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• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on October 26, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, using sub-questions to strengthen your main research question, research questions quiz, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

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Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific

Complex and arguable

Relevant and original

Chances are that your main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. That’s why sub-questions are important: they allow you to answer your main question in a step-by-step manner.

Good sub-questions should be:

• Less complex than the main question
• Focused only on 1 type of research
• Presented in a logical order

Here are a few examples of descriptive and framing questions:

• Descriptive: According to current government arguments, how should a European bank tax be implemented?
• Descriptive: Which countries have a bank tax/levy on financial transactions?
• Framing: How should a bank tax/levy on financial transactions look at a European level?

Keep in mind that sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if you need the findings to answer your main question. If your main question is simple enough to stand on its own, it’s okay to skip the sub-question part. As a rule of thumb, the more complex your subject, the more sub-questions you’ll need.

Try to limit yourself to 4 or 5 sub-questions, maximum. If you feel you need more than this, it may be indication that your main research question is not sufficiently specific. In this case, it’s is better to revisit your problem statement and try to tighten your main question up.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (“ x affects y because …”).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses . In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

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Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Questions

Definition:

Research questions are the specific questions that guide a research study or inquiry. These questions help to define the scope of the research and provide a clear focus for the study. Research questions are usually developed at the beginning of a research project and are designed to address a particular research problem or objective.

Types of Research Questions

Types of Research Questions are as follows:

Descriptive Research Questions

These aim to describe a particular phenomenon, group, or situation. For example:

• What are the characteristics of the target population?
• What is the prevalence of a particular disease in a specific region?

Exploratory Research Questions

These aim to explore a new area of research or generate new ideas or hypotheses. For example:

• What are the potential causes of a particular phenomenon?
• What are the possible outcomes of a specific intervention?

Explanatory Research Questions

These aim to understand the relationship between two or more variables or to explain why a particular phenomenon occurs. For example:

• What is the effect of a specific drug on the symptoms of a particular disease?
• What are the factors that contribute to employee turnover in a particular industry?

Predictive Research Questions

These aim to predict a future outcome or trend based on existing data or trends. For example :

• What will be the future demand for a particular product or service?
• What will be the future prevalence of a particular disease?

Evaluative Research Questions

These aim to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular intervention or program. For example:

• What is the impact of a specific educational program on student learning outcomes?
• What is the effectiveness of a particular policy or program in achieving its intended goals?

How to Choose Research Questions

Choosing research questions is an essential part of the research process and involves careful consideration of the research problem, objectives, and design. Here are some steps to consider when choosing research questions:

• Identify the research problem: Start by identifying the problem or issue that you want to study. This could be a gap in the literature, a social or economic issue, or a practical problem that needs to be addressed.
• Conduct a literature review: Conducting a literature review can help you identify existing research in your area of interest and can help you formulate research questions that address gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
• Define the research objectives : Clearly define the objectives of your research. What do you want to achieve with your study? What specific questions do you want to answer?
• Consider the research design : Consider the research design that you plan to use. This will help you determine the appropriate types of research questions to ask. For example, if you plan to use a qualitative approach, you may want to focus on exploratory or descriptive research questions.
• Ensure that the research questions are clear and answerable: Your research questions should be clear and specific, and should be answerable with the data that you plan to collect. Avoid asking questions that are too broad or vague.
• Get feedback : Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, feasible, and meaningful.

How to Write Research Questions

Guide for Writing Research Questions:

• Start with a clear statement of the research problem: Begin by stating the problem or issue that your research aims to address. This will help you to formulate focused research questions.
• Use clear language : Write your research questions in clear and concise language that is easy to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms that may be unfamiliar to your readers.
• Be specific: Your research questions should be specific and focused. Avoid broad questions that are difficult to answer. For example, instead of asking “What is the impact of climate change on the environment?” ask “What are the effects of rising sea levels on coastal ecosystems?”
• Use appropriate question types: Choose the appropriate question types based on the research design and objectives. For example, if you are conducting a qualitative study, you may want to use open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed responses.
• Consider the feasibility of your questions : Ensure that your research questions are feasible and can be answered with the resources available. Consider the data sources and methods of data collection when writing your questions.
• Seek feedback: Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful.

Examples of Research Questions

Some Examples of Research Questions with Research Titles:

Research Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health

• Research Question : What is the relationship between social media use and mental health, and how does this impact individuals’ well-being?

Research Title: Factors Influencing Academic Success in High School

• Research Question: What are the primary factors that influence academic success in high school, and how do they contribute to student achievement?

Research Title: The Effects of Exercise on Physical and Mental Health

• Research Question: What is the relationship between exercise and physical and mental health, and how can exercise be used as a tool to improve overall well-being?

Research Title: Understanding the Factors that Influence Consumer Purchasing Decisions

• Research Question : What are the key factors that influence consumer purchasing decisions, and how do these factors vary across different demographics and products?

Research Title: The Impact of Technology on Communication

• Research Question : How has technology impacted communication patterns, and what are the effects of these changes on interpersonal relationships and society as a whole?

Research Title: Investigating the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Child Development

• Research Question: What is the relationship between different parenting styles and child development outcomes, and how do these outcomes vary across different ages and developmental stages?

Research Title: The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Treating Anxiety Disorders

• Research Question: How effective is cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders, and what factors contribute to its success or failure in different patients?

Research Title: The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity

• Research Question : How is climate change affecting global biodiversity, and what can be done to mitigate the negative effects on natural ecosystems?

Research Title: Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Diversity and Workplace Productivity

• Research Question : How does cultural diversity impact workplace productivity, and what strategies can be employed to maximize the benefits of a diverse workforce?

Research Title: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

• Research Question: How can artificial intelligence be leveraged to improve healthcare outcomes, and what are the potential risks and ethical concerns associated with its use?

Applications of Research Questions

Here are some of the key applications of research questions:

• Defining the scope of the study : Research questions help researchers to narrow down the scope of their study and identify the specific issues they want to investigate.
• Developing hypotheses: Research questions often lead to the development of hypotheses, which are testable predictions about the relationship between variables. Hypotheses provide a clear and focused direction for the study.
• Designing the study : Research questions guide the design of the study, including the selection of participants, the collection of data, and the analysis of results.
• Collecting data : Research questions inform the selection of appropriate methods for collecting data, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments.
• Analyzing data : Research questions guide the analysis of data, including the selection of appropriate statistical tests and the interpretation of results.
• Communicating results : Research questions help researchers to communicate the results of their study in a clear and concise manner. The research questions provide a framework for discussing the findings and drawing conclusions.

Characteristics of Research Questions

Characteristics of Research Questions are as follows:

• Clear and Specific : A good research question should be clear and specific. It should clearly state what the research is trying to investigate and what kind of data is required.
• Relevant : The research question should be relevant to the study and should address a current issue or problem in the field of research.
• Testable : The research question should be testable through empirical evidence. It should be possible to collect data to answer the research question.
• Concise : The research question should be concise and focused. It should not be too broad or too narrow.
• Feasible : The research question should be feasible to answer within the constraints of the research design, time frame, and available resources.
• Original : The research question should be original and should contribute to the existing knowledge in the field of research.
• Significant : The research question should have significance and importance to the field of research. It should have the potential to provide new insights and knowledge to the field.
• Ethical : The research question should be ethical and should not cause harm to any individuals or groups involved in the study.

Purpose of Research Questions

Research questions are the foundation of any research study as they guide the research process and provide a clear direction to the researcher. The purpose of research questions is to identify the scope and boundaries of the study, and to establish the goals and objectives of the research.

The main purpose of research questions is to help the researcher to focus on the specific area or problem that needs to be investigated. They enable the researcher to develop a research design, select the appropriate methods and tools for data collection and analysis, and to organize the results in a meaningful way.

Research questions also help to establish the relevance and significance of the study. They define the research problem, and determine the research methodology that will be used to address the problem. Research questions also help to determine the type of data that will be collected, and how it will be analyzed and interpreted.

Finally, research questions provide a framework for evaluating the results of the research. They help to establish the validity and reliability of the data, and provide a basis for drawing conclusions and making recommendations based on the findings of the study.

Advantages of Research Questions

There are several advantages of research questions in the research process, including:

• Focus : Research questions help to focus the research by providing a clear direction for the study. They define the specific area of investigation and provide a framework for the research design.
• Clarity : Research questions help to clarify the purpose and objectives of the study, which can make it easier for the researcher to communicate the research aims to others.
• Relevance : Research questions help to ensure that the study is relevant and meaningful. By asking relevant and important questions, the researcher can ensure that the study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and address important issues.
• Consistency : Research questions help to ensure consistency in the research process by providing a framework for the development of the research design, data collection, and analysis.
• Measurability : Research questions help to ensure that the study is measurable by defining the specific variables and outcomes that will be measured.
• Replication : Research questions help to ensure that the study can be replicated by providing a clear and detailed description of the research aims, methods, and outcomes. This makes it easier for other researchers to replicate the study and verify the results.

Limitations of Research Questions

Limitations of Research Questions are as follows:

• Subjectivity : Research questions are often subjective and can be influenced by personal biases and perspectives of the researcher. This can lead to a limited understanding of the research problem and may affect the validity and reliability of the study.
• Inadequate scope : Research questions that are too narrow in scope may limit the breadth of the study, while questions that are too broad may make it difficult to focus on specific research objectives.
• Unanswerable questions : Some research questions may not be answerable due to the lack of available data or limitations in research methods. In such cases, the research question may need to be rephrased or modified to make it more answerable.
• Lack of clarity : Research questions that are poorly worded or ambiguous can lead to confusion and misinterpretation. This can result in incomplete or inaccurate data, which may compromise the validity of the study.
• Difficulty in measuring variables : Some research questions may involve variables that are difficult to measure or quantify, making it challenging to draw meaningful conclusions from the data.
• Lack of generalizability: Research questions that are too specific or limited in scope may not be generalizable to other contexts or populations. This can limit the applicability of the study’s findings and restrict its broader implications.

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Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How To Write a Research Question

Academic writing and research require a distinct focus and direction. A well-designed research question gives purpose and clarity to your research. In addition, it helps your readers understand the issue you are trying to address and explore.

Every time you want to know more about a subject, you will pose a question. The same idea is used in research as well. You must pose a question in order to effectively address a research problem. That's why the research question is an integral part of the research process. Additionally, it offers the author writing and reading guidelines, be it qualitative research or quantitative research.

In your research paper , you must single out just one issue or problem. The specific issue or claim you wish to address should be included in your thesis statement in order to clarify your main argument.

A good research question must have the following characteristics.

• Should include only one problem in the research question
• Should be able to find the answer using primary data and secondary data sources
• Should be possible to resolve within the given time and other constraints
• Detailed and in-depth results should be achievable
• Should be relevant and realistic.
• It should relate to your chosen area of research

While a larger project, like a thesis, might have several research questions to address, each one should be directed at your main area of study. Of course, you can use different research designs and research methods (qualitative research or quantitative research) to address various research questions. However, they must all be pertinent to the study's objectives.

What is a Research Question?

A research question is an inquiry that the research attempts to answer. It is the heart of the systematic investigation. Research questions are the most important step in any research project. In essence, it initiates the research project and establishes the pace for the specific research A research question is:

• Clear : It provides enough detail that the audience understands its purpose without any additional explanation.
• Focused : It is so specific that it can be addressed within the time constraints of the writing task.
• Succinct: It is written in the shortest possible words.
• Complex : It is not possible to answer it with a "yes" or "no", but requires analysis and synthesis of ideas before somebody can create a solution.
• Argumental : Its potential answers are open for debate rather than accepted facts.

A good research question usually focuses on the research and determines the research design, methodology, and hypothesis. It guides all phases of inquiry, data collection, analysis, and reporting. You should gather valuable information by asking the right questions.

Why are Research Questions so important?

Regardless of whether it is a qualitative research or quantitative research project, research questions provide writers and their audience with a way to navigate the writing and research process. Writers can avoid "all-about" papers by asking straightforward and specific research questions that help them focus on their research and support a specific thesis.

Types of Research Questions

There are two types of research: Qualitative research and Quantitative research . There must be research questions for every type of research. Your research question will be based on the type of research you want to conduct and the type of data collection.

The first step in designing research involves identifying a gap and creating a focused research question.

Below is a list of common research questions that can be used in a dissertation. Keep in mind that these are merely illustrations of typical research questions used in dissertation projects. The real research questions themselves might be more difficult.

Example Research Questions

The following are a few examples of research questions and research problems to help you understand how research questions can be created for a particular research problem.

Steps to Write Research Questions

You can focus on the issue or research gaps you're attempting to solve by using the research questions as a direction.

If you're unsure how to go about writing a good research question, these are the steps to follow in the process:

• Select an interesting topic Always choose a topic that interests you. Because if your curiosity isn’t aroused by a subject, you’ll have a hard time conducting research around it. Alos, it’s better that you pick something that’s neither too narrow or too broad.
• Do preliminary research on the topic Search for relevant literature to gauge what problems have already been tackled by scholars. You can do that conveniently through repositories like Scispace , where you’ll find millions of papers in one place. Once you do find the papers you’re looking for, try our reading assistant, SciSpace Copilot to get simple explanations for the paper . You’ll be able to quickly understand the abstract, find the key takeaways, and the main arguments presented in the paper. This will give you a more contextual understanding of your subject and you’ll have an easier time identifying knowledge gaps in your discipline.

     Also: ChatPDF vs. SciSpace Copilot: Unveiling the best tool for your research

• Consider your audience It is essential to understand your audience to develop focused research questions for essays or dissertations. When narrowing down your topic, you can identify aspects that might interest your audience.
• Ask questions Asking questions will give you a deeper understanding of the topic. Evaluate your question through the What, Why, When, How, and other open-ended questions assessment.
• Assess your question Once you have created a research question, assess its effectiveness to determine if it is useful for the purpose. Refine and revise the dissertation research question multiple times.

Additionally, use this list of questions as a guide when formulating your research question.

Are you able to answer a specific research question? After identifying a gap in research, it would be helpful to formulate the research question. And this will allow the research to solve a part of the problem. Is your research question clear and centered on the main topic? It is important that your research question should be specific and related to your central goal. Are you tackling a difficult research question? It is not possible to answer the research question with a simple yes or no. The problem requires in-depth analysis. It is often started with "How" and "Why."

Start your research Once you have completed your dissertation research questions, it is time to review the literature on similar topics to discover different perspectives.

Strong  Research Question Samples

Uncertain: How should social networking sites work on the hatred that flows through their platform?

Certain: What should social media sites like Twitter or Facebook do to address the harm they are causing?

This unclear question does not specify the social networking sites that are being used or what harm they might be causing. In addition, this question assumes that the "harm" has been proven and/or accepted. This version is more specific and identifies the sites (Twitter, Facebook), the type and extent of harm (privacy concerns), and who might be suffering from that harm (users). Effective research questions should not be ambiguous or interpreted.

Unfocused: What are the effects of global warming on the environment?

Focused: What are the most important effects of glacial melting in Antarctica on penguins' lives?

This broad research question cannot be addressed in a book, let alone a college-level paper. Focused research targets a specific effect of global heating (glacial  melting), an area (Antarctica), or a specific animal (penguins). The writer must also decide which effect will have the greatest impact on the animals affected. If in doubt, narrow down your research question to the most specific possible.

Too Simple: What are the U.S. doctors doing to treat diabetes?

Appropriately complex: Which factors, if any, are most likely to predict a person's risk of developing diabetes?

This simple version can be found online. It is easy to answer with a few facts. The second, more complicated version of this question is divided into two parts. It is thought-provoking and requires extensive investigation as well as evaluation by the author. So, ensure that a quick Google search should not answer your research question.

How to write a strong Research Question?

The foundation of all research is the research question. You should therefore spend as much time as necessary to refine your research question based on various data.

You can conduct your research more efficiently and analyze your results better if you have great research questions for your dissertation, research paper , or essay .

The following criteria can help you evaluate the strength and importance of your research question and can be used to determine the strength of your research question:

• Researchable
• It should only cover one issue.
• A subjective judgment should not be included in the question.
• It can be answered with data analysis and research.
• Specific and Practical
• It should not contain a plan of action, policy, or solution.
• It should be clearly defined
• Within research limits
• Complex and Arguable
• It shouldn't be difficult to answer.
• To find the truth, you need in-depth knowledge
• Allows for discussion and deliberation
• Original and Relevant
• It should be in your area of study
• Its results should be measurable
• It should be original

Conclusion - How to write Research Questions?

Research questions provide a clear guideline for research. One research question may be part of a larger project, such as a dissertation. However, each question should only focus on one topic.

Research questions must be answerable, practical, specific, and applicable to your field. The research type that you use to base your research questions on will determine the research topic. You can start by selecting an interesting topic and doing preliminary research. Then, you can begin asking questions, evaluating your questions, and start your research.

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Formulation of Research Question – Stepwise Approach

Simmi k. ratan.

Department of Pediatric Surgery, Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, India

1 Department of Community Medicine, North Delhi Municipal Corporation Medical College, New Delhi, India

2 Department of Pediatric Surgery, Batra Hospital and Research Centre, New Delhi, India

Formulation of research question (RQ) is an essentiality before starting any research. It aims to explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern and points to a need for deliberate investigation. It is, therefore, pertinent to formulate a good RQ. The present paper aims to discuss the process of formulation of RQ with stepwise approach. The characteristics of good RQ are expressed by acronym “FINERMAPS” expanded as feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, relevant, manageable, appropriate, potential value, publishability, and systematic. A RQ can address different formats depending on the aspect to be evaluated. Based on this, there can be different types of RQ such as based on the existence of the phenomenon, description and classification, composition, relationship, comparative, and causality. To develop a RQ, one needs to begin by identifying the subject of interest and then do preliminary research on that subject. The researcher then defines what still needs to be known in that particular subject and assesses the implied questions. After narrowing the focus and scope of the research subject, researcher frames a RQ and then evaluates it. Thus, conception to formulation of RQ is very systematic process and has to be performed meticulously as research guided by such question can have wider impact in the field of social and health research by leading to formulation of policies for the benefit of larger population.

I NTRODUCTION

A good research question (RQ) forms backbone of a good research, which in turn is vital in unraveling mysteries of nature and giving insight into a problem.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] RQ identifies the problem to be studied and guides to the methodology. It leads to building up of an appropriate hypothesis (Hs). Hence, RQ aims to explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern and points to a need for deliberate investigation. A good RQ helps support a focused arguable thesis and construction of a logical argument. Hence, formulation of a good RQ is undoubtedly one of the first critical steps in the research process, especially in the field of social and health research, where the systematic generation of knowledge that can be used to promote, restore, maintain, and/or protect health of individuals and populations.[ 1 , 3 , 4 ] Basically, the research can be classified as action, applied, basic, clinical, empirical, administrative, theoretical, or qualitative or quantitative research, depending on its purpose.[ 2 ]

Research plays an important role in developing clinical practices and instituting new health policies. Hence, there is a need for a logical scientific approach as research has an important goal of generating new claims.[ 1 ]

C HARACTERISTICS OF G OOD R ESEARCH Q UESTION

“The most successful research topics are narrowly focused and carefully defined but are important parts of a broad-ranging, complex problem.”

A good RQ is an asset as it:

• Details the problem statement
• Further describes and refines the issue under study
• Adds focus to the problem statement
• Guides data collection and analysis
• Sets context of research.

Hence, while writing RQ, it is important to see if it is relevant to the existing time frame and conditions. For example, the impact of “odd-even” vehicle formula in decreasing the level of air particulate pollution in various districts of Delhi.

A good research is represented by acronym FINERMAPS[ 5 ]

Interesting.

• Appropriate
• Potential value and publishability
• Systematic.

Feasibility means that it is within the ability of the investigator to carry out. It should be backed by an appropriate number of subjects and methodology as well as time and funds to reach the conclusions. One needs to be realistic about the scope and scale of the project. One has to have access to the people, gadgets, documents, statistics, etc. One should be able to relate the concepts of the RQ to the observations, phenomena, indicators, or variables that one can access. One should be clear that the collection of data and the proceedings of project can be completed within the limited time and resources available to the investigator. Sometimes, a RQ appears feasible, but when fieldwork or study gets started, it proves otherwise. In this situation, it is important to write up the problems honestly and to reflect on what has been learned. One should try to discuss with more experienced colleagues or the supervisor so as to develop a contingency plan to anticipate possible problems while working on a RQ and find possible solutions in such situations.

This is essential that one has a real grounded interest in one's RQ and one can explore this and back it up with academic and intellectual debate. This interest will motivate one to keep going with RQ.

The question should not simply copy questions investigated by other workers but should have scope to be investigated. It may aim at confirming or refuting the already established findings, establish new facts, or find new aspects of the established facts. It should show imagination of the researcher. Above all, the question has to be simple and clear. The complexity of a question can frequently hide unclear thoughts and lead to a confused research process. A very elaborate RQ, or a question which is not differentiated into different parts, may hide concepts that are contradictory or not relevant. This needs to be clear and thought-through. Having one key question with several subcomponents will guide your research.

This is the foremost requirement of any RQ and is mandatory to get clearance from appropriate authorities before stating research on the question. Further, the RQ should be such that it minimizes the risk of harm to the participants in the research, protect the privacy and maintain their confidentiality, and provide the participants right to withdraw from research. It should also guide in avoiding deceptive practices in research.

The question should of academic and intellectual interest to people in the field you have chosen to study. The question preferably should arise from issues raised in the current situation, literature, or in practice. It should establish a clear purpose for the research in relation to the chosen field. For example, filling a gap in knowledge, analyzing academic assumptions or professional practice, monitoring a development in practice, comparing different approaches, or testing theories within a specific population are some of the relevant RQs.

Manageable (M): It has the similar essence as of feasibility but mainly means that the following research can be managed by the researcher.

Appropriate (A): RQ should be appropriate logically and scientifically for the community and institution.

Potential value and publishability (P): The study can make significant health impact in clinical and community practices. Therefore, research should aim for significant economic impact to reduce unnecessary or excessive costs. Furthermore, the proposed study should exist within a clinical, consumer, or policy-making context that is amenable to evidence-based change. Above all, a good RQ must address a topic that has clear implications for resolving important dilemmas in health and health-care decisions made by one or more stakeholder groups.

Systematic (S): Research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules though it does not rule out creative thinking.

Example of RQ: Would the topical skin application of oil as a skin barrier reduces hypothermia in preterm infants? This question fulfills the criteria of a good RQ, that is, feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant.

Types of research question

A RQ can address different formats depending on the aspect to be evaluated.[ 6 ] For example:

• Existence: This is designed to uphold the existence of a particular phenomenon or to rule out rival explanation, for example, can neonates perceive pain?
• Description and classification: This type of question encompasses statement of uniqueness, for example, what are characteristics and types of neuropathic bladders?
• Composition: It calls for breakdown of whole into components, for example, what are stages of reflux nephropathy?
• Relationship: Evaluate relation between variables, for example, association between tumor rupture and recurrence rates in Wilm's tumor
• Descriptive—comparative: Expected that researcher will ensure that all is same between groups except issue in question, for example, Are germ cell tumors occurring in gonads more aggressive than those occurring in extragonadal sites?
• Causality: Does deletion of p53 leads to worse outcome in patients with neuroblastoma?
• Causality—comparative: Such questions frequently aim to see effect of two rival treatments, for example, does adding surgical resection improves survival rate outcome in children with neuroblastoma than with chemotherapy alone?
• Causality–Comparative interactions: Does immunotherapy leads to better survival outcome in neuroblastoma Stage IV S than with chemotherapy in the setting of adverse genetic profile than without it? (Does X cause more changes in Y than those caused by Z under certain condition and not under other conditions).

How to develop a research question

• Begin by identifying a broader subject of interest that lends itself to investigate, for example, hormone levels among hypospadias
• Do preliminary research on the general topic to find out what research has already been done and what literature already exists.[ 7 ] Therefore, one should begin with “information gaps” (What do you already know about the problem? For example, studies with results on testosterone levels among hypospadias
• What do you still need to know? (e.g., levels of other reproductive hormones among hypospadias)
• What are the implied questions: The need to know about a problem will lead to few implied questions. Each general question should lead to more specific questions (e.g., how hormone levels differ among isolated hypospadias with respect to that in normal population)
• Narrow the scope and focus of research (e.g., assessment of reproductive hormone levels among isolated hypospadias and hypospadias those with associated anomalies)
• Is RQ clear? With so much research available on any given topic, RQs must be as clear as possible in order to be effective in helping the writer direct his or her research
• Is the RQ focused? RQs must be specific enough to be well covered in the space available
• Is the RQ complex? RQs should not be answerable with a simple “yes” or “no” or by easily found facts. They should, instead, require both research and analysis on the part of the writer
• Is the RQ one that is of interest to the researcher and potentially useful to others? Is it a new issue or problem that needs to be solved or is it attempting to shed light on previously researched topic
• Is the RQ researchable? Consider the available time frame and the required resources. Is the methodology to conduct the research feasible?
• Is the RQ measurable and will the process produce data that can be supported or contradicted?
• Is the RQ too broad or too narrow?
• Create Hs: After formulating RQ, think where research is likely to be progressing? What kind of argument is likely to be made/supported? What would it mean if the research disputed the planned argument? At this step, one can well be on the way to have a focus for the research and construction of a thesis. Hs consists of more specific predictions about the nature and direction of the relationship between two variables. It is a predictive statement about the outcome of the research, dictate the method, and design of the research[ 1 ]
• Understand implications of your research: This is important for application: whether one achieves to fill gap in knowledge and how the results of the research have practical implications, for example, to develop health policies or improve educational policies.[ 1 , 8 ]

Brainstorm/Concept map for formulating research question

• First, identify what types of studies have been done in the past?
• Is there a unique area that is yet to be investigated or is there a particular question that may be worth replicating?
• Begin to narrow the topic by asking open-ended “how” and “why” questions
• Evaluate the question
• Develop a Hypothesis (Hs)
• Write down the RQ.

Writing down the research question

• State the question in your own words
• Write down the RQ as completely as possible.

For example, Evaluation of reproductive hormonal profile in children presenting with isolated hypospadias)

• Divide your question into concepts. Narrow to two or three concepts (reproductive hormonal profile, isolated hypospadias, compare with normal/not isolated hypospadias–implied)
• Specify the population to be studied (children with isolated hypospadias)
• Refer to the exposure or intervention to be investigated, if any
• Reflect the outcome of interest (hormonal profile).

Another example of a research question

Would the topical skin application of oil as a skin barrier reduces hypothermia in preterm infants? Apart from fulfilling the criteria of a good RQ, that is, feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant, it also details about the intervention done (topical skin application of oil), rationale of intervention (as a skin barrier), population to be studied (preterm infants), and outcome (reduces hypothermia).

Other important points to be heeded to while framing research question

• Make reference to a population when a relationship is expected among a certain type of subjects
• RQs and Hs should be made as specific as possible
• Avoid words or terms that do not add to the meaning of RQs and Hs
• Stick to what will be studied, not implications
• Name the variables in the order in which they occur/will be measured
• Avoid the words significant/”prove”
• Avoid using two different terms to refer to the same variable.

Some of the other problems and their possible solutions have been discussed in Table 1 .

Potential problems and solutions while making research question

G OING B EYOND F ORMULATION OF R ESEARCH Q UESTION–THE P ATH A HEAD

Once RQ is formulated, a Hs can be developed. Hs means transformation of a RQ into an operational analog.[ 1 ] It means a statement as to what prediction one makes about the phenomenon to be examined.[ 4 ] More often, for case–control trial, null Hs is generated which is later accepted or refuted.

A strong Hs should have following characteristics:

• Give insight into a RQ
• Are testable and measurable by the proposed experiments
• Have logical basis
• Follows the most likely outcome, not the exceptional outcome.

E XAMPLES OF R ESEARCH Q UESTION AND H YPOTHESIS

Research question-1.

• Does reduced gap between the two segments of the esophagus in patients of esophageal atresia reduces the mortality and morbidity of such patients?

Hypothesis-1

• Reduced gap between the two segments of the esophagus in patients of esophageal atresia reduces the mortality and morbidity of such patients
• In pediatric patients with esophageal atresia, gap of <2 cm between two segments of the esophagus and proper mobilization of proximal pouch reduces the morbidity and mortality among such patients.

Research question-2

• Does application of mitomycin C improves the outcome in patient of corrosive esophageal strictures?

Hypothesis-2

In patients aged 2–9 years with corrosive esophageal strictures, 34 applications of mitomycin C in dosage of 0.4 mg/ml for 5 min over a period of 6 months improve the outcome in terms of symptomatic and radiological relief. Some other examples of good and bad RQs have been shown in Table 2 .

Examples of few bad (left-hand side column) and few good (right-hand side) research questions

R ESEARCH Q UESTION AND S TUDY D ESIGN

RQ determines study design, for example, the question aimed to find the incidence of a disease in population will lead to conducting a survey; to find risk factors for a disease will need case–control study or a cohort study. RQ may also culminate into clinical trial.[ 9 , 10 ] For example, effect of administration of folic acid tablet in the perinatal period in decreasing incidence of neural tube defect. Accordingly, Hs is framed.

Appropriate statistical calculations are instituted to generate sample size. The subject inclusion, exclusion criteria and time frame of research are carefully defined. The detailed subject information sheet and pro forma are carefully defined. Moreover, research is set off few examples of research methodology guided by RQ:

• Incidence of anorectal malformations among adolescent females (hospital-based survey)
• Risk factors for the development of spontaneous pneumoperitoneum in pediatric patients (case–control design and cohort study)
• Effect of technique of extramucosal ureteric reimplantation without the creation of submucosal tunnel for the preservation of upper tract in bladder exstrophy (clinical trial).

The results of the research are then be available for wider applications for health and social life

C ONCLUSION

A good RQ needs thorough literature search and deep insight into the specific area/problem to be investigated. A RQ has to be focused yet simple. Research guided by such question can have wider impact in the field of social and health research by leading to formulation of policies for the benefit of larger population.

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Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

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• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on 30 October 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 12 December 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, research questions quiz, frequently asked questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific

Complex and arguable

Relevant and original

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis – a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarised in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

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Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

How to Craft a Strong Research Question (With Research Question Examples)

A sound and effective research question is a key element that must be identified and pinned down before researchers can even begin their research study or work. A strong research question lays the foundation for your entire study, guiding your investigation and shaping your findings. Hence, it is critical that researchers spend considerable time assessing and refining the research question based on in-depth reading and comprehensive literature review. In this article, we will discuss how to write a strong research question and provide you with some good examples of research questions across various disciplines.

Table of Contents

The importance of a research question

A research question plays a crucial role in driving scientific inquiry, setting the direction and purpose of your study, and guiding your entire research process. By formulating a clear and focused research question, you lay the foundation for your investigation, ensuring that your research remains on track and aligned with your objectives so you can make meaningful contribution to the existing body of knowledge. A well-crafted research question also helps you define the scope of your study and identify the appropriate methodologies and data collection techniques to employ.

Key components of a strong research question

A good research question possesses several key components that contribute to the quality and impact of your study. Apart from providing a clear framework to generate meaningful results, a well-defined research question allows other researchers to understand the purpose and significance of your work. So, when working on your research question, incorporate the following elements:

• Specificity : A strong research question should be specific about the main focus of your study, enabling you to gather precise data and draw accurate conclusions. It clearly defines the variables, participants, and context involved, leaving no room for ambiguity.
• Clarity : A good research question is clear and easily understood, so articulate the purpose and intent of your study concisely without being generic or vague. Ensuring clarity in your research question helps both you and your readers grasp the research objective.
• Feasibility : While crafting a research question, consider the practicality of conducting the research and availability of necessary data or access to participants. Think whether your study is realistic and achievable within the constraints of time, resources, and ethical considerations.

How to craft a well-defined research question

A first step that will help save time and effort is knowing what your aims are and thinking about a few problem statements on the area or aspect one wants to study or do research on. Contemplating these statements as one undertakes more progressive reading can help the researcher in reassessing and fine-tuning the research question. This can be done over time as they read and learn more about the research topic, along with a broad literature review and parallel discussions with peer researchers and supervisors. In some cases, a researcher can have more than one research question if the research being undertaken is a PhD thesis or dissertation, but try not to cover multiple concerns on a topic.

A strong research question must be researchable, original, complex, and relevant. Here are five simple steps that can make the entire process easier.

• Identify a broad topic from your areas of interest, something that is relevant, and you are passionate about since you’ll be spending a lot of time conducting your research.
• Do a thorough literature review to weed out potential gaps in research and stay updated on what’s currently being done in your chosen topic and subject area.
• Shortlist possible research questions based on the research gaps or see how you can build on or refute previously published ideas and concepts.
• Assess your chosen research question using the FINER criteria that helps you evaluate whether the research is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant. 1
• Formulate the final research question, while ensuring it is clear, well-written, and addresses all the key elements of a strong research question.

Examples of research questions

Remember to adapt your research question to suit your purpose, whether it’s exploratory, descriptive, comparative, experimental, qualitative, or quantitative. Embrace the iterative nature of the research process, continually evaluating and refining your question as you progress. Here are some good examples of research questions across various disciplines.

Exploratory research question examples

• How does social media impact interpersonal relationships among teenagers?
• What are the potential benefits of incorporating mindfulness practices in the workplace?

Descriptive research question examples

• What factors influence customer loyalty in the e-commerce industry?
• Is there a relationship between socioeconomic status and academic performance among elementary school students?

Comparative research question examples

• How does the effectiveness of traditional teaching methods compare to online learning platforms in mathematics education?
• What is the impact of different healthcare policies on patient outcomes in various countries?

Experimental research question examples

• What are the effects of a new drug on reducing symptoms of a specific medical condition?
• Does a dietary intervention have an impact on weight loss among individuals with obesity?

Qualitative research question examples

• What are the lived experiences of immigrants adapting to a new culture?
• What factors influence job satisfaction among healthcare professionals?

Quantitative research question examples

• Is there a relationship between sleep duration and academic performance among college students?
• How effective is a specific intervention in reducing anxiety levels among individuals with phobias?

With these simple guidelines and inspiring examples of research questions, you are equipped to embark on your research journey with confidence and purpose. Here’s wishing you all the best for your future endeavors!

References:

• How to write a research question: Steps and examples. Indeed Career Guide. Available online at https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-research-questions

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Creating a Good Research Question

• Advice & Growth
• Process in Practice

Successful translation of research begins with a strong question. How do you get started? How do good research questions evolve? And where do you find inspiration to generate good questions in the first place?  It’s helpful to understand existing frameworks, guidelines, and standards, as well as hear from researchers who utilize these strategies in their own work.

In the fall and winter of 2020, Naomi Fisher, MD, conducted 10 interviews with clinical and translational researchers at Harvard University and affiliated academic healthcare centers, with the purpose of capturing their experiences developing good research questions. The researchers featured in this project represent various specialties, drawn from every stage of their careers. Below you will find clips from their interviews and additional resources that highlight how to get started, as well as helpful frameworks and factors to consider. Additionally, visit the Advice & Growth section to hear candid advice and explore the Process in Practice section to hear how researchers have applied these recommendations to their published research.

• Naomi Fisher, MD , is associate professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School (HMS), and clinical staff at Brigham and Women’s Hospital (BWH). Fisher is founder and director of Hypertension Services and the Hypertension Specialty Clinic at the BWH, where she is a renowned endocrinologist. She serves as a faculty director for communication-related Boundary-Crossing Skills for Research Careers webinar sessions and the Writing and Communication Center .
• Christopher Gibbons, MD , is associate professor of neurology at HMS, and clinical staff at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC) and Joslin Diabetes Center. Gibbons’ research focus is on peripheral and autonomic neuropathies.
• Clare Tempany-Afdhal, MD , is professor of radiology at HMS and the Ferenc Jolesz Chair of Research, Radiology at BWH. Her major areas of research are MR imaging of the pelvis and image- guided therapy.
• David Sykes, MD, PhD , is assistant professor of medicine at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), he is also principal investigator at the Sykes Lab at MGH. His special interest area is rare hematologic conditions.
• Elliot Israel, MD , is professor of medicine at HMS, director of the Respiratory Therapy Department, the director of clinical research in the Pulmonary and Critical Care Medical Division and associate physician at BWH. Israel’s research interests include therapeutic interventions to alter asthmatic airway hyperactivity and the role of arachidonic acid metabolites in airway narrowing.
• Jonathan Williams, MD, MMSc , is assistant professor of medicine at HMS, and associate physician at BWH. He focuses on endocrinology, specifically unravelling the intricate relationship between genetics and environment with respect to susceptibility to cardiometabolic disease.
• Junichi Tokuda, PhD , is associate professor of radiology at HMS, and is a research scientist at the Department of Radiology, BWH. Tokuda is particularly interested in technologies to support image-guided “closed-loop” interventions. He also serves as a principal investigator leading several projects funded by the National Institutes of Health and industry.
• Osama Rahma, MD , is assistant professor of medicine at HMS and clinical staff member in medical oncology at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute (DFCI). Rhama is currently a principal investigator at the Center for Immuno-Oncology and Gastroenterology Cancer Center at DFCI. His research focus is on drug development of combinational immune therapeutics.
• Sharmila Dorbala, MD, MPH , is professor of radiology at HMS and clinical staff at BWH in cardiovascular medicine and radiology. She is also the president of the American Society of Nuclear Medicine. Dorbala’s specialty is using nuclear medicine for cardiovascular discoveries.
• Subha Ramani, PhD, MBBS, MMed , is associate professor of medicine at HMS, as well as associate physician in the Division of General Internal Medicine and Primary Care at BWH. Ramani’s scholarly interests focus on innovative approaches to teaching, learning and assessment of clinical trainees, faculty development in teaching, and qualitative research methods in medical education.
• Ursula Kaiser, MD , is professor at HMS and chief of the Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, and senior physician at BWH. Kaiser’s research focuses on understanding the molecular mechanisms by which pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone regulates the expression of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone genes.

Insights on Creating a Good Research Question

Play Junichi Tokuda video

Play Ursula Kaiser video

Start Successfully: Build the Foundation of a Good Research Question

Start Successfully Resources

Ideation in Device Development: Finding Clinical Need Josh Tolkoff, MS A lecture explaining the critical importance of identifying a compelling clinical need before embarking on a research project. Play Ideation in Device Development video .

Radical Innovation Jeff Karp, PhD This ThinkResearch podcast episode focuses on one researcher’s approach using radical simplicity to break down big problems and questions. Play Radical Innovation .

Using Healthcare Data: How can Researchers Come up with Interesting Questions? Anupam Jena, MD, PhD Another ThinkResearch podcast episode addresses how to discover good research questions by using a backward design approach which involves analyzing big data and allowing the research question to unfold from findings. Play Using Healthcare Data .

Important Factors: Consider Feasibility and Novelty

Refining Your Research Question 

Play video of Clare Tempany-Afdhal

Play Elliott Israel video

Frameworks and Structure: Evaluate Research Questions Using Tools and Techniques

Frameworks and Structure Resources

Designing Clinical Research Hulley et al. A comprehensive and practical guide to clinical research, including the FINER framework for evaluating research questions. Learn more about the book .

Translational Medicine Library Guide Queens University Library An introduction to popular frameworks for research questions, including FINER and PICO. Review translational medicine guide .

Asking a Good T3/T4 Question  Niteesh K. Choudhry, MD, PhD This video explains the PICO framework in practice as participants in a workshop propose research questions that compare interventions. Play Asking a Good T3/T4 Question video

Introduction to Designing & Conducting Mixed Methods Research An online course that provides a deeper dive into mixed methods’ research questions and methodologies. Learn more about the course

Network and Support: Find the Collaborators and Stakeholders to Help Evaluate Research Questions

Network & Support Resource

Bench-to-bedside, Bedside-to-bench Christopher Gibbons, MD In this lecture, Gibbons shares his experience of bringing research from bench to bedside, and from bedside to bench. His talk highlights the formation and evolution of research questions based on clinical need. Play Bench-to-bedside. 

How to Write a Research Question: Types and Examples 

The first step in any research project is framing the research question. It can be considered the core of any systematic investigation as the research outcomes are tied to asking the right questions. Thus, this primary interrogation point sets the pace for your research as it helps collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work.   

Typically, the research question guides the stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Depending on the use of quantifiable or quantitative data, research questions are broadly categorized into quantitative or qualitative research questions. Both types of research questions can be used independently or together, considering the overall focus and objectives of your research.  

What is a research question?

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, and arguable question on which your research and writing are centered. 1 It states various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the problem the study addresses. These questions also set the boundaries of the study, ensuring cohesion. 

Designing the research question is a dynamic process where the researcher can change or refine the research question as they review related literature and develop a framework for the study. Depending on the scale of your research, the study can include single or multiple research questions. 

A good research question has the following features: 

• It is relevant to the chosen field of study. 
• The question posed is arguable and open for debate, requiring synthesizing and analysis of ideas. 
• It is focused and concisely framed. 
• A feasible solution is possible within the given practical constraint and timeframe. 

A poorly formulated research question poses several risks. 1   

• Researchers can adopt an erroneous design. 
• It can create confusion and hinder the thought process, including developing a clear protocol.  
• It can jeopardize publication efforts.  
• It causes difficulty in determining the relevance of the study findings.  
• It causes difficulty in whether the study fulfils the inclusion criteria for systematic review and meta-analysis. This creates challenges in determining whether additional studies or data collection is needed to answer the question.  
• Readers may fail to understand the objective of the study. This reduces the likelihood of the study being cited by others. 

Now that you know “What is a research question?”, let’s look at the different types of research questions. 

Types of research questions

Depending on the type of research to be done, research questions can be classified broadly into quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods studies. Knowing the type of research helps determine the best type of research question that reflects the direction and epistemological underpinnings of your research. 

The structure and wording of quantitative 2 and qualitative research 3 questions differ significantly. The quantitative study looks at causal relationships, whereas the qualitative study aims at exploring a phenomenon. 

• Quantitative research questions:  
• Seeks to investigate social, familial, or educational experiences or processes in a particular context and/or location.  
• Answers ‘how,’ ‘what,’ or ‘why’ questions. 
• Investigates connections, relations, or comparisons between independent and dependent variables. 

Quantitative research questions can be further categorized into descriptive, comparative, and relationship, as explained in the Table below. 

• Qualitative research questions  

Qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional, and more flexible. It concerns broad areas of research or more specific areas of study to discover, explain, or explore a phenomenon. These are further classified as follows: 

• Mixed-methods studies  

Mixed-methods studies use both quantitative and qualitative research questions to answer your research question. Mixed methods provide a complete picture than standalone quantitative or qualitative research, as it integrates the benefits of both methods. Mixed methods research is often used in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research, especially in the behavioral, health, and social science fields. 

What makes a good research question

A good research question should be clear and focused to guide your research. It should synthesize multiple sources to present your unique argument, and should ideally be something that you are interested in. But avoid questions that can be answered in a few factual statements. The following are the main attributes of a good research question. 

• Specific: The research question should not be a fishing expedition performed in the hopes that some new information will be found that will benefit the researcher. The central research question should work with your research problem to keep your work focused. If using multiple questions, they should all tie back to the central aim. 
• Measurable: The research question must be answerable using quantitative and/or qualitative data or from scholarly sources to develop your research question. If such data is impossible to access, it is better to rethink your question. 
• Attainable: Ensure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific. 
• You have the expertise 
• You have the equipment and resources 
• Realistic: Developing your research question should be based on initial reading about your topic. It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline. 
• Based on some sort of rational physics 
• Can be done in a reasonable time frame 
• Timely: The research question should contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on. 
• Novel 
• Based on current technologies. 
• Important to answer current problems or concerns. 
• Lead to new directions. 
• Important: Your question should have some aspect of originality. Incremental research is as important as exploring disruptive technologies. For example, you can focus on a specific location or explore a new angle. 
• Meaningful whether the answer is “Yes” or “No.” Closed-ended, yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research questions. Such questions do not provide enough scope for robust investigation and discussion. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation before providing an answer. 

Steps for developing a good research question

The importance of research questions cannot be understated. When drafting a research question, use the following frameworks to guide the components of your question to ease the process. 4  

• Determine the requirements: Before constructing a good research question, set your research requirements. What is the purpose? Is it descriptive, comparative, or explorative research? Determining the research aim will help you choose the most appropriate topic and word your question appropriately. 
• Select a broad research topic: Identify a broader subject area of interest that requires investigation. Techniques such as brainstorming or concept mapping can help identify relevant connections and themes within a broad research topic. For example, how to learn and help students learn. 
• Perform preliminary investigation: Preliminary research is needed to obtain up-to-date and relevant knowledge on your topic. It also helps identify issues currently being discussed from which information gaps can be identified. 
• Narrow your focus: Narrow the scope and focus of your research to a specific niche. This involves focusing on gaps in existing knowledge or recent literature or extending or complementing the findings of existing literature. Another approach involves constructing strong research questions that challenge your views or knowledge of the area of study (Example: Is learning consistent with the existing learning theory and research). 
• Identify the research problem: Once the research question has been framed, one should evaluate it. This is to realize the importance of the research questions and if there is a need for more revising (Example: How do your beliefs on learning theory and research impact your instructional practices). 

How to write a research question

Those struggling to understand how to write a research question, these simple steps can help you simplify the process of writing a research question. 

Sample Research Questions

The following are some bad and good research question examples 

• Example 1 

• Example 2 

References:  

• Thabane, L., Thomas, T., Ye, C., & Paul, J. (2009). Posing the research question: not so simple.  Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d’anesthésie ,  56 (1), 71-79. 
• Rutberg, S., & Bouikidis, C. D. (2018). Focusing on the fundamentals: A simplistic differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research.  Nephrology Nursing Journal ,  45 (2), 209-213. 
• Kyngäs, H. (2020). Qualitative research and content analysis.  The application of content analysis in nursing science research , 3-11. 
• Mattick, K., Johnston, J., & de la Croix, A. (2018). How to… write a good research question.  The clinical teacher ,  15 (2), 104-108. 
• Fandino, W. (2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls.  Indian Journal of Anaesthesia ,  63 (8), 611. 
• Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions.  ACP journal club ,  123 (3), A12-A13 

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How to Develop a Good Research Question? — Types & Examples

Cecilia is living through a tough situation in her research life. Figuring out where to begin, how to start her research study, and how to pose the right question for her research quest, is driving her insane. Well, questions, if not asked correctly, have a tendency to spiral us!

Image Source: https://phdcomics.com/

Questions lead everyone to answers. Research is a quest to find answers. Not the vague questions that Cecilia means to answer, but definitely more focused questions that define your research. Therefore, asking appropriate question becomes an important matter of discussion.

A well begun research process requires a strong research question. It directs the research investigation and provides a clear goal to focus on. Understanding the characteristics of comprising a good research question will generate new ideas and help you discover new methods in research.

In this article, we are aiming to help researchers understand what is a research question and how to write one with examples.

Table of Contents

What Is a Research Question?

A good research question defines your study and helps you seek an answer to your research. Moreover, a clear research question guides the research paper or thesis to define exactly what you want to find out, giving your work its objective. Learning to write a research question is the beginning to any thesis, dissertation , or research paper. Furthermore, the question addresses issues or problems which is answered through analysis and interpretation of data.

Why Is a Research Question Important?

A strong research question guides the design of a study. Moreover, it helps determine the type of research and identify specific objectives. Research questions state the specific issue you are addressing and focus on outcomes of the research for individuals to learn. Therefore, it helps break up the study into easy steps to complete the objectives and answer the initial question.

Types of Research Questions

Research questions can be categorized into different types, depending on the type of research you want to undergo. Furthermore, knowing the type of research will help a researcher determine the best type of research question to use.

1. Qualitative Research Question

Qualitative questions concern broad areas or more specific areas of research. However, unlike quantitative questions, qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional and more flexible. Qualitative research question focus on discovering, explaining, elucidating, and exploring.

i. Exploratory Questions

This form of question looks to understand something without influencing the results. The objective of exploratory questions is to learn more about a topic without attributing bias or preconceived notions to it.

Research Question Example: Asking how a chemical is used or perceptions around a certain topic.

ii. Predictive Questions

Predictive research questions are defined as survey questions that automatically predict the best possible response options based on text of the question. Moreover, these questions seek to understand the intent or future outcome surrounding a topic.

Research Question Example: Asking why a consumer behaves in a certain way or chooses a certain option over other.

iii. Interpretive Questions

This type of research question allows the study of people in the natural setting. The questions help understand how a group makes sense of shared experiences with regards to various phenomena. These studies gather feedback on a group’s behavior without affecting the outcome.

Research Question Example: How do you feel about AI assisting publishing process in your research?

2. Quantitative Research Question

Quantitative questions prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships. These questions are beneficial when choosing a research topic or when posing follow-up questions that garner more information.

i. Descriptive Questions

It is the most basic type of quantitative research question and it seeks to explain when, where, why, or how something occurred. Moreover, they use data and statistics to describe an event or phenomenon.

Research Question Example: How many generations of genes influence a future generation?

ii. Comparative Questions

Sometimes it’s beneficial to compare one occurrence with another. Therefore, comparative questions are helpful when studying groups with dependent variables.

Example: Do men and women have comparable metabolisms?

iii. Relationship-Based Questions

This type of research question answers influence of one variable on another. Therefore, experimental studies use this type of research questions are majorly.

Example: How is drought condition affect a region’s probability for wildfires.  

How to Write a Good Research Question?

1. Select a Topic

The first step towards writing a good research question is to choose a broad topic of research. You could choose a research topic that interests you, because the complete research will progress further from the research question. Therefore, make sure to choose a topic that you are passionate about, to make your research study more enjoyable.

2. Conduct Preliminary Research

After finalizing the topic, read and know about what research studies are conducted in the field so far. Furthermore, this will help you find articles that talk about the topics that are yet to be explored. You could explore the topics that the earlier research has not studied.

3. Consider Your Audience

The most important aspect of writing a good research question is to find out if there is audience interested to know the answer to the question you are proposing. Moreover, determining your audience will assist you in refining your research question, and focus on aspects that relate to defined groups.

4. Generate Potential Questions

The best way to generate potential questions is to ask open ended questions. Questioning broader topics will allow you to narrow down to specific questions. Identifying the gaps in literature could also give you topics to write the research question. Moreover, you could also challenge the existing assumptions or use personal experiences to redefine issues in research.

5. Review Your Questions

Once you have listed few of your questions, evaluate them to find out if they are effective research questions. Moreover while reviewing, go through the finer details of the question and its probable outcome, and find out if the question meets the research question criteria.

6. Construct Your Research Question

There are two frameworks to construct your research question. The first one being PICOT framework , which stands for:

• Population or problem
• Intervention or indicator being studied
• Comparison group
• Outcome of interest
• Time frame of the study.

The second framework is PEO , which stands for:

• Population being studied
• Exposure to preexisting conditions
• Outcome of interest.

Research Question Examples

• How might the discovery of a genetic basis for alcoholism impact triage processes in medical facilities?
• How do ecological systems respond to chronic anthropological disturbance?
• What are demographic consequences of ecological interactions?
• What roles do fungi play in wildfire recovery?
• How do feedbacks reinforce patterns of genetic divergence on the landscape?
• What educational strategies help encourage safe driving in young adults?
• What makes a grocery store easy for shoppers to navigate?
• What genetic factors predict if someone will develop hypothyroidism?
• Does contemporary evolution along the gradients of global change alter ecosystems function?

How did you write your first research question ? What were the steps you followed to create a strong research question? Do write to us or comment below.

Frequently Asked Questions

Research questions guide the focus and direction of a research study. Here are common types of research questions: 1. Qualitative research question: Qualitative questions concern broad areas or more specific areas of research. However, unlike quantitative questions, qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional and more flexible. Different types of qualitative research questions are: i. Exploratory questions ii. Predictive questions iii. Interpretive questions 2. Quantitative Research Question: Quantitative questions prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships. These questions are beneficial when choosing a research topic or when posing follow-up questions that garner more information. Different types of quantitative research questions are: i. Descriptive questions ii. Comparative questions iii. Relationship-based questions

Qualitative research questions aim to explore the richness and depth of participants' experiences and perspectives. They should guide your research and allow for in-depth exploration of the phenomenon under investigation. After identifying the research topic and the purpose of your research: • Begin with Broad Inquiry: Start with a general research question that captures the main focus of your study. This question should be open-ended and allow for exploration. • Break Down the Main Question: Identify specific aspects or dimensions related to the main research question that you want to investigate. • Formulate Sub-questions: Create sub-questions that delve deeper into each specific aspect or dimension identified in the previous step. • Ensure Open-endedness: Make sure your research questions are open-ended and allow for varied responses and perspectives. Avoid questions that can be answered with a simple "yes" or "no." Encourage participants to share their experiences, opinions, and perceptions in their own words. • Refine and Review: Review your research questions to ensure they align with your research purpose, topic, and objectives. Seek feedback from your research advisor or peers to refine and improve your research questions.

Developing research questions requires careful consideration of the research topic, objectives, and the type of study you intend to conduct. Here are the steps to help you develop effective research questions: 1. Select a Topic 2. Conduct Preliminary Research 3. Consider Your Audience 4. Generate Potential Questions 5. Review Your Questions 6. Construct Your Research Question Based on PICOT or PEO Framework

There are two frameworks to construct your research question. The first one being PICOT framework, which stands for: • Population or problem • Intervention or indicator being studied • Comparison group • Outcome of interest • Time frame of the study The second framework is PEO, which stands for: • Population being studied • Exposure to preexisting conditions • Outcome of interest

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• Research Questions: Definitions, Types + [Examples]

Research questions lie at the core of systematic investigation and this is because recording accurate research outcomes is tied to asking the right questions. Asking the right questions when conducting research can help you collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work, positively. 

The right research questions are typically easy to understand, straight to the point, and engaging. In this article, we will share tips on how to create the right research questions and also show you how to create and administer an online questionnaire with Formplus . 

What is a Research Question? 

A research question is a specific inquiry which the research seeks to provide a response to. It resides at the core of systematic investigation and it helps you to clearly define a path for the research process. 

A research question is usually the first step in any research project. Basically, it is the primary interrogation point of your research and it sets the pace for your work.  

Typically, a research question focuses on the research, determines the methodology and hypothesis, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. With the right research questions, you will be able to gather useful information for your investigation. 

Types of Research Questions 

Research questions are broadly categorized into 2; that is, qualitative research questions and quantitative research questions. Qualitative and quantitative research questions can be used independently and co-dependently in line with the overall focus and objectives of your research. 

If your research aims at collecting quantifiable data , you will need to make use of quantitative research questions. On the other hand, qualitative questions help you to gather qualitative data bothering on the perceptions and observations of your research subjects. 

Qualitative Research Questions  

A qualitative research question is a type of systematic inquiry that aims at collecting qualitative data from research subjects. The aim of qualitative research questions is to gather non-statistical information pertaining to the experiences, observations, and perceptions of the research subjects in line with the objectives of the investigation. 

Types of Qualitative Research Questions  

• Ethnographic Research Questions

As the name clearly suggests, ethnographic research questions are inquiries presented in ethnographic research. Ethnographic research is a qualitative research approach that involves observing variables in their natural environments or habitats in order to arrive at objective research outcomes. 

These research questions help the researcher to gather insights into the habits, dispositions, perceptions, and behaviors of research subjects as they interact in specific environments. 

Ethnographic research questions can be used in education, business, medicine, and other fields of study, and they are very useful in contexts aimed at collecting in-depth and specific information that are peculiar to research variables. For instance, asking educational ethnographic research questions can help you understand how pedagogy affects classroom relations and behaviors. 

This type of research question can be administered physically through one-on-one interviews, naturalism (live and work), and participant observation methods. Alternatively, the researcher can ask ethnographic research questions via online surveys and questionnaires created with Formplus.  

Examples of Ethnographic Research Questions

• Why do you use this product?
• Have you noticed any side effects since you started using this drug?
• Does this product meet your needs?

• Case Studies

A case study is a qualitative research approach that involves carrying out a detailed investigation into a research subject(s) or variable(s). In the course of a case study, the researcher gathers a range of data from multiple sources of information via different data collection methods, and over a period of time. 

The aim of a case study is to analyze specific issues within definite contexts and arrive at detailed research subject analyses by asking the right questions. This research method can be explanatory, descriptive , or exploratory depending on the focus of your systematic investigation or research. 

An explanatory case study is one that seeks to gather information on the causes of real-life occurrences. This type of case study uses “how” and “why” questions in order to gather valid information about the causative factors of an event. 

Descriptive case studies are typically used in business researches, and they aim at analyzing the impact of changing market dynamics on businesses. On the other hand, exploratory case studies aim at providing answers to “who” and “what” questions using data collection tools like interviews and questionnaires. 

Some questions you can include in your case studies are: 

• Why did you choose our services?
• How has this policy affected your business output?
• What benefits have you recorded since you started using our product?

An interview is a qualitative research method that involves asking respondents a series of questions in order to gather information about a research subject. Interview questions can be close-ended or open-ended , and they prompt participants to provide valid information that is useful to the research. 

An interview may also be structured, semi-structured , or unstructured , and this further influences the types of questions they include. Structured interviews are made up of more close-ended questions because they aim at gathering quantitative data while unstructured interviews consist, primarily, of open-ended questions that allow the researcher to collect qualitative information from respondents. 

You can conduct interview research by scheduling a physical meeting with respondents, through a telephone conversation, and via digital media and video conferencing platforms like Skype and Zoom. Alternatively, you can use Formplus surveys and questionnaires for your interview. 

Examples of interview questions include: 

• What challenges did you face while using our product?
• What specific needs did our product meet?
• What would you like us to improve our service delivery?

Quantitative Research Questions

Quantitative research questions are questions that are used to gather quantifiable data from research subjects. These types of research questions are usually more specific and direct because they aim at collecting information that can be measured; that is, statistical information. 

Types of Quantitative Research Questions

• Descriptive Research Questions

Descriptive research questions are inquiries that researchers use to gather quantifiable data about the attributes and characteristics of research subjects. These types of questions primarily seek responses that reveal existing patterns in the nature of the research subjects. 

It is important to note that descriptive research questions are not concerned with the causative factors of the discovered attributes and characteristics. Rather, they focus on the “what”; that is, describing the subject of the research without paying attention to the reasons for its occurrence. 

Descriptive research questions are typically closed-ended because they aim at gathering definite and specific responses from research participants. Also, they can be used in customer experience surveys and market research to collect information about target markets and consumer behaviors. 

Descriptive Research Question Examples

• How often do you make use of our fitness application?
• How much would you be willing to pay for this product?

• Comparative Research Questions

A comparative research question is a type of quantitative research question that is used to gather information about the differences between two or more research subjects across different variables. These types of questions help the researcher to identify distinct features that mark one research subject from the other while highlighting existing similarities. 

Asking comparative research questions in market research surveys can provide insights on how your product or service matches its competitors. In addition, it can help you to identify the strengths and weaknesses of your product for a better competitive advantage.  

The 5 steps involved in the framing of comparative research questions are: 

• Choose your starting phrase
• Identify and name the dependent variable
• Identify the groups you are interested in
• Identify the appropriate adjoining text
• Write out the comparative research question

Comparative Research Question Samples 

• What are the differences between a landline telephone and a smartphone?
• What are the differences between work-from-home and on-site operations?

• Relationship-based Research Questions  

Just like the name suggests, a relationship-based research question is one that inquires into the nature of the association between two research subjects within the same demographic. These types of research questions help you to gather information pertaining to the nature of the association between two research variables. 

Relationship-based research questions are also known as correlational research questions because they seek to clearly identify the link between 2 variables. 

Read: Correlational Research Designs: Types, Examples & Methods

Examples of relationship-based research questions include: 

• What is the relationship between purchasing power and the business site?
• What is the relationship between the work environment and workforce turnover?

Examples of a Good Research Question

Since research questions lie at the core of any systematic investigations, it is important to know how to frame a good research question. The right research questions will help you to gather the most objective responses that are useful to your systematic investigation. 

A good research question is one that requires impartial responses and can be answered via existing sources of information. Also, a good research question seeks answers that actively contribute to a body of knowledge; hence, it is a question that is yet to be answered in your specific research context.

• Open-Ended Questions

 An open-ended question is a type of research question that does not restrict respondents to a set of premeditated answer options. In other words, it is a question that allows the respondent to freely express his or her perceptions and feelings towards the research subject. 

Examples of Open-ended Questions

• How do you deal with stress in the workplace?
• What is a typical day at work like for you?
• Close-ended Questions

A close-ended question is a type of survey question that restricts respondents to a set of predetermined answers such as multiple-choice questions . Close-ended questions typically require yes or no answers and are commonly used in quantitative research to gather numerical data from research participants. 

Examples of Close-ended Questions

• Did you enjoy this event?
• How likely are you to recommend our services?
• Very Likely
• Somewhat Likely
• Likert Scale Questions

A Likert scale question is a type of close-ended question that is structured as a 3-point, 5-point, or 7-point psychometric scale . This type of question is used to measure the survey respondent’s disposition towards multiple variables and it can be unipolar or bipolar in nature. 

Example of Likert Scale Questions

• How satisfied are you with our service delivery?
• Very dissatisfied
• Not satisfied
• Very satisfied
• Rating Scale Questions

A rating scale question is a type of close-ended question that seeks to associate a specific qualitative measure (rating) with the different variables in research. It is commonly used in customer experience surveys, market research surveys, employee reviews, and product evaluations. 

Example of Rating Questions

• How would you rate our service delivery?

  Examples of a Bad Research Question

Knowing what bad research questions are would help you avoid them in the course of your systematic investigation. These types of questions are usually unfocused and often result in research biases that can negatively impact the outcomes of your systematic investigation. 

• Loaded Questions

A loaded question is a question that subtly presupposes one or more unverified assumptions about the research subject or participant. This type of question typically boxes the respondent in a corner because it suggests implicit and explicit biases that prevent objective responses. 

Example of Loaded Questions

• Have you stopped smoking?
• Where did you hide the money?
• Negative Questions

A negative question is a type of question that is structured with an implicit or explicit negator. Negative questions can be misleading because they upturn the typical yes/no response order by requiring a negative answer for affirmation and an affirmative answer for negation. 

Examples of Negative Questions

• Would you mind dropping by my office later today?
• Didn’t you visit last week?
• Leading Questions  

A l eading question is a type of survey question that nudges the respondent towards an already-determined answer. It is highly suggestive in nature and typically consists of biases and unverified assumptions that point toward its premeditated responses. 

Examples of Leading Questions

• If you enjoyed this service, would you be willing to try out our other packages?
• Our product met your needs, didn’t it?

Read More: Leading Questions: Definition, Types, and Examples

How to Use Formplus as Online Research Questionnaire Tool  

With Formplus, you can create and administer your online research questionnaire easily. In the form builder, you can add different form fields to your questionnaire and edit these fields to reflect specific research questions for your systematic investigation. 

Here is a step-by-step guide on how to create an online research questionnaire with Formplus: 

• Sign in to your Formplus accoun t, then click on the “create new form” button in your dashboard to access the Form builder.

• In the form builder, add preferred form fields to your online research questionnaire by dragging and dropping them into the form. Add a title to your form in the title block. You can edit form fields by clicking on the “pencil” icon on the right corner of each form field.

• Save the form to access the customization section of the builder. Here, you can tweak the appearance of your online research questionnaire by adding background images, changing the form font, and adding your organization’s logo.

• Finally, copy your form link and share it with respondents. You can also use any of the multiple sharing options available.

Conclusion  

The success of your research starts with framing the right questions to help you collect the most valid and objective responses. Be sure to avoid bad research questions like loaded and negative questions that can be misleading and adversely affect your research data and outcomes. 

Your research questions should clearly reflect the aims and objectives of your systematic investigation while laying emphasis on specific contexts. To help you seamlessly gather responses for your research questions, you can create an online research questionnaire on Formplus.  

Connect to Formplus, Get Started Now - It's Free!

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Writing Studio

Formulating your research question (rq).

In an effort to make our handouts more accessible, we have begun converting our PDF handouts to web pages. Download this page as a PDF: Formulating Your Research Question Return to Writing Studio Handouts

In a research paper, the emphasis is on generating a unique question and then synthesizing diverse sources into a coherent essay that supports your argument about the topic. In other words, you integrate information from publications with your own thoughts in order to formulate an argument. Your topic is your starting place: from here, you will develop an engaging research question. Merely presenting a topic in the form of a question does not transform it into a good research question.

Research Topic Versus Research Question Examples

1. broad topic versus narrow question, 1a. broad topic.

“What forces affect race relations in America?”

1b. NARROWER QUESTION

“How do corporate hiring practices affect race relations in Nashville?”

The question “What is the percentage of racial minorities holding management positions in corporate offices in Nashville?” is much too specific and would yield, at best, a statistic that could become part of a larger argument.

2. Neutral Topic Versus Argumentative Question

2a. neutral topic.

“How does KFC market its low-fat food offerings?”

2b. Argumentative question

“Does KFC put more money into marketing its high-fat food offerings than its lower-fat ones?”

The latter question is somewhat better, since it may lead you to take a stance or formulate an argument about consumer awareness or benefit.

3. Objective Topic Versus Subjective Question

Objective subjects are factual and do not have sides to be argued. Subjective subjects are those about which you can take a side.

3a. Objective topic

“How much time do youth between the ages of 10 and 15 spend playing video games?”

3b. Subjective Question

“What are the effects of video-gaming on the attention spans of youth between the ages of 10 and 15?”

The first question is likely to lead to some data, though not necessarily to an argument or issue. The second question is somewhat better, since it might lead you to formulate an argument for or against time spent playing video games.

4. Open-Ended Topic Versus Direct Question

4a. open-ended topic.

“Does the author of this text use allusion?”

4b. Direct question (gives direction to research)

“Does the ironic use of allusion in this text reveal anything about the author’s unwillingness to divulge his political commitments?”

The second question gives focus by putting the use of allusion into the specific context of a question about the author’s political commitments and perhaps also about the circumstances under which the text was produced.

Research Question (RQ) Checklist

• Is my RQ something that I am curious about and that others might care about? Does it present an issue on which I can take a stand?
• Does my RQ put a new spin on an old issue, or does it try to solve a problem?
• Is my RQ too broad, too narrow, or OK?
• within the time frame of the assignment?
• given the resources available at my location?
• Is my RQ measurable? What type of information do I need? Can I find actual data to support or contradict a position?
• What sources will have the type of information that I need to answer my RQ (journals, books, internet resources, government documents, interviews with people)?

Final Thoughts

The answer to a good research question will often be the THESIS of your research paper! And the results of your research may not always be what you expected them to be. Not only is this ok, it can be an indication that you are doing careful work!

Adapted from an online tutorial at Empire State College: http://www.esc.edu/htmlpages/writerold/menus.htm#develop (broken link)

Last revised: November 2022 | Adapted for web delivery: November 2022

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How to Write a Good Research Question (w/ Examples)

What is a Research Question?

A research question is the main question that your study sought or is seeking to answer. A clear research question guides your research paper or thesis and states exactly what you want to find out, giving your work a focus and objective. Learning  how to write a hypothesis or research question is the start to composing any thesis, dissertation, or research paper. It is also one of the most important sections of a research proposal . 

A good research question not only clarifies the writing in your study; it provides your readers with a clear focus and facilitates their understanding of your research topic, as well as outlining your study’s objectives. Before drafting the paper and receiving research paper editing (and usually before performing your study), you should write a concise statement of what this study intends to accomplish or reveal.

Research Question Writing Tips

Listed below are the important characteristics of a good research question:

A good research question should:

• Be clear and provide specific information so readers can easily understand the purpose.
• Be focused in its scope and narrow enough to be addressed in the space allowed by your paper
• Be relevant and concise and express your main ideas in as few words as possible, like a hypothesis.
• Be precise and complex enough that it does not simply answer a closed “yes or no” question, but requires an analysis of arguments and literature prior to its being considered acceptable. 
• Be arguable or testable so that answers to the research question are open to scrutiny and specific questions and counterarguments.

Some of these characteristics might be difficult to understand in the form of a list. Let’s go into more detail about what a research question must do and look at some examples of research questions.

The research question should be specific and focused 

Research questions that are too broad are not suitable to be addressed in a single study. One reason for this can be if there are many factors or variables to consider. In addition, a sample data set that is too large or an experimental timeline that is too long may suggest that the research question is not focused enough.

A specific research question means that the collective data and observations come together to either confirm or deny the chosen hypothesis in a clear manner. If a research question is too vague, then the data might end up creating an alternate research problem or hypothesis that you haven’t addressed in your Introduction section .

The research question should be based on the literature 

An effective research question should be answerable and verifiable based on prior research because an effective scientific study must be placed in the context of a wider academic consensus. This means that conspiracy or fringe theories are not good research paper topics.

Instead, a good research question must extend, examine, and verify the context of your research field. It should fit naturally within the literature and be searchable by other research authors.

References to the literature can be in different citation styles and must be properly formatted according to the guidelines set forth by the publishing journal, university, or academic institution. This includes in-text citations as well as the Reference section . 

The research question should be realistic in time, scope, and budget

There are two main constraints to the research process: timeframe and budget.

A proper research question will include study or experimental procedures that can be executed within a feasible time frame, typically by a graduate doctoral or master’s student or lab technician. Research that requires future technology, expensive resources, or follow-up procedures is problematic.

A researcher’s budget is also a major constraint to performing timely research. Research at many large universities or institutions is publicly funded and is thus accountable to funding restrictions. 

The research question should be in-depth

Research papers, dissertations and theses , and academic journal articles are usually dozens if not hundreds of pages in length.

A good research question or thesis statement must be sufficiently complex to warrant such a length, as it must stand up to the scrutiny of peer review and be reproducible by other scientists and researchers.

Research Question Types

Qualitative and quantitative research are the two major types of research, and it is essential to develop research questions for each type of study. 

Quantitative Research Questions

Quantitative research questions are specific. A typical research question involves the population to be studied, dependent and independent variables, and the research design.

In addition, quantitative research questions connect the research question and the research design. In addition, it is not possible to answer these questions definitively with a “yes” or “no” response. For example, scientific fields such as biology, physics, and chemistry often deal with “states,” in which different quantities, amounts, or velocities drastically alter the relevance of the research.

As a consequence, quantitative research questions do not contain qualitative, categorical, or ordinal qualifiers such as “is,” “are,” “does,” or “does not.”

Categories of quantitative research questions

Qualitative Research Questions

In quantitative research, research questions have the potential to relate to broad research areas as well as more specific areas of study. Qualitative research questions are less directional, more flexible, and adaptable compared with their quantitative counterparts. Thus, studies based on these questions tend to focus on “discovering,” “explaining,” “elucidating,” and “exploring.”

Categories of qualitative research questions

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Question Examples

Good and Bad Research Question Examples

Below are some good (and not-so-good) examples of research questions that researchers can use to guide them in crafting their own research questions.

Research Question Example 1

The first research question is too vague in both its independent and dependent variables. There is no specific information on what “exposure” means. Does this refer to comments, likes, engagement, or just how much time is spent on the social media platform?

Second, there is no useful information on what exactly “affected” means. Does the subject’s behavior change in some measurable way? Or does this term refer to another factor such as the user’s emotions?

Research Question Example 2

In this research question, the first example is too simple and not sufficiently complex, making it difficult to assess whether the study answered the question. The author could really only answer this question with a simple “yes” or “no.” Further, the presence of data would not help answer this question more deeply, which is a sure sign of a poorly constructed research topic.

The second research question is specific, complex, and empirically verifiable. One can measure program effectiveness based on metrics such as attendance or grades. Further, “bullying” is made into an empirical, quantitative measurement in the form of recorded disciplinary actions.

Steps for Writing a Research Question

Good research questions are relevant, focused, and meaningful. It can be difficult to come up with a good research question, but there are a few steps you can follow to make it a bit easier.

1. Start with an interesting and relevant topic

Choose a research topic that is interesting but also relevant and aligned with your own country’s culture or your university’s capabilities. Popular academic topics include healthcare and medical-related research. However, if you are attending an engineering school or humanities program, you should obviously choose a research question that pertains to your specific study and major.

Below is an embedded graph of the most popular research fields of study based on publication output according to region. As you can see, healthcare and the basic sciences receive the most funding and earn the highest number of publications. 

2. Do preliminary research  

You can begin doing preliminary research once you have chosen a research topic. Two objectives should be accomplished during this first phase of research. First, you should undertake a preliminary review of related literature to discover issues that scholars and peers are currently discussing. With this method, you show that you are informed about the latest developments in the field.

Secondly, identify knowledge gaps or limitations in your topic by conducting a preliminary literature review . It is possible to later use these gaps to focus your research question after a certain amount of fine-tuning.

3. Narrow your research to determine specific research questions

You can focus on a more specific area of study once you have a good handle on the topic you want to explore. Focusing on recent literature or knowledge gaps is one good option. 

By identifying study limitations in the literature and overlooked areas of study, an author can carve out a good research question. The same is true for choosing research questions that extend or complement existing literature.

4. Evaluate your research question

Make sure you evaluate the research question by asking the following questions:

Is my research question clear?

The resulting data and observations that your study produces should be clear. For quantitative studies, data must be empirical and measurable. For qualitative, the observations should be clearly delineable across categories.

Is my research question focused and specific?

A strong research question should be specific enough that your methodology or testing procedure produces an objective result, not one left to subjective interpretation. Open-ended research questions or those relating to general topics can create ambiguous connections between the results and the aims of the study. 

Is my research question sufficiently complex?

The result of your research should be consequential and substantial (and fall sufficiently within the context of your field) to warrant an academic study. Simply reinforcing or supporting a scientific consensus is superfluous and will likely not be well received by most journal editors.  

Editing Your Research Question

Your research question should be fully formulated well before you begin drafting your research paper. However, you can receive English paper editing and proofreading services at any point in the drafting process. Language editors with expertise in your academic field can assist you with the content and language in your Introduction section or other manuscript sections. And if you need further assistance or information regarding paper compositions, in the meantime, check out our academic resources , which provide dozens of articles and videos on a variety of academic writing and publication topics.

• How it works

How to Write the Research Questions – Tips & Examples

Published by Owen Ingram at August 13th, 2021 , Revised On October 3, 2023

Conducting research and writing an academic paper requires a clear direction and focus.

A good research question provides purpose to your research and clarifies the direction. It further helps your readers to understand what issue your research aims to explore and address.

If you are unsure about how to write research questions, here is a list of the attributes of a good research question;

• The research question should contain only a single problem
• You should be able to find the answer to it using  primary and secondary data sources
• You should be able to address it within the time limit and other constraints
• Can attain in-depth and detailed results
• Relevant and applicable
• Should relate to your chosen field of research

Whenever you want to discover something new about a  topic , you will ask a question about it. Therefore, the research question is important in the overall research process  and provides the author with the reading and writing guidelines.

In a research paper or an essay, you will need to create a single research question that highlights just one problem or issue. The thesis statement should include the specific problem you aim to investigate to establish your argument’s central position or claim.

A larger project such as a  dissertation or thesis , on the other hand, can have multiple research questions, but every question should focus on your main  research problem .  Different types of research will help you answer different research questions, but they should all be relevant to the research scope.

How to Write a Research Question

Steps to develop your research question.

• Choose a topic  with a wide range of published literature
• Read and skim relevant articles to find out different problems and issues
• Specify a theoretical or practical  research problem  that your research question will address
• Narrow down the focus of your selected core niche

Example Research Question (s)

Here are examples of research problems and research questions to help you understand how to create a research question for a given research problem.

Types of Research Questions

There are two main types of research;  quantitative and qualitative research . Both types of research require research questions. What research question you will answer is dependent on the type of research you wish to employ.

The first part of  designing research  is to find a gap and create a fully focused research question.

The following table shows common research questions for a dissertation project. However, it is important to note that these examples of dissertation research questions are straightforward, and the actual research questions may be more complicated than these examples.

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Steps to Write Research Questions

The research question provides you with a path and focuses on the real problem and the research gap you aim to fill. These are steps you need to take if you are unsure about how to write a research question:

Choose an Interesting Topic

Choose a topic  of research according to your interest. The selected topic should be neither too broad nor too narrow.

Do Preliminary Research on the Topic

Find articles, books, journals, and theses relevant to your chosen topic. Understand what research problem each scholar addressed as part of their research project.

Consider your Audience

It is necessary to know your audience to develop focused research questions for your essay or dissertation. You can find aspects of your topic that could be interesting to your audience when narrowing your topic.

Start Asking Questions

What, why, when, how, and other open-ended questions will provide in-depth knowledge about the topic.

Evaluate your Question

After formulating a research question, evaluate to check its effectiveness and how it can serve the purpose. Revise and refine the dissertation research question.

• Do you have a clear research question? 

It would help if you formed the research question after finding a research gap. This approach will enable the research to solve part of the problem.

• Do you have a focused research question?

It is necessary that the research question is specific and relating to the central aim of your research.

• Do you have a complex research question? 

The research question cannot be answered by yes or no but requires in-depth analysis. It often begins with “How” or “Why.”

Begin your Research

After you have prepared dissertation research questions, you should research the existing literature on similar topics to find various perspectives.

Also See: Formulation of Research Question

If you have been struggling to devise research questions for your dissertation or are unsure about which topic would be suitable for your needs, then you might be interested in taking advantage of our dissertation topic and outline service, which includes several topic ideas in your preferred area of study and a 500/1000 words plan on your chosen topic. Our topic and outline service will help you jump-start your dissertation project.

Find out How Our Topics & Outline Service Can Help You!

Tips on How to Write a Strong Research Question

A research question is the foundation of the entire research. Therefore, you should spend as much time as required to refine the research question.

If you have good research questions for the dissertation, research paper , or essay, you can perform the research and analyse your results more effectively. You can evaluate the strength of the research question with the help of the following criteria. Your research question should be;

Intensive and Researchable

• It should cover a single issue
• The question shouldn’t include a subjective judgment
• It can be answerable with the data analysis or research=

Practical and Specific

• It should not include a course of action, policy, or solution
• It should be well-defined
• Answerable within research limits

Complicated and Arguable

• It should not be simple to answer
• Need in-depth knowledge to find facts
• Provides scope for debate and deliberation

Unique and Relevant

• It should lie in your field of study
• Its results should be contributable
• It should be unique

Conclusion – How to Write Research Questions

A research question provides a clear direction for research work. A bigger project, such as a dissertation, may have more than one research question, but every question should focus on one issue only.

Your research questions should be researchable, feasible to answer, specific to find results, complex (for Masters and PhD projects), and relevant to your field of study. Dissertation research questions depend upon the research type you are basing your paper on.

Start creating a research question by choosing an interesting topic, do some preliminary research, consider your audience, start asking questions, evaluating your question, and begin your research.

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Frequently Asked Questions

How are research questions written.

Research questions are written by:

• Identifying your topic.
• Considering what you want to explore.
• Making questions clear and concise.
• Ensuring they’re researchable.
• Avoiding bias or leading language.
• Focusing on one main idea per question.

What are examples of research questions?

• Does regular exercise improve mental well-being in adults over 50?
• How do online courses impact student engagement compared to traditional classes?
• What are the economic effects of prolonged pandemic lockdowns?
• How does early childhood nutrition influence academic performance in later life?
• Does urban green space reduce stress levels?

How to write a research question?

• Identify a specific topic or issue of interest.
• Conduct preliminary research to understand existing knowledge.
• Narrow the focus to address gaps or unresolved issues.
• Phrase the question to be clear, concise, and researchable.
• Ensure it is specific enough for systematic investigation.

How to formulate my research questions for my geography dissertation?

• Identify a geographical topic or phenomenon of interest.
• Review existing literature to find gaps.
• Consider spatial, temporal, environmental, or societal aspects.
• Ensure questions are specific, feasible, and significant.
• Frame questions to guide methodology: quantitative, qualitative, or mixed.
• Seek feedback from peers/advisors.

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Not sure how to approach a company for your primary research study? Don’t worry. Here we have some tips for you to successfully gather primary study.

How to write a hypothesis for dissertation,? A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested with the help of experimental or theoretical research.

Here we explore what is research problem in dissertation with research problem examples to help you understand how and when to write a research problem.

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• How It Works

Uncomplicated Reviews of Educational Research Methods

• Writing Research Questions

.pdf version of this page

This review is a collection of views and advice on composing research questions from problem statements. It mostly reads as a list of tips and suggestions.

A research question is the fundamental core of a research project, study, or review of literature. It focuses the study, determines the methodology, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting.

The research question begins with a research problem , an issue someone would like to know more about or a situation that needs to be changed or addressed, such as:

• Areas of concern
• Conditions that could be improved
• Difficulties that need to be eliminated
• Questions seeking answers

A research problem leads to a hypothesis (H) and/or research question (RQ)

Questions should in some way. . .

• Be worth investigating
• Contribute knowledge & value to the field
• Improve educational practice
• Improve the human condition

Characteristics of a good research question:

• The question is feasible.
• The question is clear.
• The question is significant.
• The question is ethical.

From Research Problem to Research Questions and Purpose

Step 1. Draft a research question/hypothesis.

Example : What effects did 9/11/01 have on the future plans of students who were high school seniors at the time of the terrorist attacks?

Example (measurable) Questions: Did seniors consider enlisting in the military as a result of the attacks?, Did seniors consider colleges closer to home as a result? Step 2. Draft a purpose statement.

Example: The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of the 9/11/01 tragedy on the future plans of high school seniors.

Step 3. Revise and rewrite the research question/hypothesis.

Example : What is the association between 9/11/01 and future plans of high school seniors ?

Step 4. Revise and rewrite the research question/hypothesis.

Example : Purpose Statement (Declarative): The purpose of this study is to explore the association between 9/11/01 and future plans of high school seniors .

Note: Both are neutral; they do not presume an association, either negative or positive.

Operationalize

Notice that the above research question suggested an association or a relationship. When composing your own, it is helpful to determine which variables you would like to understand, and then word your question in such a way as to suggest how you will test your question. This is called operationalizing, referring to the actions, processes, or operations used to measure or identify variables.

Finally, you will want to be specific about whom you are studying. Using my example above, “students” is not specific, so I might revise to public high school seniors in the Midwest.

Expanding Simple Research Questions

You can expand your question by introducing additional variables or characteristics. We call these connecting, mediating, or moderating variables.

Example : What is the relationship between 9/11/01 and enlisting in the military?

Variables I might introduce to expand the question include:

• Demographics (gender/age/ethnicity/religious preference)
• Geographic location
• Parent’s educational level
• Role of parent
• Student’s /parent’s political affiliation

Common Errors

The Nobel Laureate (taking on your life’s work)

Example: The Effects of 9/11/01 on K-12 students

The term paper (taking on too little)

Example: How many high school seniors enlisted in the military prior to 2002 graduation?

The Black Hole (taking on too much)

Example: The Effects of 9/11/01 on High School Seniors

A Few Good Wording Tips*

1.  When a relationship is expected among a certain type of subject, reference the population.

Example: Among young children, there is a positive relationship between level of psychomotor coordination and degree of self-esteem. 2.  Make RQs and Hs as specific and succinct as possible.

OK : Administrators who provide wellness programs for their employees project positive effectiveness.

Bette r: Administrators who provide wellness programs for their employees receive higher employee ratings on selected leadership qualities than administrators who do not provide wellness programs.

3. Avoid words or terms that do not add to the meaning of RQs and Hs.

Rather than : Among elementary school teachers, those who are teaching in year-round schools will report having higher morale than those who are teaching in elementary schools that follow a more traditional school-year schedule.

Try : Among elementary school teachers, those who teach in year-round schools have higher morale than those who teach on a traditional schedule.

4. Stick to what will be studied, not implications or your value judgments.

Rather than : Religion is good for society.

Try : Regular attendance at religious services is inversely associated with cheating behavior while taking classroom tests.

5. Name the variables in the order in which they occur or will be measured.

Example. There is a positive relationship between College Board Scholastic Aptitude Test scores and first-semester grades earned in college.

6. Avoid the words significant or significance.

7. Avoid using the word “prove.”

8. Avoid using two different terms to refer to the same variable.

* Note: “Wording” examples are attributed to Dr. Kathy Haywood, UMSL

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About research rundowns.

Research Rundowns was made possible by support from the Dewar College of Education at Valdosta State University .

• Experimental Design
• What is Educational Research?
• Mixed Methods Research Designs
• Qualitative Coding & Analysis
• Qualitative Research Design
• Correlation
• Effect Size
• Instrument, Validity, Reliability
• Mean & Standard Deviation
• Significance Testing (t-tests)
• Steps 1-4: Finding Research
• Steps 5-6: Analyzing & Organizing
• Steps 7-9: Citing & Writing
• Writing a Research Report

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Research Aims, Objectives & Questions

The “Golden Thread” Explained Simply (+ Examples)

By: David Phair (PhD) and Alexandra Shaeffer (PhD) | June 2022

The research aims , objectives and research questions (collectively called the “golden thread”) are arguably the most important thing you need to get right when you’re crafting a research proposal , dissertation or thesis . We receive questions almost every day about this “holy trinity” of research and there’s certainly a lot of confusion out there, so we’ve crafted this post to help you navigate your way through the fog.

Overview: The Golden Thread

• What is the golden thread
• What are research aims ( examples )
• What are research objectives ( examples )
• What are research questions ( examples )
• The importance of alignment in the golden thread

What is the “golden thread”?  

The golden thread simply refers to the collective research aims , research objectives , and research questions for any given project (i.e., a dissertation, thesis, or research paper ). These three elements are bundled together because it’s extremely important that they align with each other, and that the entire research project aligns with them.

Importantly, the golden thread needs to weave its way through the entirety of any research project , from start to end. In other words, it needs to be very clearly defined right at the beginning of the project (the topic ideation and proposal stage) and it needs to inform almost every decision throughout the rest of the project. For example, your research design and methodology will be heavily influenced by the golden thread (we’ll explain this in more detail later), as well as your literature review.

The research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread) define the focus and scope ( the delimitations ) of your research project. In other words, they help ringfence your dissertation or thesis to a relatively narrow domain, so that you can “go deep” and really dig into a specific problem or opportunity. They also help keep you on track , as they act as a litmus test for relevance. In other words, if you’re ever unsure whether to include something in your document, simply ask yourself the question, “does this contribute toward my research aims, objectives or questions?”. If it doesn’t, chances are you can drop it.

Alright, enough of the fluffy, conceptual stuff. Let’s get down to business and look at what exactly the research aims, objectives and questions are and outline a few examples to bring these concepts to life.

Research Aims: What are they?

Simply put, the research aim(s) is a statement that reflects the broad overarching goal (s) of the research project. Research aims are fairly high-level (low resolution) as they outline the general direction of the research and what it’s trying to achieve .

Research Aims: Examples  

True to the name, research aims usually start with the wording “this research aims to…”, “this research seeks to…”, and so on. For example:

“This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.”   “This study sets out to assess the interaction between student support and self-care on well-being in engineering graduate students”  

As you can see, these research aims provide a high-level description of what the study is about and what it seeks to achieve. They’re not hyper-specific or action-oriented, but they’re clear about what the study’s focus is and what is being investigated.

Need a helping hand?

Research Objectives: What are they?

The research objectives take the research aims and make them more practical and actionable . In other words, the research objectives showcase the steps that the researcher will take to achieve the research aims.

The research objectives need to be far more specific (higher resolution) and actionable than the research aims. In fact, it’s always a good idea to craft your research objectives using the “SMART” criteria. In other words, they should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound”.

Research Objectives: Examples  

Let’s look at two examples of research objectives. We’ll stick with the topic and research aims we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic:

To observe the retail HR employees throughout the digital transformation. To assess employee perceptions of digital transformation in retail HR. To identify the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR.

And for the student wellness topic:

To determine whether student self-care predicts the well-being score of engineering graduate students. To determine whether student support predicts the well-being score of engineering students. To assess the interaction between student self-care and student support when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students.

  As you can see, these research objectives clearly align with the previously mentioned research aims and effectively translate the low-resolution aims into (comparatively) higher-resolution objectives and action points . They give the research project a clear focus and present something that resembles a research-based “to-do” list.

Research Questions: What are they?

Finally, we arrive at the all-important research questions. The research questions are, as the name suggests, the key questions that your study will seek to answer . Simply put, they are the core purpose of your dissertation, thesis, or research project. You’ll present them at the beginning of your document (either in the introduction chapter or literature review chapter) and you’ll answer them at the end of your document (typically in the discussion and conclusion chapters).  

The research questions will be the driving force throughout the research process. For example, in the literature review chapter, you’ll assess the relevance of any given resource based on whether it helps you move towards answering your research questions. Similarly, your methodology and research design will be heavily influenced by the nature of your research questions. For instance, research questions that are exploratory in nature will usually make use of a qualitative approach, whereas questions that relate to measurement or relationship testing will make use of a quantitative approach.  

Let’s look at some examples of research questions to make this more tangible.

Research Questions: Examples  

Again, we’ll stick with the research aims and research objectives we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic (which would be qualitative in nature):

How do employees perceive digital transformation in retail HR? What are the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR?  

And for the student wellness topic (which would be quantitative in nature):

Does student self-care predict the well-being scores of engineering graduate students? Does student support predict the well-being scores of engineering students? Do student self-care and student support interact when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students?  

You’ll probably notice that there’s quite a formulaic approach to this. In other words, the research questions are basically the research objectives “converted” into question format. While that is true most of the time, it’s not always the case. For example, the first research objective for the digital transformation topic was more or less a step on the path toward the other objectives, and as such, it didn’t warrant its own research question.  

So, don’t rush your research questions and sloppily reword your objectives as questions. Carefully think about what exactly you’re trying to achieve (i.e. your research aim) and the objectives you’ve set out, then craft a set of well-aligned research questions . Also, keep in mind that this can be a somewhat iterative process , where you go back and tweak research objectives and aims to ensure tight alignment throughout the golden thread.

The importance of strong alignment 

Alignment is the keyword here and we have to stress its importance . Simply put, you need to make sure that there is a very tight alignment between all three pieces of the golden thread. If your research aims and research questions don’t align, for example, your project will be pulling in different directions and will lack focus . This is a common problem students face and can cause many headaches (and tears), so be warned.

Take the time to carefully craft your research aims, objectives and research questions before you run off down the research path. Ideally, get your research supervisor/advisor to review and comment on your golden thread before you invest significant time into your project, and certainly before you start collecting data .  

Recap: The golden thread

In this post, we unpacked the golden thread of research, consisting of the research aims , research objectives and research questions . You can jump back to any section using the links below.

As always, feel free to leave a comment below – we always love to hear from you. Also, if you’re interested in 1-on-1 support, take a look at our private coaching service here.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

40 Comments

Thank you very much for your great effort put. As an Undergraduate taking Demographic Research & Methodology, I’ve been trying so hard to understand clearly what is a Research Question, Research Aim and the Objectives in a research and the relationship between them etc. But as for now I’m thankful that you’ve solved my problem.

Well appreciated. This has helped me greatly in doing my dissertation.

An so delighted with this wonderful information thank you a lot.

so impressive i have benefited a lot looking forward to learn more on research.

I am very happy to have carefully gone through this well researched article.

Infact,I used to be phobia about anything research, because of my poor understanding of the concepts.

Now,I get to know that my research question is the same as my research objective(s) rephrased in question format.

I please I would need a follow up on the subject,as I intends to join the team of researchers. Thanks once again.

Thanks so much. This was really helpful.

I know you pepole have tried to break things into more understandable and easy format. And God bless you. Keep it up

i found this document so useful towards my study in research methods. thanks so much.

This is my 2nd read topic in your course and I should commend the simplified explanations of each part. I’m beginning to understand and absorb the use of each part of a dissertation/thesis. I’ll keep on reading your free course and might be able to avail the training course! Kudos!

Thank you! Better put that my lecture and helped to easily understand the basics which I feel often get brushed over when beginning dissertation work.

This is quite helpful. I like how the Golden thread has been explained and the needed alignment.

This is quite helpful. I really appreciate!

The article made it simple for researcher students to differentiate between three concepts.

Very innovative and educational in approach to conducting research.

I am very impressed with all these terminology, as I am a fresh student for post graduate, I am highly guided and I promised to continue making consultation when the need arise. Thanks a lot.

A very helpful piece. thanks, I really appreciate it .

Very well explained, and it might be helpful to many people like me.

Wish i had found this (and other) resource(s) at the beginning of my PhD journey… not in my writing up year… 😩 Anyways… just a quick question as i’m having some issues ordering my “golden thread”…. does it matter in what order you mention them? i.e., is it always first aims, then objectives, and finally the questions? or can you first mention the research questions and then the aims and objectives?

Thank you for a very simple explanation that builds upon the concepts in a very logical manner. Just prior to this, I read the research hypothesis article, which was equally very good. This met my primary objective.

My secondary objective was to understand the difference between research questions and research hypothesis, and in which context to use which one. However, I am still not clear on this. Can you kindly please guide?

In research, a research question is a clear and specific inquiry that the researcher wants to answer, while a research hypothesis is a tentative statement or prediction about the relationship between variables or the expected outcome of the study. Research questions are broader and guide the overall study, while hypotheses are specific and testable statements used in quantitative research. Research questions identify the problem, while hypotheses provide a focus for testing in the study.

Exactly what I need in this research journey, I look forward to more of your coaching videos.

This helped a lot. Thanks so much for the effort put into explaining it.

What data source in writing dissertation/Thesis requires?

What is data source covers when writing dessertation/thesis

This is quite useful thanks

I’m excited and thankful. I got so much value which will help me progress in my thesis.

where are the locations of the reserch statement, research objective and research question in a reserach paper? Can you write an ouline that defines their places in the researh paper?

Very helpful and important tips on Aims, Objectives and Questions.

Thank you so much for making research aim, research objectives and research question so clear. This will be helpful to me as i continue with my thesis.

Thanks much for this content. I learned a lot. And I am inspired to learn more. I am still struggling with my preparation for dissertation outline/proposal. But I consistently follow contents and tutorials and the new FB of GRAD Coach. Hope to really become confident in writing my dissertation and successfully defend it.

As a researcher and lecturer, I find splitting research goals into research aims, objectives, and questions is unnecessarily bureaucratic and confusing for students. For most biomedical research projects, including ‘real research’, 1-3 research questions will suffice (numbers may differ by discipline).

Awesome! Very important resources and presented in an informative way to easily understand the golden thread. Indeed, thank you so much.

Well explained

The blog article on research aims, objectives, and questions by Grad Coach is a clear and insightful guide that aligns with my experiences in academic research. The article effectively breaks down the often complex concepts of research aims and objectives, providing a straightforward and accessible explanation. Drawing from my own research endeavors, I appreciate the practical tips offered, such as the need for specificity and clarity when formulating research questions. The article serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers, offering a concise roadmap for crafting well-defined research goals and objectives. Whether you’re a novice or an experienced researcher, this article provides practical insights that contribute to the foundational aspects of a successful research endeavor.

A great thanks for you. it is really amazing explanation. I grasp a lot and one step up to research knowledge.

I really found these tips helpful. Thank you very much Grad Coach.

I found this article helpful. Thanks for sharing this.

thank you so much, the explanation and examples are really helpful

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How to Write a Research Question: Types & Examples

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A research question is the main query that researchers seek to answer in their study. It serves as the basis for a scholarly project such as research paper, thesis or dissertation. A good research question should be clear, relevant and specific enough to guide the research process. It should also be open-ended, meaning that it allows for multiple possible answers or interpretations.

If you have located your general subject and main sources but still aren’t quite sure about the exact research questions for your paper, this guide will help you out. First, we will explore the concept of it together, so you could answer it in your work. Then some simple steps on composing your inquiry will be suggested. In the end, we will draw your attention to some specific details which can make your work good or bad. Sometimes it’s just easier to delegate all challenging tasks to a reliable research paper service . StudyCrumb is a trustable network of qualified writers ready to efficiently solve students’ challenges.

What Is a Good Research Question: Full Definition

Good research questions provide a concise definition of a problem. As a scholar, your main goal at the beginning is to select the main focus. It should be narrow enough so you could examine it within your deadline. Your work should be focused on something specific. Otherwise, it will require too much work and might not produce clear answers. At the same time your answer should be arguable and supported by data you’ve collected. Take a look at this example:

How to Write a Research Question: Step-By-Step Guide

In this section we will examine the process of developing a research question. We will guide you through it, step by step. Keep in mind that your subject should be important for your audience. So it requires some preliminary study and brainstorming. Let’s take a closer look at the main steps.

Step 1. Choose a Broad Topic for Your Research Paper Question

First, you need to decide on your general direction. When trying to identify your research paper questions, it is better to choose an area you are really interested in. You should be able to obtain enough data to write something about this topic. Therefore, do not choose something out of your reach. At the same time, your broad topic should not be too simple. Research paper questions that can be answered without any study would hardly make any sense for your project.

Step 2. Do Preliminary Reading Before Starting Your Research Question

Next, it is time we explore the context of the selected topic. You wouldn’t want to choose research questions that have already been examined and answered in detail. On the other hand, choosing a topic that is a complete ‘terra incognita’ might be a bridge too far for your project. Browse through available sources that are related to this topic. You should try and find out what has been discovered about it before. Do you see a gap that you can fill with your study? You can proceed with developing your exact inquiry! Have no time for in-depth topic exploration? Leave this task to professionals. Entrust your “ write my research paper ” order to StudyCrumb and get a top-notch work.

Step 3. Consider an Audience for Your Research Question

It is good to know your reader well to be able to convey your ideas and results to them in the best possible way. Before writing research questions for your projects, you might need to perform a brief analysis of your audience. That's how you'll be able to understand what is interesting for them and what is not. This will allow you to make better decisions when narrowing your broad topic down. Select a topic that is interesting for your reader! This would contribute much to the success for writing a research paper .

Step 4. Start Asking a Good Research Question

After you have considered your options, go ahead and compose the primary subject of your paper. What makes a good research question? It should highlight some problematic and relevant aspects of the general topic. So, after it is answered, you should have obtained some new valuable knowledge about the subject.  Typically scholars start narrowing down their general topic by asking ‘how’, ‘why’ or ‘what’s next’ questions. This approach might help you come up with a great idea quickly.

Step 5. Evaluate Your Research Question

Finally, after you have composed a research paper question, you should take a second look at it and see if it is good enough for your paper. It would be useful to analyze it from the following sides:

• Is it clear for your audience?
• Is it complex enough to require significant study?
• Is it focused on a certain aspect of your general topic?

You might use the help of your peers or your friends at this step. You can also show it to your tutor and ask for their opinion.

Types of Research Questions: Which to Choose

A number of research questions types are available for use in a paper. They are divided into two main groups:

Qualitative questions:

• Explanatory
• Ethnographic

Quantitative questions:

• Descriptive
• Comparative
• Relationship based.

Selecting a certain type would impact the course of your study. We suggest you think about it carefully. Below you can find a few words about each type. Also, you can seek proficient help from academic experts. Buy a research paper from real pros and forget about stress once and for all.

Qualitative Research Questions: Definition With Example

When doing qualitative research, you are expected to aim to understand the different aspects and qualities of your target problem. Therefore, your thesis should focus on analyzing people’s experience, ideas and reflections rather than on obtaining some statistical data and calculating trends. Thus, this inquiry typically requires observing people’s behavior, interacting with them and learning how they interpret your target problem.  Let’s illustrate this with an example:

What Is Contextual Research Questions

Contextual research revolves around examining your subject in its natural, everyday environment. It may be watching animals living in their usual habitats or people doing their normal activities in their familiar surroundings (at home, at school or at office). This academic approach helps to understand the role of the context. You'll be able to better explain connections between your problem, its environment and outcomes. This type of inquiry ought to be narrow enough. You shouldn’t have to examine each and every aspect of the selected problem in your paper. Consider this example:

Definition and Sample of Evaluative Research Questions

Evaluative research is performed in order to carefully assess the qualities of a selected object, individual, group, system or concept. It typically serves the purpose of collecting evidence that supports or contradicts solutions for a problem. This type of inquiry should focus on how useful a certain quality is for solving the problem.  To conduct such study, you need to examine selected qualities in detail. Then, you should assume whether they match necessary criteria. It might include some quantitative methods such as collecting statistics. Although, the most important part is analyzing the qualities. If you need some examples, here’s one for you:

Explanatory Research Questions: Definition With Example

Your paper can be dedicated to explaining a certain phenomenon, finding its reasons and important relationships between it and other important things. Your explanatory research question should aim to highlight issues, uncertainties and problematic aspects of your subject. So, your study should bring clarity about these qualities. It should show how and why they have developed this way. An explanation may include showing causes and effects of issues in question, comparing the selected phenomenon to other similar types and showing whether the selected qualities match some predefined criteria. If you need some examples, check this one:

Generative Research Questions

This type of research is conducted in order to better understand the subject. With its help, you can find some new solutions or opportunities for improvement. Therefore, its main purpose is to develop a theoretical basis for further actions. You need to compose your generative research questions in a way that facilitates obtaining new ideas. It would help to begin with asking ‘why’, ‘what is the relationship between the subject and the problems X, Y, and Z’, ‘what can be improved here’, ‘how we can prevent it’ and so on. Need relevant examples? We’ve got one for you:

Ethnographic Research Question

Ethnography research is focused on a particular group of people. The aim is to study their behavior, typical reactions to certain events or information, needs, preferences or habits. Important parameters of this group which are most relevant to your general subject are taken into consideration. These are age, sex, language, religion, ethnicity, social status and so on. Main method in this case is first-hand observation of people from the selected group during an extended period of time. If you need strong examples, here’s one:

Quantitative Research Questions: Full Definition With Examples

Quantitative research deals with data – first of all, it is numeric data. It involves mathematical calculations and statistical analysis. It helps to obtain knowledge which is mostly expressed in numbers, graphs and tables. Unlike the qualitative type, the purpose of quantitative research is finding patterns, calculating probabilities, testing causal relationships and making predictions. It is focused on testing theories and hypotheses. (We have the whole blog on what is a hypothesis .) It is mostly used in natural and social sciences. These are: chemistry, biology, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc. Here are a couple of examples:

Descriptive Research Questions: Definition With Example

This is probably the most widespread type of quantitative research question. Such inquiries seek to explain when, where, why, or how something occurred. They describe it accurately and systematically. These inquiries typically start with ‘what’. You are expected to use various methods to investigate one or more variables and determine their dependencies. Note, however, that you cannot control or manipulate any of these variables. You can only observe and measure them. Looking for some interesting examples? Here is one:

Definition of Comparative Research Questions

Comparative research question is used to highlight different variables and provide numerical evidence. This type is based on comparing one object, parameter or issue with another one of a similar kind. It can help to discover the differences between two or more groups by examining their outcome variables.  Take a look at these two examples:

Relationship Research Questions

We conduct this type of research when we need to make it clear whether one parameter of a selected object causes another one. A relationship based quantitative research question should help us to explore and define trends and interactions between two or more variables. Are these two things mutually dependent? What kind of dependence is it? How has it developed? And what are possible outcomes of this connection? Here is an example of relationship-based quantitative research questions:

Research Questions Examples: Free

This section contains a number of helpful examples of research questions. Feel free to use them as inspiration to create your own questions and conduct productive study. Let’s start with two simple ones:

Are you interested in well written and inspiring questions? Do you want to learn what to avoid in your study? Just stay with us – there will be more of them below.

Examples of Good and Bad Research Questions

Everyone is interested in getting the best possible appraisal for their study. Choosing a topic which doesn't suit your specific situation may be discouraging. Thus, the quality of your paper might get affected by a poor choice. We have put together some good and bad examples so that you could avoid such mistakes.

Good Research Questions Examples

It is important to include clear terms into your questions. Otherwise, it would be difficult for you to plan your investigation properly. Also, they must be focused on a certain subject, not multiple ones. And finally, it should be possible to answer them. Let’s review several good examples:

Examples of Bad Research Questions

It is difficult to evaluate qualities of objects, individuals or groups if your purpose is not clear. This is why you shouldn’t create unclear research questions or try to focus on many problems at once. Some preliminary study might help to understand what you should focus on. Here are several bad examples:

In case you may need some information about the discussion section of a research paper example , find it in our blog.

Final Thoughts on Research Questions

In this article we have made a detailed review of the most popular types of research questions. We described peculiarities. We also provided some tips on conducting various kinds of study. Besides, a number of useful examples have been given for each category of questions.

Feel free to check out essay writing services. We have experienced writers who can help you compose your paper in time. They will absolutely ensure the high quality of your text.

Frequently Asked Questions About Research Questions

1. what is an example of a weak research question.

Here is an example of the weakest research question: 

An answer would be simply making a list of species that inhabit the country. This subject does not require any actual study to be conducted. There is nothing to calculate or analyze here.

2. What is the most effective type of research question?

Most effective type of research question is the one that doesn't have a single correct answer. However, you should also pay close attention to your audience. If you need to create a strong effect, better choose a topic which is relevant for them.

3. What is a good nursing research question?

If you need an idea for a nursing research question, here are a few helpful examples you could use as a reference:

4. What are some sociological research questions?

Sociological questions are the ones that examine the social patterns or a meaning of a social phenomenon. They could be qualitative or quantitative. They should target groups of people with certain parameters, such as age or income level. Keep in mind that type of study usually requires collecting numerous data about your target groups.

Joe Eckel is an expert on Dissertations writing. He makes sure that each student gets precious insights on composing A-grade academic writing.

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What was the worst thing about your experience?

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You're going on a vacation to Italy next month, and you want to learn some basic Italian for getting around while there. You decided to try Duolingo.

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25 Essential Qualitative Research Questions with Context

• Health and Well-being:

Question: How do individuals with chronic illnesses perceive and manage their overall well-being?

Context: This question aims to explore the subjective experiences of individuals living with chronic illnesses, focusing on their perceptions of well-being and the strategies they employ to manage their health.

Question: What are the experiences of teachers implementing project-based learning in high school science classrooms?

Context: This question delves into the qualitative aspects of teaching practices, seeking to understand the lived experiences of teachers as they implement a specific instructional approach (project-based learning) in a particular academic context (high school science classrooms).

Question: How do marginalized communities perceive and navigate social inclusion in urban environments?

Context: This question addresses the sociological dimensions of social inclusion within urban settings, focusing on the perspectives and strategies of marginalized communities as they navigate societal structures.

• Psychology:

Question: What are the coping mechanisms employed by individuals facing post-traumatic stress disorder?

Context: This question explores the psychological experiences of individuals dealing with post-traumatic stress disorder, aiming to uncover the qualitative aspects of coping strategies and mechanisms.

• Anthropology:

Question: How does a specific cultural group express identity through traditional rituals and ceremonies?

Context: This anthropological question focuses on cultural practices and rituals as expressions of identity within a specific cultural group, aiming to uncover the meanings and functions of these traditions.

• Gender Studies:

Question: What are the lived experiences of transgender individuals in the workplace, particularly regarding inclusion and discrimination?

Context: This question within gender studies explores the qualitative dimensions of transgender individuals’ workplace experiences, emphasizing the nuanced aspects of inclusion and discrimination they may encounter.

• Environmental Studies:

Question: How do local communities perceive and respond to environmental conservation efforts in their region?

Context: This question addresses the intersection of environmental studies and sociology, aiming to understand the qualitative perspectives of local communities toward conservation initiatives, exploring their perceptions and responses.

• Business and Management:

Question: How do employees perceive leadership styles and their impact on workplace culture?

Context: Within the realm of business and management, this question explores the qualitative aspects of organizational culture, focusing on employees’ perceptions of leadership styles and their influence on the workplace environment.

• Technology and Society:

Question: What are the social implications and user experiences of emerging technologies in the context of augmented reality applications?

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• Communication Studies:

Question: How do individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds interpret and respond to media representations of body image?

Context: This question explores the intersection of communication studies and cultural studies, aiming to understand the qualitative variations in how individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds interpret and respond to media depictions of body image.

• Political Science:

Question: What are the public perceptions and attitudes toward government policies on climate change?

Context: Within political science, this question delves into the qualitative aspects of public opinion, seeking to understand how individuals perceive and respond to government policies related to climate change.

• Cultural Studies:

Question: How do international students experience acculturation and adaptation in a foreign academic environment?

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• Family Studies:

Question: How do families navigate and negotiate roles and responsibilities in the context of remote work?

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• Public Health:

Question: How do community members perceive and engage with public health campaigns aimed at promoting vaccination in underserved urban areas?

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• Urban Planning:

Question: What are the experiences of residents in gentrifying neighborhoods regarding changes in their community dynamics, affordability, and social cohesion?

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• Literature and Cultural Criticism:

Question: How do contemporary authors use literature to critique and challenge societal norms around gender roles and identity?

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• Social Work:

Question: What are the perceptions of social workers regarding the challenges and opportunities in providing mental health support to homeless populations?

Context: This social work question addresses the qualitative aspects of mental health support within homeless populations, exploring social workers’ perspectives on challenges and opportunities in their roles.

• Tourism and Hospitality:

Question: How do tourists from different cultural backgrounds experience and interpret authenticity in local culinary traditions?

Context: Within tourism and hospitality, this question explores the qualitative aspects of cultural experiences, focusing on tourists’ perceptions and interpretations of authenticity in local culinary traditions.

• Media and Entertainment:

Question: How do audiences engage with and interpret representations of diverse identities in streaming platforms’ original content?

Context: In the realm of media and entertainment, this question investigates the qualitative dimensions of audience engagement and interpretation of diverse identities in content produced by streaming platforms.

• Historical Studies:

Question: What are the narratives and memories of individuals who lived through a significant historical event, and how have these narratives evolved over time?

Context: Within historical studies, this question explores the qualitative aspects of personal narratives and memory, investigating how individuals recall and frame their experiences of a significant historical event.

• Linguistics:

Question: How do multilingual individuals navigate language use and identity in diverse linguistic environments?

Context: In the field of linguistics, this question delves into the qualitative dimensions of language use and identity, focusing on how multilingual individuals navigate linguistic diversity in their environments.

• Cybersecurity:

Question: What are the perceptions and behaviors of employees in organizations regarding cybersecurity practices, and how do these perceptions influence organizational security?

Context: Within cybersecurity, this question explores the qualitative aspects of employees’ perceptions and behaviors related to cybersecurity practices, examining their impact on organizational security.

• Human-Computer Interaction:

Question: How do users experience and adapt to voice-controlled virtual assistants in their daily lives, considering factors such as privacy concerns and usability?

Context: In human-computer interaction, this question investigates the qualitative aspects of user experiences with voice-controlled virtual assistants, considering factors such as privacy concerns and usability challenges.

• International Development:

Question: How do local communities perceive and negotiate the impacts of international development projects on their cultural and economic landscapes?

Context: This international development question explores the qualitative dimensions of community perceptions and negotiations regarding the impacts of international development projects, considering cultural and economic factors.

• Sport Psychology:

Question: What are the psychological experiences and coping mechanisms of athletes during periods of extended competition hiatus, such as the postponement of major sporting events?

Context: In sport psychology, this question delves into the qualitative aspects of athletes’ psychological experiences and coping mechanisms during extended competition hiatus, such as the postponement of major sporting events.

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Overturning decades of confusion about a potential “ conspiracy ” between dark matter and stellar matter, researchers are now rethinking the fundamental assumptions underlying space data.

Scientists have long been puzzled by the surprisingly similar matter density observed across many galaxies despite only minor variations. Now, new research suggests that oversimplified models and possible measurement errors could be the root cause.

The Dark Matter Conspiracy in Question

The “bulge-halo conspiracy” refers to the perplexing observation that the matter density in a galaxy’s center, or “bulge,” and its outer edge, or “halo,” appears to decrease at a similar rate.

“This homogeneity suggested that dark matter and stars must somehow compensate for each other to produce such regular mass structures,’ noted Dr. Caro Derkenne, the lead author of a new study addressing the observations.

However, the exact nature of this relationship has remained elusive. Previous theories speculated that the poorly understood interaction between dark matter and baryonic matter might explain this phenomenon.

  New Models of Galactic Density

Dr. Derkenne, an early-career researcher leading an international team based in Australia, the UK, Austria, and Germany, spearheaded the study. Supported by the ARC Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D), the team utilized data from the Middle Ages Galaxy Properties with Integral field spectroscopy (MAGPI) Survey, collected using the European Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope in Chile.

The team employed this data to generate Schwarzschild orbit-based models, which provide high-resolution insights extending up to three and a half light years in radius. These models offered detailed information on kinematics, three-dimensional shapes, orbital structures, and dark matter fractions, allowing the team to investigate the internal mass distribution of galaxies as a means to test the bulge-halo conspiracy. Of the 30 models developed, the study focused on 22.

“In the past, people built simple models that relied on too many simplifications and assumptions.” Dr. Derkenne said, highlighting the limitations of previous models. “Galaxies are complex, and we need to model them with flexibility, or we’ll end up with inaccurate measurements. Our models ran on the OzStar supercomputer at Swinburne University, utilizing the equivalent of about 8,000 hours of desktop computing time.”

Cracks in the Conspiracy Theory

According to Derkenne’s observations, for the earlier models to support the dark matter “conspiracy,” two conditions would need to hold true. First, the scatter in the total mass density slope should be smaller than or equal to the scatter in the stellar mass density slope. Second, dark matter content should correlate with the stellar density structure.

However, the total mass density was higher than the stellar mass density, and the half-light dark matter did not correlate with the stellar density slope. This contradicts earlier studies that suggested such a correlation. The authors propose that their findings are more reliable due to their use of stellar mass profiles rather than stellar light structures measured through an aperture. Further comparisons between Schwarzschild and Jeans’ modeling methods revealed that assuming a power law density artificially reduced scatter, which may have falsely supported the bulge-halo conspiracy theory. This suggests the theory could be based on flawed data.

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Broader applications for earth.

Derkenne believes their research has implications beyond cosmic questions, potentially informing how we handle Earth-bound data challenges. “Astronomy equips you well to understand big data,” she explained. “The real world is messy, and we don’t always have all the data. No one tells you if you’re right or wrong. You have to accumulate data and analyze it until you find something that works.”

ASTRO 3D Director Professor Emma Ryan-Weber emphasized the importance of global scientific collaborations, which help develop new talent to tackle future problems. “The MAGPI project is a great example of how ASTRO 3D’s training workshops and collaborative space have leveraged Australia’s strategic partnership with the European Southern Observatory,” she said. “The complex data from the ESO Very Large Telescope has not only addressed a long-standing problem in astronomy but also provided a platform for young scientists like Dr. Caro Derkenne to launch their careers and solve real-world problems.”

The study “ The MAGPI Survey: Evidence Against the Bulge-Halo Conspiracy ” appeared in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society on August 10, 2024.

Ryan Whalen covers science and technology for The Debrief. He holds a BA in History and a Master of Library and Information Science with a certificate in Data Science. He can be contacted at [email protected], and follow him on Twitter @mdntwvlf.

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High-Risk, High-Reward Research with EPA’s Pathfinder Innovation Projects

Published August 20, 2024

Wouldn’t it be amazing if we could learn how chemicals affect the developing brain in a quick and cost-effective way? Or if we could gather water quality data from a boat without having to stop and collect samples at multiple locations? What about if we could predict the spread of a fungal pathogen by sampling smoke from wildfires?

EPA scientists have answered questions like these and more with Pathfinder Innovation Projects (PIPs) . Through an internal competition, PIP winners receive seed funding and additional research time to pursue their high-risk, high-reward research ideas.

The PIPs program helps EPA incubate innovative research through projects that explore new approaches to high priority topics, respond to emerging environmental issues, and build the expertise of researchers in their chosen fields of study.

The PIPs program was launched in 2011 and has funded a total of 153 research projects since its inception. EPA has incorporated several successful PIPs into its national research programs , and methods first developed through PIPs have even been used to support regulatory decisions. PIPs provide EPA scientists an important testbed to try out innovative and exciting ideas that could become transformative environmental solutions. Read about some successful PIPs below.

Brain on a Chip

EPA scientists have long been interested in the potential effects of chemicals on developing brains in embryos, infants, and children. However, traditional methods for testing these effects are expensive, time-consuming, and rely on animal models. Because of that, many chemicals have not been studied using these methods, resulting in gaps in what we know about chemicals found in the environment.

In 2013, Dr. Timothy Shafer’s team at EPA received PIP funding to develop a new, lower cost approach to quickly detect when chemicals may cause developmental neurological changes. The team grew a network of brain cells in a laboratory and measured the network’s electrical activity using an array of tiny electrodes. This lab-grown network simulates the electrical activity of a human brain; chemicals that cause changes in this “brain on a chip” are flagged as potential candidates that could impact developing brains in humans.

With the help of a jump start from PIPs, the “brain on a chip” has become an integral part of EPA’s Chemical Safety for Sustainability research program .

“PIPs allowed us to really get this technology up and running,” Dr. Shafer said. “It allowed us to generate enough data to support further development and use of this approach.”

Today, EPA is using the method to test new and existing chemicals (including high priority contaminants such as PFAS), and the data are informing EPA’s regulatory decisions. For example, according to Dr. Shafer, “brain on a chip” informed a decision about a new pesticide and saved about a year and a half of EPA staff time and over $1 million compared to traditional methods.

Underway Water Quality Lab on Research Vessel

EPA’s research vessels are critical tools for studying environmental concerns like water quality, contaminants, and harmful algal blooms in the Great Lakes. However, predicting the exact location of these concerns can be challenging, making it essential for the ships to be positioned in the right place to study them. To tackle this issue, EPA scientists wanted to continuously collect data on emerging environmental concerns, rather than relying on the research vessel’s scheduled sampling stops.

In 2023, EPA scientist Ryan Lepak received PIP funding to develop a new system on EPA’s Lake Explorer II, enabling it to monitor water quality while in motion. The system continuously pipes water from the lake into an array of sensors that monitor key metrics such as temperature, pH, blue green algae, chlorophyll, and, with the help of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration collaborators, dissolved carbon dioxide. It also collects larger particles using filters so that researchers can determine exactly what contaminants, like mercury and PFAS, are present in a particular area. These devices enable scientists to collect a wide range of information about the lake without stopping the ship or interrupting its planned research activities.

Additionally, the system incorporates custom software that allows EPA scientists to follow up on noteworthy findings. When the sensors detect conditions that merit further attention — such as sudden changes in water temperature or signs of a harmful algal bloom — the system automatically collects a sample of water and stores it for future analysis.

This exciting new technology is being deployed on the Lake Explorer II this summer and is already generating interest from other researchers in the Great Lakes area. According to Dr. Lepak, other research vessels, both within and outside the EPA, have expressed interest in deploying similar technologies on their ships.

Valley Fever and Wildfires

Valley fever is an infection caused by inhaling the Coccidioides fungus, which lives in soils in the western United States. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Valley fever is becoming increasingly common but is often misdiagnosed. The disease can be mistaken for other types of pneumonia, and, while most patients get better on their own, patients who do need treatment may remain sick for weeks before receiving the right diagnosis and care. Because of the high rate of misdiagnosis, researchers are looking for better ways to determine where and when Valley fever risk is high, so they can warn doctors to be on the lookout for symptoms.

Building on research that suggests a connection between Valley fever and wildfire, EPA scientist Jim Markwiese hypothesized that people might be inhaling Coccidioides spores from wildfire smoke. However, he needed a way to test this hypothesis, as detecting these airborne spores poses significant challenges.

In 2023, Dr. Markwiese and his collaborators received PIP funding to deploy drones to collect air samples of Coccidioides spores. As a proof-of-concept test, the team flew drones equipped with biological sampling devices over known, non-wildfire Valley fever hotspots in the San Joaquin Valley, California. This novel method was able to successfully capture airborne Coccidioides spores for the first time, demonstrating that drone sampling was an effective approach to collecting this elusive, inhalable pathogen.

Now that they know their sampling method works, Dr. Markwiese and his collaborators hope to test the method directly on wildfire smoke in the future. If this project can provide information about when and where Coccidioides spores are present in a particular area, public health officials will be able to alert doctors of Valley fever as a possible diagnosis. This early intervention could lead to earlier treatment and better outcomes for patients.

“These are literally lifesaving measures that we could put into place,” Dr. Markwiese said. “We may not cure Valley fever with this technology, but we can help people get to a cure faster.”

From the developing brain to Valley fever, these are just a few examples of how EPA researchers are pursuing their innovative ideas for solving our most pressing environmental problems. In addition to these projects, 15 new 2024 PIPs were selected in June to begin research on topics such as environmental justice, emerging contaminants, and more.

If you want to learn more about this next generation of innovative EPA research, visit the PIPs website .

This article was written by Seamus Caslin, Oak Ridge Associated Universities Research participant with EPA.

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Are We Alone? Fine-Tuning the Universe, with Barnes, Keating, and Richards

“Are we alone in the universe?” That’s the central question we put to astrophysicist Dr. Luke Barnes, cosmologist Dr. Brian Keating, and philosopher Dr. Jay Richards.

Are We Alone? Fine-tuning The Universe, With Barnes, Keating, And Richardson

“Are we alone in the universe?” That’s the central question we put to astrophysicist Dr. Luke Barnes, cosmologist Dr. Brian Keating, and philosopher Dr. Jay Richards.

Our guests delve into the probabilities and challenges of finding extraterrestrial life, considering the vastness of the cosmos and the fine-tuning necessary for life to exist. They explore the implications of the SETI project, the rarity of Earth-like conditions, and the potential for habitable planets in other solar systems. This discussion is set against the backdrop of broader scientific and philosophical inquiries, including the Big Bang, the multiverse theory, and the role of humanity in the cosmic order. The conversation offers a deep and nuanced perspective on the search for life beyond Earth and what it could mean for our understanding of the universe and our place within it.

Peter Robinson: Neil Armstrong, the first man to set foot on the moon. It suddenly struck me that that tiny pea, pretty and blue, was the Earth. I didn't feel like a giant, I felt very, very small. In the vast immensities of space, we humans are mere specks, or are we?

Uncommon Knowledge now. Welcome to Uncommon Knowledge, I'm Peter Robinson. A senior lecturer at Western Sydney University in Australia, the astrophysicist Luke Barnes received his doctorate from Cambridge. Dr. Barnes is co-author of A Fortunate Life in a Finely Tuned Cosmos. The cosmologist Brian Keating completed his doctoral work at Brown.

He now serves as professor of physics at the University of California at San Diego and as director of the Simmons Observatory in Chile.

Brian Keating: Simons Observatory.

Peter Robinson: Simons Observatory, did I mispronounce both? It's the Simons Observatory in Chile.

Brian Keating: I'm the principal investigator of the Simons Observatory in Chile.

Peter Robinson: I will never forget.

Peter Robinson: And nor will anybody else.

Peter Robinson: Dr. Keating is the author of Losing the Nobel Prize, a story of cosmology, ambition and the perils of science's highest honor. Jay Richards holds a doctorate from the Princeton Theological Seminary. He serves as senior research fellow at the Heritage foundation and as a senior fellow at the Discovery Institute.

Dr. Richards is the coauthor of The Privileged Planet, How Our Place in the Cosmos is Designed for Discovery, a book that will celebrate its 20th anniversary-

Jay Richards: In August of 2024.

Peter Robinson: August of 2024, excellent, all right. Cosmic fine tuning, Luke Barnes in A Fortunate Universe. The fundamental particles from which everything is constructed and the fundamental forces that dictate interactions appear to be fine-tuned for life.

You have before you a total layman. What do you mean?

Luke Barnes: Well, the first thing to realize is that you're made out of fundamental things, physical things. And one of the things we'd like to know as general curiosity about the universe is why are they this way? Why aren't they some other way?

And a way that we could start to get a handle on that question is, well, let's take our best physics and let's see what would have happened? Let's, in theory, just change some of-

Peter Robinson: Change the dials?

Luke Barnes: The fundamental numbers. Yeah, let's turn some of these dials, according to our best theories these dials can be changed.

As far as we know, everything's still mathematically fine. And what we find is that some of the dials, not much of a change, but there's a couple of very important ones that involve the particles, the forces and the universe as a whole. Where seemingly rather small changes would make a dramatic effect to the way our universe would have played out.

So for example, you're made out of a variety of very interesting chemical elements, but change those numbers, and suddenly particles don't stick to each other. You can't make complexity anymore. These are the sorts of things that happen. So suddenly you change this dial, and some particles that would have held together, that do held together, and all of us suddenly don't do that anymore, things decay, things fall apart.

So our universe, the ability of us here to do this, the ability of stars, planets, galaxies to form, it's a rare talent. It's not one that every universe that we can calculate, that we can imagine, has.

Peter Robinson: Okay, so am I allowed to leap ahead to the idea that it is all as if it were designed for us, or is that twist?

That's an unscientific proposition, I suppose, but so what do you want to say? You want to say we should not just take it all for granted. It could have been wildly different if even a few of how many variables, by the way, give me some idea.

Luke Barnes: Within the standard models, there are 31 numbers you need to describe the way matter works and the way the universe as a whole works.

Within those 31 a lot of them are just sort of weird properties of neutrinos, particles you've never heard of and not made out of, so who cares? There's a core of, I would say, maybe 10, where interesting, dramatic, and often catastrophic stuff starts to happen if you mess with those dials.

Peter Robinson: All right, from the fortunate universe, again, we go from the universe to this planet, or the difference between this planet and the universe. We usually take air for granted, but the density of the air you are breathing is 10 to the 27th times the average density of material in the universe.

Luke Barnes: Yeah.

Peter Robinson: So we just got very, very lucky.

Luke Barnes: Well, did we? There's one point of saying, are we in a lucky place in the universe? And I don't think there's a reason to treat the surface of the Earth as a random spot. Of course, where the matter is, where we're made out of it.

Peter Robinson: Right.

Luke Barnes: Of course, we can only be in an environment where there is enough stuff for me to be made out of, and I'm 10 to the 30 times more dense than the universe, and that's getting worse with time. The point is not so much that we're in a lucky place relative to space in the middle of nowhere, although there's some interesting things about that.

The point is that will the universe where we change these dials, will it make a place where there can be structure at all? Because you can make a universe, I can make it very easily, just turn a dial a little bit. And everywhere in the universe has the same sort of density of stuff we see in almost every-

Peter Robinson: No galaxy, no stars, no planet.

Luke Barnes: Yeah, just a boring hydrogen soup where one particle hits another particle every second Thursday. And that's all that happens in the history of the universe.

Peter Robinson: Okay, so there's this obvious problem. I say obvious because it even occurred to me, but it turns out-

Peter Robinson: It's in the literature everywhere. But this obvious problem we have the fish in the sea, and the fish says to his fellow fish, isn't this just fascinating? That the weight of the density, the density of the water, the temperature, the amount of oxygen in the water, it's all just perfect for us fishes?

Isn't that a remarkable discovery? And the answer is yes, no. In other words, of course, the universe is designed such that we can live in it, we live in it, right?

Luke Barnes: So to some extent, I think that explains part of all the environments in the universe, why am I on the surface of earth?

Well, I can't be in the middle of the sun. I can't be an empty space. But the deeper question is, why is there a life permitting place at all anywhere?

Luke Barnes: And so I can easily make a universe where no one has that conversation, right? There's no fish going, isn't the water lovely?

Because there's no liquid water anywhere, there's no planet. I can make really boring universes, if you want one, change these dials a little bit and nothing interesting happens.

Peter Robinson: So a funny way, the fish is onto something.

Luke Barnes: Yeah, there's room for that explanation, but it assumes that there's already water, right?

There's already an environment in which they can live. But that's exactly what we're trying to get back and step back a second and say, what do I have to do to fundamental physics, fundamental cosmology. The deepest level of reality we know about today, in order to make a universe where a life permitting bit of it is possible at all.

Peter Robinson: One more quotation from you, but I want help on this one. This is a quotation from your book, A Fortunate Universe quote. We have found fine tuning as deep as we can go. Further, we have We found that fine-tuning follows us down. It shows no sign of disappearing at deeper levels.

What's he talking about?

Brian Keating: Well, to quote the former president Bill Clinton, it depends on what the meaning of the word is is.

Brian Keating: You didn't write his speech, but it would have been much better had you. But the question of what constitutes fine-tuning is subjective. And as the Italians say taste is subjective.

You can't argue in issues of taste. So what is finely tuned to Luke or to Jay might not be finely tuned to me. For example, there may be parameters that characterize some of the 31 that Luke properly accounted for. That have ability to be tuned that is stupefyingly coarse and trivial for a ham handed experimentalist like me even to imagine.

And I'll give you an example. If we change one of these constants, which is the dominant form of energy in our universe, it's called a cosmological constant or dark energy. It is the force that's-

Peter Robinson: That's in Newton and Einstein, correct?

Brian Keating: That's in Einstein's theory of general relativity in the modern age, only discovered despite Einstein's protestations to the opposite, that he made a blunder.

Actually, we should aspire to this. When Einstein said that adding in this cosmological constant to stabilize the universe was as big as blunder. That turned out to be a blunder. So try that on your spouse. So my biggest error is that I said I made an error. So if you change that value by a factor of two, ten, hundred, nothing would happen to life as we know it right now.

It's true in the future, as Luke has pointed out many times. Something will happen in the future. But as I say, that's a trillion years from now, keep paying your taxes. So it's not necessarily the case that I would call that or even believe that that number is finely tuned.

In contrast, if you were all old enough to remember AM radios in your car, right? And so you would have to get the dial tuned to a precision of half a percent. And that was hard with chubby fingers as a kid. That is more finely tuned. But even that would not be speak of the need and essential nature of a designer to say, I got the station tuned in properly because I have this ability to finely tune the radio dial.

Peter Robinson: Okay, no, I'm coming to you in a moment. But first, I asked him what you meant by fine-tuning as follows us down. And I thought we were going to get some really deep, almost mystical moment. And Keating over here says, mm-hm, so what do you mean?

Peter Robinson: What do you mean by fine- tuning following us down?

Luke Barnes: What I meant by that was our understanding of what's the fundamental stuff we're made out of changes with time, right? We keep doing physics. Now, if you gone back 70, 80 years, we wouldn't be talking about quarks, which what we think we're made out of.

We'd be talking about protons and neutrons. And we'd say, okay, what if I change those numbers? And this discussion would still look like, if you change this number a bit, something would go wrong. And all I'm saying there is, okay, it's possible that tomorrow a new theory comes up.

And when I change those dials, in that theory, in that understanding of the universe, maybe everything's fine. However, that's not been the course.

Peter Robinson: That's not been our experience over.

Luke Barnes: So far.

Peter Robinson: The last seven decades or century.

Luke Barnes: So one of the things to remember is the dial. There's a difference between how much can I change it relative to where it is right now.

Luke Barnes: Say 1% this way or that way, and how much can I change it relative to all the possible dial settings. So is the cosmological constant, is it fine-tuned? Well, in the sense of relative to where we are now, no, cuz you can make it 100 times larger.

But I would argue fine-tuning needs to consider all the possibilities. That's what we're trying to do. And relative to all the possibilities, that change of a factor of 100 relative to the whole thing is actually very, very small.

Peter Robinson: Okay.

Luke Barnes: That's my point of view, Brian has his point of view.

Peter Robinson: Jay Richards, The Privileged Planet, your almost 20 year old book.

Jay Richards: Yeah.

Peter Robinson: Simply stated, the conditions allowing for intelligent life on earth. Barnes world here. Also make our planet strangely well-suited for viewing and analyzing the universe. Habitability seems to correlate with measurability. Explain that one.

Jay Richards: So couple of things that Luke said that are crucial to understand.

So think about all the cosmic fine-tuning conditions, right? So things like called constants. There are within that, a constant is saying some number within something we could call law. And then these initial conditions, sort of the way things would have had to have been at the beginning of the universe, assuming the sort of temporal beginning, all right?

That's fine-tuning that sort of describes the macro structure of the universe. The way I would describe that is that sort of necessary conditions. If you're gonna build a universe for life, there's a bunch of necessary conditions. It's not necessarily sufficient. And we know this by looking around at different locations.

So not every location, of course, within the solar system or the galaxy or the universe is compatible with the existence of complex life, chemical life, all right? And so the question is, okay, is it fine-tuned or not? So in other words, there's something that suggests a kind of specialness, a sort of surprise, right?

We do this all the time when we're trying to decide, is something the result of a random process or an impersonal process, or it's a setup, right? Is it a coincidence or a conspiracy? The intuition, initially, at least, with fine-tuning, is that, well, fine-tuning, does that mean there's a fine-tuner?

You don't have to go that far. But at the very least, the idea that things seem to be suspiciously sort of oriented for the production of conditions where life can exist somewhere in this universe, right? The question to be asked to the answer is, should we be surprised that we're in a place that's compatible with our existence?

That's the trivial kind of fish and water question. No, of course not. We can only observe some place compatible with our existence. The question is, what are the conditions that allow for places like that? And is there something unusual about that? What we found, I would say, over the last.

Peter Robinson: Should we be surprised?

Jay Richards: Yeah, should we be surprised?

Peter Robinson: In the layman's understanding.

Jay Richards: Yeah, and should the surprise suggest that there's some maybe purpose of explanation for this, right? What we've discovered is that as we have learned more about the conditions needed for life at the planetary level, think about H.G Wells War of the Worlds.

Some decades ago, it was plausible that Americans could think that they were hearing a newscast on the radio of an invasion from Mars. Now, why is that? In part because we didn't have a really good sense of how precise things had to be planetarily for chemically-based life within our universe, with its periodic table, the elements make sense.

And then we looked at Mars. Gosh, as close as it is to Earth, it's lifeless. Every place else we found so far, it's lifeless. So that there's this sense that things have to go.

Peter Robinson: Just right.

Jay Richards: Just right, there's a bunch of ingredients beyond the macro to need a planetary level to get a habitable planet.

Jay Richards: Right, then you say, okay, well, is that suspicious? Should we say, okay, this is like.

Jay Richards: William Paley's watch resting on a heath. You see the parts all performing a function. Does that mean there's a watchmaker? Not so fast. The reason is that there's lots of options within the universe, right, for building planets.

So imagine they'll say, ten to the 22 planets in the observable universe, or I'm just making up a big number.

Jay Richards: That means there's lots of opportunities.

Peter Robinson: What about this notion that habitability correlates with measurements?

Jay Richards: That is the second part.

Peter Robinson: All right.

Jay Richards: Because you get to the habitability part, I don't think Guillermo Gonzalez and I don't think there's a very good design argument.

Specifically to be made if you're just focusing on the fact that, gosh, lifelike conditions are rare in the universe cuz you might have a big cosmic lottery running, right? And so as long as it's possible, that could happen once.

Peter Robinson: From the privileged planet. The fact that our atmosphere is clear, that our moon is just the right size and distance from the Earth and that its gravity stabilizes Earth's rotation.

That our position in our galaxy is just so, that our sun is, its precise mass and composition. All of these facts, and many more, are not only necessary for Earth's habitability, but also have been surprisingly crucial to the discovery and measurement of the universe by scientists. And, of course, the operative word there is surprisingly.

Jay Richards: Yes, imagine that you've got this list of conditions needed for a habitable planet, right? So the right kind of star, right kind of structure, right size, right atmosphere for chemically based life, all these things. And we spent 100 years sort of coming up with a list of local ingredients, and this is what chemical life needs.

And then someone else decided, okay, let's compare different kind of conditions with respect to making fundamental scientific discoveries, being able to detect the cosmic background radiation. To figure out that we're in a galaxy, to see beyond our solar system or beyond our atmosphere to the other planets of the solar system, right?

That's like what you would need for doing science. And then you discover, you sort of overlap those places, and you find out they're the same place. So the best places for life overall end up being the best places overall for doing a wide range of scientific discoveries. That's what we argue is a kind of, is a suspicious kind of conspiracy rather than coincidence.

And, of course, there's a bunch of details.

Peter Robinson: Back to Brian, for another. Yeah.

Brian Keating: And I love both of your writings, and I think you guys are geniuses. And so the life big, but.

Peter Robinson: There's a big old but coming.

Brian Keating: But, Peter, here, over here. No, but let me give you an example, so one of the coincidences you point out in your book is that the apparent size of the diameter of the moon is exactly the same as the apparent angular size of the sun.

Peter Robinson: Which we all in the United States, we all saw this in the solar eclipse.

Brian Keating: That's right.

Jay Richards: Okay.

Brian Keating: And the relevance of this is that the element helium was discovered during a total solar eclipse. Not, as I tell my students sometimes that helium was discovered on the sun.

They ask, how was that done? And I say they went at night because that was the time for which they could go. But no, indeed, it was only possible due to that beautiful apparition that we saw in the United States of the corona of the sun, and that was absurd.

So that was a contributing factor due to the remarkable unique in our solar system. I believe that our moon, there's 200 moons in our solar system, or minor bodies. None of them perform an exact total solar eclipse from the surface of the planet, as you point out in your book.

So to quote the late tame Emda, this is spooky. It's spooky, but the point is not just that it's spooky, it's that it allowed us to discover the element helium, which is part of the learnability. But let me ask you a question. Would we not have discovered it but for the fact of this coincidence?

Presumably we would have discovered it, eventually, we would have launched spacecraft and they would have done other things. Or we would have had spectroscopes that have very narrow band filters that could filter out everything but the helium signature. So how do you react to that? Yes, it's true that we have this, but that is not the only means by which we come to learn about the physical universe around us.

So does that diminish the plausibility from design, that we are living in a design planet where part of the design is for us to appreciate the designer, I would assume. And that appreciation leads to gratitude, which then leads to worship, perhaps. But if we can get about it through perhaps a different pathway, a counterfactual history, does that not undermine slightly.

Peter Robinson: So would you go for this, that the notion of fine tuning? Fine tuning for life, fine tuning for measurability, this strange overlap between the two, would you go for this? That that set of facts is suggestive but not probative?

Brian Keating: I would say it's a component, I wouldn't even say it necessarily rises to the level of suggestivity, but I would say-

Peter Robinson: You are hard.

Brian Keating: Well, you wanted somebody to-

Jay Richards: That's why we're doing this together-

Brian Keating: You want controversy, right?

Peter Robinson: You get a D in your class, you probably are a hard grader, too.

Brian Keating: No, that's not true, I'm a soft touch. But let me put this, fine tuning is in the eye of the beholder, it's a subjective thing, right?

There is a notion, we can agree, that there are certain aspects of the 31 parameters that Luke very-

Peter Robinson: That's a subjective science.

Brian Keating: There's 31 parameters, but how tunable are they? Some are not tunable at all, I mean, almost not tunable at all, and some have factors of seven to 100 variability, in which case we can still have this conversation.

So what you choose to constitute a fine tuning argument is a type of filtration process. You are compressing, you are condensing, you are editorializing and redacting. And what goes into that process sometimes is done for teleological reasons, to aim at a specific goal, which is perhaps to motivate a designer, which I'm sympathetic to.

But I don't necessarily agree that it's an objective criterion by which we can say-

Brian Keating: Falsity of-

Peter Robinson: We will return to that, but I wanna get to the Big Bang. Fine tuning, fine tuning, kaboom.

Brian Keating: Yeah.

Peter Robinson: I listened to a podcast between the two of you, and you asked Luke when the fine tuning took place, as the stars were forming, as life was first emerging.

And Luke replied, if you had to nail me down on something, Luke replied in a slightly evasive way, actually, if you had to nail me down on something, I'd say it was the initial conditions. So you are asserting that at the very moment of Big Bang, it was all there.

I was about to say the universe had us in mind. I wanna step back from this, but it was all there. You buy that? That's sensible, that's scientifically coherent?

Brian Keating: With deference to my dear friend Luke, no, I don't. In that it's-

Peter Robinson: It's get a little closer and take a swing.

Brian Keating: You're in the middle of two, cosmology. The reason is the following, I think, again, you have a stop condition. You have a start condition, which Luke is instantiating at the big bang.

Peter Robinson: Right, and that condition is actually terribly complicated.

Brian Keating: But he gave a brilliant lecture recently that I had the privilege of listening to, which he stops.

I want to get out of the Big Bang DNA flagella or something like that. But can you not say more? If indeed you postulate the existence of a designer with that teleological purpose of creating DNA, why stop there? Why not stop at slavery or childhood leukemia? At what point do those have to be encrypted and encoded into the initial conditions?

I don't know that that's part of science.

Peter Robinson: Wow, here we go. So, free will, it was also fine.

Brian Keating: As well.

Peter Robinson: And permissive, okay, all right. So, by the way, while I've got you here, and you're going nowhere until we're done.

Peter Robinson: Is the big bang a theory under pressure?

Brian Keating: So, the word theory is a semantically overloaded term, right? So we talk about that.

Peter Robinson: You won't let me say a single sentence. All right go ahead.

Brian Keating: So theory is used in a lot of different ways. You say that I'm a remarkably handsome man. Someone would say that's just your theory, right?

We use it in different ways, we also talk about theorems. We talk about the special theory of relativity. We talk about germ theory of disease. We talk about evolutionary theory. What do those all mean? Do they have certain things in common yet? The Big Bang theory, shall I say there is indisputable evidence that our universe in earlier times had radically different properties.

And the universe leaves fossils behind. And I brought a prop with me here today, and that's the water in this glass. If we analyze the water in this glass, it contains fossils of the Big Bang. And it contains them in a very precise ratio that's predicted by Big Bang nucleosynthesis processes that Luke has studied and written about, but you'll find a ratio of what's called ordinary.

Peter Robinson: By fossils, you mean the heavy-

Brian Keating: Heavy hydrogen yes, so there's ordinary hydrogen H2O, and then there's a small, tiny fraction of what's called DTO2, Deuterium oxide, or just heavy water. There's also another one that's called tritium, that's even more dangerous because it's radioactive, but deuterium is fine, you can drink it.

The exact ratio is predicted only as a result of the fact that the universe was an alchemistic fusion reactor at the very first moments of this period of time. Which some people conflate with the beginning of time, but it's not necessarily so. And furthermore, the properties of everything that comes after all the fossils, including us, including galaxies.

Including the cosmic microwave background that I study, are other instantiations of fusion processes and fossil relics that we can study that all point to the same conclusion. Universe was much hotter and denser than in the past, but it says nothing about a singularity, a multiverse and things like that that we can discuss further.

Peter Robinson: I need to give him multiple choice questions instead of essay questions.

Brian Keating: You need to swear me in, yeah.

Peter Robinson: Okay, this is sort of mandatory because this is. I'm a layman, I wanna know what you guys think about things that you probably, I'm asking you to condescend to me.

Jay Richards: Well, I wanna respond to Brian, you know? Yeah, let me respond,

Peter Robinson: Please.

Jay Richards: He's right. So he.

Peter Robinson: And I'm wrong.

Jay Richards: And I'm waiting for my Australian friend here. Yeah, and he's-

Peter Robinson: Keating keep saying-

Brian Keating: That's what happens when you have a New Yorker with two gentlemen.

Peter Robinson: And so Brian keeps saying. I respect both of you, your geniuses.

Jay Richards: You know, it's coming, right?

Peter Robinson: I've never heard worse insults.

Jay Richards: And so he's, of course, right. So he gave one example we use in the book is this production of perfect solar eclipses, this weird magic, totally different bodies, right in our skyd, that are intrinsically interesting by themselves.

But it also, as Brian notes, has allowed us to make certain scientific discoveries. We never say in the argument or in the book that would have been impossible otherwise, but rather that it makes it much easier than less habitable places if you sort of compare all these things.

One thing was, of course, the discovery of helium, but of course it was a confirmation of Einstein's general theory. There were other kind of scientific values. But the argument is what philosophers call a cumulative case argument. So it's not a deductive logical argument that sort of proves its conclusion.

Peter Robinson: We will bury Keating-

Jay Richards: So the idea is, just as we evaluate things like more or less habitable locations, right. Where life can exist, it could be kind of hard to quantify, and some of it's subjective. We still have a pretty good sense that the surface of a star is not going to be compatible with life in the same way the surface of the Earth is, right?

Peter Robinson: One barns dial, another barns dial another, barns dial the sun lined up. And we just-

Jay Richards: And a lot of these. So that if you were to find sort of throughout all the kind of well known conditions needed certainly at the local level and compare it with the other types of places, we can either observe or we can sort of theoretically predict.

As it turned out, gosh, there's a lot of the things we need for a wide range of different kinds of science. We find them in the best places for observing overall, but it requires lots of detail because there's no way any one example by itself I would agree.

Yeah, maybe it's kind of interesting, but otherwise, yeah.

Peter Robinson: Are we alone? Two quotations. Brian Keating, there are 100 billion stars in the Milky Way alone. And there are 100 billion galaxies like the Milky Way. So what are the odds? Jay Richards, the more we learn about how much must go right to get a single habitable planet, the more it reduces the hope of finding intelligent beings elsewhere.

I note that that is premised on the notion that we are intelligent beings, which I take the flattery. Thank you. So we have 100 billion stars per galaxy and 100 billion galaxy, let's put it this way. The SETI project, search for extraterrestrial intelligence gets founded just after the second world war and there are different names and it's taken place privately and it's publicly funded for a while, NASA funds it for a while, Congress gets sick of it and cuts it.

But it's been going on, listening for signals has been going on for going on seven decades now, and there hasn't been a peep. Are you surprised?

Luke Barnes: What I love about this question is, I get it more than any other question.

Peter Robinson: Everybody's going to want me to ask, so I'm asking.

Luke Barnes: I go and talk to school students, amateur astronomers, even in churches and I talk about what I wanna talk about. And then they ask me questions about, is there life elsewhere? And there's two questions there. One, is there life out there somewhere? But the SETI thing is, is their life close enough that we can hear their radio signals?

And those are two very different questions. What I'm thinking of, the SETI one's an interesting one, but on the other one. So, you know-

Peter Robinson: I love this. Ordinarily, I ask you a question, I get an answer. Here, I ask a question, I lose ground.

Jay Richards: Well, these are hard questions.

Luke Barnes: I don't have an alien in my pocket man I'm so sorry. How many planets are there out of the universe that life could have a go at hanging out? Maybe they won't have the right moon, but they could try that numbers probably multiply those. It's ten to the 22, maybe.

Peter Robinson: It's a very big.

Luke Barnes: It's got, okay, but here's the thing. I'm an astronomer. I have big numbers, plenty of those. What I wanna do with that number is. And I don't go, that's big. So there must be life out there. I go, no, no, ten to the 22.

There's another number I need, which is, what are the chances? What's the probability that a life permitting universe, the life permitting planet, will develop, actually develop life? And that question is a biology question, right? I've made a lovely planet out there. It puts all sorts of chemicals on it.

I'll just heat it up for a bit. With a star, will anything start jumping around at any point? Right, will a cell form, will anything that we could call life be there? And that's the really hard question. I feel the astronomers did their job and the biologists.

Peter Robinson: You are telling me that answering that question is not your job?

Luke Barnes: It's a very hard question, and it's definitely not my job.

Peter Robinson: Brian Keating, I'm quoting you. Consider a planet right next to a planet that's teeming with life. This second planet shares the same solar system. It has an atmosphere, it has a magnetic field. It has all sorts of the conditions for life.

Now, let me tell you that that second planet already exists. Brian, explain.

Brian Keating: That's right. I use this analogy quite frequently when I ask the question of what is the probability once life gets going, once we have n equals two? Two examples of life in the universe. Should it be not possible to predict the spread, the rapid spread?

As Jeff Goldblum says in Jurassic park, life finds a way.

Jeff Goldblum: Life finds a way.

Brian Keating: And in that case, the question has to be asked. The non observation of life should count to reduce our probability space that life, once it gets kicked off, is inevitable. But the lack of life on Mars, as far as we can tell or anywhere else in our solar system, is not this positive.

I mean, evidence of absence is not absence of evidence or whatever Carl Sagan would say. He says everything and nothing at the same time sometimes, but to the point that Luke was addressing another thing I brought up. I've had the privilege to go to the South Pole, Antarctica, twice, and at least the two of you paid in part for it, cuz it's only possible to go through the US government National Science foundation.

And you get a ride down through Australia or through New Zealand, you end up at the South Pole after about a week, and it's the most desolate, boring, lifeless place in the universe outside Palo Alto, where I've spent some of my time as well. And once you're there, there's nothing there, and yet you're on a continent.

So what if I told there's seven continents on a planet, and you knew nothing else. And you say, what are the odd there's 7 billion people on this planet, too. We haven't been to every continent, we've been to six of them. What should be the odds, just based on probability, that life exists in Antarctica and what should be the population of hominids and Antarctica, birds and monkeys and whatever else you like?

And you'd say one in seven should be a billion people. There's literally 200 people there. It's possible for you to go there, Peter, and be the tallest person on the continent at one point.

Peter Robinson: Could I be the smartest?

Brian Keating: You could be.

Peter Robinson: Just for one day.

Brian Keating: You could be, yes as long as.

Peter Robinson: Table like Jr is there.

Brian Keating: So the point is, possibility is not probability. Just saying this number, and by the way, the number is worse than what Luke suggested even I'm taking your side in this. That number, 100 billion squared, roughly ten to the 24th, that's in the history of the observable universe, which has a radius of some 43 billion light years, and existed for 13.8 billion years.

I'm also not an astronomer, but I would like to know the answer in our lifetime, right? In a lifetime, my grandkids or your great grand graduates. And that number is exquisitely small, and I think Luke hinted at that.

Peter Robinson: So, but can't you guys deal with numbers? I'm coming to you, you guys deal with numbers all the time.

This is the number of planets in the universe we think, and to an order of magnitude, we can get it. To find intelligent life, we believe you need this condition times the number, this condition times the first condition times the number. And we end up getting, okay, so here I come to the privileged planet.

In other words, I am accusing the two of you of being very slippery on this question that's in everybody's mind. Just because it's in everybody's mind doesn't make it beneath you, or okay, so Jay's book, again, the privileged planet, compared to, I don't even know what this means, but you'll explain it.

Compared to the giant planets being found around other stars, the planets in our solar system have more circular orbits. If we assume that all planet eccentricities are uniformly distributed between 0 and 0.8, then the probability that our solar system was selected at random for life, is about one in a billion.

So that's quite a reasonable calculation, isn't it?

Jay Richards: Well, that's one thing.

Peter Robinson: Yeah, but one thing times one thing times one thing.

Jay Richards: Some of the numbers we can get kind of rough handle on others we don't. But you did describe it correctly, I mean, it's a famous Drake Equation.

It was kind of initial stab at this in which you just say, okay, how many-

Peter Robinson: The Drake Equation, that's right.

Jay Richards: Drake-

Peter Robinson: How can explain that? What's the Drake Equation?

Jay Richards: Frank Drake astronomer that there's kind of an initial discussion of this some decades.

Peter Robinson: Just after the war, 50s maybe early 60s.

Jay Richards: Yeah, but basically it was, okay, how many stars do we have? How many planets do we think there are around each star, right? And so that's sort of the set.

Peter Robinson: It was the kind of first cut of the number of variables.

Jay Richards: Absolutely. It's been said that, yeah, it's a really efficient way of compressing a lot of ignorance into a small space because we didn't know the value of almost any of these variables.

And so your initial intuition, ten to the 22 stars with planets around them, and that's got huge number of opportunities. You get lots of people that say, yeah, it's just sort of inevitable. It just completely depends upon what the other numbers are. And as Luke said, the question about the origin of life, that is just such a difficult question.

That's where we stop in the privileged planet, in fact. So we thought, okay, well, let's just focus on given what we know so far, how prevalent do we think Earth-like planets are in the observable universe? Setting aside the origin of life question, because it turns out simple life also makes a planet more habitable.

There's a chicken and egg question there.

Peter Robinson: Sorry, what life makes it more habitable.

Jay Richards: So simple life living on a planet for long periods of time can make the planet more conducive to life or complex, right? So a little bit of chicken and egg, let's forget that.

And just like, what do you need to get something like a planet that has liquid water on a lot of its surface? So a nice circular orbit, it's not freezing up and boiling off during its orbit around the star. That's one of the important factors. Our argument is essentially this, that the more we have learned so far, the more precise the conditions seem to be for having a habitable planet.

And as Brian said, we're comparing Mars, right? If you wanna know what's the most Earth planet other than Earth that we know about still 5000 extrasolar planet discovery then, it's Mars. It's around an otherwise habitable system. Its orbit is very similar to ours. It's sort of comparable in size.

I can tell when our book first came out in 2004, every new extrasolar planet discovery a science writer would call and say, what about this? You'd said we had a privileged planet, and we'd say, our argument is not that there's only one Earth-like planet. That's not it. This kept happening.

If I like to remember, I told a reporter, call me when we find a planet outside our solar system that's at least as Earth like as Mars is, we still haven't done it. And so that's, in some ways, it tells you the conditions for habitability seem to be fairly narrow.

It doesn't follow that Earth is unique in our argument, at least. We argue that if there are other planets where there is life like us in the universe or even in our galaxy, it will be very much like the planet and the system that we're on. That's our.

Peter Robinson: Now you're looking skeptical.

Jay Richards: Mm-hm.

Peter Robinson: You wrote a book on fine tuning, and now you're, what's up.

Jay Richards: Yeah, the general level, so.

Luke Barnes: There's a factor that needs to go into this. It's easy to find a planet when it's bigger for fairly obvious.

Peter Robinson: Exactly.

Luke Barnes: So the way you actually find them, how do you find a planet around a star that's an awfully long way away? Well, there's two ways. One is the planet goes between you and the star, and you get a sort of an eclipse, but just the light goes down and then up again.

Or as the planet goes around, actually, the star of the planet wobble each other, so you can observe that little wobble. The bigger and the closer the planet is, the easier it is to see those two things. There's a couple of other methods. What that means is there's a bias just from our methods that will find planets bigger than Earth and closer to their stars than Earth.

So it's actually very hard to find. Mars is just really hard to see around any other planet. But we're in an era where we've got whopping great big space telescopes going up. We've got wonderful new observatories coming on board. We're still going on this one, so stay tuned.

Jay Richards: That's exactly right. And this is crucial, though, Peter, because these are testable claims, right? But we're just now getting to the point where we could really discover Earth like planets around planets other than.

Peter Robinson: These are testable claims.

Jay Richards: Yeah, they're testable claims, but we're just now, I mean, just the technology just coming online to really nail down just that one number, right?

Like Earth-sized planets and then now we'll look for Earth-sized planets around similar stars.

Peter Robinson: So could I ask, this one really does not fall within your purview, except as people who have to get this question asked all the time. Why are people fascinated by the question of whether we're alone?

Brian Keating: I think it's an ultimate question. People, I'll ask you this. I love to ask this question. People, what's the-

Peter Robinson: I ask the questions around here.

Brian Keating: I'm taking podcasters prerogative here. What is your favorite day on the calendar, Peter?

Peter Robinson: Christmas.

Brian Keating: Christmas, okay? What is Christmas?

It's an origin. It's the origin of Jesus Christ who's your savior, right? So what does that mean? That means people are fascinated by origin stories. What's the ultimate origin story? The universe, perhaps. How did it get here? What's the next most interesting origin story? How did life come to exist?

What is the origin of life? We have whole research programs dedicated to both of those great and grand topics. People love origin stories, why? Because it marks a demarcation between things that you could have, in principle, experienced and obtained empirical evidence. It's about namely your life, and things you have to trust other people about, other theories, other hypotheses, which are provisional and could be wrong.

In other words, you only know who your father is, as they say, cuz your mother told you right? But after that, you can say a lot of things about things you experienced. So, it's a fascinating thing to ask, where did the universe come from? Because we don't know if there was a day for which there were no yesterdays, and that's the branch of science that I study.

Peter Robinson: I grant every bit of that, but this is just occurring to me as we speak. So, yeah, I mean, it's an unusually unformed thought, most of my thoughts are unformed. This one is unusually unformed, but that Neil Armstrong quotation at the beginning, isn't it a question of meaning?

Are we just specs? Are we just motes of dust floating around in a big empty room like this one? Or is there some meaning to I don't know. So, why are people fascinated by it?

Luke Barnes: Well, I'm no psychologist-

Peter Robinson: A question you get all the time.

Luke Barnes: I know, I'm no psychologist, but it's so common, I think there must be multiple answers.

I don't think there's one general, but I think Brian's answer is right. I think there's sort of a feeling of I think Earth is kind of amazing, are there more of that out there? Or is this place special in some senses, are we typical? Or maybe the whole universe is teeming with life, and it's gonna be all right if this planet, we have to move somewhere.

I think all of this gets mixed in cuz it's such a common question. Everyone comes at it differently, and I think movies are part of it as well, obviously.

Brian Keating: But actually, I'm not front-

Peter Robinson: Whatever number of body problem.

Luke Barnes: The name of the show is 3 Body Problems, it is, in fact, a full body problem.

Peter Robinson: Is it?

Brian Keating: You permit me one indulgence that is, we already know how the movie plays out because this actually happened in 1996 again, President Clinton during his administration. There's a scene in the movie contact, written by Carl Sagan and Andrine as his widow that depicts an actual speech by President Clinton, and it's not CGI.

President Clinton: I'm glad to be joined by my science and technology advisor. This is the product of years of exploration by some of the world's most distinguished scientists. Like all discoveries, this one will and should continue to be reviewed, examined and scrutinized, it must be confirmed by other scientists.

Brian Keating: This discovery, if confirmed, will go down in the history of annals of greatest discoveries ever, okay? That was a discovery of putative life found on a martian meteorite.

Peter Robinson: That's right I remember that.

Brian Keating: Landed on the ice caps of Antarctica, where I've had the privilege of going twice.

And it is a claim that was made that was not refuted for decades. And in fact, it's sort of ambiguous whether or not they made a mistake, if it was actually some systematic error, or some effect that was, but my point is this, did life change for the average layperson, did you stop getting these questions?

We found life, right?

Peter Robinson: You got to take just one moment to describe what form of life, if it was a form of life, I think that this was nothing that would grow up to play the piano.

Brian Keating: Correct but that would be a huge advance, if true.

Peter Robinson: Some microscopic something.

Brian Keating: It was a respiratory process or some microtubule structure of a bacterium.

Peter Robinson: And now it's in doubt or disproven?

Brian Keating: It's essentially been disproven.

Jay Richards: Yeah, though it's still, I would say ambiguous, but certainly it's not unambiguous proof of life, but it hasn't been ambiguous.

Brian Keating: So, that means for 30 years we've lived with the specter of having made this discovery, and yet, I stipulate, did anyone's life change? Did we start treating each other better? So, this is a glimpse into the future of if we make contact tomorrow, I predict almost nothing would change.

And the setting maximalist, the people-

Peter Robinson: Jay would see, if they're interested in his book.

Peter Robinson: Jay would immediately start thinking.

Jay Richards: I would wanna know if they saw a perfect solar eclipses from their home world, that would be the question.

Peter Robinson: All right, so science, science, science, worldview, geochemist Ross Taylor, quote, Copernicus was right after all.

Copernicus, of course, is the fellow who persuasively said, actually, the sun doesn't orbit around the Earth. We're not at the center of everything, it's the other way around. Copernicus was right after all, the idea that the sun, rather than the Earth was at the center of the universe caused a profound change in the view of our place in the world.

That seems to be historically accurate.

Luke Barnes: No.

Luke Barnes: No, it isn't.

Jay Richards: It's backwards, it's textbook orthodoxy.

Luke Barnes: It's a myth from the 1800s.

Peter Robinson: It's a myth from?

Luke Barnes: The 1800s.

Jay Richards: Yeah, it came from the 19th century, so think about this.

Peter Robinson: I just go throw out the rest-

Jay Richards: No, because this is actually.

Peter Robinson: So, let me finish this, and then you guys correct it.

Luke Barnes: Yeah, I know we pounced before you finished.

Peter Robinson: Yeah, Republicans' pounces so, Copernicus was right, the idea of the sun, rather than, I did ask, was that the center of the universe caused a profound change in the view of our place in the world.

It created the philosophical climate in which we live okay, it is not clear that everyone has come to grips with the idea, for we still cherish the idea that we are special, and that the entire universe was designed for us right, go.

Jay Richards: Okay, so notice what he's doing, is he's arguing that there were, before Copernicus, the pre-Copernican cosmology put humans in a position of privilege by putting it in the center of the universe.

And the general argument is that science, everything we discovered, just shows how insignificant we are.

Peter Robinson: Correct.

Jay Richards: And so, the idea is that physical location and metaphysical significance somehow correlate. Hey, here's the first point, no historian that you ask about this will tell you that in the pre-Copernican cosmology, the best place to be was in the center.

This was Aristotle's physics, remember? And so, the center, that's where the heavy stuff falls, remember, it was the moon and everything above it that's made of this fifth element, this kind of unchangeable, ethereal substance, right? That was actually that was the heaven.

Peter Robinson: The music of the spheres.

Jay Richards: The music of the spheres, right? It's the surface of the Earth, at best, would have been a sort of intermediate place, right, in which things die and fall and decay. So, the center of the universe in the pre-Copernican cosmology, if you wanted to kind of give a location metaphor, you'd say it's the bottom, it's the sump in which Detritus.

Peter Robinson: Even on Aristotle's view, we lived in a fallen world.

Jay Richards: Well, a world in which things change and decay.

Luke Barnes: Imperfect would be.

Jay Richards: Imperfect would be, yeah, exactly.

Luke Barnes: In a typical sense.

Jay Richards: And so, if you look at what Galio actually argues, right? He actually argues if the Earth is another planet, then it can reflect the light of the sun.

So, there's a complete sort of, if you understood what the early scientists after Copernicus were doing, they didn't see themselves as demoting humanity or the Earth or anything like this. It was only in the 19th century that there's a kind of reinterpretation of what actually happened in order to make this kind of dysteleological argument.

Now I'm making that point, nevertheless, it's important to understand that physical location and metaphysical significance, they're not directly correlated in any obvious way. But we got to get the history right because it's sort of this textbook mythology.

Peter Robinson: So, this is part of Darwin and the whole Victorian rebellion against some religion.

Is that what we have going on here?

Luke Barnes: So, it probably is sort of bound up in this, there's a lot of stuff going on in terms of Darwinism, in terms of TH actually trying to carve out a place for professional science. In terms of, especially in the UK, most scientists are kind of parsons who just during the week do some observations of plants out in their garden, and Huxley wants to professionalize science.

There's a lot going on here, the point is that there's just nothing before the 1800s on this.

Peter Robinson: So, if Copernicus didn't invent the Copernican principle, it just emerges from, but it did get invented. The worldview does exist, I encounter it every day.

Jay Richards: There are discoveries but there's also this narrative interpretation, right?

Peter Robinson: So that's wrong.

Jay Richards: So that's what the Copernican principle is, a kind of narrative interpretation that weirdly reverses things with respect to Copernicus.

Peter Robinson: Yeah, but the worldview exists.

Brian Keating: Yes, but it's almost self refuting. I mean, we call it the worldview now, the Copernican principle and so forth.

But it was almost immediately self refuted because although the Earth wasn't the center of the solar system, immediately it was discovered that the sun was the center of the galaxy. And this was due to misperceptions, due to the fact that we live in the dusty galaxy. And it wasn't immediately found that we are actually in the outskirts of an ordinary spiral galaxy that we call the Milky Way.

But that wasn't enough because our egos had to be solved somehow. And that way to solve it was that we are the center of the universe. And that was the most simple interpretation of the observation that every galaxy that we see, with the seven exceptions out of 100 billion, are all moving away from us.

Now, either we didn't put on our cosmic deodorant, or we are in a special place. That is the most efficient, economical, parsimonious interpretation of the observations.

Peter Robinson: That we are in a special place.

Brian Keating: That is the naïve interpretation. Obviously, we don't believe there is a sense.

Peter Robinson: I thought I had you at last.

Brian Keating: Tenure revoked. Yes, try harder, Peter. So the point being that scientists didn't even adopt this, and it's sort of in revisionist history that we all then became the Copernican victims. I call it the ultimate big brother principle. All those of us with a big brother know, if you have one, you're not that special.

You're not unique. But as these two gentlemen said, it really had no effect on the practicing cosmologists. And the ultimate refutation of it was that eventually, when the Big Bang model came to be much more seriously taken, cosmologists reverted to what was called the perfect cosmological principle. Where cosmological principle is that it's a generalization of Copernican principle to galaxies and to our position in the universe.

But then the perfection was achieved by saying, we're not only not special in space, we're also not special in time. And the only way to get rid of a special point in time called the Big Bang is to have an eternal universe. So you could argue that the Copernican principle almost stifled scientific progress, at least if it was taken seriously, thank God, or whoever you like.

It wasn't taken seriously, as these two guys just said.

Peter Robinson: Okay, so you just raise one more point.

Peter Robinson: We'll come back to the Copernican principle, on which I think all three of you are proving remarkably slippery or evasive. But of course, surely I'm mistaken, because you all know more than I do.

We'll get back to my final agony in a moment. The Big Bang, when I mentioned a moment ago, is the Big Bang a theory under pressure? I put it crudely, but what about this notion of the multiverse? This notion, it seems, to layman Robinson, excuse me. Let me stipulate that everything I say is the naïve view.

I don't know enough to give you any other view, but the Big Bang implies that the universe had a beginning. Implies that.

Peter Robinson: I mean, if you just intuition, something must have begun it. Now, we immediately spin off into notions of an intelligent design or stop that. Well, I can stop myself.

But still, it's one moment in time, and the universe as it exists is the only one we have. Up comes the multiverse, as far as I can understand it. A, the math does hold together. It's extremely sophisticated math to say that, no, the Big Bang didn't just produce this universe.

It bubbled through to a gigantic number of universes, so the math holds. B, there is not one shred of physical evidence for it. C, however, it's a way out. It's a way of there's no God. There's an infinite regression of you get to lead your life an infinite number of times in different.

What do you make of the multiverse?

Brian Keating: So, first of all-

Peter Robinson: Is that taken seriously, and what do you make of it?

Brian Keating: It's absolutely, it's deadly serious.

Peter Robinson: It is.

Brian Keating: It is, it's taken extremely seriously.

Peter Robinson: Because the math does work.

Brian Keating: So seriously that there's not one multiverse.

There are multiple multiverses. There are multiple.

Luke Barnes: Different series-

Brian Keating: Different types of-

Peter Robinson: You guys get paid for this stuff?

Brian Keating: That's right, we get a $0.01 tax. You ever remember when you were a kid, you could buy a star, and they named a star after you?

I've said, well, why stop at stars? Sell universes and Keating Brand Industries, folks. Go to brandkeating.com.

Luke Barnes: I need to return one of those.

Brian Keating: So multiple, multiple. What does that mean? Well, there are certainly regions of space time which we have not had time to interact with yet.

And tomorrow there may be a universe literally right next door to ours. That's one light day away from us. I'm speaking crudely, but my professional colleagues will forgive me. But effectively, it's a matter of time. Tomorrow we could discover actually the physical imprint of the consequences of there being a neighboring universe that we come into contact with tomorrow, literally tomorrow.

Then there are other conceptions of the multiverse. There's the many worlds hypothesis postulating. There are postulates that there are other universes parallel to us in space. There are other universes. So these are all different types of multiverses.

Peter Robinson: These are unfalsifiable.

Brian Keating: Not necessarily. It may be that you could not necessarily falsify, but you could motivate to a level of credulity that would rise to a level of circumstantial evidence perhaps.

Peter Robinson: He speaks the truth.

Luke Barnes: Yeah, I think so. So the important thing, things about multiverses, things about, say, the beginning of the universe, they're not things we can get straight from observations. I can't go and look through one of Brian's wonderful telescopes and see that. So I've got to ask a theory.

And now the question is, who do I ask? Who do I trust? With the beginning of the universe, if I ask Einstein's theory of gravity, I get some rather general conditions where actually look, given this place, there probably is a beginning if we just stick with that theory, right?

Under fairly general conditions. But now the question is, all right, but we went right back to a beginning where there's extreme conditions there. Do I really trust Einstein all the way? And the answer is now, actually, we've got this other theory about how things work around here called quantum mechanics.

And we didn't ask like, that didn't come into it. And maybe we should ask that one as well. But we need to combine the two. And so we have these clues because there are different theories we could go and ask. And the question of, who do you trust?

Is should, hopefully. We'd love it if data came along and went, that guy, ask that theory with the multiverse. The problem is we've got a whole room full of people we could ask, including the person who says, nope, no multiverse, right? They're in there as well, that's possible.

Peter Robinson: That's just in this universe.

Luke Barnes: Yeah, yeah and there's these ideas about how it could happen. And the data's not telling us who to ask. And so we can try to get clues, circumstantial evidence. We can try to ask, hey, if I lived in your multiverse, would I expect to observe a universe like this one?

Or are most of the life forms in a different sort of universe? That's circumstantial, but that could actually sort of kick a few people out of the room. But we're always gonna be, in this case, of here's the data out of that, I hope there's just one theory to ask, but there's probably more.

And then I ask them, and they can't quite agree with themselves. So we just have to live with this tension of we'll have clues, we'll have circumstantial evidence, but-

Jay Richards: But Peter, what's interesting is almost every discovery leads to more questions. But we're in a different position than everyone, and certainly every scientist was, say, in the mid 19th century.

In fact, you can find scientists telling you in even the early 20th century that the question of where the universe came from or if it has a beginning is not a scientific question. In fact, the proper scientific attitude was to treat the universe as a whole as just eternal and static given, right?

The fact that we now talk about the universe as having an age, that's a significant sort of update from a century and a half ago. It leads to new questions, right, is it unique? Was there one beginning, can we talk about the beginning, but that's a different sort of situation.

And so, I think if you're thinking in terms of worldviews, I would much rather be a materialist where everyone assumed the universe was eternal than be at a moment in which virtually everyone, whether skeptic or believer, says well, the universe has an age, so it's got a finite past.

Peter Robinson: You'd rather be a materialist in the 1890s-

Jay Richards: Exactly.

Peter Robinson: Than today?

Jay Richards: Yes, and I think it's much easier to be atheist in which standard cosmology says well, the universe hasn't always been here. It's no longer a kinda good candidate for ultimate explanation if it had a beginning-

Peter Robinson: I like that answer so much, I'm not even gonna let you address it.

Peter Robinson: But actually, could I ask you, sort of to me, this is just kind of a technical question about the discipline of physics. So, Newton is what, 17th century? Quantum mechanics is late 90s, when is maximum?

Luke Barnes: 1920s.

Peter Robinson: Okay, so we get quantum mechanics and relativity are emerging at the same time, and these are two systems of thought that do not, Einstein supersedes Newton. Everybody seems to get that, but quantum mechanics and relativity simply exist in different boxes, is that right? They don't refute each other, but it's been a problem for you guys that they are separate.

The search for some way, the unified field search, has been a problem for you for a century now. Is that right? I mean, for your discipline.

Brian Keating: You're absolutely wrong, no.

Peter Robinson: Thank you very much Dr. Keating-

Brian Keating: I'll answer you in a second.

Peter Robinson: What do you have to say about Dr. Lawrence?

Brian Keating: Absolutely right, I think your only mistake is that you're conflating general relativity in quantum mechanics. In reality, special relativity, the theory of objects, mechanics, propagation of objects with mass near the speed of light, mass energy, interrelationship equals mc squared, etc. That's one of the most, if not the most quantitatively tested of all theories.

So, the only incorrect thing-

Peter Robinson: That one just holds up and is confirmed again-

Brian Keating: It's Dirac, it's Feynman, it's Schwinger, and so on, and every time there's a collision at the large Hadron collider, it's being tested. What's not been tested or reconciled, or even mandatory that exists is a theory of quantum gravity of general relativity, which is the way that this fabric of spacetime warps under the curvature of massive objects.

And the interplay between matter and spacetime, was first pointed out in general relativity. But at the microscopic level, at the subatomic level, how does gravity behave? And where is that relevant? To my knowledge, Luke can refute this, but it's only relevant in two situations. One is at the core of a black hole, the singularity of a black hole, which is perhaps excluded from our vantage point by what is called an event horizon, a firewall, and ultimately impenetrable firewall.

And the other regime at which-

Peter Robinson: We can't see it.

Brian Keating: We can't see through the-

Peter Robinson: We just can't observe, we cant.

Brian Keating: And the other regime at which it may have been required is at the origin of spacetime itself and the singularity that existed then. Which is also quoted from our view, by another type of event horizon that precludes us from seeing the actual origin of time.

So, I stipulate we put a lot of effort into this, and the question is, is that a good investment for physics? Cuz to investigate two regimes that have one or two ultimate applications, black hole cores and the beginning of the universe. And who is to say that gravity and quantum mechanics have to be related in what you already alluded to as a unification or theory of everything, as it's on his cult?

Peter Robinson: He said Luke may refute me, I'm begging refute him.

Peter Robinson: That stands, go ahead.

Luke Barnes: I agree, when do you get something really heavy and really small, well, center of black hole, beginning of the universe. What I disagree with is the thought that if we had a theory of quantum gravity, all it would do is tell us how the universe started, and that's a waste of time.

No, no, no, that's, yeah, yeah, yeah, no, I'm gonna stick with that. That's worth-

Peter Robinson: Feel free to caricature-

Luke Barnes: That's worth going after, because we want that, who do we ask? I can't observe the beginning of the universe, and I wanna ask a theory, general relativity, does an amazing job of predicting what goes on around us.

And so, if we had that quantum theory, I could say, all right, you've predicted things, you've explained things, you're all self-consistent-

Peter Robinson: Is that somehow undevelopable in principle?

Peter Robinson: Why don't we have it?

Luke Barnes: It's not my field.

Peter Robinson: Not my job.

Brian Keating: Some people say it's not possible, or it doesn't exist.

There's no mandate from God or nature or whoever you like that says that the unification of quantum mechanics and gravity must take place. It's a desire based on our intuition that the laws of nature should be simple, and elegant, and beautiful. But that is also projection of taste, and sort of, there's God or mother nature, it's not under an obligation to unify things so that my theoretical physicist friends have full employment.

Peter Robinson: Okay boys, last questions, it turns out what this conversation has taught me is I understood even less than I thought that I understood. But what I'd like to get to, I'm sure this is a vain attempt but I kind of like to wrap up the notion of the implications of your fields as they now stand.

So, this Copernican principle I'm gonna read you what my search engine produced on the Internet. So, this is the thing that's in the air because it's on the Internet. The Copernican principle, which we now know was mistaken, but it still got invented, is a fundamental concept in astronomy and cosmology, pretty strong words.

Fundamental concept that asserts that Earth and its inhabitants do not occupy a privileged or position in the universe. The principle has profound philosophical implications, maybe it shouldn't, maybe philosophical implications are only imagined in the wider world. But that's what it says, profound philosophical implications challenging the notion of human exceptionalism, and suggesting that humans are not unique or central in the cosmic order.

And what I would like to know is the current, not even the present, not even sort of snapshot of physics at the moment. But the general movements of your careers, indicate that it's time to wrap up this worldview that this planet is more remarkable. And we as humans do indeed seem unusual in the universe, and maybe that has implications for the way we feel.

Maybe Neil Armstrong shouldn't have felt like such a little speck. Maybe he should have thought, gee, we humans are pretty spectacular, you get what I'm going for here, okay, Brian?

Brian Keating: Okay, so when I hear this, it goes by the name of cosmic insignificance theory, and this is-

Peter Robinson: Okay, I got it, that's better than the Copernican principle, okay.

Brian Keating: Oliver Burkeman, a wonderful book, Four Thousand Weeks. It's mostly about you have 4,000 weeks allotted to you, how are you gonna spend that before you meet your termination? And I think it's ridiculous, right, is Jupiter more significant than a nine-month-old baby?

Is it possible to say that the large magellanic cloud, because it's so much bigger. Nowhere else do we find that size matters in terms of significance, and I would say the ultimate difference, between these come from, or the ultimate expression of our significance, which is a humanistic, I think, very beautiful thing that scientists tend to ignore in favor of materialism.

Come from two things for me that make me think maybe there's something to what my colleagues here are onto and maybe I should be more open to it. And that's these two things. We share 99.8% of our chromosomes with apes, right? With bonobos or orangutans or whatever, sometimes wish it was 100% right.

But the fact is it's extremely close. What is that difference? Or another one that's my favorite. If you look at the mass energy budget of the whole universe, you'll find that what we're made up of, elements on the periodic table, up to iodine or something that's useful for life, makes up something like 0.001% of all the energy in the universe.

And yet that's the only form of matter or energy that can contemplate that. We make up only 0.001. So there's something in that now, is it evidence of God? No, I don't think it's proof of God. I personally don't believe you can prove the existence of God, and I don't operate under those circumstances.

But to say that we're insignificant because we don't, aren't as big as a gas giant planet, or we share the same number of chromosomes as a fruit fly, those are empty, soulless arguments. And to counteract the late great Stephen Weinberg, who said, the more we comprehend about the universe, the more pointless it appears.

I think the actual opposite, the more we see how similar we are to everything and yet how distinct we are, the more irrational the universe appears to be and the more resplendent it appears to be, which may lead some to seek ultimate gratitude as well.

Peter Robinson: Jay.

Jay Richards: Exactly what Brian said.

Notice there should be a disconnect between the idea of size, scale and significance there's no one is a sort of measure, physical measure. It's completely ridiculous once you frame it that way. And notice, no one ever says, wow, humans and the Earth are huge compared to quarks. Wow, we must be very important, right?

The comparison almost goes one way, it's really silly. Significance is gonna hinge on things that are, I think, more subtle than that. It's the same thing with respect to whether is earthly life unique in the universe, or is there life, including intelligent life, elsewhere in the universe? I honestly think the answer to either of those questions is interesting.

As atheist, I think both of those are possibilities that we should be open to either of those options. But I don't think the problem with the Copernican theory is not just it contradicts the history of science, but it forces natural science to sort of bear the water for a particular ideological campaign for which it's not well suited.

And the people, including ordinary people that aren't scientists, end up missing the grandeur and the heroism of science pursued properly to help understand as well as the universe that we can see.

Peter Robinson: Luke?

Luke Barnes: Yeah, my favorite quote about fine tuning came from someone, I believe it was said to Alistair McGrath, but who said this was lost to the sands of time, but it was simply, I'm not religious, but something weird is going on here.

There's this impression, I think it was Freeman Dyson, a famous physicist, who said, it's having reviewed just the basics of physics, went, looks like the universe knew we were coming. And that impression, I think, against the, we're just nowhere particularly special. There's nothing unique, this is all accidental.

I can make you an accidental universe in my computer if you want one, and there'll be nothing interesting going on in there, nothing as interesting as this. The idea, if you wanna say the universe is accidental, go make yourself some accidental universes until it happens, it's not like this.

So there's something fighting back against that idea. I don't think it proves anything. I think mathematicians prove things, but certainly, I think if you think the universe is accidental, you should be wildly uncomfortable.

Peter Robinson: Let me close final question. Just go through with each of you. I'm gonna give you a fragment of text that comes to us from the late Bronze Age and ask each of you how you live with it.

In the beginning, God created the heaven and the Earth. Now, what do you do with that? Does that convey valuable information? Is it inspirational? Must Brian Keating, the scientist, remain blind to it while Brian Keating the man is permitted? How do you deal with this?

Brian Keating: Well, first let me say I would kill for 1% of God's book sales.

Brian Keating: There's nothing quite like that. But in seriousness, you mentioned the Bronze Age, and yet we read it to this day. The idea that we'll still be reading Stephen Hawking's brief history of time a hundred years from now, let alone 30 centuries from now, is laughable.

And it should be something that he, the late, great Stephen Hawking, should wish to not be true, because it would mean that almost no progress in science has been made. When I read that passage in Genesis 1:1, it has a lot of overtones to me as a Jew, thinking about the notion, it's a famous question, why did God begin the Bible with that?

After all, it was written for these Bronze Age itinerant peasants. Why didn't it begin with, don't eat that delicious thing with the curly tail that I wish I could eat, but I can't? It should have begun with the laws for the Jewish people, why did it? Because it says that or the famous commentator Rashi says, because God staked his claim to the creation of the whole universe, and therefore everything else can follow.

If he had only created stuff, you could say, well, it's just for the Jews, I still don't have to love my neighbor as myself. I can kill my parents, I don't have to honor them, etc. So when I look at that, I see wisdom. And always remember, the word science in Latin means knowledge.

It means nothing about wisdom.

Peter Robinson: When you hear that, you see something that, do you see truth?

Brian Keating: For me, I see no scientific content in that, if that's what you're asking. After all, the sun and the Earth are created on the fourth day, and the concept of what that means.

And I struggle and I rebel against attempts to squeeze the 13.8 billion years of the Bing Bang model into that. I rail against that with my rabbinical friends. So, no, I view them as completely, wholly separate. And just as I would not use the Bible to teach science to my students, I also would not use Stephen Hawking's brief history of time, teach morality, ethics, and how you treat your fellow man to my students as well.

Peter Robinson: Jay, in the beginning-

Jay Richards: I certainly agree with Brian that this is not a science textbook, it's saying something else. I differ from Brian. And I think, first of all, I think the claim is true. I think God did create the heavens and Earth is just a summary term for everything other than God.

I also think that by studying carefully the natural world around us, the heavens and the Earth, first, that everything we know about it is consistent with that claim. And then also we can discover things that confirm or at least suggest something like this. But I've never imagined that it's something that all the details of Genesis 1:1 could be proved from doing astronomy or cosmology or biology.

Peter Robinson: Luke, out of sheer affection for down under, we give you the last word.

Luke Barnes: Thank you very much. We think it's on top, of course.

Luke Barnes: What I love about Genesis 1 is that there's no antagonist, there's no bad guy. If you read all the other sort of myths and stories.

Read the Enuma Elish, wonderful story cuz there's dragons fighting, there's no bad guy, no one God just orders, and it happens. And for me, that's not a history, that's not a science, that's not a theory. But what tells me is what came first was rationality. What came first was a mind.

What came first was that. And so when I take my mind and try to understand the universe I can take comfort in the fact that the mind got there first.

Peter Robinson: Luke Barnes, Brian Keating, Jay Richards, thank you.

Luke Barnes: Thank you.

Peter Robinson: For Uncommon Knowledge, the Hoover Institution and Fox Nation shooting today in Fiesole, Italy, I'm Peter Robinson.

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Research Security & Export Control Director

• Madison, Wisconsin
• VC FOR RESEARCH AND GRADUATE EDUCATION/ADMINISTRATION-GEN
• Compliance, Legal, and Protection
• Partially Remote
• Staff-Full Time
• Opening at: Aug 21 2024 at 11:20 CDT
• Closing at: Sep 19 2024 at 23:55 CDT

Job Summary:

The University of Wisconsin-Madison seeks a dynamic, collaborative and experienced leader to serve as the Director of the Research Security & Export Control Program. The Director will continue efforts to establish and manage a risk-based research security program that reflects the mission, values and goals of the UW-Madison and ensures compliance with applicable university, state, and federal policies and regulations, notably NSPM-33 and the CHIPS and Science Act. Specific foci relate to export controls, foreign influence vulnerabilities, international collaborations, international travel, cybersecurity, and related training requirements. The Director will develop and maintain relationships internally (e.g., program staff, academic and administrative units) and externally (e.g., federal agencies, national networks, etc.) toward the long-term success of a research security program that supports the continued success of faculty, research staff, and students. The Director will possess technical expertise, a commitment to continuous improvement and shared governance, and soft-skills that enable success in a decentralized, academic environment. The Director will report to the Associate Vice Chancellor for Research Policy and Integrity in the Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research (OVCR). The Director will provide supportive supervision to program staff. About the OVCR: The Vice Chancellor for Research (VCR) serves as the chief research officer and the principal advisor to the Chancellor and the Provost on the research enterprise. The OVCR provides oversight for the institution's broad research enterprise including a university-wide array of faculty and staff research programs with total annual expenditures of ~$1.5 billion and promotes graduate education and research by enhancing funding support from internal and external agencies including the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (WARF). The VCR is responsible for an array of multidisciplinary research centers and institutes, research policy and compliance which includes conflict of interest, human subjects, animal welfare and responsible conduct of research and negotiation of industry contracts.

Responsibilities:

• 35% Directs strategic planning initiatives and creates unit objectives and goals to ensure compliance with established rules and regulations
• 20% Exercises supervisory authority, including hiring, transferring, suspending, promoting, managing conduct and performance, discharging, assigning, rewarding, disciplining, and/or approving hours worked of at least 2.0 full-time equivalent (FTE) employees
• 25% Develops operating policies and procedures to comply with regulations, institutional policies, and unit objectives.
• 15% Serves as the unit liaison to institutional stakeholder groups providing organizational information and represents the interests of the unit
• 5% Develops and audits the unit budget and compliance reports in accordance with established rules and regulations

Institutional Statement on Diversity:

Diversity is a source of strength, creativity, and innovation for UW-Madison. We value the contributions of each person and respect the profound ways their identity, culture, background, experience, status, abilities, and opinion enrich the university community. We commit ourselves to the pursuit of excellence in teaching, research, outreach, and diversity as inextricably linked goals. The University of Wisconsin-Madison fulfills its public mission by creating a welcoming and inclusive community for people from every background - people who as students, faculty, and staff serve Wisconsin and the world. For more information on diversity and inclusion on campus, please visit: Diversity and Inclusion

Required Bachelor's Degree

Qualifications:

Required Qualifications: - Five or more years of experience administering research related administrative and/or compliance activities within a large complex organization. - Three or more years of program management experience within a large complex organization. - Understanding of US research security and export control requirements, policies, and federal regulations, including NSPM-33, CHIPS and Science Act, and related. - Excellent analytical skills with the ability to develop, assess, and synthesize information from a wide variety of sources to inform sound policy recommendations. - Demonstrated ability to supervise and motivate professional and administrative staff. - Superior oral, written and interpersonal skills and the ability to work collaboratively in a team-oriented environment across organizational units at all organizational levels, including faculty, deans, divisional and central administration and senior leadership. Preferred Qualifications: - Operational or leadership experience in research security and/or export control. - Experience in institutional compliance, administrative, and/or leadership at a large, public R1 university. - Demonstrated growth mindset with a commitment to continuous improvement that advances organizational values and mission. - Demonstrated experience in policy analysis, development, and implementation. - Proficiency in performing risk analyses for international engagements.

Full Time: 100% This position will require work to primarily be performed in-person, onsite, at a designated campus work location. Some work may be performed remotely, at an offsite, non-campus work location.

Appointment Type, Duration:

Ongoing/Renewable

Minimum $145,736 ANNUAL (12 months) Depending on Qualifications Employees in this position can expect to receive benefits such as generous vacation, holidays, and paid time off; competitive insurances and savings accounts; and retirement benefits.

Additional Information:

Please note that successful applicants are responsible for ensuring their eligibility to work in the United States (i.e. a citizen or national of the United States, a lawful permanent resident, a foreign national authorized to work in the United States without need of employer sponsorship) on or before the effective date of appointment. University sponsorship is not available for this position.

How to Apply:

To apply for the position, please click on the "Apply Now" button. You will be required to submit a cover letter and resume highlighting your qualifications as they relate to this position. Cover letters will be used as a writing sample to determine the best-qualified applicants. All applications materials must be received through our online system.

Jessica Wendt [email protected] 608-262-3836 Relay Access (WTRS): 7-1-1. See RELAY_SERVICE for further information.

Official Title:

Compliance Director (Inst)(CP016)

Department(s):

A34-OVCR/ADMIN/RESRCH COMPLIANCE

Employment Class:

Job number:, the university of wisconsin-madison is an equal opportunity and affirmative action employer..

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