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• The plural form of essay ; more than one (kind of) essay.

• The third-person singular form of essay .

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Pronunciation

• IPA ( key ) : /ˈɛseɪz/

• IPA ( key ) : /ɛˈseɪz/
• Rhymes: -eɪz
• Hyphenation: es‧says
• plural of essay
• third-person singular simple present indicative of essay
• Sesays , Sessay

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Plural Nouns – Rules, List of Examples

| Candace Osmond

Candace Osmond

Candace Osmond studied Advanced Writing & Editing Essentials at MHC. She’s been an International and USA TODAY Bestselling Author for over a decade. And she’s worked as an Editor for several mid-sized publications. Candace has a keen eye for content editing and a high degree of expertise in Fiction.

The English language groups grammatical nouns as either singular or plural. That means there are either one or multiple persons, places, objects, events, or animals.

Did you know that there’s more than one rule on how to make a word plural? In my little guide, I’ll show you the two types of plural nouns, their rules, and a list of examples. I also provided a worksheet that will test your understanding of plural nouns.

What Is a Plural Noun?

While singular-form nouns refer to one person, place, object, or event, plural nouns refer to a type of noun whose quantity is more than one.

For instance, the noun apples is the plural form of the singular noun apple . It means there can be two or more apples. The same is true with the noun buses, which is the plural form of the singular noun bus. The plural form of the singular noun bug is the noun bugs.

I live in Eastern Canada, and one of our well-known animals is a moose. I am always puzzled over what the plural of it is. Mooses? Meese? The answer is actually just moose. There are some exceptions to plural nouns like this.

But here are more plural noun examples that make sense.

• Film – films
• Baby – babies
• Ox – oxen

Remember: mass nouns , non-count nouns, or uncountable nouns do not have plural forms. For example:

Plural Nouns vs. Singular Nouns

Singular nouns represent a single quantity of any noun. It can be a person, place, event, object, or animal. For example:

• A strand of hair

Plural nouns refer to something whose quantity is more than one. For example:

• Five dresses
• Two strands of hair
• Those daisies

Plural Nouns vs. Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns are one of the types of nouns that show ownership. Like plural nouns, they end in s. However, possessive nouns always have an apostrophe ( ‘ ) before the s. Consider this example:

• The lamp’s bulb.

Here, lamp’s refer to the possession of lamp instead of multiple lamps. The lamp has a bulb.

Here are more examples of possessive nouns.

• Rose’s artwork
• Mira’s phone
• The lion’s tail

Plural nouns do not have possessive forms unless they are possessive plural nouns. For example:

• Jackets’ pockets (possessive plural noun)
• Students’ books (possessive plural noun)

Plural Nouns vs. Collective Nouns

Unlike plural nouns, collective nouns represent groups of people, things, or animals. For instance, a school of fish represents a group of fish as a united whole. Here are more examples of collective nouns.

• A pair (of shoes)
• A pack (of cards)
• A pride (of lions)
• A class (of students)

Notice how these collective nouns are treated as singular nouns. If we say pairs of shoes, we refer to more than a pair.

What Is a Regular Plural Noun?

Regular nouns are nouns that follow the typical pattern of making them plural.

There are simple rules for making regular nouns plural. We either add -s or -es to the end of the word, depending on its ending. Sometimes, we also change the last letter of the word before adding -s.

Add -s to the end of a word when making it plural. For example:

• Cat – cats
• Dog – dogs
• Idea – ideas

Add -es to the end of a word if its singular form ends in -s, -ss, -ch, -x, -sh, -o, or -z. For example:

• Bus – buses
• Lass – lasses
• Bush – bushes
• Crutch – crutches
• Box – boxes
• Blitz – blitzes
• Mango – mangoes

A few words, such as photos , pianos , and halos , are exceptions .

The plural noun form may require you to double the -s or -z before adding -es. For example:

• Fez – fezzes

If the regular noun ends in -f, fe, change it to ve, then add -s. For example:

• Wife – wives
• Knife – knives

Another regular plural noun rule is to change -y into -ies. For example:

• City – cities
• Puppy – puppies

But if the letter before -y is a vowel, just add an -s. For example:

• Ray – rays
• Toy – toys

Singular nouns that end in -us will change into -i for their plural forms. For example:

• Cactus – cacti

Change the word into -es if the singular noun ends in -is. For example:

• Analysis – analyses
• Parenthesis – parentheses

If the singular noun ends in -on, change it into -a. For example:

• Phenomenon – phenomena

Check out this list of regular plural nouns.

• Boss – bosses
• Candy – candies
• Gift – gifts
• Curry – curries
• Day – days
• Collection – collections
• Movie – movies
• Tray – trays
• Shoe – shoes

What Is an Irregular Plural Noun?

Irregular noun rules are inconsistent because they follow no specific guidelines. For example, the irregular plural noun form of child is children, and goose’s plural form is geese. Here are more examples.

• Man – men
• Foot – feet
• Mouse – mice
• Person – people

Another tip when using irregular nouns is recognizing that some are identical to their singular noun counterparts. They can be troublesome nouns because it takes memorization to identify these words. Here are some examples:

• Fish – fish
• Moose – moose
• Species – species
• Sheep – sheep
• Deer – deer

Below is a list of irregular plural nouns.

• Woman – women
• Aircraft – aircraft
• Means – means
• Trout – trout
• Swine – swine
• Salmon – salmon
• Spacecraft – spacecraft
• Series – series
• Louse – lice
• Penny – pence
• Caveman – cavemen
• Policeman – policemen
• Alumna – alumnae
• Formula – formulae
• Index – indices
• Appendix – appendices
• Vertex – vertices
• Axis – axes
• Addendum – addenda
• Datum – data
• Forum – fora
• Genus – genera
• Stylus – styli

Summarizing English Plural Nouns

This article has taught you the plural nouns’ definition. This type of noun refers to more than one person, animal, place, idea, animal, or thing.

Remember that the plural form of nouns depends on their singular noun versions. For example, toy becomes toys, but knife becomes knives. Louse becomes lice, and sheep stays the same.

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Parenthetical pluralization of words ending in '-y' [duplicate]

Sentences constructed with a word written in the singular and parenthetically in the plural are straightforward when that word does not end in -y , e.g.:

List all applicable employee(s) .

How does one handle words ending in -y ? Is this correct:

I will attend the party(ies) .

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• 6 I wouldn't get too hung up allowing for the possibility of only one - if you need to allow for more than one anyway, just use the plural. Otherwise it'll do your head in when you consider the grammaticality of your first "instruction" if it were to only be in the singular. "List all applicable employee" is simply nonsense, and I don't see how adding (s) gets you out of that. –  FumbleFingers Commented Dec 7, 2011 at 0:46
• 1 There are no rules for these things and I am no better placed to devise a method than you are! –  WS2 Commented May 24, 2014 at 7:14
• It is possible that there is no convention in this case. Perhaps: Will the responsible party/parties please come forward. –  anongoodnurse Commented May 24, 2014 at 7:33
• 1 @medica That is exactly how I would write it. Depending on the context, either party/parties or party (parties) . Similarly, man/men or man (men) . –  Janus Bahs Jacquet Commented May 24, 2014 at 7:40
• @tchrist I would not approve of the 'accepted answer' on that post. Party(ies) is fine and very (much more?) common. –  Kris Commented May 24, 2014 at 12:47

5 Answers 5

An alternative to the use of parentheses to provide both singular and plural forms is to separate them with a slash:

party/parties

This would be preferred in this and other similarly awkward formations such as wife/wives , and in special cases such as mouse/mice .

• 2 If you're writing something that you may be judged on (whether for a grade, or for business in terms of your competence, or simply by other grammar Nazis that you want to impress) then I would go with this. But I think this is hardly more concise than fully writing out " or " instead of using a slash. For 99% of the writing I do, I would just go with the parenthetical (ies). –  BVernon Commented Mar 16, 2016 at 2:35
• 1 "Would be preferred" by whom, exactly? Not by me. –  Colin Fine Commented Apr 10, 2020 at 9:36
• For short words (under three syllables / ten letters or so) like this, listing both number possibilities looks as good or better than the 'short-hand' approach, since the relative space savings for the alternative is smaller than with longer nouns. –  11qq00 Commented Oct 5, 2021 at 20:31

"Party(ies)" is certainly used in official contexts.

https://www.google.com.au/search?q=%22party%28ies%29%22+site:.gov

I think the following may also be an acceptable way of dealing with an uncertain plural ending in "y":

part(y/ies)

An example of this can be found at https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/third-party-ies :

Third Part(y/ies) means any Person(s) other than Wyeth or Trubion.

A safe, formal alternative is of course to use the singular and the plural with or , e.g.

When we can't continue a word in brackets to show the options, we must show both(all) words.

Thus in your case you need to write:

• 3 You(s) ? That’s eye dialect (and only works for IrE, ScE, and some dialects of AmE to boot), so hardly appropriate for any kind of even semi-formal writing. –  Janus Bahs Jacquet Commented May 24, 2014 at 15:26
• Do you mean You (singular) by 'You(s)'? –  Edwin Ashworth Commented Apr 29 at 14:52

Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged grammatical-number orthography writing-style silent-letters parenthetical-plural or ask your own question .

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100 Irregular Plural Nouns in English

Not all English nouns form their plural by adding "s" or "es."

• An Introduction to Punctuation
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• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Most English nouns form their plural by adding either -s (book s , band s , bell s ) or -es (box es , bunch es , batch es ). These plural forms are said to follow a regular pattern.

However, English, being the wonderfully complex language it is, doesn't always adhere strictly to rules. A subset of nouns deviate from this pattern, forming their plurals in unconventional ways.

For instance, some nouns undergo a vowel change, like "man" becoming "men" or "foot" changing to "feet."

Others add an "-en" suffix, such as "child" becoming "children" or "ox" transforming into "oxen."

Additionally, there are irregular nouns that maintain their singular form in plural, like "deer" and "sheep."

Understanding these irregular plural forms adds depth to English language learning, showcasing its richness and diversity.

Irregular Plural Nouns

"The Penguin Writer's Manual"

"There are no easy rules, unfortunately, for irregular plurals in English. They simply have to be learnt and remembered."

Not all nouns conform to the standard pattern. In fact, some of the most common English nouns have irregular plural forms, such as woman/wom en and child/child ren . In addition, several nouns have alternative plurals, one regular and the other irregular.

In regard to these alternative forms, there are no strict rules to guide our use of them.

"The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language"

"People have to learn which form to use as they meet the words for the first time, and must become aware of variations in usage . When there is a choice, the classical [irregular] plural is usually the more technical, learned, or formal, as in the case of formulas vs. formulae or curriculums vs. curricula. Sometimes, alternative plurals have even developed different senses, as in the cases of (spirit) mediums vs. (mass) media, or appendixes (in bodies or books) vs. appendices (only in books)."

As you'll see in the list that follows, many words with irregular plurals are loanwords that have kept their foreign plural forms (or at least held on to those forms as alternatives to regular English plurals).

100 Irregular Plural Nouns List

In the list below, you'll find singular noun forms in the left column and the corresponding plural forms in the right column. When a noun has more than one plural form, the irregular one appears first, though that doesn't necessarily mean that the irregular form is more widely accepted than the regular form.

• Crystal, David. "The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language." 3rd Edition, Cambridge University Press, January 24, 2019.
• Manser, Martin. "Penguin Writers Manual." Penguin Reference Books, Stephen Curtis, Paperback, International Edition, UK ed. edition, Penguin UK, August 24, 2004.
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Plurals of Names and Other Proper Nouns

Form the plural of a given or a family name by adding s . If the name ends in a sibilant sound (like s , x , z ), add es instead.

• There are two Johns , three Nancys , and four Agneses in my class.
• Are the Smiths here yet?
• The Joneses live next door to the Murrays .

Avoid using an apostrophe to form a plural.

• Poor: The Johnson’s and the Garcia’s are old family friends. Better: The Johnsons and the Garcias are old family friends.

Don’t add es or ies to given or family names ending in vowels or those ending in y ; simply add s .

• Incorrect: We have invited the Castilloes and Murphies to dinner. Correct: We have invited the Castillos and Murphys to dinner.

To form the possessive of a plural name, add an apostrophe after—not before—the s that forms the plural.

• Incorrect: Is that the Brown’s car parked in your driveway? Correct: Is that the Browns’ car parked in your driveway?

The general rule

Add s or es without an apostrophe to form the plural of a name or other proper noun .

• Both Jacks are guitarists, and both Jills are drummers.
• We have three Ryans , two Janes , and three Jennys in the family.
• The Williamses and Perezes are neighbors.
• Do the Danbys still live here?
• The Patels and the Smiths are on holiday together in Portugal.
• The Rousseaus and Mendozas are old family friends.

People’s names are proper nouns and do not have a dictionary-defined plural form. There are, however, accepted style guidelines on how to form plurals of names. In this article, we discuss how to pluralize given and last names in English, along with some exceptions.

Use of apostrophe

In general, don’t use an apostrophe to form the plural of a name.

• Incorrect: The Garcia’s have moved to Seattle. Correct: The Garcias have moved to Seattle.
• Incorrect: The Murphy’s and the Murray’s have always lived next door to each other. Correct: The Murphys and the Murrays have always lived next door to each other.
• Incorrect: Nobody cares anymore about keeping up with the Jones’s . Correct: Nobody cares anymore about keeping up with the Joneses .
• Incorrect: We have invited the Smith’s and the Ali’s over for dinner. Correct: We have invited the Smiths and the Alis over for dinner.
• Incorrect: There were two Lucy’s , three Anita’s , and four Mitch’s on board the ship. Correct: There were two Lucys , three Anitas , and four Mitches on board the ship.

With names ending in vowels, an apostrophe can sometimes help avoid confusion or improve readability.

• We have two Denise’s and two Denises in our hiking group. Use an apostrophe to distinguish between the plurals of the names “Denise” and “Denis.”
• We have two Mary’s and two Maryses in the family already. The apostrophe helps avoid confusion between the names “Mary” and “Marys.”

Such sentences are often better reworded.

Use an apostrophe to form the plural of a name only if not using one would result in confusion.

Names ending in s and other sibilants

Add es without an apostrophe to form the plural of a name ending in s , x , z , and other sibilants like ch , sh , and j .

• The Harrises live next door to the Diazes .
• The Hendrixes’ cat is in our window.
• The Walshes and the Williamses run a soup kitchen downtown.
• We have two Alexes , two Nikolajes , two Mitches , and three Inezes in the family.
• Neither of the Charleses I know is a prince.

Add es , not ses , to form the plural of a name ending in s .

• Incorrect: The Harrisses live in California. Correct: The Harrises live in California.
• Incorrect: Both Thomasses are writers. Correct: Both Thomases are writers.

Don’t use an apostrophe to form the plural of a name ending in s , x , z , and other sibilant sounds.

• Incorrect: The Jones’s are selling their house. Correct: The Joneses are selling their house.
• Incorrect: The Lopez’s have adopted a dog from the local shelter. Correct: The Lopezes have adopted a dog from the local shelter.

Names ending in vowels

Add s to form the plural of a name ending in a vowel ( a , e , i , o , u ). Avoid using an apostrophe before the s .

• We have two Ritas , three Janes , and two Lulus in class this year.
• Have the Bianchis been informed?
• Did you ask the Russos about it?

Don’t add es to form the plural; add just s , even for names that end in i or o .

• Incorrect: You know the Rossies better than I. Correct: You know the Rossis better than I.
• Incorrect: Both Pabloes are guitarists. Correct: Both Pablos are guitarists.

Very rarely, plurals of names ending in vowels like a or i can benefit from the use of an apostrophe , which can aid with pronunciation and also improve clarity. But use an apostrophe to form the plural of a name only when not using one could result in confusion.

• Both Luca’s are artists, and both Lucases are writers. The apostrophe helps distinguish the plural of “Luca” from the name “Lucas.”

Names ending in y

To form the plural of a name ending in y , simply add s after the y , without an apostrophe.

• They have four Dannys and three Marys in the family. not Dannies or Maries
• My aunts were obsessed with the Kennedys . not the Kennedies
• The Dalys come from Howth, while the Murphys are from Drogheda.

To form the plural of a name ending in y , don’t change the y to ies ; simply add s .

• Incorrect: The Murphies have opened a new store downtown. Correct: The Murphys have opened a new store downtown.
• Incorrect: Both Harries are princes. Correct: Both Harrys are princes.

Names ending in other consonants

Simply add s without an apostrophe to pluralize given or last names ending in consonants other than s or other sibilants.

• The Jacks and the Jills are busy fetching water.
• The Singhs have bought a new car.
• He and the Johnsons work together at the store.
• The Smiths and the Millers are neighbors.
• They live next door to the Nguyens .

Plurals of other proper nouns

Plurals of other proper nouns (such as names of brands, businesses, countries, and regions) are formed the same way as plurals of people’s names: by adding s or es .

• The Americas can be roughly divided into two major cultural regions. — “Americas,” Encyclopaedia Britannica (Accessed June 13, 2022)
• He found that even small departments and universities were buying top-of-the-range Audis , BMWs and Mercedes Benzes . — “Russians Tire of Corruption Spectacle,” BBC News (Mar. 6, 2012)
• The vast data centers that process information for the Facebooks and Amazons of the Web work at a brisk clip. — “A Wireless Way around Data Traffic Jams,” New York Times (Jan. 14, 2012)
• I think there are many interesting stories to be told of the two Germanys . — “Germans Fascinated by Life on Either Side of Berlin Wall,” Guardian (Feb. 14, 2015)
• It’s competing against the General Motorses and the General Electrics of the world. — “Red Ink,” PBS (transcript, Feb. 19, 2004)
• Conflicts of interest . . . are everyday occurrences for the Morgan Stanleys and Goldman Sachses of the world. — “Can There Be Investment Banks Without Conflicts?” Harvard Business Review (Feb. 5, 2010)
• They prefer to call themselves ‘financial services companies,’ just like the American Expresses and the Merrill Lynches . — “A Bank, by Any Other Name . . .,” New York Times (Dec. 27, 1981)

Possessives of plural names

To form the possessive of a plural name, place an apostrophe after the s that indicates the plural. For example, to refer to the Smith family, add s to the name ( the Smiths ), then place an apostrophe after the final s to form the possessive ( the Smiths’ car ). Here are some more examples.

• Is that the Garcias’ cat?
• For many, the Jacksons’ music defined the eighties.
• The Millers’ story is similar to the Joneses’ .

To form a possessive, never insert an apostrophe before the s that forms the plural; always add one after.

• Incorrect: the Wilson’s car Correct: the Wilsons’ car

Be careful with names that end in s and other sibilants. Form the possessive by placing an apostrophe after the final s .

• Incorrect: Is that the Roberts’ dog eating all your roses? The plural of the surname “Roberts” is “Robertses.” Form the plural, and then add an apostrophe. Correct: Is that the Robertses’ dog eating all your roses?
• Incorrect: The Martinez’s bookstore has shut down. Correct: The Martinezes’ bookstore has shut down.

Similarly, with names that end in vowels, remember to place an apostrophe after—not before—the s that forms the plural.

• Incorrect: I’ve lost the Moore’s invitation. Correct: I’ve lost the Moores’ invitation.
• Incorrect: The Mendoza’s garden party is tomorrow. Correct: The Mendozas’ garden party is tomorrow.

Examples from published content

Here are some examples from literature and other published content that show how names are pluralized. Note how s is generally used to form the plural, except when a name ends in a sibilant sound, when es is used instead. Also note the absence of apostrophes in the plural forms shown below.

• Peeping through the meshes of the hammock, he saw the Marches coming out, as if bound on some expedition. — Louisa May Alcott , Little Women (1868)
• That the Miss Lucases and the Miss Bennets should meet to talk over a ball was absolutely necessary. — Jane Austen , Pride and Prejudice (1813)
• I maintain that the Ewells started it all. — Harper Lee , To Kill a Mockingbird (1960)
• It would be no less unreasonable if ‘Tender is the Night’ were known primarily as a novel inspired by the Murphys . — “Books of the Times,” New York Times (June 25, 1971)
• You can try the same with all the Harrys , Harrises and Harrisons . Some might even want to add in all the Henrys as well. — “Baby Names: Peaky Blinders ‘May Have Inspired’ Choices,” BBC Culture (Aug. 29, 2019)
• To be fair, all Annas are doomed to fade in the lingering light of Garbo. — “Goings On about Town,” New Yorker (Accessed June 17, 2022)

Usage guide

In general, form the plural of a given or a last name by adding s ( two Alices in the family , the Smiths , the Garcias ). For names ending in y , simply add s , not ies ( the Duffys , the Murphys ). If the name ends in a sibilant like s , z , or x , add es instead ( the Williamses , the Perezes ). Don’t use an apostrophe to form the plural of a name, except when not using one would result in confusion. Finally, be careful with forming possessives of plural names : always place an apostrophe after the final s ( the Woods’ cat , the Joneses’ car ).

Share this article

Avoid using an apostrophe to form the plural of a name.

Form the plural of a name ending in a sibilant sound (like s , z , x ) by adding es instead of s , without an apostrophe.

Avoid using an apostrophe to form the plural of a name, even if it ends in a vowel.

To form the plural of a name ending in y , simply add s .

To form a plural possessive, form the plural of a name, and then place an apostrophe after the final s .

is   Plural

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Is essays plural

Essays is both plural and singular plural both plural and singular singular plural singular singular both plural and singular plural .

The plural plural plural plural plural singular singular singular singular of essays is essay .

How to say essays: How to pronounce essays

How to say essay: How to pronounce essay

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Not sure why essays is both plural both singular plural singular singular both plural ?   Contact Us !   We'll explain.

1.  What makes words plural? 2.  What makes a word singular? 3.  How to make acronyms plural.

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A Guide to Pluralizing Last Names

If writing out your holiday cards or ordering a sign for the front of your house makes you break out in hives, you may know a few grammar sticklers who like to poke fun. You know the type: the people who own stock in red ink manufacturing and are quick to point out when you’ve misused that apostrophe and inappropriately pluralized your last name.

But have heart! We are here to answer all your questions about how to make your last name plural so you can start stamping those cards or hanging that sign!

How do you make a last name plural?

OK, let’s get the most important piece of the puzzle out of the way first. Don’t use an apostrophe to make your last name plural .

Apostrophes can be used to show possession —à la the Smiths ʼ house or Tim Johnson ʼ s pad — but they don’t indicate there’s more than one person in your family.

So, what should you do? If you already know how to make regular nouns plural, you’re on your way to getting it right. A regular noun is singular in one form and plural in another, and it follows some pretty straightforward pluralization rules. Words like churches and girls are regular nouns that have been made plural.

How to pluralize last names ending in -s , -x , -z , -ch , and -sh

We’ll start with the tough ones: does your last name end in  -s , -x , -z , -ch , and -sh ?

You’re going to want to add the letters – es to your last name to make it plural. In other words, Jane Gomez and Lydia Gomez becomes the Gomezes. Jim Felix and his wife and kids becomes the Felixes. And that family down the street who goes by English ? They’re signing off on cards with Love, The Englishes! (or they should be, anyway).

Examples of when to add -es

• Jones becomes the Joneses
• Williams becomes the  Williamses
• Perez becomes the Perezes
• Fox becomes the Foxes
• French becomes the Frenches

How to pluralize last names ending in other letters of the alphabet

Then, just add an -s . This applies to names that end in vowels, names that end in -y , and names that end in any consonant not already mentioned. It’s why the Constantino family should refer to themselves as the Constantinos , and Billy Wilson and his three kids refer to themselves as the Wilsons on their yard signs.

Examples of when to add an -s

• Brown becomes the Browns
• Kim becomes the Kims
• Taylor becomes the Taylors
• Nguyen becomes the Nguyens
• Bennett becomes the Bennetts

Still worried you’re going to flub the name change? You could always go the easy way: List everyone’s first name. But, then you’ve got that pesky Oxford comma to worry about … nothing’s easy, is it?

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Essays in Information Demand and Utilization

The rise of digital media has allowed for unprecedented access to information. In particular, people are able to form beliefs based on information sources that span the full spectrum of reputation, information quality, and motivated biases. Such access is a double-edged sword because “with great power, comes great responsibility” (“Spider-Man”, 2002). Heterogeneity in information quality may be due to a variety of factors, and it is often up to the consumer to consider quality signals when evaluating the quality of information. My research explores this complicated process, and contributes to the understanding of how people demand and utilize information in different environments. I do so over three chapters. The first studies how people respond to signals of information quality in a sequential prediction game. In the second chapter, biased incentives are introduced in a prediction game experiment to test how intrinsic and extrinsic biases affect demand and utilization of information. The third chapter contains a survey in which subjects report their valuations of an X account that varies on political affiliation, occupation credentials, and number of followers.

My first chapter focuses on how subjects respond to signals of information quality. In it, subjects predict which of two urns was randomly chosen in each of 30 rounds. They observe a private ball drawn from the selected urn each round to help them make their prediction. The color of the ball signals the urn it came from. The subjects then sequentially broadcast their belief about which urn was selected for the session without revealing the color of the observed ball. Future subjects can use the previous broadcasts to infer additional information that may help them accurately predict the urn.

In the control, subjects exhibit very low utilization of previous predictions when informing their own behavior. While consistent with prior research, behaving in such a manner is suboptimal. To experiment on the malleability of subjects’ beliefs about the rationality of others, I implement two novel treatments. In the first, the subjects’ prediction order in the last 15 rounds is determined by their accrued earnings in the first 15 rounds, with highest earners predicting first. The prediction order is similarly determined in the second treatment, except a quiz on conditional updating ability is used. Subjects who score the highest on the quiz predict first. In both cases, the sorting mechanism is explained to the subjects.

Sorting on earnings yields a modest increase in valuations of previous subjects’ predictions. A much more significant increase is observed when sorting on ability. Additionally, the subjects who make the fewest irrational predictions (ones against the color of the ball when they do not have additional information to suggest otherwise) are the ones who score the best in the ability sort. Placing them at the beginning of rounds increases the entire round’s average earnings.

My second chapter uses a similar environment to study the role that bias plays in demanding and utilizing information. In it, participants predict which of two states (red or blue) each of 30 rounds was assigned. To aid them, participants observe two predictions from ‘experts,’ who are informed by a private signal with a known precision. Participants can bid to receive additional information about the state from two sources: a private signal and another independent expert’s prediction. Both sources’ precision is known. This method is the first of its kind, and allows for direct comparison between information types. The bid results are revealed once this process is complete. Participants then predict the state.

Two innovative treatments are implemented to implement bias into the basic environment exogenously. In the first, participants receive a small bonus each time they predict the state is blue. In the second, experts receive the same bonus each time they predict the state is blue instead of the participants. Surprisingly, participants value the private signal and additional expert’s prediction similarly, except when the experts are biased. This is a departure from most research using similar environments, which assume that some sub-optimal behavior can be attributed to mistrust in others’ ability to understand the environment. That assumption may warrant further and more careful evaluation. The most striking valuation behavior is when participants are biased. Their bids are higher when their existing information set already favors their bias, relative to when it is against it. Doing so is antithetical to the rational equilibrium and inconsistent with prior research on confirmation bias.

Participants generally utilize information obtained from a successful bid at a lower rate when it is against the initial experts than with it. No difference is detected between information sources. This is expected, albeit inconsistent with rational decision-making. One exception is noted. When participants are biased, they use the newly obtained information at a much higher rate when it is consistent with their bias than against it. Doing so is at odds with bidding behavior, as it implies participants bid more to receive information that they utilize less. Participants generally do a much better job of rationalizing and responding to the experts’ bias than their own in the experiment.

My third chapter is motivated partly by the findings in my first two chapters, using a more contextualized setting. In it, subjects are presented with a series of X account versions. The versions vary on political affiliation, occupation credentials, and number of followers. Subjects are asked to rate how much they would value information from each account version. Subjects value account versions with an unrevealed political party affiliation more than their analogs which report a party affiliation, regardless of the party or the subject’s beliefs.

A partisan penalty is uniformly implemented. Additionally, credentials are insufficient to overcome bias concerns. The penalty assessed to an account version aligning with a party is similar when the version has high credentials versus when it does not. Followers are also a valuable resource, regardless of political affiliation or credential levels. The marginal value that followers provide is similar for all account versions, meaning that even relative experts in a field should seek validation if they want to be valued by others.

Previous research would expect subjects to value versions more when they are congruent with their own beliefs, so these findings are surprising. Two groups are identified as the most likely to deviate and value same-typed account versions more: subjects who believe echo chambers are good and subjects who are concerned they have believed fake news in the past. The former group does not require a significant number of followers to highly value a politically congruent account version. The latter value politically unaffiliated accounts even more, but are more skeptical of opposition account versions and are even more sensitive to the number of followers they have.

These three chapters explore new avenues for researching how biases and expertise are evaluated and responded to. People are generally much better at considering the potential biases that others have than rationalizing their own biases. I also find good news in an era of heightened concern about eroding trust in experts. In each case, subjects respond to signals of expertise, and demonstrate efforts to exploit the information that experts provide.

Krannert Doctoral Funds

Degree type.

• Doctor of Philosophy

Campus location

• West Lafayette

Advisor/Supervisor/Committee Chair

Additional committee member 2, additional committee member 3, additional committee member 4, usage metrics.

• Experimental economics
• Behavioural economics
• Public economics - public choice

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Breaking news, how to stream the democratic national convention online, jack black, paul rudd circling reimagining of horror movie ‘anaconda’.

Tom Gormican, who directed the Nicolas Cage meta movie 'The Unbearable Weight of Massive Talent,' is writing and will direct the feature for Columbia Pictures.

By Borys Kit

Senior Film Writer

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Columbia Pictures is hoping to squeeze out a new Anaconda movie for the 2020s.

Jack Black and Paul Rudd are in early talks to star in a reimagining of the 1997 horror movie that launched a mini-franchise.

Tom Gormican, who directed the Nicolas Cage meta movie The Unbearable Weight of Massive Talent , is co-writing with collaborator Kevin Etten and will direct the feature.

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Nicolas cage's 'longlegs' horror pic crosses $100m in global box office, nicolas cage to play john madden in david o. russell-directed biopic.

According to sources, the new story involves a group of friends facing mid-life crises who are remaking their favorite movie from their youth. They head to the rainforest, only to find themselves in a fight for their lives against natural disasters, giant snakes and violent criminals.

It’s unclear who is playing whom. One source said Black would play an erstwhile director, a man stuck in his job as a wedding videographer, while Rudd would play an actor who did a stint on a cop show but sees his Hollywood dreams slipping further and further away. Another source said it was the other way around.

The project has been percolating at the studio since early 2023 and has gone through many rewrites as the filmmaker and Columbia tried to find the right balance of tones.

Fully Formed, the banner run by producers Brad Fuller and Andrew Form, is producing the project. Form recently signed a first-look deal with Sony division Screen Gems.

Columbia, a division of Sony, does have reason to return to the jungle with the title. The initial movie grossed $136 million at the global box office and went on to quickly reach cult classic status. Anaconda was followed by a series of films, including installments in 2004, another theatrical moneymaker, before descending into schlock fare with two movies that aired on the Sci-Fi Channel in 2008 (that one starred David Hasselhoff) and 2009.

The last Anaconda outing was in 2015, when the horror franchise was paired with the crocodile-centric Lake Placid series for a horror comedy titled simply, Lake Placid vs. Anaconda . Yanby Butler and Robert Englund starred in that one.

Rudd was last in theaters with Sony’s  Ghostbusters: Frozen Empire . His upcoming slate includes the A24 feature  Death of a Unicorn  and John Carney’s latest music based drama  Power Ballad . He is repped by UTA and Lighthouse Management.

On top of writing and directing Massive Talent , whose script landed on the Black List, Gormican was a writer on the recent Beverly Hills Cop movie, Axel F . He is repped by CAA and 3 Arts Entertainment.

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What If There's Only One?

The word graffiti often functions in English like a noncount—or mass—noun, which means that, like the words sand and water , it's used with a singular verb and is preceded by some rather than a or an . But graffiti is traditionally in fact a plural noun, and it has a singular related form: graffito . That's right: if you want to get all technical about it, that tag you're admiring on the abandoned building over there is a graffito.

The English word was borrowed directly from Italian in the mid-19th century. In its origin language, graffito means "incised inscription," and comes from graffiare , meaning "to scratch." It may ultimately have its origin in Latin graphium , referring to a stylus—that is, an instrument for writing, marking, or incising.

It's your turn in the game. You pick up the two small cubes marked on each surface with spots numbering between one and six, and throw them gently to the table. You're rolling the dice . But what if the game requires only one? Well, technically speaking, in that case you don't roll the dice, you roll the die .

The word dates to the 14th century, coming from the Middle English dee , and before that the Anglo-French dé .

The image of the celebrity surrounded in some quotidian setting by a clutch of photographers is well-established in the modern psyche, as is the term we apply to that clutch: paparazzi . The number of photographers imagined is typically greater than one. But what if there were only a single photographer? Then that person would be not a paparazzi, but a single paparazzo.

Paparazzo , and its plural paparazzi , entered English shortly after the Italian filmmaker Federico Fellini released his 1959 film La dolce vita . Paparazzo , in the film, is the surname of exactly such a photographer as one might imagine, given the word's use.

Come Christmastime, recountings of the Nativity story include three wise men who came from the East to pay homage to the infant Jesus. They are known as the magi . When referring to one of these wise men, however, the correct word to use is magus play . (It rhymes with Vegas ). That's right: if you want to break the story down, you'll say that one magus brought gold, one magus brought frankincense, and one magus brought myrrh.

Magus , with its plural magi , also refers to a member of a hereditary priestly class among the ancient Medes and Persians, and functions as a synonym of magician and sorcerer . The word traces back through Latin to the Greek magos , meaning "sorcerer."

The word medium does a lot of jobs. It refers, for example, to something in a middle position ("small, medium, large") and to a middle condition or degree ("a happy medium"). It also sometimes refers to a single one of what we otherwise refer to as media . In fact, medium is the singular for a number of meanings medium carries, with perhaps the most surprising one being "a publication or broadcast that carries advertising." That's right: your local newspaper is technically a medium. And the term mass media is actually plural: the singular is mass medium .

Media itself is also used as either a singular or a plural noun to refer to mass media, and with the form medias as its plural it also refers to members of the mass media.

Candelabrum

Candelabra has been used as a singular noun with the plural candelabras since the early 19th century, but the word candelabrum is the original Latin singular, and it's still available for use. The plural of candelabrum is of course candelabra , but because English is English, the plural candelabrums is also established.

While errata functions as a noun referring to either a list of errors in a printed work discovered after printing or to a page bearing such a list, it also functions as a plural of erratum , meaning "error."

Just to make things extra confusing, erratum can also refer specifically to an error of the kind referred to above, and since, as everyone in the publishing business knows, those never occur as singletons, errata gets applied there too. Another term for the same is corrigendum , which has the plural form corrigenda .

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Opinion Guest Essay

The Senator Warning Democrats of a Crisis Unfolding Beneath Their Noses

Credit... Allison Minto for The New York Times

Supported by

By James Pogue

Mr. Pogue, a writer, started talking to Senator Chris Murphy two years ago.

• Aug. 19, 2024

In December 2022, early into what he now describes as his political journey, Senator Chris Murphy of Connecticut gave a speech warning his fellow Democrats that they were ignoring a crisis staring them in the face.

For over a year, President Biden and his allies had been promoting data showing an economic miracle, as friendly pundits described it — a record-setting stock market, low unemployment and G.D.P. growth outpacing that of almost every other Western nation. But very few voters believed the story those metrics were telling. In poll after poll, they expressed a bleak view of the economy — to the frustration of both Democrats and many economists.

Mr. Murphy thought he knew why. “The challenges America faces aren’t really logistical,” he told the crowd. “They are metaphysical. And the sooner we understand the unspooling of identity and meaning that is happening in America today, the sooner we can come up with practical policies to address this crisis.”

The subject of the speech was what Mr. Murphy called the imminent “fall of American neoliberalism.” This may sound like strange talk from a middle-of-the-road Democratic senator, who up until that point had never seemed to believe that the system that orders our world was on the verge of falling. He campaigned for Hillary Clinton against Bernie Sanders during the 2016 primaries, and his most visible political stance up until then was his work on gun control after the Sandy Hook shooting.

Thoughtful but prone to speaking in talking points, he still comes off more like a polished Connecticut dad than a champion of the disaffected. But Mr. Murphy was then in the full flush of discovering a new way of understanding the state of the nation, and it had set him on a journey that even he has struggled sometimes to describe: to understand how the version of liberalism we’d adopted — defined by its emphasis on free markets, globalization and consumer choice — had begun to feel to many like a dead end and to come up with a new vision for the Democratic Party.

As the Democrats gather for their national convention this week, with Kamala Harris as their candidate for president, the party has a long way to go toward confronting the crisis Mr. Murphy sees.

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