difference between single and multiple case study

• Corpus ID: 19081372

Single case studies vs. multiple case studies: A comparative study

• Johanna Gustafsson
• Published 2017

Tables from this paper

323 Citations

Categorization of case in case study research method: new approach, rigour in the management case study method: a study on master's dissertations, what is a case study, grounded theory: a guide for exploratory studies in management research.

• Highly Influenced

Cross-Platform Mobile App Development in Industry: A Multiple Case-Study

Integrating strategic planning and performance management in universities: a multiple case-study analysis, advantages and disadvantages of using qualitative and quantitative approaches and methods in language, a review of the participant observation method in journalism: designing and reporting.

• 12 Excerpts

Managing Platform Business Growth: A Case Study of TikTok

A multiple case design for the investigation of information management processes for work-integrated learning., 58 references, what is a case study and what is it good for.

• Highly Influential

A Case in Case Study Methodology

Qualitative case study guidelines, methodology or method a critical review of qualitative case study reports., persuasion with case studies, a typology for the case study in social science following a review of definition, discourse, and structure, what are case studies good for nesting comparative case study research into the lakatosian research program, case study research design and methods, better stories and better constructs: the case for rigor and comparative logic.

• 10 Excerpts

Case Study Research

Related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

Hayden Coombs

my blog. my portfolio. my life.

Case Study Research: Single or Multiple?

Https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7106698.

Definition of a Case Study

A case study is a methodological research approach used to generate an in-depth understanding of a contemporary issue or phenomenon in a bounded system.

A case study is one of the most widely used and accepted means of qualitative research methods in the social sciences (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2022). The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context (Crowe et al., 2011). Case studies provide researchers with an opportunity for greater depth of understanding of an issue (Stake, 2010). The case study design is preferred as a research strategy when “how,” “why,” and “what” questions are the interest of the researcher (Yin, 2018).

The two most prominent case study scholars are Robert E. Stake and Robert K. Yin. While case study research has been conducted for some time, Stake established accepted procedures for case study research in 1995 and has produced numerous articles and books about case study methodology and analysis. Two of Stake’s works that continue to impact the academic community are his books, “The Art of Case Study Research,” and, “Multiple Case Study Analysis.” Yin emerged as a leading scholar in case study research and is still producing academic literature today, as he utilizes both quantitative and qualitative approaches to the methodology. Yin’s significant contributions to the development of case study research includes the titles, “Case Study Research and Applications: Designs and Methods,” “Applications of Case Study Research,” and, “The Case Study Anthology.”

Characteristics of a Case Study

• The identification of a case is bounded (a case within a bounded system, which means what is being studied can be defined or described within specific parameters (Creswell & Poth, 2018). A case must be bounded by time and place.
• A case study should provide an in-depth understanding of the case.
• Data is collected through various means, including interviews, focus groups, field notes, documents, autobiographies, historical documents, videos, and more.
• Data analysis differs depending on the case under study. In fact, many case studies are both qualitative and quantitative.
• The successful identification of themes is critical to producing effective descriptions in case study research.
• Case studies offer conclusions provided by the researcher regarding the meaning derived from the case and are important because case studies have continuity in nature.

Types of Case Studies

Case studies are typically defined by the intent of the case analysis. There are three types of case studies: (single) instrumental case study, collective (multiple) case study, and intrinsic case study.

In a single instrumental case study, the researcher focuses on an issue or concern and then selects one bounded case to illustrate the issue (Creswell & Poth, 2018). If the researcher only wants to study one single thing (such as single person from a specific group) or a single group (for example a specific group of people within a bounded system), a single case study is the best choice (Yin, 2017).

In a multiple case study. the researcher selects multiple cases to illustrate the one issue or concern (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Multiple case studies can be used to either augur contrasting results for expected reasons or augur similar results in the studies (Yin, 2017).

In an intrinsic case study, the focus is on the case itself because the case presents a unique situation, thus resembling the focus of narrative research but maintaining the analytic procedures of a case study (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Bloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2022).  Completing your qualitative dissertation: A road map from beginning to end . SAGE.

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018).  Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches . SAGE.

Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A., Huby, G., Avery, A., & Sheikh, A. (2011). The case study approach.  BMC medical research methodology ,  11 , 100.  https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-100 .

Stake, R. E. (2010).  The art of case study research . SAGE.

Yin, R. K. (2018).  Case Study Research and Applications: Designs and Methods  (6th ed.). Sage.

Share this:

• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Tumblr (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Pocket (Opens in new window)
• Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)
• Click to print (Opens in new window)

Published by Hayden Coombs

Communication professor interested in a little of everything. My passions include: sports, journalism, human communication, parenting and family, teaching, academia, religion, politics, higher education, and athletic administration. View more posts

Leave a comment Cancel reply

• Already have a WordPress.com account? Log in now.
• Subscribe Subscribed
• Copy shortlink
• Report this content
• View post in Reader
• Manage subscriptions
• Collapse this bar

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Research Guides

Multiple Case Studies

Nadia Alqahtani and Pengtong Qu

Description

The case study approach is popular across disciplines in education, anthropology, sociology, psychology, medicine, law, and political science (Creswell, 2013). It is both a research method and a strategy (Creswell, 2013; Yin, 2017). In this type of research design, a case can be an individual, an event, or an entity, as determined by the research questions. There are two variants of the case study: the single-case study and the multiple-case study. The former design can be used to study and understand an unusual case, a critical case, a longitudinal case, or a revelatory case. On the other hand, a multiple-case study includes two or more cases or replications across the cases to investigate the same phenomena (Lewis-Beck, Bryman & Liao, 2003; Yin, 2017). …a multiple-case study includes two or more cases or replications across the cases to investigate the same phenomena

The difference between the single- and multiple-case study is the research design; however, they are within the same methodological framework (Yin, 2017). Multiple cases are selected so that “individual case studies either (a) predict similar results (a literal replication) or (b) predict contrasting results but for anticipatable reasons (a theoretical replication)” (p. 55). When the purpose of the study is to compare and replicate the findings, the multiple-case study produces more compelling evidence so that the study is considered more robust than the single-case study (Yin, 2017).

To write a multiple-case study, a summary of individual cases should be reported, and researchers need to draw cross-case conclusions and form a cross-case report (Yin, 2017). With evidence from multiple cases, researchers may have generalizable findings and develop theories (Lewis-Beck, Bryman & Liao, 2003).

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Lewis-Beck, M., Bryman, A. E., & Liao, T. F. (2003). The Sage encyclopedia of social science research methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Yin, R. K. (2017). Case study research and applications: Design and methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Key Research Books and Articles on Multiple Case Study Methodology

Yin discusses how to decide if a case study should be used in research. Novice researchers can learn about research design, data collection, and data analysis of different types of case studies, as well as writing a case study report.

Chapter 2 introduces four major types of research design in case studies: holistic single-case design, embedded single-case design, holistic multiple-case design, and embedded multiple-case design. Novice researchers will learn about the definitions and characteristics of different designs. This chapter also teaches researchers how to examine and discuss the reliability and validity of the designs.

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2017). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches . Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

This book compares five different qualitative research designs: narrative research, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study. It compares the characteristics, data collection, data analysis and representation, validity, and writing-up procedures among five inquiry approaches using texts with tables. For each approach, the author introduced the definition, features, types, and procedures and contextualized these components in a study, which was conducted through the same method. Each chapter ends with a list of relevant readings of each inquiry approach.

This book invites readers to compare these five qualitative methods and see the value of each approach. Readers can consider which approach would serve for their research contexts and questions, as well as how to design their research and conduct the data analysis based on their choice of research method.

Günes, E., & Bahçivan, E. (2016). A multiple case study of preservice science teachers’ TPACK: Embedded in a comprehensive belief system. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 11 (15), 8040-8054.

In this article, the researchers showed the importance of using technological opportunities in improving the education process and how they enhanced the students’ learning in science education. The study examined the connection between “Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge” (TPACK) and belief system in a science teaching context. The researchers used the multiple-case study to explore the effect of TPACK on the preservice science teachers’ (PST) beliefs on their TPACK level. The participants were three teachers with the low, medium, and high level of TPACK confidence. Content analysis was utilized to analyze the data, which were collected by individual semi-structured interviews with the participants about their lesson plans. The study first discussed each case, then compared features and relations across cases. The researchers found that there was a positive relationship between PST’s TPACK confidence and TPACK level; when PST had higher TPACK confidence, the participant had a higher competent TPACK level and vice versa.

Recent Dissertations Using Multiple Case Study Methodology

Milholland, E. S. (2015). A multiple case study of instructors utilizing Classroom Response Systems (CRS) to achieve pedagogical goals . Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 3706380)

The researcher of this study critiques the use of Classroom Responses Systems by five instructors who employed this program five years ago in their classrooms. The researcher conducted the multiple-case study methodology and categorized themes. He interviewed each instructor with questions about their initial pedagogical goals, the changes in pedagogy during teaching, and the teaching techniques individuals used while practicing the CRS. The researcher used the multiple-case study with five instructors. He found that all instructors changed their goals during employing CRS; they decided to reduce the time of lecturing and to spend more time engaging students in interactive activities. This study also demonstrated that CRS was useful for the instructors to achieve multiple learning goals; all the instructors provided examples of the positive aspect of implementing CRS in their classrooms.

Li, C. L. (2010). The emergence of fairy tale literacy: A multiple case study on promoting critical literacy of children through a juxtaposed reading of classic fairy tales and their contemporary disruptive variants . Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 3572104)

To explore how children’s development of critical literacy can be impacted by their reactions to fairy tales, the author conducted a multiple-case study with 4 cases, in which each child was a unit of analysis. Two Chinese immigrant children (a boy and a girl) and two American children (a boy and a girl) at the second or third grade were recruited in the study. The data were collected through interviews, discussions on fairy tales, and drawing pictures. The analysis was conducted within both individual cases and cross cases. Across four cases, the researcher found that the young children’s’ knowledge of traditional fairy tales was built upon mass-media based adaptations. The children believed that the representations on mass-media were the original stories, even though fairy tales are included in the elementary school curriculum. The author also found that introducing classic versions of fairy tales increased children’s knowledge in the genre’s origin, which would benefit their understanding of the genre. She argued that introducing fairy tales can be the first step to promote children’s development of critical literacy.

Asher, K. C. (2014). Mediating occupational socialization and occupational individuation in teacher education: A multiple case study of five elementary pre-service student teachers . Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 3671989)

This study portrayed five pre-service teachers’ teaching experience in their student teaching phase and explored how pre-service teachers mediate their occupational socialization with occupational individuation. The study used the multiple-case study design and recruited five pre-service teachers from a Midwestern university as five cases. Qualitative data were collected through interviews, classroom observations, and field notes. The author implemented the case study analysis and found five strategies that the participants used to mediate occupational socialization with occupational individuation. These strategies were: 1) hindering from practicing their beliefs, 2) mimicking the styles of supervising teachers, 3) teaching in the ways in alignment with school’s existing practice, 4) enacting their own ideas, and 5) integrating and balancing occupational socialization and occupational individuation. The study also provided recommendations and implications to policymakers and educators in teacher education so that pre-service teachers can be better supported.

Multiple Case Studies Copyright © 2019 by Nadia Alqahtani and Pengtong Qu is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved September 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

Single Case Versus Multiple Case Studies

One of Yin's dimensions for classifying case studies involves single-case versus multiple-case studies. In some instances, only a single-case study is necessary or at times even possible; this is true when a unique case comes along that presents a valuable source of information. For example, a social scientist wanting to explore the emotional impact of a national tragedy on elementary-school children might choose to study the Challenger space shuttle disaster or the World Trade Center attacks, as a single-case study.

Eminent Russian psychologist Aleksandr Luria, in his book The Mind of a Mnemonist: A Little Book About a Vast Memory (1968), has, in a most engaging style, described a single-case (holistic) study. The case involved a man by the name of Shereshevskii (identified in the book as subject "S") who possessed an extraordinary memory. Luria began to observe "S" systematically in the 1920's, after "S" had asked him to test his memory. Luria was so astounded by the man's ability to study information for brief periods of time and then repeat it back to him without an error that he continued to observe and test "S" over the following thirty years. Luria was convinced that this man possessed one of the best memories ever studied.

Because of the nature of the phenomenon—an unusually vast memory— and the fact that this man was capable of performing memory feats never before witnessed, a single-case (holistic) study was begun. When studying rare phenomena, as in this instance, it is not possible to find the number of subjects typically required for an experiment; thus, the case-study approach presents the best alternative. Over the ensuing thirty years, Luria carefully documented the results of literally hundreds of memory feats. In some instances, Luria presented "S" with a list of words to memorize and asked him to recall them immediately. At other times, without any forewarning, Luria asked "S" to recall words from lists given more than fifteen years before. In most of these instances, "S" recalled the list with only a few errors. Luria commented on much more than the results of these memory tests; he also carefully studied the personality of "S." Luria wanted to understand him as a whole person, not only as a person with a great memory. Closely involved with his subject, Luria personally gave the instructions and collected the data. Whereas the data from the memory tasks provided some degree of objectivity to the study, most of the information came from the subjective observations and judgments made by Luria himself. The study was reported in a book-length narrative.

Continue reading here: Self Instructional Training

Was this article helpful?

Related Posts

• The Forebrain - Psychology Basics
• Reasons for Using Animal Subjects
• Psychological Moratorium - Psychology Basics
• Functional Autonomy and Personal Dispositions
• Strengths and Weaknesses - Psychology Basics

Readers' Questions

What is the differences between single case and multiple case study designs?

A single case study design is an intensive investigation of one person, group, or event. It has the aim of creating an in-depth, holistic understanding of the case. Single case study designs often involve observations, interviews, and document reviews to explore the case study in detail. A multiple case study design is a type of research methodology which seeks to study several cases in the same context. These studies involve multiple cases that are studied over a period of time, and they are often used to compare cases to one another. Multiple case study designs allow researchers to explore similarities and differences between the cases, and to evaluate the effects of context on different outcomes. They also provide an opportunity to study the impact of data collection methods, as multiple cases are more likely to yield robust results due to sample size.

What are the difference between single case and multple case study designs?

Single case study designs focus on a single individual, group, or site, while multiple case studies involve the study of two or more individuals, groups, or sites. In single case studies, the researcher is attempting to understand a particular phenomenon in-depth, often by collecting qualitative data. In multiple case studies, the researcher may be attempting to compare different cases and assess whether variables relating to them differ. Multiple case studies involve analyzing and comparing data from multiple studies to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.

What is (are) the difference(s) between single case and multiple case study designs?

Scope: Single case study designs focus on a single unit of analysis, while multiple case study designs involve multiple units of analysis. Nature: Single case studies usually involve an in-depth investigation of an individual case or a limited number of cases, while multiple case studies involve investigating a wider range of cases. Data Collection: Single case studies involve gathering data on a single unit of analysis, while multiple case studies involve collecting data from multiple sources or locations. Generalizability: Single case studies are not very generalizable, while multiple case studies can provide more generalizable results. Study Length: Single case studies are usually shorter than multiple case studies. Purpose: Single case studies typically have a descriptive purpose, while multiple case studies can have a more explanatory purpose.

What is the difference between single case and multiple case study designs?

Single case study designs involve an in-depth examination of one or a few people, places, events, or phenomena. This type of research often focuses on understanding a particular situation or event in-depth. It is useful when an overview of a phenomenon is needed or when the researcher cannot study a larger number of cases because of time constraints or limited resources. Multiple case study designs involve looking at several people, places, events, or phenomena simultaneously. This type of research provides a broader perspective and can reveal patterns or relationships among different cases that may not be seen in a single case. It is useful when there is a need to understand the broader context in which certain phenomena occur. Multiple case studies also allow for comparison and contrast of different cases, which can provide more insight into a particular situation or event.

What is the difference between single case study design and multiple Case research design?

Single case study design is an in-depth exploration of a single entity or phenomenon. This type of research design allows researchers to gain an understanding of a phenomenon through an extended, detailed analysis of a single case. Multiple case research design is a research design in which multiple cases are studied and analyzed in order to draw more general conclusions. It is a method used to explore complex phenomena when single case studies are not enough to provide an understanding of the phenomenon. Multiple cases give researchers the ability to examine broader dimensions and to consider more contextual factors that might be influencing the phenomenon.

What are the differences between single case and multiple case study design?

Single case study design: A single case study design focuses on a single individual, group, or event. It involves collecting data from a single source, such as an interview or observation, over a limited period of time. This type of study is used when the researcher has a specific research question or hypothesis in mind. Multiple case study design: A multiple case study design involves collecting data from multiple sources, such as interviews or observations, over a longer period of time. It can involve collecting data from different individuals, groups, or events and comparing them to each other. This type of study is used when the researcher has a broader research question or hypothesis and wants to better understand the complexity of the issue.

SINGLE CASE STUDIES VS. MULTIPLE CASE STUDIES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY - DIVA PORTAL

• Download HTML
• Download PDF

• Health & Fitness

• Style & Fashion

• Food & Drink

• Uncategorized

• Government & Politics

• IT & Technique

• Home & Garden

• Cars & Machinery

• Current Events

• World Around

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Perspective
• Published: 22 November 2022

Single case studies are a powerful tool for developing, testing and extending theories

• Lyndsey Nickels   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0311-3524 1 , 2 ,
• Simon Fischer-Baum   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6067-0538 3 &
• Wendy Best   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8375-5916 4  

Nature Reviews Psychology volume  1 ,  pages 733–747 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

757 Accesses

6 Citations

26 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Neurological disorders

Psychology embraces a diverse range of methodologies. However, most rely on averaging group data to draw conclusions. In this Perspective, we argue that single case methodology is a valuable tool for developing and extending psychological theories. We stress the importance of single case and case series research, drawing on classic and contemporary cases in which cognitive and perceptual deficits provide insights into typical cognitive processes in domains such as memory, delusions, reading and face perception. We unpack the key features of single case methodology, describe its strengths, its value in adjudicating between theories, and outline its benefits for a better understanding of deficits and hence more appropriate interventions. The unique insights that single case studies have provided illustrate the value of in-depth investigation within an individual. Single case methodology has an important place in the psychologist’s toolkit and it should be valued as a primary research tool.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Subscribe to this journal

Receive 12 digital issues and online access to articles

55,14 € per year

only 4,60 € per issue

Buy this article

• Purchase on SpringerLink
• Instant access to full article PDF

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Similar content being viewed by others

Comparing meta-analyses and preregistered multiple-laboratory replication projects

The fundamental importance of method to theory

A critical evaluation of the p -factor literature

Corkin, S. Permanent Present Tense: The Unforgettable Life Of The Amnesic Patient, H. M . Vol. XIX, 364 (Basic Books, 2013).

Lilienfeld, S. O. Psychology: From Inquiry To Understanding (Pearson, 2019).

Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., Nock, M. K. & Wegner, D. M. Psychology (Worth Publishers, 2019).

Eysenck, M. W. & Brysbaert, M. Fundamentals Of Cognition (Routledge, 2018).

Squire, L. R. Memory and brain systems: 1969–2009. J. Neurosci. 29 , 12711–12716 (2009).

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Corkin, S. What’s new with the amnesic patient H.M.? Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3 , 153–160 (2002).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Schubert, T. M. et al. Lack of awareness despite complex visual processing: evidence from event-related potentials in a case of selective metamorphopsia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117 , 16055–16064 (2020).

Behrmann, M. & Plaut, D. C. Bilateral hemispheric processing of words and faces: evidence from word impairments in prosopagnosia and face impairments in pure alexia. Cereb. Cortex 24 , 1102–1118 (2014).

Plaut, D. C. & Behrmann, M. Complementary neural representations for faces and words: a computational exploration. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28 , 251–275 (2011).

Haxby, J. V. et al. Distributed and overlapping representations of faces and objects in ventral temporal cortex. Science 293 , 2425–2430 (2001).

Hirshorn, E. A. et al. Decoding and disrupting left midfusiform gyrus activity during word reading. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113 , 8162–8167 (2016).

Kosakowski, H. L. et al. Selective responses to faces, scenes, and bodies in the ventral visual pathway of infants. Curr. Biol. 32 , 265–274.e5 (2022).

Harlow, J. Passage of an iron rod through the head. Boston Med. Surgical J . https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.11.2.281 (1848).

Broca, P. Remarks on the seat of the faculty of articulated language, following an observation of aphemia (loss of speech). Bull. Soc. Anat. 6 , 330–357 (1861).

Google Scholar  

Dejerine, J. Contribution A L’étude Anatomo-pathologique Et Clinique Des Différentes Variétés De Cécité Verbale: I. Cécité Verbale Avec Agraphie Ou Troubles Très Marqués De L’écriture; II. Cécité Verbale Pure Avec Intégrité De L’écriture Spontanée Et Sous Dictée (Société de Biologie, 1892).

Liepmann, H. Das Krankheitsbild der Apraxie (“motorischen Asymbolie”) auf Grund eines Falles von einseitiger Apraxie (Fortsetzung). Eur. Neurol. 8 , 102–116 (1900).

Article   Google Scholar  

Basso, A., Spinnler, H., Vallar, G. & Zanobio, M. E. Left hemisphere damage and selective impairment of auditory verbal short-term memory. A case study. Neuropsychologia 20 , 263–274 (1982).

Humphreys, G. W. & Riddoch, M. J. The fractionation of visual agnosia. In Visual Object Processing: A Cognitive Neuropsychological Approach 281–306 (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987).

Whitworth, A., Webster, J. & Howard, D. A Cognitive Neuropsychological Approach To Assessment And Intervention In Aphasia (Psychology Press, 2014).

Caramazza, A. On drawing inferences about the structure of normal cognitive systems from the analysis of patterns of impaired performance: the case for single-patient studies. Brain Cogn. 5 , 41–66 (1986).

Caramazza, A. & McCloskey, M. The case for single-patient studies. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 5 , 517–527 (1988).

Shallice, T. Cognitive neuropsychology and its vicissitudes: the fate of Caramazza’s axioms. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 32 , 385–411 (2015).

Shallice, T. From Neuropsychology To Mental Structure (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988).

Coltheart, M. Assumptions and methods in cognitive neuropscyhology. In The Handbook Of Cognitive Neuropsychology: What Deficits Reveal About The Human Mind (ed. Rapp, B.) 3–22 (Psychology Press, 2001).

McCloskey, M. & Chaisilprungraung, T. The value of cognitive neuropsychology: the case of vision research. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 34 , 412–419 (2017).

McCloskey, M. The future of cognitive neuropsychology. In The Handbook Of Cognitive Neuropsychology: What Deficits Reveal About The Human Mind (ed. Rapp, B.) 593–610 (Psychology Press, 2001).

Lashley, K. S. In search of the engram. In Physiological Mechanisms in Animal Behavior 454–482 (Academic Press, 1950).

Squire, L. R. & Wixted, J. T. The cognitive neuroscience of human memory since H.M. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 34 , 259–288 (2011).

Stone, G. O., Vanhoy, M. & Orden, G. C. V. Perception is a two-way street: feedforward and feedback phonology in visual word recognition. J. Mem. Lang. 36 , 337–359 (1997).

Perfetti, C. A. The psycholinguistics of spelling and reading. In Learning To Spell: Research, Theory, And Practice Across Languages 21–38 (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1997).

Nickels, L. The autocue? self-generated phonemic cues in the treatment of a disorder of reading and naming. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 9 , 155–182 (1992).

Rapp, B., Benzing, L. & Caramazza, A. The autonomy of lexical orthography. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 14 , 71–104 (1997).

Bonin, P., Roux, S. & Barry, C. Translating nonverbal pictures into verbal word names. Understanding lexical access and retrieval. In Past, Present, And Future Contributions Of Cognitive Writing Research To Cognitive Psychology 315–522 (Psychology Press, 2011).

Bonin, P., Fayol, M. & Gombert, J.-E. Role of phonological and orthographic codes in picture naming and writing: an interference paradigm study. Cah. Psychol. Cogn./Current Psychol. Cogn. 16 , 299–324 (1997).

Bonin, P., Fayol, M. & Peereman, R. Masked form priming in writing words from pictures: evidence for direct retrieval of orthographic codes. Acta Psychol. 99 , 311–328 (1998).

Bentin, S., Allison, T., Puce, A., Perez, E. & McCarthy, G. Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 8 , 551–565 (1996).

Jeffreys, D. A. Evoked potential studies of face and object processing. Vis. Cogn. 3 , 1–38 (1996).

Laganaro, M., Morand, S., Michel, C. M., Spinelli, L. & Schnider, A. ERP correlates of word production before and after stroke in an aphasic patient. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 23 , 374–381 (2011).

Indefrey, P. & Levelt, W. J. M. The spatial and temporal signatures of word production components. Cognition 92 , 101–144 (2004).

Valente, A., Burki, A. & Laganaro, M. ERP correlates of word production predictors in picture naming: a trial by trial multiple regression analysis from stimulus onset to response. Front. Neurosci. 8 , 390 (2014).

Kittredge, A. K., Dell, G. S., Verkuilen, J. & Schwartz, M. F. Where is the effect of frequency in word production? Insights from aphasic picture-naming errors. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 25 , 463–492 (2008).

Domdei, N. et al. Ultra-high contrast retinal display system for single photoreceptor psychophysics. Biomed. Opt. Express 9 , 157 (2018).

Poldrack, R. A. et al. Long-term neural and physiological phenotyping of a single human. Nat. Commun. 6 , 8885 (2015).

Coltheart, M. The assumptions of cognitive neuropsychology: reflections on Caramazza (1984, 1986). Cogn. Neuropsychol. 34 , 397–402 (2017).

Badecker, W. & Caramazza, A. A final brief in the case against agrammatism: the role of theory in the selection of data. Cognition 24 , 277–282 (1986).

Fischer-Baum, S. Making sense of deviance: Identifying dissociating cases within the case series approach. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 30 , 597–617 (2013).

Nickels, L., Howard, D. & Best, W. On the use of different methodologies in cognitive neuropsychology: drink deep and from several sources. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28 , 475–485 (2011).

Dell, G. S. & Schwartz, M. F. Who’s in and who’s out? Inclusion criteria, model evaluation, and the treatment of exceptions in case series. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28 , 515–520 (2011).

Schwartz, M. F. & Dell, G. S. Case series investigations in cognitive neuropsychology. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 27 , 477–494 (2010).

Cohen, J. A power primer. Psychol. Bull. 112 , 155–159 (1992).

Martin, R. C. & Allen, C. Case studies in neuropsychology. In APA Handbook Of Research Methods In Psychology Vol. 2 Research Designs: Quantitative, Qualitative, Neuropsychological, And Biological (eds Cooper, H. et al.) 633–646 (American Psychological Association, 2012).

Leivada, E., Westergaard, M., Duñabeitia, J. A. & Rothman, J. On the phantom-like appearance of bilingualism effects on neurocognition: (how) should we proceed? Bilingualism 24 , 197–210 (2021).

Arnett, J. J. The neglected 95%: why American psychology needs to become less American. Am. Psychol. 63 , 602–614 (2008).

Stolz, J. A., Besner, D. & Carr, T. H. Implications of measures of reliability for theories of priming: activity in semantic memory is inherently noisy and uncoordinated. Vis. Cogn. 12 , 284–336 (2005).

Cipora, K. et al. A minority pulls the sample mean: on the individual prevalence of robust group-level cognitive phenomena — the instance of the SNARC effect. Preprint at psyArXiv https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/bwyr3 (2019).

Andrews, S., Lo, S. & Xia, V. Individual differences in automatic semantic priming. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 43 , 1025–1039 (2017).

Tan, L. C. & Yap, M. J. Are individual differences in masked repetition and semantic priming reliable? Vis. Cogn. 24 , 182–200 (2016).

Olsson-Collentine, A., Wicherts, J. M. & van Assen, M. A. L. M. Heterogeneity in direct replications in psychology and its association with effect size. Psychol. Bull. 146 , 922–940 (2020).

Gratton, C. & Braga, R. M. Editorial overview: deep imaging of the individual brain: past, practice, and promise. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 40 , iii–vi (2021).

Fedorenko, E. The early origins and the growing popularity of the individual-subject analytic approach in human neuroscience. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 40 , 105–112 (2021).

Xue, A. et al. The detailed organization of the human cerebellum estimated by intrinsic functional connectivity within the individual. J. Neurophysiol. 125 , 358–384 (2021).

Petit, S. et al. Toward an individualized neural assessment of receptive language in children. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 63 , 2361–2385 (2020).

Jung, K.-H. et al. Heterogeneity of cerebral white matter lesions and clinical correlates in older adults. Stroke 52 , 620–630 (2021).

Falcon, M. I., Jirsa, V. & Solodkin, A. A new neuroinformatics approach to personalized medicine in neurology: the virtual brain. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 29 , 429–436 (2016).

Duncan, G. J., Engel, M., Claessens, A. & Dowsett, C. J. Replication and robustness in developmental research. Dev. Psychol. 50 , 2417–2425 (2014).

Open Science Collaboration. Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science 349 , aac4716 (2015).

Tackett, J. L., Brandes, C. M., King, K. M. & Markon, K. E. Psychology’s replication crisis and clinical psychological science. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 15 , 579–604 (2019).

Munafò, M. R. et al. A manifesto for reproducible science. Nat. Hum. Behav. 1 , 0021 (2017).

Oldfield, R. C. & Wingfield, A. The time it takes to name an object. Nature 202 , 1031–1032 (1964).

Oldfield, R. C. & Wingfield, A. Response latencies in naming objects. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 17 , 273–281 (1965).

Brysbaert, M. How many participants do we have to include in properly powered experiments? A tutorial of power analysis with reference tables. J. Cogn. 2 , 16 (2019).

Brysbaert, M. Power considerations in bilingualism research: time to step up our game. Bilingualism https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728920000437 (2020).

Machery, E. What is a replication? Phil. Sci. 87 , 545–567 (2020).

Nosek, B. A. & Errington, T. M. What is replication? PLoS Biol. 18 , e3000691 (2020).

Li, X., Huang, L., Yao, P. & Hyönä, J. Universal and specific reading mechanisms across different writing systems. Nat. Rev. Psychol. 1 , 133–144 (2022).

Rapp, B. (Ed.) The Handbook Of Cognitive Neuropsychology: What Deficits Reveal About The Human Mind (Psychology Press, 2001).

Code, C. et al. Classic Cases In Neuropsychology (Psychology Press, 1996).

Patterson, K., Marshall, J. C. & Coltheart, M. Surface Dyslexia: Neuropsychological And Cognitive Studies Of Phonological Reading (Routledge, 2017).

Marshall, J. C. & Newcombe, F. Patterns of paralexia: a psycholinguistic approach. J. Psycholinguist. Res. 2 , 175–199 (1973).

Castles, A. & Coltheart, M. Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition 47 , 149–180 (1993).

Khentov-Kraus, L. & Friedmann, N. Vowel letter dyslexia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 35 , 223–270 (2018).

Winskel, H. Orthographic and phonological parafoveal processing of consonants, vowels, and tones when reading Thai. Appl. Psycholinguist. 32 , 739–759 (2011).

Hepner, C., McCloskey, M. & Rapp, B. Do reading and spelling share orthographic representations? Evidence from developmental dysgraphia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 34 , 119–143 (2017).

Hanley, J. R. & Sotiropoulos, A. Developmental surface dysgraphia without surface dyslexia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 35 , 333–341 (2018).

Zihl, J. & Heywood, C. A. The contribution of single case studies to the neuroscience of vision: single case studies in vision neuroscience. Psych. J. 5 , 5–17 (2016).

Bouvier, S. E. & Engel, S. A. Behavioral deficits and cortical damage loci in cerebral achromatopsia. Cereb. Cortex 16 , 183–191 (2006).

Zihl, J. & Heywood, C. A. The contribution of LM to the neuroscience of movement vision. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 9 , 6 (2015).

Dotan, D. & Friedmann, N. Separate mechanisms for number reading and word reading: evidence from selective impairments. Cortex 114 , 176–192 (2019).

McCloskey, M. & Schubert, T. Shared versus separate processes for letter and digit identification. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 31 , 437–460 (2014).

Fayol, M. & Seron, X. On numerical representations. Insights from experimental, neuropsychological, and developmental research. In Handbook of Mathematical Cognition (ed. Campbell, J.) 3–23 (Psychological Press, 2005).

Bornstein, B. & Kidron, D. P. Prosopagnosia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat. 22 , 124–131 (1959).

Kühn, C. D., Gerlach, C., Andersen, K. B., Poulsen, M. & Starrfelt, R. Face recognition in developmental dyslexia: evidence for dissociation between faces and words. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 38 , 107–115 (2021).

Barton, J. J. S., Albonico, A., Susilo, T., Duchaine, B. & Corrow, S. L. Object recognition in acquired and developmental prosopagnosia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 36 , 54–84 (2019).

Renault, B., Signoret, J.-L., Debruille, B., Breton, F. & Bolgert, F. Brain potentials reveal covert facial recognition in prosopagnosia. Neuropsychologia 27 , 905–912 (1989).

Bauer, R. M. Autonomic recognition of names and faces in prosopagnosia: a neuropsychological application of the guilty knowledge test. Neuropsychologia 22 , 457–469 (1984).

Haan, E. H. F., de, Young, A. & Newcombe, F. Face recognition without awareness. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 4 , 385–415 (1987).

Ellis, H. D. & Lewis, M. B. Capgras delusion: a window on face recognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 5 , 149–156 (2001).

Ellis, H. D., Young, A. W., Quayle, A. H. & De Pauw, K. W. Reduced autonomic responses to faces in Capgras delusion. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 264 , 1085–1092 (1997).

Collins, M. N., Hawthorne, M. E., Gribbin, N. & Jacobson, R. Capgras’ syndrome with organic disorders. Postgrad. Med. J. 66 , 1064–1067 (1990).

Enoch, D., Puri, B. K. & Ball, H. Uncommon Psychiatric Syndromes 5th edn (Routledge, 2020).

Tranel, D., Damasio, H. & Damasio, A. R. Double dissociation between overt and covert face recognition. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 7 , 425–432 (1995).

Brighetti, G., Bonifacci, P., Borlimi, R. & Ottaviani, C. “Far from the heart far from the eye”: evidence from the Capgras delusion. Cogn. Neuropsychiat. 12 , 189–197 (2007).

Coltheart, M., Langdon, R. & McKay, R. Delusional belief. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 62 , 271–298 (2011).

Coltheart, M. Cognitive neuropsychiatry and delusional belief. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 60 , 1041–1062 (2007).

Coltheart, M. & Davies, M. How unexpected observations lead to new beliefs: a Peircean pathway. Conscious. Cogn. 87 , 103037 (2021).

Coltheart, M. & Davies, M. Failure of hypothesis evaluation as a factor in delusional belief. Cogn. Neuropsychiat. 26 , 213–230 (2021).

McCloskey, M. et al. A developmental deficit in localizing objects from vision. Psychol. Sci. 6 , 112–117 (1995).

McCloskey, M., Valtonen, J. & Cohen Sherman, J. Representing orientation: a coordinate-system hypothesis and evidence from developmental deficits. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 23 , 680–713 (2006).

McCloskey, M. Spatial representations and multiple-visual-systems hypotheses: evidence from a developmental deficit in visual location and orientation processing. Cortex 40 , 677–694 (2004).

Gregory, E. & McCloskey, M. Mirror-image confusions: implications for representation and processing of object orientation. Cognition 116 , 110–129 (2010).

Gregory, E., Landau, B. & McCloskey, M. Representation of object orientation in children: evidence from mirror-image confusions. Vis. Cogn. 19 , 1035–1062 (2011).

Laine, M. & Martin, N. Cognitive neuropsychology has been, is, and will be significant to aphasiology. Aphasiology 26 , 1362–1376 (2012).

Howard, D. & Patterson, K. The Pyramids And Palm Trees Test: A Test Of Semantic Access From Words And Pictures (Thames Valley Test Co., 1992).

Kay, J., Lesser, R. & Coltheart, M. PALPA: Psycholinguistic Assessments Of Language Processing In Aphasia. 2: Picture & Word Semantics, Sentence Comprehension (Erlbaum, 2001).

Franklin, S. Dissociations in auditory word comprehension; evidence from nine fluent aphasic patients. Aphasiology 3 , 189–207 (1989).

Howard, D., Swinburn, K. & Porter, G. Putting the CAT out: what the comprehensive aphasia test has to offer. Aphasiology 24 , 56–74 (2010).

Conti-Ramsden, G., Crutchley, A. & Botting, N. The extent to which psychometric tests differentiate subgroups of children with SLI. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 40 , 765–777 (1997).

Bishop, D. V. M. & McArthur, G. M. Individual differences in auditory processing in specific language impairment: a follow-up study using event-related potentials and behavioural thresholds. Cortex 41 , 327–341 (2005).

Bishop, D. V. M., Snowling, M. J., Thompson, P. A. & Greenhalgh, T., and the CATALISE-2 consortium. Phase 2 of CATALISE: a multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study of problems with language development: terminology. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 58 , 1068–1080 (2017).

Wilson, A. J. et al. Principles underlying the design of ‘the number race’, an adaptive computer game for remediation of dyscalculia. Behav. Brain Funct. 2 , 19 (2006).

Basso, A. & Marangolo, P. Cognitive neuropsychological rehabilitation: the emperor’s new clothes? Neuropsychol. Rehabil. 10 , 219–229 (2000).

Murad, M. H., Asi, N., Alsawas, M. & Alahdab, F. New evidence pyramid. Evidence-based Med. 21 , 125–127 (2016).

Greenhalgh, T., Howick, J. & Maskrey, N., for the Evidence Based Medicine Renaissance Group. Evidence based medicine: a movement in crisis? Br. Med. J. 348 , g3725–g3725 (2014).

Best, W., Ping Sze, W., Edmundson, A. & Nickels, L. What counts as evidence? Swimming against the tide: valuing both clinically informed experimentally controlled case series and randomized controlled trials in intervention research. Evidence-based Commun. Assess. Interv. 13 , 107–135 (2019).

Best, W. et al. Understanding differing outcomes from semantic and phonological interventions with children with word-finding difficulties: a group and case series study. Cortex 134 , 145–161 (2021).

OCEBM Levels of Evidence Working Group. The Oxford Levels of Evidence 2. CEBM https://www.cebm.ox.ac.uk/resources/levels-of-evidence/ocebm-levels-of-evidence (2011).

Holler, D. E., Behrmann, M. & Snow, J. C. Real-world size coding of solid objects, but not 2-D or 3-D images, in visual agnosia patients with bilateral ventral lesions. Cortex 119 , 555–568 (2019).

Duchaine, B. C., Yovel, G., Butterworth, E. J. & Nakayama, K. Prosopagnosia as an impairment to face-specific mechanisms: elimination of the alternative hypotheses in a developmental case. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 23 , 714–747 (2006).

Hartley, T. et al. The hippocampus is required for short-term topographical memory in humans. Hippocampus 17 , 34–48 (2007).

Pishnamazi, M. et al. Attentional bias towards and away from fearful faces is modulated by developmental amygdala damage. Cortex 81 , 24–34 (2016).

Rapp, B., Fischer-Baum, S. & Miozzo, M. Modality and morphology: what we write may not be what we say. Psychol. Sci. 26 , 892–902 (2015).

Yong, K. X. X., Warren, J. D., Warrington, E. K. & Crutch, S. J. Intact reading in patients with profound early visual dysfunction. Cortex 49 , 2294–2306 (2013).

Rockland, K. S. & Van Hoesen, G. W. Direct temporal–occipital feedback connections to striate cortex (V1) in the macaque monkey. Cereb. Cortex 4 , 300–313 (1994).

Haynes, J.-D., Driver, J. & Rees, G. Visibility reflects dynamic changes of effective connectivity between V1 and fusiform cortex. Neuron 46 , 811–821 (2005).

Tanaka, K. Mechanisms of visual object recognition: monkey and human studies. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 7 , 523–529 (1997).

Fischer-Baum, S., McCloskey, M. & Rapp, B. Representation of letter position in spelling: evidence from acquired dysgraphia. Cognition 115 , 466–490 (2010).

Houghton, G. The problem of serial order: a neural network model of sequence learning and recall. In Current Research In Natural Language Generation (eds Dale, R., Mellish, C. & Zock, M.) 287–319 (Academic Press, 1990).

Fieder, N., Nickels, L., Biedermann, B. & Best, W. From “some butter” to “a butter”: an investigation of mass and count representation and processing. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 31 , 313–349 (2014).

Fieder, N., Nickels, L., Biedermann, B. & Best, W. How ‘some garlic’ becomes ‘a garlic’ or ‘some onion’: mass and count processing in aphasia. Neuropsychologia 75 , 626–645 (2015).

Schröder, A., Burchert, F. & Stadie, N. Training-induced improvement of noncanonical sentence production does not generalize to comprehension: evidence for modality-specific processes. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 32 , 195–220 (2015).

Stadie, N. et al. Unambiguous generalization effects after treatment of non-canonical sentence production in German agrammatism. Brain Lang. 104 , 211–229 (2008).

Schapiro, A. C., Gregory, E., Landau, B., McCloskey, M. & Turk-Browne, N. B. The necessity of the medial temporal lobe for statistical learning. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 26 , 1736–1747 (2014).

Schapiro, A. C., Kustner, L. V. & Turk-Browne, N. B. Shaping of object representations in the human medial temporal lobe based on temporal regularities. Curr. Biol. 22 , 1622–1627 (2012).

Baddeley, A., Vargha-Khadem, F. & Mishkin, M. Preserved recognition in a case of developmental amnesia: implications for the acaquisition of semantic memory? J. Cogn. Neurosci. 13 , 357–369 (2001).

Snyder, J. J. & Chatterjee, A. Spatial-temporal anisometries following right parietal damage. Neuropsychologia 42 , 1703–1708 (2004).

Ashkenazi, S., Henik, A., Ifergane, G. & Shelef, I. Basic numerical processing in left intraparietal sulcus (IPS) acalculia. Cortex 44 , 439–448 (2008).

Lebrun, M.-A., Moreau, P., McNally-Gagnon, A., Mignault Goulet, G. & Peretz, I. Congenital amusia in childhood: a case study. Cortex 48 , 683–688 (2012).

Vannuscorps, G., Andres, M. & Pillon, A. When does action comprehension need motor involvement? Evidence from upper limb aplasia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 30 , 253–283 (2013).

Jeannerod, M. Neural simulation of action: a unifying mechanism for motor cognition. NeuroImage 14 , S103–S109 (2001).

Blakemore, S.-J. & Decety, J. From the perception of action to the understanding of intention. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2 , 561–567 (2001).

Rizzolatti, G. & Craighero, L. The mirror-neuron system. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 27 , 169–192 (2004).

Forde, E. M. E., Humphreys, G. W. & Remoundou, M. Disordered knowledge of action order in action disorganisation syndrome. Neurocase 10 , 19–28 (2004).

Mazzi, C. & Savazzi, S. The glamor of old-style single-case studies in the neuroimaging era: insights from a patient with hemianopia. Front. Psychol. 10 , 965 (2019).

Coltheart, M. What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? (Position Paper Presented to the European Cognitive Neuropsychology Workshop, Bressanone, 2005). Cortex 42 , 323–331 (2006).

Page, M. P. A. What can’t functional neuroimaging tell the cognitive psychologist? Cortex 42 , 428–443 (2006).

Blank, I. A., Kiran, S. & Fedorenko, E. Can neuroimaging help aphasia researchers? Addressing generalizability, variability, and interpretability. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 34 , 377–393 (2017).

Niv, Y. The primacy of behavioral research for understanding the brain. Behav. Neurosci. 135 , 601–609 (2021).

Crawford, J. R. & Howell, D. C. Comparing an individual’s test score against norms derived from small samples. Clin. Neuropsychol. 12 , 482–486 (1998).

Crawford, J. R., Garthwaite, P. H. & Ryan, K. Comparing a single case to a control sample: testing for neuropsychological deficits and dissociations in the presence of covariates. Cortex 47 , 1166–1178 (2011).

McIntosh, R. D. & Rittmo, J. Ö. Power calculations in single-case neuropsychology: a practical primer. Cortex 135 , 146–158 (2021).

Patterson, K. & Plaut, D. C. “Shallow draughts intoxicate the brain”: lessons from cognitive science for cognitive neuropsychology. Top. Cogn. Sci. 1 , 39–58 (2009).

Lambon Ralph, M. A., Patterson, K. & Plaut, D. C. Finite case series or infinite single-case studies? Comments on “Case series investigations in cognitive neuropsychology” by Schwartz and Dell (2010). Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28 , 466–474 (2011).

Horien, C., Shen, X., Scheinost, D. & Constable, R. T. The individual functional connectome is unique and stable over months to years. NeuroImage 189 , 676–687 (2019).

Epelbaum, S. et al. Pure alexia as a disconnection syndrome: new diffusion imaging evidence for an old concept. Cortex 44 , 962–974 (2008).

Fischer-Baum, S. & Campana, G. Neuroplasticity and the logic of cognitive neuropsychology. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 34 , 403–411 (2017).

Paul, S., Baca, E. & Fischer-Baum, S. Cerebellar contributions to orthographic working memory: a single case cognitive neuropsychological investigation. Neuropsychologia 171 , 108242 (2022).

Feinstein, J. S., Adolphs, R., Damasio, A. & Tranel, D. The human amygdala and the induction and experience of fear. Curr. Biol. 21 , 34–38 (2011).

Crawford, J., Garthwaite, P. & Gray, C. Wanted: fully operational definitions of dissociations in single-case studies. Cortex 39 , 357–370 (2003).

McIntosh, R. D. Simple dissociations for a higher-powered neuropsychology. Cortex 103 , 256–265 (2018).

McIntosh, R. D. & Brooks, J. L. Current tests and trends in single-case neuropsychology. Cortex 47 , 1151–1159 (2011).

Best, W., Schröder, A. & Herbert, R. An investigation of a relative impairment in naming non-living items: theoretical and methodological implications. J. Neurolinguistics 19 , 96–123 (2006).

Franklin, S., Howard, D. & Patterson, K. Abstract word anomia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 12 , 549–566 (1995).

Coltheart, M., Patterson, K. E. & Marshall, J. C. Deep Dyslexia (Routledge, 1980).

Nickels, L., Kohnen, S. & Biedermann, B. An untapped resource: treatment as a tool for revealing the nature of cognitive processes. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 27 , 539–562 (2010).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank all of those pioneers of and advocates for single case study research who have mentored, inspired and encouraged us over the years, and the many other colleagues with whom we have discussed these issues.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Psychological Sciences & Macquarie University Centre for Reading, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Lyndsey Nickels

NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Aphasia Recovery and Rehabilitation, Australia

Psychological Sciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA

Simon Fischer-Baum

Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, UK

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

L.N. led and was primarily responsible for the structuring and writing of the manuscript. All authors contributed to all aspects of the article.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lyndsey Nickels .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information.

Nature Reviews Psychology thanks Yanchao Bi, Rob McIntosh, and the other, anonymous, reviewer for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Nickels, L., Fischer-Baum, S. & Best, W. Single case studies are a powerful tool for developing, testing and extending theories. Nat Rev Psychol 1 , 733–747 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00127-y

Download citation

Accepted : 13 October 2022

Published : 22 November 2022

Issue Date : December 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00127-y

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Single case studies vs. multiple case studies: A comparative study

Related Papers

Journal of Public Administration

Jacobus S Wessels

The study, on which this article reports, applied a conceptual framework to obtain an integrated and deeper understanding of case studies in South African Public Administration. For this purpose, a systematic content analysis and review was done of 23 masters disser-tations that were completed between 2005 and 2012. The aim of the analysis was to understand the appropriateness of case studies for contributing to scientific knowledge. Following the application of the conceptual framework in the analysis of the selected dissertations, this article reports on the selection strategies, case study designs, research purpose, nature of data collection, nature of data analysis and the expected outcomes of typical case studies. This article contributes to the literature on Public Administration research methodology by enhancing an integrated and deeper understanding of, firstly, the concept and phenomenon 'case study' and, secondly, the appropriateness of case studies for theory building in Public Administration.

Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology

Thakur P R A S A D Bhatta

Case study research though increasingly popular in social sciences for positivist and intrepretivist research, a kind of confusion is prevalent when it is used ignoring its philosophical position. Arguably, the case study research is considered more appropriate for qualitative research because of its foremost strength ˗ the in-depth study of complex issues. This paper, drawing from the literature, discusses the philosophical position of case study research and argues that qualitative case study research is appropriate for theory building. For theory building, this paper follows the inductive approach guided by qualitative research paradigm and argues that it is not appropriate to assess theory building from the perspective of quantitative research. Very similar to other research methods, it is natural that the case study research has certain challenges; however, most of the challenges and misunderstandings overlap causing difficulty to understand the role of case study research. Hence, this paper aims to contribute to the understandings of the challenges and misunderstandings associated with the theory building from case study research. This paper argues that most of the challenges associated with theory building from case study can be addressed employing appropriate research strategies particularly clear understanding of philosophical stance and selection of appropriate case. The misunderstandings, on the other hand, are arisen due to the differences in the researcher's perspectives particularly positivistic thinking of them rather than the shortcomings inherent in the qualitative case study research design.

Significance of the speed of internationalisation for born global firms - a multiple case study approach

Michael Neubert

This article analyses the significance of the speed of internationalisation for born global firms (BGFs). In this multiple case study, BGFs are defined as high-tech start-up firms (HSFs) from a small and open economy (SMOPEC) like Switzerland. The theoretical framework consists of the Uppsala internationalisation process model and BGF theory. A sample of 20 subject matter experts (SME) is interviewed. The results of this study show that the significance of the speed of internationalisation of HSFs is considered essential for the survival of HSFs from SMOPECs. Consequently, all SMEs included early and fast internationalisation in their business plans and built their business models accordingly. Biographical notes: Michael Neubert is a faculty member, teaching International Management, of ISM International School in Paris and a lecturer at FH Vorarlberg and Universidad Paraguayo Alemana. He is the CEO of the consulting firm C2NM LLC and an investor in high-tech start-up firms.

International Leadership Journal

Extension of theory using a multiple-case study design can contribute value to a particular theoretical perspective and further define the boundaries of the original theory. Most organizations today operate in volatile economic and social environments. Qualitative research plays an essential role in the investigation of leadership and management problems, given that they remain complex social enigmas. The multiple case study design is a valuable qualitative research tool in studying the links between the personal, social, behavioral, psychological, organizational, cultural, and environmental factors that guide managerial and leadership development. Multiple-case studies can be used by both novice and experienced qualitative researchers to contribute original qualitative data to extant theory. Multiple-case study research is particularly suitable for responding to "how" and "why" and what Eisenhardt terms as "big picture" research questions that remain unanswered in the extant leadership and management literature.

Michael Neubert , Raphael Schlup

This article analyses the research problem of how European tier-one automotive suppliers' (ETOASs) evaluate and select efficient market-entry modes to develop emerging growth markets using India as the example country market. The study is based on the conceptual framework of the revised Uppsala internationalisation process model (Johanson & Vahlne, 1977; Johanson & Vahlne, 2009) and the notion that international market development is an integrated part of strategic management to facilitate sustainable and profitable growth (

The Qualitative Report

Tiia Vissak

How and why born global firms differ in their speed of internationalisation – a multiple case study approach

This article analyses the research problem of how and why born global firms (BGF) differ in their speed of internationalisation. It is based on the conceptual framework of the BGF theory and the Uppsala internationalisation process model. The research questions will be answered using a multiple case study research design with qualitative, in-depth, face-to-face, semi structured interviews of twenty subject matter experts (SME). The research results show that factors like the skills of the entrepreneur and the management team, their business networks, the business model of the BGF, the market entry mode, the successful implementation of a structured market development process, the uniqueness of the technology and the product portfolio, the availability of market opportunities, and the size of their home market influence the speed of internationalisation.

Family Business Review

Zografia Bika , Fahri Karakas

Building on an in-depth case study of a four-generational Scottish family firm, we generate a triple-layered model of socialization. Our findings go beyond the traditional focus on internal family socialization and value transmission, and suggest that socialization involves three concentric layers unfolding over time, each with a distinct set of dimensions, values, challenges and processes: internal (transmitting knowledge within the family), interactive (resolving competing role demands through peer interactions) and experiential (interacting with both peer groups and malleable societal/economic frames). This novel theorization provides a promising framework for future research seeking to explain the complexities of socialization processes in transgenerational family firms.

Luis Araujo

Sergio Ambrozio

This article explores case study practices within a specific management discipline, that of international business. The authors contrast the case study debate in the general methodologi-cal literature to how this method is practiced within this particular scientific community. They review 135 case study-based articles published in four international business journals from 1995 to 2005 and 22 from 1975 to 1994, finding the disciplinary convention in these journals to be exploratory, interview-based multiple case studies, drawing on positivistic assumptions and cross-sectional designs. Alternative perspectives on the case study that the authors identify in the methodological literature have had little impact on this field. Even the most commonly cited methodological literature is not consistently followed. Given these limitations of the disciplinary convention, the authors argue for greater methodological pluralism in conducting case studies and provide suggestions for researchers seeking to adopt alternative case study traditions.

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Journal of International Business Studies

Rebecca Piekkari

Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for Family Business

Vern Glaser , Gabrielle Dorian

Professor Dilanthi Amaratunga

Entrepreneurship & Regional Development

Pervez Ghauri

Saskia Coulson , Joanna Bletcher

James Holohan

Bradley MacCosham , Colleen Beswick

Administratio Publica

Johannes Zongozzi , Jacobus S Wessels

George Papachristos

KAREN ORENGO , Gisela Carrero

Mohan Roy , Khan Salam , Mohan L Roy

Dominique Vinckenbosch

China-USA Business Review ISSN 1537-1514 Chinese Business Review ISSN 1537-1506

Vern Glaser , Ann Langley

Albert Mills

Dilfuza Ishmuratova

Zivile Bagdonaite

Mokter Hossain

DR. HANNINGTONE GAYA

Bamijoko Olayemi

International Journal of Business and Applied Social Science (IJBASS) , Sam Ghosh

Aaron Walter

Richard Haigh

Samuel N . Y Simpson Ph.D

ISPIM Connects Fukuoka Proceedings

Yat Ming Ooi

Tanja Kontinen

Chahrazad Abdallah

Mokter Hossain , Henri Simula

Lincoln Wood

Thabit Alomari

Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management

Nicolette Lakemond

Øystein Widding , Vegar Lein Ausrød

KAREN ORENGO

Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management

Carsten Reuter

Omar Javaid

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

What are the key differences between single and multiple case studies in research methodology?  

Insight from top 5 papers.

Single-case studies focus on examining the effect of an intervention on a single individual over time, emphasizing individual effects and utilizing designs like reversal designs, multiple baseline designs, alternating treatments designs, and changing criterion designs [1] . In contrast, multiple case studies involve studying multiple cases to understand the links between various factors guiding organizational and leadership development, offering in-depth insights into participants' perspectives within their natural contexts [4] . Single-case designs often use visual analysis as the primary method, while quantitative methods like the between-case standardized mean difference (BC-SMD) effect size are employed to synthesize results across studies, including multiple baseline designs [3] . The Single Case Archive (SCA) database provides access to a wide range of case studies in psychotherapy, facilitating meta-studies and methodological advancements in the field [5] .

Source Papers (5)

Related Questions

A single-case study approach in business research involves an in-depth examination of a single entity, such as an individual, organization, or event, to explore complex phenomena within its real-life context. This method is particularly valuable for understanding unique or novel situations, generating hypotheses, and providing detailed insights that might be overlooked in broader studies. The single-case study approach is characterized by its focus on depth rather than breadth, making it a powerful tool for exploring specific business phenomena. ## Unique Features and Applications - **In-depth Analysis**: Single-case studies allow researchers to conduct a thorough investigation of a particular case, providing rich qualitative data that can reveal intricate details about the subject. This is especially useful in family business research, where understanding the dynamics and evolution of a single family business can offer insights into broader patterns and behaviors . - **Methodological Flexibility**: The single-case study approach encompasses various designs, such as reversal designs, multiple baseline designs, and alternating treatments designs, each suited to different research questions and conditions. This flexibility allows researchers to tailor their approach to the specific needs of their study, making it applicable in diverse contexts, including behavioral research . - **Qualitative Insights**: This approach is well-suited for qualitative research, providing a framework for collecting and analyzing data through interviews, observations, and document analysis. It emphasizes the importance of context and the subjective experiences of participants, which are crucial for understanding complex social and business issues . ## Theoretical and Practical Implications - **Hypothesis Generation**: Single-case studies can generate new hypotheses and theoretical insights by challenging existing assumptions and exploring alternative explanations. This is particularly relevant in fields like business ethics, where single-case studies can expand moral imagination and offer new perspectives on decision-making . - **Scientific Rigor**: Despite criticisms, single-case studies can be scientifically rigorous when conducted with a clear methodological framework. They can contribute to theory development by providing detailed case-specific insights that complement broader quantitative studies . While single-case studies offer significant advantages in terms of depth and detail, they also face limitations, such as challenges in generalizing findings to larger populations. However, when used appropriately, they can provide valuable contributions to business research by offering nuanced understandings of complex phenomena.

A single case study, also known as a single-case design or single-case experimental design, is a research methodology that focuses on examining the impact of an intervention on a single individual over time by repeatedly measuring a target behavior under different intervention conditions. These designs, such as reversal designs, multiple baseline designs, alternating treatments designs, and changing criterion designs, offer a flexible and cost-effective approach to studying treatment effects, making them valuable for treatment development, translational research, and personalized interventions . Single case studies are crucial for understanding the complexity of psychotherapy processes, bridging the science-practice gap, and providing valuable insights into rare diseases and disorders . By utilizing single-case experimental designs, researchers can address individual effects, overcome limitations of group studies and case descriptions, and contribute to evidence-based practices by accumulating both idiographic and nomothetic knowledge .

Single-case studies contribute significantly to research by providing a detailed examination of interventions for individuals with disabilities, such as learning disabilities, allowing for a deep understanding of the effectiveness of specific interventions on a case-by-case basis . These studies offer a unique opportunity to assess the impact of interventions on various skills, like basic reading abilities, and determine the effectiveness of the intervention through rigorous experimental designs . Single-case designs also play a crucial role in developing and validating evidence-based practices, with researchers increasingly incorporating quantitative analysis alongside traditional visual analysis to enhance the rigor and reliability of findings . By providing in-depth insights into individual responses to interventions, single-case studies contribute to the advancement of knowledge in special education and psychotherapy, bridging the gap between research and practice .

Qualitative case study research benefits from inter-rater reliability (IRR) methods to enhance transparency and consistency in data analysis, particularly in developing codes and constructs from raw data . While single-case design is predominant in behavior analysis, incorporating qualitative methods can offer valuable insights, especially in areas like social validity and exploring diverse topics . Qualitative case study methodology provides tools to study complex phenomena within their contexts, aiding in theory development and program evaluation in health science research . Analyzing qualitative interview data in social science investigations involves a stage-by-stage process, offering rich data for understanding social problems and crises . Case study research, focusing on a single bounded system, provides rich illustrations and supports theorization without aiming for statistical generalization, making it suitable for qualitative data analysis .

The number of respondents in a single case study is typically small, focusing on an in-depth analysis of a single entity or a small non-random sample . Single-case experiments evaluate interventions for specialized populations, like individuals with low-incidence disabilities, often involving gradual effects that build up and dissipate over time . Single-case designs, recognized for establishing intervention effectiveness, are essentially interrupted time-series designs . These designs can incorporate randomization to enhance internal and statistical conclusion validity, improving the evaluation of intervention effects . Single-case research design can be utilized in Improvement Science, offering a method to inform improvement efforts through detailed analysis of individual cases . Overall, the emphasis in single case studies is on depth rather than the number of respondents, making them valuable for detailed and focused investigations.

Trending Questions

Assessing stigma towards mentally ill patients in healthcare settings is crucial for improving care quality. Several validated scales have emerged as effective tools for this purpose, each with unique strengths. ## Opening Minds Stigma Scale for Healthcare Providers (OMS-HC) - The OMS-HC has been validated in multiple contexts, including a 12-item model that demonstrated good reliability (α = 0.71) and validity in Portuguese healthcare settings. - A broader European study confirmed its bifactor structure, suggesting a unified stigma dimension, which enhances its applicability across diverse healthcare environments. ## Stigma Cultures in Healthcare Scale - This newly developed 23-item scale specifically addresses stigma cultures in healthcare, showing high reliability (α = 0.92) and is applicable across various healthcare settings. ## Community Attitudes to Mental Illness (CAMI) - The CAMI scale has been widely used for over 40 years, demonstrating adequate internal consistency (α ≥ 0.80) and a robust factor structure, although some subscales require refinement. While these scales provide valuable insights, ongoing validation and adaptation are necessary to ensure they remain relevant and effective in diverse healthcare contexts.

The study of impulsivity models reveals a complex and multifaceted construct that is best understood through a combination of different approaches. Impulsivity is not a singular trait but rather a collection of related behaviors and tendencies that can be dissected into various dimensions. The most effective models of impulsivity incorporate both genetic and behavioral perspectives, utilizing animal models and psychometric tools to capture its diverse nature. ## Genetic and Multidimensional Models - Recent research suggests that impulsivity should be viewed as a multidimensional construct rather than a single trait. Genetic studies have shown that impulsivity facets exhibit moderate-to-large genetic correlations, indicating that a common factor model may not fully capture the complexity of impulsivity. - The UPPS-P model, which breaks impulsivity into five factors (lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, positive urgency, negative urgency, and sensation seeking), provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the different dimensions of impulsivity. ## Animal Models - Animal models, particularly using zebrafish, have become valuable in studying the pathobiology of impulse control disorders (ICDs). These models help in understanding the genetic and physiological underpinnings of impulsivity and testing potential therapies. - Behavioral models in animals often focus on impulsive action and impulsive choice, with delay-discounting paradigms and the 5-choice serial reaction time task being prominent methods for assessing these aspects. ## Adaptive and Contextual Models - Impulsivity can be adaptive in certain contexts, such as resource scarcity. Models that incorporate dynamic and contextual measurements of impulsivity, like intertemporal choice tasks, provide insights into how impulsivity can vary with environmental changes. While impulsivity is often viewed negatively, understanding its adaptive aspects and the contexts in which it occurs can help de-stigmatize behaviors associated with it. This perspective encourages the development of more nuanced models that consider both the biological and environmental influences on impulsivity.

Effective treatment techniques and tools for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) encompass a range of psychological, technological, and behavioral interventions. Research indicates that combining these approaches can yield significant improvements in attention and symptom management. ## Psychological Interventions - **Attention Process Training (APT)** has been shown to be more effective than Parent Management Training (PMT) for reducing inattention symptoms in children with ADHD. - **Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)** is recognized for its effectiveness, although the specific components that contribute to its success are still under investigation. ## Technological Approaches - **Computerized Neurofeedback** has demonstrated efficacy in improving attention when used alongside pharmacological treatments, outperforming both neurofeedback alone and medication alone. - **Computerized Cognitive Rehabilitation Programs** like Cogmed and Brainware Safari have been identified as effective tools for enhancing various types of attention in children with ADHD. ## Alternative Techniques - Techniques leveraging **neuroplasticity**, such as mindfulness, exercise, and virtual reality, are emerging as promising adjuncts to traditional therapies, enhancing cognitive function and self-regulation. While these techniques show promise, it is essential to consider individual differences in ADHD presentation and treatment response, as not all methods may be equally effective for every individual.

Workplace loneliness has emerged as a significant concern from 2007 to 2020, with empirical evidence highlighting its detrimental effects on employee well-being and organizational performance. Research indicates that loneliness is linked to lower job performance (r = -0.35), reduced job satisfaction (r = -0.34), and increased burnout (r = 0.39). Interventions, such as supportive leadership training, have shown promise in mitigating loneliness, particularly among high-risk groups like military personnel. Additionally, workplace loneliness is associated with negative experiences like job stress and turnover intentions, while positively correlating with absenteeism costs. Longitudinal studies further reveal that loneliness negatively impacts job satisfaction over time, suggesting its persistent nature. Despite these findings, some argue that workplace loneliness may not be universally detrimental, as individual responses can vary based on personal resilience and workplace culture.

Workplace loneliness is increasingly recognized as a significant issue affecting employee well-being and organizational performance. Research indicates that loneliness at work is linked to lower job performance, reduced job satisfaction, and increased burnout. It is a multi-dimensional construct encompassing emotional, social, interpersonal, and existential loneliness. Studies show that loneliness has a persistent negative impact on job satisfaction over time, regardless of other job characteristics. Furthermore, the relationship between workplace loneliness and job performance can be moderated by person-environment fit, highlighting the importance of supportive work environments. Additionally, loneliness can lead to detrimental behaviors such as knowledge hiding, driven by emotional exhaustion. While the focus on workplace loneliness is growing, some argue that it may be overshadowed by other pressing workplace issues, suggesting a need for a balanced approach to employee well-being that encompasses various factors beyond loneliness.

• University of Exeter

Comparative case study: how to identify a case study and the case study analysis approach?

Most recent answer.

Top contributors to discussions in this field

• University of Denver

• University of Technology- Iraq

• Dhofar University

• City University, Malaysia

• De La Salle University

Get help with your research

Join ResearchGate to ask questions, get input, and advance your work.

All Answers (4)

Similar questions and discussions

• Asked 6 July 2024

• Asked 29 January 2024

• Asked 10 December 2023

• Asked 22 August 2023

• Asked 18 May 2023

• Asked 30 April 2023

• Asked 26 April 2023

• Asked 16 March 2023

Related Publications

• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

What is the difference between single case study and multiple case study?

Subsequently, one may also ask, what is a single case study?

The single case study is the most basic form of case -oriented research, but researchers may also conduct a series of case studies , each study building on the previous, or conduct simultaneous studies of several instances of the same phenomenon (as in comparative research).

Secondly, what is a multiple case study?

Multiple - case design, or collective case design, refers to case study research in which several instrumental bounded cases are selected to develop a more in-depth understanding of the phenomena than a single case can provide.

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person , group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual .

What is a disadvantage of case study?

The first is that they are subject to bias on so many levels that a good argument could be made that all case studies are useless when used as evidence. Another of the most commonly cited disadvantages of case study work is that the data collected cannot stand on its own if one wishes to make generalizations.

What are the types of case study?

There are three primary types of case studies : key cases , outlier cases , and local knowledge cases . Key cases are those which are chosen because the researcher has ?a particular interest in it or the circumstances surrounding it.

What is the purpose of a qualitative case study?

Qualitative case study methodology provides tools for researchers to study complex phenomena within their contexts. When the approach is applied correctly, it becomes a valuable method for health science research to develop theory, evaluate programs, and develop interventions.

What is the unit of analysis in a case study?

In each situation, an individual person is the case being studied , and the individual is the primary unit of analysis . Information about the relevant individual would be collected, and several such individuals or “ cases ” might be included in a multiple- case study .

How many participants are needed for a case study?

Consequently, the “sweet spot” sample size for many qualitative research studies is 15 to 20 homogeneous interview participants . Now, determining the number of cases to include in a multiple case study project is another issue and I will put forth a post on that in the next few weeks.

How do you write a case study example?

• Read and Examine the Case Thoroughly. Take notes, highlight relevant facts, underline key problems.
• Focus Your Analysis. Identify two to five key problems.
• Uncover Possible Solutions/Changes Needed. Review course readings, discussions, outside research, your experience.
• Select the Best Solution.

What is a case study essay?

A case study includes the background information on relevant topic or subject, analysis of a specific case under the study process. It may display the problems or some effective strategies or recommendation as the solution. Case study writing can focus on a certain program, person, project or business.

What is case study research example?

Case studies are a popular research method in business area. Case studies aim to analyze specific issues within the boundaries of a specific environment, situation or organization. Example : “Impact of increasing levels of multiculturalism on marketing practices: A case study of McDonald's Indonesia.”

What is an exploratory case study?

The exploratory case study investigates distinct phenomena characterized by a lack of detailed preliminary research, especially formulated hypotheses that can be tested, and/or by a specific research environment that limits the choice of methodology.

What is case study according to Creswell?

In case study research, defined as the “the study of a case within a real-life contemporary context or setting” Creswell takes the perspective that such research “is a methodology: a type of design in qualitative research that may be an object of study , as well as a product of inquiry.” Further, case studies have

What is case design?

Basically, a case study is an in depth study of a particular situation rather than a sweeping statistical survey. The case study research design is also useful for testing whether scientific theories and models actually work in the real world.

What is an instrumental case study?

An instrumental case study is the study of a case (e.g., person, specific group, occupation, department, organization) to provide insight into a particular issue, redraw generalizations, or build theory. In instrumental case research the case facilitates understanding of something else.

Which of the following are types of case studies?

• Illustrative Case Studies. These are primarily descriptive studies.
• Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies. These are condensed case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation.
• Cumulative Case Studies.
• Critical Instance Case Studies.

What is cross case analysis?

Cross - case analysis is a method that involves the in-depth exploration of similarities and differences across cases with a view to supporting empirical generalisability and theoretical predictions. In NVivo we conduct the first stage of cross - case analysis — within- case analysis — using a conceptually clustered matrix.

Are Case Studies a methodology?

Case study methodology maintains deep connections to core values and intentions and is “particularistic, descriptive and heuristic” (Merriam, 2009, p. 46). As a study design, case study is defined by interest in individual cases rather than the methods of inquiry used.

What is an intrinsic case study?

An intrinsic case study is the study of a case (e.g., person, specific group, occupation, department, organization) where the case itself is of primary interest in the exploration. The key in both the intrinsic and instrumental case study is the opportunity to learn.

What is a case study PDF?

Case studies involve the documented history and comprehensive analysis of a situation concerning subjects such as industries, organizations, and markets. Rich case studies employ both qualitative and quantitative data. The strong point of case studies is the depth of analysis that they offer.

• 24 Is it case in point or point in case?
• 22 What is nominative case and objective case?
• 28 What is a case in a case control study?
• 19 What is the burden of proof in a criminal case versus a civil case?
• 29 What is the genitive case in Irish?
• 24 What's a cased opening?
• 20 What are analogous cases?
• 16 What is case class in Scala syntax of case class?
• 26 What is Ponente in case digest?
• 12 Is 6.5 inch big?
• 39 What cars have the most expensive catalytic converters?
• 37 Is Newsmax TV available on Spectrum?
• 39 Does Hermione die in Harry Potter and the cursed child?
• 39 What should I comment on someone singing?
• 31 How do you use a NOS whipped cream dispenser?
• 30 What are the structural differences between RNA and DNA?
• 34 What is RTA called now?
• 29 How do I import a JSON file into postman?
• 39 How far can you span 4x4?

No difference in 6-month functional outcome between early and late decompressive craniectomies following acute ischaemic stroke in a national neurosurgical centre: a single-centre retrospective case-cohort study

• Original Article
• Published: 10 September 2024

Cite this article

• Adina S. Nesa 1 ,
• Conor Gormley 1 ,
• Christopher Read 1 ,
• Sarah Power 2 ,
• Donncha O’Brien 3 ,
• Darragh Herlihy 2 ,
• Karl Boyle 4 &
• Caroline M. Larkin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5373-3978 1  

Decompressive craniectomies (DCs) are recommended for the treatment of raised intracranial pressure after acute ischaemic stroke. Some studies have demonstrated improved outcomes with early decompressive craniectomy (< 48 h from onset) in patients with malignant cerebral oedema following middle cerebral artery infarction. Limited data is available on suboccipital decompressive craniectomy after cerebellar infarction.

Our primary objective was to determine whether the timing of DCs influenced functional outcomes at 6 months. Our secondary objectives were to analyse whether age, gender, the territory of stroke, or preceding thrombectomy impacts functional outcome post-DC.

We conducted a retrospective study of patients admitted between January 2014 and December 2020 who had DCs post-acute ischaemic stroke. Data was collected from ICU electronic records, individual patient charts, and the stroke database.

Twenty-six patients had early DC (19 anterior/7 posterior) and 21 patients had late DC (17 anterior/4 posterior). There was no difference in the modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score of the two groups at 90 ( p  = 0.318) and 180 ( p  = 0.333) days post early vs late DC. Overall outcomes were poor, with 5 out of 46 patients (10.9%) having a mRS score ≤ 3 at 6 months. There was no difference in mRS scores between the patients who had hemicraniectomies for anterior circulation stroke ( n  = 35) and suboccipital DC for posterior circulation stroke ( n  = 11) ( p  = 0.594).

In this single-centre retrospective study, we found no significant difference in functional outcomes between patients who had early or late DC after ischaemic stroke.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, CL. The data are not publicly available because they contain information that could compromise the privacy of research participants.

Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T et al (2018) 2018 guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 49(3):e46–e110. https://doi.org/10.1161/str.0000000000000158

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Hofmeijer J, Kappelle LJ, Algra A et al (2009) Surgical decompression for space-occupying cerebral infarction (the hemicraniectomy after middle cerebral artery infarction with life-threatening edema trial [HAMLET]): a multicentre, open, randomised trial. Lancet Neurol 8(4):326–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(09)70047-x

Vahedi K, Hofmeijer J, Juettler E et al (2007) Early decompressive surgery in malignant infarction of the middle cerebral artery: a pooled analysis of three randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol 6(3):215–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(07)70036-4

Nouh A, Remke J, Ruland S (2014) Ischemic posterior circulation stroke: a review of anatomy, clinical presentations, diagnosis, and current management. Front Neurol 5:30. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2014.00030

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Ayling OGS, Alotaibi NM, Wang JZ et al (2018) Suboccipital decompressive craniectomy for cerebellar infarction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World Neurosurg 110:450-459.e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2017.10.144

Jüttler E, Unterberg A, Woitzik J et al (2014) Hemicraniectomy in older patients with extensive middle-cerebral-artery stroke. N Engl J Med 370(12):1091–1100. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1311367

Article   PubMed   CAS   Google Scholar  

Elsawaf A, Galhom A (2018) Decompressive craniotomy for malignant middle cerebral artery infarction: optimal timing and literature review. World Neurosurg 116:e71–e78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2018.04.005

Reinink H, Jüttler E, Hacke W et al (2021) Surgical decompression for space-occupying hemispheric infarction: a systematic review and individual patient meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. JAMA Neurol 78(2):208–216. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.3745

De Bonis P, Pompucci A, Mangiola A et al (2011) Decompressive craniectomy for elderly patients with traumatic brain injury: it’s probably not worth the while. J Neurotrauma 28(10):2043–2048. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.1889

Lindeskog D, Lilja-Cyron A, Kelsen J et al (2019) Long-term functional outcome after decompressive suboccipital craniectomy for space-occupying cerebellar infarction. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 176:47–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2018.11.023

Lin J, Frontera JA (2021) Decompressive hemicraniectomy for large hemispheric strokes. Stroke 52(4):1500–1510. https://doi.org/10.1161/strokeaha.120.032359

Göttsche J, Flottmann F, Jank L et al (2020) Decompressive craniectomy in malignant MCA infarction in times of mechanical thrombectomy. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 162(12):3147–3152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-019-04180-0

Barkat R, Griffin E, Alderson J et al (2020) Anaesthesia workload implications of a 24/7 national stroke thrombectomy service. Br J Anaesth 124(3):e33–e34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2019.11.024

Wijdicks EFM, Sheth KN, Carter BS et al (2014) Recommendations for the management of cerebral and cerebellar infarction with swelling. Stroke 45(4):1222–1238. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.str.0000441965.15164.d6

van der Worp HB, Hofmeijer J, Jüttler E et al (2021) European Stroke Organisation (ESO) guidelines on the management of space-occupying brain infarction. Eur Stroke J 6(2):Xc–cx. https://doi.org/10.1177/23969873211014112

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Anaesthetics and Intensive Care Medicine, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland

Adina S. Nesa, Conor Gormley, Christopher Read & Caroline M. Larkin

Department of Neuroradiology, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland

Sarah Power & Darragh Herlihy

Department of Neurosurgery, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland

Donncha O’Brien

Department of Geriatric and Stroke Medicine, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Adina S. Nesa, Caroline M. Larkin, Karl Boyle, Donncha O’Brien, and Sarah Power contributed to the study conception and design. Data collection was performed by Adina S. Nesa, Connor Gormley, Darragh Herlihy, and Christopher Read. Manuscript preparation was performed by Adina S. Nesa, Caroline M. Larkin, Sarah Power, Donncha O’Brien, and Karl Boyle. Data analysis was performed by Adina S. Nesa, Caroline M. Larkin, and Karl Boyle. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Adina S. Nesa, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. Authorship requirements have been met, and all authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Caroline M. Larkin .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This research study was conducted retrospectively from data obtained for clinical purposes. The clinical audit division of Beaumont Hospital approved this study as a retrospective chart review (CA2021/012) and was exempted from informed consent. This manuscript complies with instructions to the authors.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

This manuscript has not been published elsewhere and is not under consideration by another journal.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Nesa, A.S., Gormley, C., Read, C. et al. No difference in 6-month functional outcome between early and late decompressive craniectomies following acute ischaemic stroke in a national neurosurgical centre: a single-centre retrospective case-cohort study. Ir J Med Sci (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-024-03801-7

Download citation

Received : 06 June 2024

Accepted : 30 August 2024

Published : 10 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-024-03801-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Acute ischaemic stroke
• Decompressive craniectomies
• Modified Rankin scale
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research