to be small. This limits the statistical power of the research.
• Data Management : Managing and analyzing qualitative data from ethnographic research can be complex, requiring specialized skills and tools.
• Researcher Fatigue : Prolonged fieldwork can lead to researcher fatigue, potentially affecting the quality of data collected.
• Interpretation Challenges : Interpreting ethnographic data can be challenging, as it often involves qualitative analysis that may be open to multiple interpretations.

Conclusion for Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research serves as a powerful compass for exploring human cultures, behaviors, and societies. It enables researchers to step into the shoes of those they study, uncovering hidden stories and perspectives that might otherwise remain concealed. By embracing the principles and best practices outlined in this guide, you too can embark on journeys of discovery, fostering a deeper appreciation for the diverse world we inhabit. Ethnography is not merely a research method; it is a bridge that connects researchers to the lived experiences of others. It empowers us to break down barriers, foster empathy, and drive positive change in a multitude of fields. So, whether you are a student, a professional, or a curious explorer of the human condition, remember that ethnographic research offers a profound lens through which to view and understand the world around us. Embrace the journey, and may your ethnographic endeavors yield meaningful insights and lasting impacts.

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Ethnographic research as an evolving method for supporting healthcare improvement skills: a scoping review

Georgia b. black.

Department of Applied Health Research, UCL, London, UK

Sandra van Os

Samantha machen, naomi j. fulop, associated data.

All papers included in the review are listed in Additional file 4 and are publicly available from their publishers’ websites.

The relationship between ethnography and healthcare improvement has been the subject of methodological concern. We conducted a scoping review of ethnographic literature on healthcare improvement topics, with two aims: (1) to describe current ethnographic methods and practices in healthcare improvement research and (2) to consider how these may affect habit and skill formation in the service of healthcare improvement.

We used a scoping review methodology drawing on Arksey and O’Malley’s methods and more recent guidance. We systematically searched electronic databases including Medline, PsychINFO, EMBASE and CINAHL for papers published between April 2013 – April 2018, with an update in September 2019. Information about study aims, methodology and recommendations for improvement were extracted. We used a theoretical framework outlining the habits and skills required for healthcare improvement to consider how ethnographic research may foster improvement skills.

We included 274 studies covering a wide range of healthcare topics and methods. Ethnography was commonly used for healthcare improvement research about vulnerable populations, e.g. elderly, psychiatry. Focussed ethnography was a prominent method, using a rapid feedback loop into improvement through focus and insider status. Ethnographic approaches such as the use of theory and focus on every day practices can foster improvement skills and habits such as creativity, learning and systems thinking.

Conclusions

We have identified that a variety of ethnographic approaches can be relevant to improvement. The skills and habits we identified may help ethnographers reflect on their approaches in planning healthcare improvement studies and guide peer-review in this field. An important area of future research will be to understand how ethnographic findings are received by decision-makers.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12874-021-01466-9.

Research can help to support the practice of healthcare improvement, and identify ways to “improve improvement” [ 1 ]. Ethnography has been identified particularly as a research method that can show what happens routinely in healthcare, and reveal the ‘ what and how of improving patient care [ 2 ]. Ethnography is not one method, but a paradigm of mainly qualitative research involving direct observations of people and places, producing a written account of natural or everyday behaviours and ideas [ 3 ]. Ethnographic research can identify contextual barriers to healthcare improvement. For example, Waring and colleagues suggested that hospital discharge could be improved by allowing staff to have more opportunities for informal communication [ 4 ].

There have been advances in ethnographic methods that support its role in supporting healthcare improvement. Multi-site, collaborative modalities of ethnography have evolved that suit the networked nature of modern healthcare [ 5 ]. Similarly, rapid ethnographic approaches (e.g. Bentley et al. [ 6 ];) meet the needs of improvement activities to produce findings within short timeframes [ 7 ]. However, the production of sustained ethnographic fieldwork has waned in response to demands for rapid evidence [ 6 , 8 , 9 ]. Critics of rapid ethnographic methods worry that they are diluting ethnography within applied contexts more widely [ 5 , 10 ].

The relationship between ethnography and healthcare improvement has been the subject of methodological concern [ 8 ]. The first concern is that some research identified as ethnography does not fit within the ethnographic paradigm, merely collecting observational data without a theoretical analysis, interpretation or researcher reflexivity [ 11 ]. A second concern is whether the topics of ethnographic inquiry produce findings that are seen as useful for improvement [ 12 ], particularly if they do not make explicit recommendations or produce checklists [ 8 , 13 – 15 ]. Authors fear that ethnographic findings that capture complexity [ 16 ] and expose taken-for-granted behaviours and phenomena [ 14 , 17 ] may be too abstract to be relevant to healthcare improvement [ 8 ]. However, these critiques position ethnographic research as a product which may be taken up by healthcare improvers, rather than seeing ethnographic work itself as an improvement activity. We take the view that healthcare improvement aims to change human behaviour to improve patient care, and is therefore reliant on the development of particular skills and habits (such as good communication) [ 18 ]. We would consider that engaging in ethnographic research may support skill development and habit formation that serves healthcare improvement.

In the literature of ethnography in healthcare improvement, there is not much discussion of the close relationship between methodological features of ethnographic research, and their impact on improvement skills. The aim of this paper is twofold: (1) to describe current ethnographic methods and practices in healthcare improvement research and (2) to consider how these may affect habit and skill formation in the service of healthcare improvement [ 19 ].

This is a scoping review following the methods outlined by Arksey & O’Malley and later refined by Levac et al., [ 20 , 21 ] including a systematically conducted literature review and reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR; see Additional file 1 for PRISMA checklist). No protocol was published for this review. Our literature search and analyses were conducted iteratively, searching reference lists and undertaking discussions with colleagues about key lines of argument. We also held a workshop at Health Services Research UK conference in 2018 on this topic to gain a wide range of stakeholder views.

Systematic retrieval of empirical papers and purposive sampling

Our search strategy was designed to capture a wide range of approaches to ethnography from different journals, healthcare settings and types of research environment. It was not our aim to capture every study using this methodology, but to map the current field. Thus we did not search grey literature, books or monographs. The search strategy was developed and piloted in consultation with a health librarian. Medline (on OVID platform), PsychINFO, CINAHL and EMBASE databases were searched, and six journals were hand-searched, including: BMJ Quality & Safety, Social Science and Medicine, Medical Anthropology, Cochrane library, Sociology of Health and Illness and Implementation Science. These databases were searched between dates April 2013 – April 2018 and an update was performed in September 2019 using the search terms outlined in Additional file 2 . We limited the search to these dates in order to capture the most recent methodological characteristics of ethnographic studies in this field.

We screened titles and then abstracts according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria detailed in Table ​ Table1. 1 . We included studies which self-identified as using ethnography or ethnographic methods rather than using our own criteria. This is because ethnography can be hard to define, and use of criteria may risk excluding papers which exemplify the sorts of tensions and workarounds we are trying to capture.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The retrieved papers were screened by GB, SVO and SM based on inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). The total number of papers after screening titles, abstracts and full texts was 274 (Fig. ​ (Fig.1 1 ).

PRISMA statement of all references retrieved, screened and included in the scoping review

Numerical charting

Characteristics of each paper, such as title, authors, journal, year, country and healthcare subject area were extracted (see Table ​ Table2 2 ).

Characteristics of studies in review

a some studies have been allocated to more than one region

Thematic analysis and development

We coded all 274 papers using NVivo software for stated aims and recommendations. This included close reading, and retrieval of key ideas and quotations from the papers that exemplified key ideas in relation to healthcare improvement, methodology and the authors’ reflections on these. The coded extracts of aims and recommendation in conjunction with the closer reading of the sub-sample were used to inductively develop conceptual ideas, such as how the corpus of papers explicitly aimed to contribute to healthcare improvement, and if not, how this affected the types of conclusions drawn. Some papers were read in greater depth to understand how the authors’ methods related to their findings and conclusions. In order to consider how ethnography supports habits and skills associated with healthcare improvement, we drew on a framework which identifies five habits of ‘improvers’: creativity, learning, systems thinking, resilience and influencing [ 19 ]. Applying this model to our selected papers, we mapped traits or approaches to the ethnographic studies that exemplified these habits either in the authors, or as part of developing these habits in others (e.g. healthcare decision-makers and professionals). Thematic interpretations and lines of argument were generated and discussed by all the authors.

Overview of study characteristics

The included studies covered a wide range of ethnographic methodologies and healthcare subjects, published internationally (Table ​ (Table2) 2 ) in predominantly social science and clinical journals (see Additional file 3 ). The full list of the 274 included studies is available in Additional file 4 .

Most studies described themselves as an ‘ethnography’ or ‘ethnographic’, although some described their methodology as ‘mixed methods’ including ethnographic components. For example, Collet et al. conducted a mixed methods participatory action research study using observations to produce an “ethnographic description” [ 22 ].

Almost all studies relied on observation and interviews as the main data sources. It was not always specified whether researchers took a participant or non-participant approach to observation. There were some examples of other data sources e.g. video data, surveys, documents, field notes, diaries, and artefacts. A few examples contained a paucity of data, such as only video data [ 23 ], limited fieldwork [ 24 ], a small number of interviewees [ 25 ], or reliance on focus group data alone [ 26 ]. Methods associated with qualitative methodology (but not necessarily ethnographic) were also used, such as data ‘saturation’ to denote that additional data did not provide new insights into the topic [ 27 ].

There were a number of minority or unusual ethnographic variations:

• Quantitative ethnography [ 23 ]: temporal coding of physicians' workflow and interaction with the electronic health record system, and their patient.
• Cognitive ethnography [ 28 ]: “identifying and elaborating distributed cognitive processes that occur when an individual enacts purposeful improvements in a clinical context”.
• Street-level organizational ethnography [ 29 ]: intensive case study methods to explore the implications of healthcare policy at a street level.
• Phenomenological ethnographies [ 30 ]: focussing on the lived experience and meanings associated with a phenomenon.
• Geo-mapping [ 31 ]: geomapping of selected service data to define Latino immigrant community before conducting interviews and observations.

Use of different types of ethnography to support healthcare improvement

We found that many studies used methods that could identify issues relating to power and vulnerability, with potential relevance to how healthcare improvement problems are defined and solved, and by whom [ 1 ]. For example we noted a significant minority of studies using institutional and critical ethnography, mostly in vulnerable populations (see Table ​ Table3). 3 ). These studies were explicitly attentive to systems and power relations, rather than on individual practices. We suggest that the use of geographically-oriented methods such as geo-mapping and street-level organisational ethnography are also attentive to the power structures inherent in place and space, and could be relevant to other geographical healthcare improvement topics such as networked healthcare systems, care at home and patient travel for treatment.

Ethnographic methodology and its relevance to healthcare improvement

The high prevalence of ethnographic studies with vulnerable populations (e.g. psychiatry, end of life care) suggests that ethnography is also being conceptualised as an emancipatory method, reversing healthcare power structures in its focus. This has been a traditional focus of ethnography since social changes in power and representation in the 1970s, incorporated into the development of healthcare research methodology [ 40 , 41 ]. Some methods used were calculated to maximise the potential for supporting vulnerable groups, for example, Nightingale et al. [ 42 ] used focused ethnography (prolonged fieldwork in a small number of settings) to look at patient-professional interactions in paediatric chronic illness settings. The authors suggested that focussed ethnography is particularly suited to settings where fostering trust is essential. We would also suggest that ethnography may be particularly suited to settings in which participants are less able to verbalise their experiences.

The reviewed studies suggested that video ethnography can support healthcare improvement at a team level. For example, Stevens et al. [ 43 ] promoted video ethnography as a way to capture in-depth data on intimate interactions, in their study of elective caesareans. The video data allowed them to make use of timing data (e.g. of certain actions), physical positioning of different actors and equipment, and verbatim dialogue recording. The video data also suited the technical nature of the procedure, which was relatively time-limited. This form of data collection may not suit environments where healthcare activities are more spread out.

The impact of healthcare practitioner involvement in ethnographic fieldwork and findings

We noted that the use of ethnography for healthcare improvement has led to healthcare practitioners’ widespread involvement in data collection or analysis. We suggest that this is a form of negotiation across the healthcare-academia boundary, translating from ‘real world’ to data and back again. This has potential to create rich and relevant ethnographic studies that are geared towards improvement. However, some studies were undermined by a lack of reflexivity about the dual practitioner-ethnographer role.

A significant number of papers involved healthcare practitioners in fieldwork (e.g. Abdulrehman, 2017, Hoare et al. 2013; [ 37 , 44 ]). For example in Hoare et al. the lead researcher was a nurse, and wrote that they hoped “to bring both an emic and etic perspective to the data collection by bracketing my emic sense of self as a nurse practitioner in order to become a participant observer within my own general practice ” [ 37 ]. In this study, the findings fed directly into local service improvement as the lead researcher felt compelled to “share new ‘best practice’ information and join in the conversation.” There was little discussion about how this affected the generalisability of the findings, and whether their recommendations were adopted.

Similarly, Bergenholz et al. [ 45 ] conducted a study where a nursing researcher completed the main fieldwork and “assisted the nurses with practical care .” They acknowledged that “This may have caused limitations with regards to ‘blind spots’ in the nursing practice, but that it also gave access to a field that might be difficult for ‘outside-outsiders’ to gain .” However, there was no commentary on where the blind spots or extra access occurred, and how this may have affected the relevance and dissemination of their findings.

How might ethnography support healthcare improvement habits?

In this section, we evaluate the studies included in the review in terms of how their methods relate to improvement. We draw on the idea that successful improvement is based on a set of habits and their related skills acquired through experience and practice [ 19 ]. This section is structured around Lucas’s five habits of ‘improvers’: creativity, learning, systems thinking, resilience and influencing [ 19 ]. Under those headings, we describe the mechanisms by which ethnographic studies can support healthcare improvement habits, using illustrative examples.

Resilience is defined as being adaptable, particularly tolerating calculated risks and uncertainty, and proceeding with optimism. Being able to recover from adverse events is core to improvement, reframing them as opportunities. Adaptation and the ability to bounce back from adverse events and variation are core to improvement.

Tolerating the uncertainty of ethnographic data collection

While we did not relate these traits to any particular ethnographic approach in our studies, we would consider that undertaking any ethnographic project requires resilience, as data collection is inherently exploratory and uncertain. For example, Belanger et al. wanted to know how health care providers and their patients approach patient participation in palliative care decisions. The authors explicitly eschewed the pull to create guidelines or other formalised knowledge, but aimed to explore the “unforeseen and somewhat unavoidable ways in which discursive practices prompt or impede patient participation during these interactions.” [ 46 ]

Creativity is defined as working together to encourage fresh thinking by generating ideas and thinking critically.

Using a theoretical lens

Researchers may consider healthcare through a particular theory or framework (e.g. private ordering [ 47 ], masculine discourse [ 48 ], compassion [ 49 ]). The restriction of the theoretical lens enables critical thinking, and keeps the ethnographer creatively engaged. For example, Mylopoulos & Farhat [ 28 ] used the concept of adaptive expertise in a cognitive ethnography to explore “the phenomenon of purposeful improvement” in a teaching hospital. This theoretical lens revealed that clinicians were engaging in “invisible” improvement in their daily work, in “specific activities such as scheduling, establishing patient relationships, designing physical space and building supporting resources”. The authors suggested that these practices were devalued in comparison to more formal improvement activities, justifying the utility of the ‘adaptive expertise’ theory in bringing the daily improvement practices to light.

Challenging current problems and perspectives

We identified studies that challenged or reframed existing improvement problems e.g. Mishra [ 50 ]. This role removes the ‘blinkers’ of improvement research [ 51 ], and can ‘dissolve’ previously intractable implementation problems. For example, Boonan et al. [ 52 ] studied the practice of bar-coded medication from the perspective of nurses using the intervention. In their discussion, the authors challenge the assumption that if you introduce technology, then you will mitigate human factor risks. They highlighted that external pressures on hospitals perpetuate this perspective, and that “nurses and patients are consequently drawn into this discourse and institutional ruling, to which they are not oblivious”. Their recommendation was to understand the skills of nurses in tailoring technology to meet individual patients’ needs rather than trusting in systems blindly.

Learning is defined as harnessing curiosity and using reflective processes to extract meaning from experience.

Inviting reflection

We noted that some studies did not make explicit recommendations for improvement, but wrote their findings in a manner that would invite reflection on its subject matter. For example, Thomas & Latimer [ 53 ] wrote that they view their role as provocateurs of new ideas, stating that their intention “is not to propose specific policies or discourses designed to change or improve practice. More modestly, we hope that by analysing the everyday and by theorising the mundane, this article will ignite reflexive, ethical and pluralistic dialogues – and so better communication between practitioners, parents and the wider lay public – around reproductive technologies and medical conditions” (authors’ underline; p.951-2) [ 53 ]. Others such as Mackintosh et al [ 54 ] used their discussion section to examine their results in the context of other theories and provide illumination: “Our focus on trajectories illuminates the physiological process of birth and the unfolding pathology of illness (and death). This frame provides a means for us to link the agency of those involved in organising the care of acutely ill patients with the wider socio-political factors beyond the clinic, such as governmentality and risk (Heyman 2010, Waring 2007), death brokering (Timmermans 2005) and the medicalisation of birth and death (De Vries 1981).” (p.264). These two examples show that ethnographic work can be offered as an opportunity for learning and reflection, without a translation to specific recommendations.

Supporting a more ethical, expansive, inclusive, and participatory mode of healthcare

Problem-finding is highlighted as an important part of learning in improvement [ 19 ]. Several studies paid attention to multivocality and power, using this to find problematic, unethical and exclusive practices in healthcare. For example, some studies reported previously unheard viewpoints [ 55 – 57 ], or identified restrictive organisational barriers and normative assumptions [ 58 , 59 ]. Others promoted ethnography as a way of exploring ethics and morality [ 47 , 60 , 61 ], such as criticising research that prioritizes the needs of individuals over the good of society [ 62 ]. Ross et al. [ 63 ] suggested that it is also more ethical to use critical ethnography than other evaluative methods in researching vulnerable populations (e.g. neurological illness), by being able to “explore perceived political and emancipatory implications, [clarify] existing power differentials and [maintain] an explicit focus on action” .

Some studies directly researched power within the healthcare setting. For example, Batch and Windsor’s study of nursing workforce suggested that senior nurse leaders should use their positions to advocate for better working conditions [ 35 ], “ Manageable nurse/patient ratios, flexible patient-centred work models, equal opportunity for advancement, skill development for all and unit teamwork promotion”. Challenging traditional cultural assumptions that have produced and reproduced stereotypes is problematic because they most often are, by their very nature, invisible. In a more critical approach, Gesbeck’s thesis [ 62 ] on diabetes care work challenges the very mechanism of achieving healthcare improvement through research, stating that “we need to change the social and political context in which health care policy is made. This requires social change that prioritizes the good of the society over the good of the individual—a position directly opposed to the current system oriented toward profit and steeped in the ideology of personal responsibility.”

Systems thinking

Systems thinking is defined as seeing whole systems as well as their parts and recognising complex relationships, connections and interdependencies.

Suggesting reorientation to new ‘problem’ areas

We found that many ethnographic studies emphasised skills of synthesis and connection-making, reorienting improvement to different areas, for example in overarching policy recommendations (e.g. Hughes [ 36 ]; Liu et al. [ 64 ], Matinga et al. [ 65 ]), or resetting priorities. For example, Manias’ [ 66 ] ethnography of communication relating to family members' involvement in medication management in hospital suggests that “greater attention should be played on health professionals initiating communication in proactive ways ” [p.865]. In another example, Cable-Williams & Wilson’s (2017) focussed ethnography captures cultural factors within long-term care facilities. Their discussion suggests that acknowledgement of death is under-represented in front-line practice and government policy, reorienting discussions towards an integration of living and dying care.

Exposing hidden practices within the everyday

We found that several studies drew attention to ‘hidden’ practices in healthcare work, allowing them to evaluated and improved. For example, we found reference to practices such as coordinating [ 67 ], repair [ 68 ], caretaking [ 69 ], scaffolding [ 68 ], tinkering [ 52 ] and bricolage [ 58 ]. We also found that some studies had new interpretations of ‘the everyday’ or ‘taken-for-granted’ (e.g. nursing culture [ 34 , 35 , 45 , 70 ], interprofessional practice [ 67 , 71 – 75 ]). Authors’ outputs included frameworks [ 76 ] or models [ 69 , 71 , 77 , 78 ] that map these types of practices in a way that is helpful for intervention development or quality improvement. For example, Mackintosh et al. [ 54 ] looked at rescue practices in medical wards and maternity care settings using Strauss’s concept of the patient trajectory. Their findings highlighted the risks inherent in the wider social practices of hospital care, and suggested that improvement was needed at a level “beyond individual and team processes and technical safety solutions.”

Influencing

Influencing is defined as engaging others and gaining buy-in using a range of facilitative processes.

Direct translation of findings to targets for improvement

Lucas suggests that to be influential, ethnographic studies need to have some empathy with clinical reality, whilst being facilitative and comfortable with conflict [ 19 ]. This was shown in ethnographic studies that made pragmatic recommendations, such as in Jensen’s study of clinical simulation. They advised that simulation might be useful in staging “adverse event scenarios with a view to creating more controlled and safer environments.” ( 80). In MacKichan et al. [ 79 ] observations and interviews were used to understand how primary care access influenced decisions to seek help at the emergency department. The authors made empathic, actionable recommendations such as “ simplifying appointments systems and communicating mechanisms to patients.” (p.10).

Evaluating the context of healthcare improvement

By capturing contextual and social aspects of healthcare improvement, ethnographic evaluations can support leaders and managers who are trying to implement improvement activities. This is a particularly helpful trait in ethnographic studies that pay attention to politics, governance and social theory in their evaluation of new interventions, “zooming out” [ 80 ] beyond the patient-clinician interaction to broader social networks. For example, Tietbohl et al. [ 81 ] investigated the difficulties of implementing a patient decision support intervention (DESI) in primary care through the theoretical lens of relational coordination between “physician and clinical staff groups (healthcare professionals)”. The authors’ recommended attention to the “underlying barriers such as the relational dynamics in a medical clinic or healthcare organization” when creating policies and programs that support shared decision-making using support interventions. This sort of insight can make it more likely that new policies or interventions will succeed. This skill was particularly fertile in the tradition of techno-anthropology, exploring technology-induced errors and the real-world interaction between people and technology, e.g. decision-support tools [ 81 – 86 ], the introduction of robot caregivers [ 87 ] and clinical simulations [ 88 ]. Other approaches included an investigation of one intervention or change but with a theoretical lens of inquiry.

Summary of findings

This scoping review has identified the methodological characteristics of 5 years of published papers that self-identify as ethnography or ethnographic in the field of healthcare improvement. Ethnography is currently a popular research method in a wide range of healthcare topics, particularly in psychiatry, e.g. mental health, dementia and experiential concerns such as quality of life. Focused ethnography is a significant sub-group in healthcare, suggesting that messages about the importance of research timeliness have taken hold [ 89 ].

We have identified ethnographic methods reported in these papers, and considered their utility in developing skills and habits that support healthcare improvement. Specific practices associated with the ethnographic paradigm can encourage good habits (resilience, creativity, learning, systems thinking and influencing) in healthcare, which can support improvement. For example, using relevant theories to look at every day work in healthcare can foster creativity. The use of critical and institutional ethnography could increase skills in ‘systems thinking’ by critically evaluating how healthcare improvement problems are defined and solved, and by whom.

Comparison with previous literature

This scoping review is the first to consider how current ethnographic methods and practices may relate to healthcare improvement. Within the paradigm of applied healthcare research, there is normative value in being ‘useful’ or ‘impactful’ in our research, which affects our prospects for funding and career success [ 12 ]. However, our review has uncovered a multitude of ways that an ethnographic study can be useful in relation to healthcare improvement, without creating actionable findings. We found a spectrum of interactions with healthcare improvement: some authors explicitly eschewed recommendations or clinical implications; others made imperative statements about required changes to policy or practice. However, this diversity was not necessarily a reflection on how ‘traditional’ the ethnographic methodology was. This challenges the paper by Leslie et al. which puts ethnographic studies in two output categories with respect to healthcare improvement: critique versus feedback [ 8 ]. Instead, we uncovered a variety of ways that ethnography can support healthcare improvement habits, such as encouraging reflection, problem-finding and exposing hidden practices in healthcare.

We did find that supporting healthcare improvement through ethnographic research can require strategic effort, however. For example, we noted that several authors wrote multiple articles based on the same project, often for different types of journal to reach different audiences such as diverse readerships in health services and academic settings. For example, Collier and colleagues published two papers based on a video ethnography of end-of-life care (both in 2016), one in a healthcare quality journal [ 32 ] and one in a qualitative research journal [ 76 ]. The former is shorter, with explicit recommendations for patient safety, whereas the latter is longer, has more detailed results and long sections on reflexivity. Similarly, Grant published an article in a sociology journal [ 90 ] and a healthcare improvement paper [ 91 ] on the same work about medication safety. The sociological paper covered “spatio-temporal elements of articulation work” whereas the other put forward “key stages” and risks, suggesting that it was more closely oriented to improvement.

There have been some considerable debates about changes in ethnographic methods and tools, with concerns about lost researcher identity, dilution of the method, and challenges to “upholding ethnographic integrity” [ 92 ] . We contest this, suggesting that new variants such as focussed and cognitive ethnography are evolving in response to the complexity of hospitals and healthcare [ 93 ], while also being highly regulated, standardised and ordered by biomedicine. Such complex environments cannot be studied and improved under one paradigm alone. Ethnographic identity and method have also been affected by the cross-pollination of ethnography with other social science paradigms and applied environments (e.g. clinical trials, technology development). Debates about theoretical and methodological choices are not only made merely with respect to healthcare improvement, but also in response to professional pressures (e.g. university requirements for impact) [ 12 ], and the mores of taste situated within the overlapping communities of practice that evaluate ethnographic healthcare research [ 94 ]. That said, we echo previous authors’ calls for attention to reflexivity, particularly in embedded or clinician-as-researcher roles [ 95 ].

Our scoping review challenges a previously expressed concern that ethnographic studies may not produce findings that are useful for improvement [ 10 , 12 , 16 ]. By considering different ethnographic designs in relation to skills and habits needed for improvement, we have shown that studies need not necessarily produce ‘actionable findings’ in order to make a valuable contribution. Instead, we would characterise ethnography’s role in the canon of healthcare research methodologies as a way of enhancing improvement habits such as comfort with conflict, problem-finding and connection-making.

Strengths and limitations

This review has a number of limitations. The search may not have found all relevant studies, however the retrieved papers are intended as an exemplar rather than an exhaustive or aggregative review. The review is also limited to journal articles as evidence of researchers’ approach to improvement. This ignores many other ‘offline’ and ‘online’ activities such as meetings, presentations, blogs, books, and websites, which are conducted to disseminate findings and ideas. Our reliance on self-report for the identification of ethnographic studies will have excluded some studies within an ethnographic paradigm who chose different terms for their methodology (e.g. critical inquiry, case study). The strengths of this paper are its comprehensive coverage, incorporating all representative studies in healthcare research published within a five year period, and a wide range of ethnographic sub-types and healthcare subjects, drawn from an international pool of research communities.

We did not prescribe the right way for ethnographers to engage in healthcare improvement, indeed, we have identified that a variety of approaches can be relevant to improvement. The habits we identified may help ethnographers reflect on their approaches in planning healthcare improvement studies and guide peer-review in this field. Issues of taste, traditionalism and researcher identity need to be scrutinised in favour of value and audience. An important area of future research will be to understand how ethnographic findings are received by decision-makers, and further focused reviews on the relationship(s) between ethnographic methods, quality improvement skills and improvement outcomes.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Lorelei Jones, Natalie Armstrong, Justin Waring and Bill Lucas for their insightful comments and direction in the undertaking of this work.

Authors’ contributions

NJF and GB led the development and conceptualization of this scoping review and provided guidance on methods and design of the scoping review. GB, SVO and SM made contributions to study search, study screening, and all data extraction work. All authors analysed the data. All authors contributed to the writing and editing of the paper, and all authors have read and approved the manuscript.

This paper is independent research funded by the National Institute for Health Research CLAHRC North Thames. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the National Institute for Health Research or the Department of Health and Social Care.

NJF is an NIHR Senior Investigator. GB is supported by the Health Foundation’s grant to the University of Cambridge for The Healthcare Improvement Studies Institute.

Availability of data and materials

Declarations.

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

The original online version of this article was revised: due to incorrect figure 1 and the number of included papers need to be changed from "283" to "274".

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Change history

A Correction to this paper has been published: 10.1186/s12874-022-01587-9