-Is the target population narrow or broad?
-Is the target population vulnerable?
-What are the eligibility criteria?
-What is the most appropriate recruitment strategy?
Occasionally, the intended population of the study needs to be modified, in order to overcome any potential ethical issues, and/or for the sake of convenience and feasibility of the project. Yet, the researcher must be aware that the external validity of the results may be compromised. As an illustration, in a randomised clinical trial, authors compared the ease of tracheal tube insertion between C-MAC video laryngoscope and direct laryngoscopy, in patients presenting to the emergency department with an indication of rapid sequence intubation. However, owing to the existence of ethical concerns, a substantial amount of patients requiring emergency tracheal intubation, including patients with major maxillofacial trauma and ongoing cardiopulmonary resuscitation, had to be excluded from the trial.[ 14 ] In fact, the design of prospective studies to explore this subset of patients can be challenging, not only because of ethical considerations, but because of the low incidence of these cases. In another study, Metterlein et al . compared the glottis visualisation among five different supraglottic airway devices, using fibreroptic-guided tracheal intubation in an adult population. Despite that the study was aimed to explore the ease of intubation in patients with anticipated difficult airway (thus requiring fibreoptic tracheal intubation), authors decided to enrol patients undergoing elective laser treatment for genital condylomas, as a strategy to hasten the recruitment process and optimise resources.[ 15 ]
Anaesthetic interventions can be classified into pharmacological (experimental treatment) and nonpharmacological. Among nonpharmacological interventions, the most common include anaesthetic techniques, monitoring instruments and airway devices. For example, it would be appropriate to examine the ease of insertion of Supreme™ LMA, when compared with ProSeal™ LMA. Notwithstanding, a common mistake is the tendency to be focused on the data aimed to be collected (the “stated” objective), rather than the question that needs to be answered (the “latent” objective).[ 1 , 4 ] In one clinical trial, authors stated: “we compared the Supreme™ and ProSeal™ LMAs in infants by measuring their performance characteristics, including insertion features, ventilation parameters, induced changes in haemodynamics, and rates of postoperative complications”.[ 10 ] Here, the research question has been centered on the measurements (insertion characteristics, haemodynamic variables, LMA insertion characteristics, ventilation parameters) rather than the clinical problem that needs to be addressed (is Supreme™ LMA easier to insert than ProSeal™ LMA?).
Comparators in clinical research can also be pharmacological (e.g., gold standard or placebo) or nonpharmacological. Typically, not more than two comparator groups are included in a clinical trial. Multiple comparisons should be generally avoided, unless there is enough statistical power to address the end points of interest, and statistical analyses have been adjusted for multiple testing. For instance, in the aforementioned study of Metterlein et al .,[ 15 ] authors compared five supraglottic airway devices by recruiting only 10--12 participants per group. In spite of the authors' recommendation of using two supraglottic devices based on the results of the study, there was no mention of statistical adjustments for multiple comparisons, and given the small sample size, larger clinical trials will undoubtedly be needed to confirm or refute these findings.[ 15 ]
A clear formulation of the primary outcome results of vital importance in clinical research, as the primary statistical analyses, including the sample size calculation (and therefore, the estimation of the effect size and statistical power), will be derived from the main outcome of interest. While it is clear that using more than one primary outcome would not be appropriate, it would be equally inadequate to include multiple point measurements of the same variable as the primary outcome (e.g., visual analogue scale for pain at 1, 2, 6, and 12 h postoperatively).
Composite outcomes, in which multiple primary endpoints are combined, may make it difficult to draw any conclusions based on the study findings. For example, in a clinical trial, 200 children undergoing ophthalmic surgery were recruited to explore the incidence of respiratory adverse events, when comparing desflurane with sevoflurane, following the removal of flexible LMA during the emergence of the anaesthesia. The primary outcome was the number of respiratory events, including breath holding, coughing, secretions requiring suction, laryngospasm, bronchospasm, and mild desaturation.[ 16 ] Should authors had claimed a significant difference between these anaesthetic volatiles, it would have been important to elucidate whether those differences were due to serious adverse events, like laryngospasm or bronchospasm, or the results were explained by any of the other events (e.g., secretions requiring suction). While it is true that clinical trials evaluating the occurrence of adverse events like laryngospasm/bronchospasm,[ 16 , 17 ] or life-threating complications following a tracheal intubation (e.g., inadvertent oesophageal placement, dental damage or injury of the larynx/pharynx)[ 14 ] are almost invariably underpowered, because the incidence of such events is expected to be low, subjective outcomes like coughing or secretions requiring suction should be avoided, as they are highly dependent on the examiner's criteria.[ 16 ]
Secondary outcomes are useful to document potential side effects (e.g., gastric insufflation after placing a supraglottic device), and evaluate the adherence (say, airway leak pressure) and safety of the intervention (for instance, occurrence, or laryngospasm/bronchospasm).[ 17 ] Nevertheless, the problem of addressing multiple secondary outcomes without the adequate statistical power is habitual in medical literature. A good illustration of this issue can be found in a study evaluating the performance of two supraglottic devices in 50 anaesthetised infants and neonates, whereby authors could not draw any conclusions in regard to potential differences in the occurrence of complications, because the sample size calculated made the study underpowered to explore those differences.[ 17 ]
Among PICOT components, the time frame is the most likely to be omitted or inappropriate.[ 1 , 12 ] There are two key aspects of the time component that need to be clearly specified in the research question: the time of measuring the outcome variables (e.g. visual analogue scale for pain at 1, 2, 6, and 12 h postoperatively), and the duration of each measurement (when indicated). The omission of these details in the study protocol might lead to substantial differences in the methodology used. For instance, if a study is designed to compare the insertion times of three different supraglottic devices, and researchers do not specify the exact moment of LMA insertion in the clinical trial protocol (i.e., at the anaesthetic induction after reaching a BIS index < 60), placing an LMA with insufficient depth of anaesthesia would have compromised the internal validity of the results, because inserting a supraglottic device in those patients would have resulted in failed attempts and longer insertion times.[ 10 ]
A well-elaborated research question may not necessarily be a good question. The proposed study also requires being achievable from both ethical and realistic perspectives, interesting and useful to the clinical practice, and capable to formulate new hypotheses, that may contribute to the generation of knowledge. Researchers have developed an effective way to convey the message of how to build a good research question, that is usually recalled under the acronym of FINER (feasible, interesting, novel, ethical and relevant).[ 5 , 6 , 7 ] Table 2 highlights the main characteristics of FINER criteria.[ 7 ]
Main features of FINER criteria (Feasibility, interest, novelty, ethics, and relevance) to formulate a good research question. Adapted from Cummings et al .[ 7 ]
Component | Criteria |
---|---|
Feasible | -Ensures adequacy of research design -Guarantees adequate funding -Recruits target population strategically -Aims an achievable sample size -Prioritises measurable outcomes -Optimises human and technical resources -Accounts for clinicians commitment -Procures high adherence to the treatment and low rate of dropouts -Opts for appropriate and affordable frame time |
Interesting | -Engages the interest of principal investigators -Attracts the attention of readers -Presents a different perspective of the problem |
Novel | -Provides different findings -Generates new hypotheses -Improves methodological flaws of existing studies -Resolves a gap in the existing literature |
Ethical | -Complies with local ethical committees -Safeguards the main principles of ethical research -Guarantees safety and reversibility of side effects |
Relevant | -Generates new knowledge -Contributes to improve clinical practice -Stimulates further research -Provides an accurate answer to a specific research question |
Although it is clear that any research project should commence with an accurate literature interpretation, in many instances it represents the start and the end of the research: the reader will soon realise that the answer to several questions can be easily found in the published literature.[ 5 ] When the question overcomes the test of a thorough literature review, the project may become novel (there is a gap in the knowledge, and therefore, there is a need for new evidence on the topic) and relevant (the paper may contribute to change the clinical practice). In this context, it is important to distinguish the difference between statistical significance and clinical relevance: in the aforementioned study of Oba et al .,[ 10 ] despite the means of insertion times were reported as significant for the Supreme™ LMA, as compared with ProSeal™ LMA, the difference found in the insertion times (528 vs. 486 sec, respectively), although reported as significant, had little or no clinical relevance.[ 10 ] Conversely, a statistically significant difference of 12 sec might be of clinical relevance in neonates weighing <5 kg.[ 17 ] Thus, statistical tests must be interpreted in the context of a clinically meaningful effect size, which should be previously defined by the researcher.
Among FINER criteria, there are two potential barriers that may prevent the successful conduct of the project and publication of the manuscript: feasibility and ethical aspects. These obstacles are usually related to the target population, as discussed above. Feasibility refers not only to the budget but also to the complexity of the design, recruitment strategy, blinding, adequacy of the sample size, measurement of the outcome, time of follow-up of participants, and commitment of clinicians, among others.[ 3 , 7 ] Funding, as a component of feasibility, may also be implicated in the ethical principles of clinical research, because the choice of the primary study question may be markedly influenced by the specific criteria demanded in the interest of potential funders.
Discussing ethical issues with local committees is compulsory, as rules applied might vary among countries.[ 18 ] Potential risks and benefits need to be carefully weighed, based upon the four principles of respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice.[ 19 ] Although many of these issues may be related to the population target (e.g., conducting a clinical trial in patients with ongoing cardiopulmonary resuscitation would be inappropriate, as would be anaesthetising patients undergoing elective LASER treatment for condylomas, to examine the performance of supraglottic airway devices),[ 14 , 15 ] ethical conflicts may also arise from the intervention (particularly those involving the occurrence of side effects or complications, and their potential for reversibility), comparison (e.g., use of placebo or sham procedures),[ 19 ] outcome (surrogate outcomes should be considered in lieu of long term outcomes), or time frame (e.g., unnecessary longer exposition to an intervention). Thus, FINER criteria should not be conceived without a concomitant examination of the PICOT checklist, and consequently, PICOT framework and FINER criteria should not be seen as separated components, but rather complementary ingredients of a good research question.
Undoubtedly, no research project can be conducted if it is deemed unfeasible, and most institutional review boards would not be in a position to approve a work with major ethical problems. Nonetheless, whether or not the findings are interesting, is a subjective matter. Engaging the attention of readers also depends upon a number of factors, including the manner of presenting the problem, the background of the topic, the intended audience, and the reader's expectations. Furthermore, the interest is usually linked to the novelty and relevance of the topic, and it is worth nothing that editors and peer reviewers of high-impact medical journals are usually reluctant to accept any publication, if there is no novelty inherent to the research hypothesis, or there is a lack of relevance in the results.[ 11 ] Nevertheless, a considerable number of papers have been published without any novelty or relevance in the topic addressed. This is probably reflected in a recent survey, according to which only a third of respondents declared to have read thoroughly the most recent papers downloaded, and at least half of those manuscripts remained unread.[ 20 ] The same study reported that up to one-third of papers examined remained uncited after 5 years of publication, and only 20% of papers accounted for 80% of the citations.[ 20 ]
Formulating a good research question can be fascinating, albeit challenging, even for experienced investigators. While it is clear that clinical experience in combination with the accurate interpretation of literature and teamwork are essential to develop new ideas, the formulation of a clinical problem usually requires the compliance with PICOT framework in conjunction with FINER criteria, in order to translate a clinical dilemma into a researchable question. Working in the right environment with the adequate support of experienced researchers, will certainly make a difference in the generation of knowledge. By doing this, a lot of time will be saved in the search of the primary study question, and undoubtedly, there will be more chances to become a successful researcher.
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However, developing a good research question is often challenging. But, doing appropriate data analysis or drawing meaningful conclusions from your investigation with a well-defined question make it easier.
So, to get you on the right track, letâs start by defining a research question, what types of research questions are common, and the steps to drafting an excellent research question.
Dovetail streamlines research to help you uncover and share actionable insights
The definition of a research question might seem fairly obvious.
 At its simplest, a research question is a question you research to find the answer.
Researchers typically start with a problem or an issue and seek to understand why it has occurred, how it can be solved, or other aspects of its nature.
As you'll see, researchers typically start with a broad question that becomes narrower and more specific as the research stages are completed.
In some cases, a study may tackle more than one research question.
Research questions are typically divided into three broad categories: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method.
These categories reflect the research type necessary to answer the research question.
When you conduct qualitative research, you're broadly exploring a subject to analyze its inherent qualities.
There are many types of qualitative research questions, which include:
Descriptive: describing and illuminating little-known or overlooked aspects of a subject
Emancipatory: uncovering data that can serve to emancipate a particular group of people, such as disadvantaged or marginalized communities
Evaluative: Â assessing how well a particular research approach or method works
Explanatory: answering âhowâ or âwhyâ a given phenomenon occursÂ
Exploratory: Â identifying reasons behind certain behaviors and exploring motivations (also known as generative research because it can generate solutions to problems)
Ideological: researching ideologies or beliefs, such as political affiliation
Interpretive: understanding group perceptions, decision-making, and behavior in a natural setting
Predictive: forecasting a likely outcome or scenario by examining past eventsÂ
While it's helpful to understand the differences between these qualitative research question types, writing a good question doesn't start with determining the precise type of research question you'll be asking.
It starts with determining what answers you're seeking.
Unlike broad, flexible qualitative research questions, quantitative research questions are precise. They also directly link the research question and the proposed methodology.
So, in a quantitative research question, you'll usually find
The study methodÂ
An independent variable (or variables)
A dependent variable
The study populationÂ
Quantitative research questions can also fall into multiple categories, including:
Comparative research questions compare two or more groups according to specific criteria and analyze their similarities and differences.
Descriptive questions measure a population's response to one or more variables.
Relationship (or relationship-based) questions examine how two or more variables interact.
As its name suggests, mixed-methods research questions involve qualitative and quantitative components.
These questions are ideal when the answers require an evaluation of a specific aspect of a phenomenon that you can quantify and a broader understanding of aspects that can't.
Writing a good research question can be challenging, even if you're passionate about the subject matter.
A good research question aims to solve a problem that still needs to be answered and can be solved empirically.Â
The approach might involve quantitative or qualitative methodology, or a mixture of both. To write a well-developed research question, follow the four steps below:
Start with a broad topic. You may already have one in mind or get one assigned to you. If you don't, think about one you're curious about.Â
You can also use common brainstorming techniques , draw on discussions you've had with family and friends, take topics from the news, or use other similar sources of inspiration.
Also, consider a subject that has yet to be studied or addressed. If you're looking to tackle a topic that has already been thoroughly studied, you'll want to examine it from a new angle.
Still, the closer your question, approach, and outcomes are to existing literature, the less value your work will offer. It will also be less publishing-worthy (if thatâs your goal).
Next, you'll want to conduct some initial research about your topic. You'll read coverage about your topic in academic journals, the news, and other credible sources at this stage.
You'll familiarize yourself with the terminology commonly used to describe your topic and the current take from subject matter experts and the general public.Â
This preliminary review helps you in a few ways. First, you'll find many researchers will discuss challenges they found conducting their research in their "Limitations," "Results," and "Discussion" sections of research papers.
Assessing these sections also helps you avoid choosing the wrong methodological approach to answering your question. Initial research also enables you to avoid focusing on a topic that has already been covered.Â
You can generate valuable research questions by tracking topics that have yet to be covered.
Next, you'll want to give some thought to your audience. For example, what kinds of research material are they looking for, and what might they find valuable?
Reflect on why youâre conducting the research.Â
What is your team looking to learn if your research is for a work assignment?
How does what theyâre asking for from you connect to business goals?
Understanding what your audience is seeking can help you shape the direction of your research so that the final draft connects with your audience.
If you're writing for an academic journal, what types of research do they publish? What kinds of research approaches have they published? And what criteria do they expect submitted manuscripts to meet?
Take the insights you've gained from your preliminary research and your audience assessment to narrow your topic into a research question.Â
Your question should be one that you can answer using the appropriate research methods. Unfortunately, some researchers start with questions they need more resources to answer and then produce studies whose outcomes are limited, limiting the study's value to the broader community.Â
Make sure your question is one you can realistically answer.
"How do electronics distract teen drivers?"
This question could be better from a researcher's perspective because it is overly broad. For instance, what is âelectronicsâ in this context? Some electronics, like eye-monitoring systems in semi-autonomous vehicles, are designed to keep drivers focused on the road.
Also, how does the question define âteensâ? Some states allow you to get a learner's permit as young as 14, while others require you to be 18 to drive. Therefore, conducting a study without further defining the participants' ages is not scientifically sound.
Here's another example of an ineffective research question:
"Why is the sky blue?"
This question has been researched thoroughly and answered.Â
A simple online search will turn up hundreds, if not thousands, of pages of resources devoted to this very topic.Â
Suppose you spend time conducting original research on a long-answered question; your research wonât be interesting, relevant, or valuable to your audience.
Alternatively, here's an example of a good research question:
"How does using a vehicleâs infotainment touch screen by drivers aged 16 to 18 in the U.S. affect driving habits?"
This question is far more specific than the first bad example. It notes the population of the study, as well as the independent and dependent variables.
And if you're still interested in the sky's color, a better example of a research question might be:
"What color is the sky on Proxima Centauri b, based on existing observations?"
A qualitative research study based on this question could extrapolate what visitors on Proxima Centauri b (a planet in the closest solar system to ours) might see as they look at the sky.
You could approach this by contextualizing our understanding of how the light scatters off the molecules of air resulting in a blue sky, and the likely composition of Proxima Centauri b's atmosphere from data NASA and others have gathered.
As you can see from the examples, starting with a poorly-framed research question can make your study difficult or impossible to complete.Â
Or it can lead you to duplicate research findings.
Ultimately, developing the right research question sets you up for success. It helps you define a realistic scope for your study, informs the best approach to answer the central question, and conveys its value to your audience.Â
That's why you must take the time to get your research question right before you embark on any other part of your project.
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Home » Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing Guide
Table of Contents
Definition:
Research questions are the specific questions that guide a research study or inquiry. These questions help to define the scope of the research and provide a clear focus for the study. Research questions are usually developed at the beginning of a research project and are designed to address a particular research problem or objective.
Types of Research Questions are as follows:
These aim to describe a particular phenomenon, group, or situation. For example:
These aim to explore a new area of research or generate new ideas or hypotheses. For example:
These aim to understand the relationship between two or more variables or to explain why a particular phenomenon occurs. For example:
These aim to predict a future outcome or trend based on existing data or trends. For example :
These aim to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular intervention or program. For example:
Choosing research questions is an essential part of the research process and involves careful consideration of the research problem, objectives, and design. Here are some steps to consider when choosing research questions:
Guide for Writing Research Questions:
Some Examples of Research Questions with Research Titles:
Research Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health
Research Title: Factors Influencing Academic Success in High School
Research Title: The Effects of Exercise on Physical and Mental Health
Research Title: Understanding the Factors that Influence Consumer Purchasing Decisions
Research Title: The Impact of Technology on Communication
Research Title: Investigating the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Child Development
Research Title: The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Treating Anxiety Disorders
Research Title: The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity
Research Title: Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Diversity and Workplace Productivity
Research Title: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare
Here are some of the key applications of research questions:
Characteristics of Research Questions are as follows:
Research questions are the foundation of any research study as they guide the research process and provide a clear direction to the researcher. The purpose of research questions is to identify the scope and boundaries of the study, and to establish the goals and objectives of the research.
The main purpose of research questions is to help the researcher to focus on the specific area or problem that needs to be investigated. They enable the researcher to develop a research design, select the appropriate methods and tools for data collection and analysis, and to organize the results in a meaningful way.
Research questions also help to establish the relevance and significance of the study. They define the research problem, and determine the research methodology that will be used to address the problem. Research questions also help to determine the type of data that will be collected, and how it will be analyzed and interpreted.
Finally, research questions provide a framework for evaluating the results of the research. They help to establish the validity and reliability of the data, and provide a basis for drawing conclusions and making recommendations based on the findings of the study.
There are several advantages of research questions in the research process, including:
Limitations of Research Questions are as follows:
Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer
What makes a good research question.
Research questions anchor your whole project, so itâs important to spend some time refining them.
In general, they should be:
A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.
The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.
Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .
However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:
All research questions should be:
A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.
Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways youâll address the overarching aim.
Once youâve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .
Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.
I will compare âŠ
Your research objectives indicate how youâll try to address your research problem and should be specific:
Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.
They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.
Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .
The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:
To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .
The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:
To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:
No, itâs not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.
All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.
The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:
Donât feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper youâll write, along with the conclusion.
This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once youâve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until youâve written them, and things can change during the writing process .
The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .
A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis âa prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.
The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:
and your problem statement
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So, you've got a research grant in your sights or you've been admitted to your school of choice, and you now have to write up a proposal for the work you want to perform. You know your topic, have done some reading, and you've got a nice quiet place where nobody will bother you while you try to decide where you'll go from here. The question looms:
Your research question will be your focus, the sentence you refer to when you need to remember why you're researching. It will encapsulate what drives you and be something your field needs an answer for but doesn't have yet.
Whether it seeks to describe a phenomenon, compare things, or show how one variable influences another, a research question always does the same thing: it guides research that will be judged based on how well it addresses the question.
So, what makes a research question good or bad? This article will provide examples of good and bad research questions and use them to illustrate both of their common characteristics so that you can evaluate your research question and improve it to suit your needs.
At the start of your research paper, you might be wondering, "What is a good research question?"
A good research question focuses on one researchable problem relevant to your subject area.
To write a research paper , first make sure you have a strong, relevant topic. Then, conduct some preliminary research around that topic. It's important to complete these two initial steps because your research question will be formulated based on this research.
With this in mind, let's review the steps that help us write good research questions.
When selecting a topic to form a good research question, it helps to start broad. What topics interest you most? It helps when you care about the topic you're researching!
Have you seen a movie recently that you enjoyed? How about a news story? If you can't think of anything, research different topics on Google to see which ones intrigue you the most and can apply to your assignment.
Also, before settling on a research topic, make sure it's relevant to your subject area or to society as a whole. This is an important aspect of developing your research question, because, in general, your research should add value to existing knowledge .
Now that you've chosen a broad but relevant topic for your paper, research it thoroughly to see which avenues you might want to explore further.
For example, let's say you decide on the broad topic of search engines. During this research phase, try skimming through sources that are unbiased, current, and relevant, such as academic journals or sources in your university library.
Check out: 21 Legit Research Databases for Free Articles in 2022
Pay close attention to the subtopics that come up during research, such as the following: Which search engines are the most commonly used? Why do some search engines dominate specific regions? How do they really work or affect the research of scientists and scholars?
Be on the lookout for any gaps or limitations in the research. Identifying the groups or demographics that are most affected by your topic is also helpful, in case that's relevant to your work.
Now that you've spent some time researching your broad topic, it's time to narrow it down to one specific subject. A topic like search engines is much too broad to develop a research paper around. What specifically about search engines could you explore?
When refining your topic, be careful not to be either too narrow or too broad. You can ask yourself the following questions during this phase:
Can I cover this topic within the scope of my paper, or would it require longer, heavier research? (In this case, you'd need to be more specific.)
Conversely, is there not enough research about my topic to write a paper? (In this case, you'd need to be broader.)
Keep these things in mind as you narrow down your topic. You can always expand your topic later if you have the time and research materials.
When narrowing down your topic, it helps to identify a single issue or problem on which to base your research. Ask open-ended questions, such as why is this topic important to you or others? Essentially, have you identified the answer to "so what"?
For example, after asking these questions about our search engine topic, we might focus only on the issue of how search engines affect research in a specific field. Or, more specifically, how search engine algorithms manipulate search results and prevent us from finding the critical research we need.
Asking these "so what" questions will help us brainstorm examples of research questions we can ask in our field of study.
Now that you have your main issue or problem, it's time to write your research question. Do this by reviewing your topic's big problem and formulating a question that your research will answer.
For example, ask, "so what?" about your search engine topic. You might realize that the bigger issue is that you, as a researcher, aren't getting the relevant information you need from search engines.
How can we use this information to develop a research question? We might phrase the research question as follows:
"What effect does the Google search engine algorithm have on online research conducted in the field of neuroscience?"
Note how specific we were with the type of search engine, the field of study, and the research method. It's also important to remember that your research question should not have an easy yes or no answer. It should be a question with a complex answer that can be discovered through research and analysis.
Hire an expert academic editor , or get a free sample, how to find good research topics for your research.
It can be fun to browse a myriad of research topics for your paper, but there are a few important things to keep in mind.
First, make sure you've understood your assignment. You don't want to pick a topic that's not relevant to the assignment goal. Your instructor can offer good topic suggestions as well, so if you get stuck, ask them!
Next, try to search for a broad topic that interests you. Starting broad gives you more options to work with. Some research topic examples include infectious diseases, European history, and smartphones .
Then, after some research, narrow your topic to something specific by extracting a single element from that subject. This could be a current issue on that topic, a major question circulating around that topic, or a specific region or group of people affected by that topic.
It's important that your research topic is focused. Focus lets you clearly demonstrate your understanding of the topic with enough details and examples to fit the scope of your project.
For example, if Jane Austen is your research topic, that might be too broad for a five-page paper! However, you could narrow it down to a single book by Austen or a specific perspective.
To keep your research topic focused, try creating a mind map. This is where you put your broad topic in a circle and create a few circles around it with similar ideas that you uncovered during your research.
Mind maps can help you visualize the connections between topics and subtopics. This could help you simplify the process of eliminating broad or uninteresting topics or help you identify new relationships between topics that you didn't previously notice.
Keeping your research topic focused will help you when it comes to writing your research question!
A researchable question should have enough available sources to fill the scope of your project without being overwhelming. If you find that the research is never-ending, you're going to be very disappointed at the end of your paper—because you won't be able to fit everything in! If you are in this fix, your research question is still too broad.
Search for your research topic's keywords in trusted sources such as journals, research databases , or dissertations in your university library. Then, assess whether the research you're finding is feasible and realistic to use.
If there's too much material out there, narrow down your topic by industry, region, or demographic. Conversely, if you don't find enough research on your topic, you'll need to go broader. Try choosing two works by two different authors instead of one, or try choosing three poems by a single author instead of one.
Make sure that the topic for your research question is a reasonable one to pursue. This means it's something that can be completed within your timeframe and offers a new perspective on the research.
Research topics often end up being summaries of a topic, but that's not the goal. You're looking for a way to add something relevant and new to the topic you're exploring. To do so, here are two ways to uncover strong, reasonable research topics as you conduct your preliminary research:
Check the ends of journal articles for sections with questions for further discussion. These make great research topics because they haven't been explored!
Check the sources of articles in your research. What points are they bringing up? Is there anything new worth exploring? Sometimes, you can use sources to expand your research and more effectively narrow your topic.
For your research topic to stand on its own, it should be specific. This means that it shouldn't be easily mistaken for another topic that's already been written about.
If you are writing about a topic that has been written about, such as consumer trust, it should be distinct from everything that's been written about consumer trust so far.
There is already a lot of research done on consumer trust in specific products or services in the US. Your research topic could focus on consumer trust in products and services in a different region, such as a developing country.
If your research feels similar to existing articles, make sure to drive home the differences.
Whether it's developed for a thesis or another assignment, a good research topic question should be complex enough to let you expand on it within the scope of your paper.
For example, let's say you took our advice on researching a topic you were interested in, and that topic was a new Bridezilla reality show. But when you began to research it, you couldn't find enough information on it, or worse, you couldn't find anything scholarly.
In short, Bridezilla reality shows aren't complex enough to build your paper on. Instead of broadening the topic to all reality TV shows, which might be too overwhelming, you might consider choosing a topic about wedding reality TV shows specifically.
This would open you up to more research that could be complex enough to write a paper on without being too overwhelming or narrow.
Because research papers aim to contribute to existing research that's already been explored, the relevance of your topic within your subject area can't be understated.
Your research topic should be relevant enough to advance understanding in a specific area of study and build on what's already been researched. It shouldn't duplicate research or try to add to it in an irrelevant way.
For example, you wouldn't choose a research topic like malaria transmission in Northern Siberia if the mosquito that transmits malaria lives in Africa. This research topic simply isn't relevant to the typical location where malaria is transmitted, and the research could be considered a waste of resources.
The art and science of asking questions is the source of all knowledge.
–Thomas Berger
First, a bit of clarification: While there are constants among research questions, no matter what you're writing about, you will use different standards for the humanities and social sciences than for hard sciences, such as chemistry. The former depends on subjectivity and the perspective of the researcher, while the latter requires answers that must be empirically tested and replicable.
For instance, if you research Charles Dickens' writing influences, you will have to explain your stance and observations to the reader before supporting them with evidence. If you research improvements in superconductivity in room-temperature material, the reader will not only need to understand and believe you but also duplicate your work to confirm that you are correct.
Research questions help you clarify the path your research will take. They are answered in your research paper and usually stated in the introduction.
There are two main types of research—qualitative and quantitative.
If you're conducting quantitative research, it means you're collecting numerical, quantifiable data that can be measured, such as statistical information.
Qualitative research aims to understand experiences or phenomena, so you're collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as case studies or surveys.
The structure and content of your research question will change depending on the type of research you're doing. However, the definition and goal of a research question remains the same: a specific, relevant, and focused inquiry that your research answers.
Below, we'll explore research question examples for different types of research.
Comparative research questions are designed to determine whether two or more groups differ based on a dependent variable. These questions allow researchers to uncover similarities and differences between the groups tested.
Because they compare two groups with a dependent variable, comparative research questions usually start with "What is the difference in…"
A strong comparative research question example might be the following:
"What is the difference in the daily caloric intake of American men and women?" ( Source .)
In the above example, the dependent variable is daily caloric intake and the two groups are American men and women.
A poor comparative research example might not aim to explore the differences between two groups or it could be too easily answered, as in the following example:
"Does daily caloric intake affect American men and women?"
Always ensure that your comparative research question is focused on a comparison between two groups based on a dependent variable.
Descriptive research questions help you gather data about measurable variables. Typically, researchers asking descriptive research questions aim to explain how, why, or what.
These research questions tend to start with the following:
What percentage?
How likely?
What proportion?
For example, a good descriptive research question might be as follows:
"What percentage of college students have felt depressed in the last year?" ( Source .)
A poor descriptive research question wouldn't be as precise. This might be something similar to the following:
"What percentage of teenagers felt sad in the last year?"
The above question is too vague, and the data would be overwhelming, given the number of teenagers in the world. Keep in mind that specificity is key when it comes to research questions!
Correlational research measures the statistical relationship between two variables, with no influence from any other variable. The idea is to observe the way these variables interact with one another. If one changes, how is the other affected?
When it comes to writing a correlational research question, remember that it's all about relationships. Your research would encompass the relational effects of one variable on the other.
For example, having an education (variable one) might positively or negatively correlate with the rate of crime (variable two) in a specific city. An example research question for this might be written as follows:
"Is there a significant negative correlation between education level and crime rate in Los Angeles?"
A bad correlational research question might not use relationships at all. In fact, correlational research questions are often confused with causal research questions, which imply cause and effect. For example:
"How does the education level in Los Angeles influence the crime rate?"
The above question wouldn't be a good correlational research question because the relationship between Los Angeles and the crime rate is already inherent in the question—we are already assuming the education level in Los Angeles affects the crime rate in some way.
Be sure to use the right format if you're writing a correlational research question.
Ask the right questions, and the answers will always reveal themselves.
–Oprah Winfrey
If finding the right research question was easy, doing research would be much simpler. However, research does not provide useful information if the questions have easy answers (because the questions are too simple, narrow, or general) or answers that cannot be reached at all (because the questions have no possible answer, are too costly to answer, or are too broad in scope).
For a research question to meet scientific standards, its answer cannot consist solely of opinion (even if the opinion is popular or logically reasoned) and cannot simply be a description of known information.
However, an analysis of what currently exists can be valuable, provided that there is enough information to produce a useful analysis. If a scientific research question offers results that cannot be tested, measured, or duplicated, it is ineffective.
Here are examples of bad research questions with brief explanations of what makes them ineffective for the purpose of research.
"What's red and bad for your teeth?"
This question has an easy, definitive answer (a brick), is too vague (What shade of red? How bad?), and isn't productive.
"Do violent video games cause players to act violently?"
This question also requires a definitive answer (yes or no), does not invite critical analysis, and allows opinion to influence or provide the answer.
"How many people were playing balalaikas while living in Moscow on July 8, 2019?"
This question cannot be answered without expending excessive amounts of time, money, and resources. It is also far too specific. Finally, it doesn't seek new insight or information, only a number that has no conceivable purpose.
The quality of a question is not judged by its complexity but by the complexity of thinking it provokes.
–Joseph O'Connor
What makes a good research question? A good research question topic is clear and focused. If the reader has to waste time wondering what you mean, you haven't phrased it effectively.
It also needs to be interesting and relevant, encouraging the reader to come along with you as you explain how you reached an answer.
Finally, once you explain your answer, there should be room for astute or interested readers to use your question as a basis to conduct their own research. If there is nothing for you to say in your conclusion beyond "that's the truth," then you're setting up your research to be challenged.
Here are some examples of good research questions. Take a look at the reasoning behind their effectiveness.
"What are the long-term effects of using activated charcoal in place of generic toothpaste for routine dental care?"
This question is specific enough to prevent digressions, invites measurable results, and concerns information that is both useful and interesting. Testing could be conducted in a reasonable time frame, without excessive cost, and would allow other researchers to follow up, regardless of the outcome.
"Why do North American parents feel that violent video game content has a negative influence on their children?"
While this does carry an assumption, backing up that assumption with observable proof will allow for analysis of the question, provide insight on a significant subject, and give readers something to build on in future research.
It also discusses a topic that is recognizably relevant. (In 2022, at least. If you are reading this article in the future, there might already be an answer to this question that requires further analysis or testing!)
"To what extent has Alexey Arkhipovsky's 2013 album, Insomnia , influenced gender identification in Russian culture?"
While it's tightly focused, this question also presents an assumption (that the music influenced gender identification) and seeks to prove or disprove it. This allows for the possibilities that the music had no influence at all or had a demonstrable impact.
Answering the question will involve explaining the context and using many sources so that the reader can follow the logic and be convinced of the author's findings. The results (be they positive or negative) will also open the door to countless other studies.
If something is wrong, fix it if you can. But train yourself not to worry. Worry never fixes anything.
–Ernest Hemingway
How do you turn something that won't help your research into something that will? Start by taking a step back and asking what you are expected to produce. While there are any number of fascinating subjects out there, a grant paying you to examine income disparity in Japan is not going to warrant an in-depth discussion of South American farming pollution.
Use these expectations to frame your initial topic and the subject that your research should be about, and then conduct preliminary research into that subject. If you spot a knowledge gap while researching, make a note of it, and add it to your list of possible questions.
If you already have a question that is relevant to your topic but has flaws, identify the issues and see if they can be addressed. In addition, if your question is too broad, try to narrow it down enough to make your research feasible.
Especially in the sciences, if your research question will not produce results that can be replicated, determine how you can change it so a reader can look at what you've done and go about repeating your actions so they can see that you are right.
Moreover, if you would need 20 years to produce results, consider whether there is a way to tighten things up to produce more immediate results. This could justify future research that will eventually reach that lofty goal.
If all else fails, you can use the flawed question as a subtopic and try to find a better question that fits your goals and expectations.
When you have your early work edited, don't be surprised if you are told that your research question requires revision. Quite often, results or the lack thereof can force a researcher to shift their focus and examine a less significant topic—or a different facet of a known issue—because testing did not produce the expected result.
If that happens, take heart. You now have the tools to assess your question, find its flaws, and repair them so that you can complete your research with confidence and publish something you know your audience will read with fascination.
Of course, if you receive affirmation that your research question is strong or are polishing your work before submitting it to a publisher, you might just need a final proofread to ensure that your confidence is well placed. Then, you can start pursuing something new that the world does not yet know (but will know) once you have your research question down.
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We review the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, how to craft them effectively, & 25 example questions.
Einstein was many thingsâa physicist, a philosopher, and, undoubtedly, a mastermind. He also had an incredible way with words. His quote, "Everything that can be counted does not necessarily count; everything that counts cannot necessarily be counted," is particularly poignant when it comes to research.
Some inquiries call for a quantitative approach, for counting and measuring data in order to arrive at general conclusions. Other investigations, like qualitative research, rely on deep exploration and understanding of individual cases in order to develop a greater understanding of the whole. Thatâs what weâre going to focus on today.
Qualitative research questions focus on the "how" and "why" of things, rather than the "what". They ask about people's experiences and perceptions , and can be used to explore a wide range of topics.
The following article will discuss the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, and how to craft them effectively. You'll also find 25 examples of effective qualitative research questions you can use as inspiration for your own studies.
Letâs get started!
When researchers set out to conduct a study on a certain topic, their research is chiefly directed by an overarching question . This question provides focus for the study and helps determine what kind of data will be collected.
By starting with a question, we gain parameters and objectives for our line of research. What are we studying? For what purpose? How will we know when weâve achieved our goals?
Of course, some of these questions can be described as quantitative in nature. When a research question is quantitative, it usually seeks to measure or calculate something in a systematic way.
For example:
Other research questions, howeverâand the ones we will be focusing on in this articleâare qualitative in nature. Qualitative research questions are open-ended and seek to explore a given topic in-depth.
According to the Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , âQualitative research aims to address questions concerned with developing an understanding of the meaning and experience dimensions of humansâ lives and social worlds.â
This type of research can be used to gain a better understanding of peopleâs thoughts, feelings and experiences by âaddressing questions beyond âwhat worksâ, towards âwhat works for whom when, how and why, and focusing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation,â states one paper in Neurological Research and Practice .
Qualitative questions often produce rich data that can help researchers develop hypotheses for further quantitative study.
As stated by a paper in Human Reproduction , â...âqualitativeâ methods are used to answer questions about experience, meaning, and perspective, most often from the standpoint of the participant. These data are usually not amenable to counting or measuring.â
Both quantitative and qualitative questions have their uses; in fact, they often complement each other. A well-designed research study will include a mix of both types of questions in order to gain a fuller understanding of the topic at hand.
If you would like to recruit unlimited participants for qualitative research for free and only pay for the interview you conduct, try using Respondent today.
Now that we have a basic understanding of what qualitative research questions are and when they are used, letâs take a look at how you can begin crafting your own.
According to a study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, there is a certain process researchers should follow when crafting their questions, which weâll explore in more depth.
Start with a point of interest or curiosity, and pose a draft question or âself-questionâ. What do you want to know about the topic at hand? What is your specific curiosity? You may find it helpful to begin by writing several questions.
For example, if youâre interested in understanding how your customer base feels about a recent change to your product, you might ask:
At this point, narrow down the draft questions into one specific question. âSometimes, these broader research questions are not stated as questions, but rather as goals for the study.â
As an example of this, you might narrow down these three questions:
into the following question:
As you read the relevant literature and apply theory to your research, the question should be altered to achieve better outcomes. Experts agree that pursuing a qualitative line of inquiry should open up the possibility for questioning your original theories and altering the conceptual framework with which the research began.
If we continue with the current example, itâs possible you may uncover new data that informs your research and changes your question. For instance, you may discover that customersâ feelings about the change are not just a reaction to the change itself, but also to how it was implemented. In this case, your question would need to reflect this new information:
A study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education stresses that ethics are âa central issue when a researcher proposes to study the lives of others, especially marginalized populations.â Consider how your question or inquiry will affect the people it relates toâtheir lives and their safety. Shape your question to avoid physical, emotional, or mental upset for the focus group.
In analyzing your question from this perspective, if you feel that it may cause harm, you should consider changing the question or ending your research project. Perhaps youâve discovered that your question encourages harmful or invasive questioning, in which case you should reformulate it.
The actual process of writing the question comes only after considering the above points. The purpose of crafting your research questions is to delve into what your study is specifically aboutâ Remember that qualitative research questions are not trying to find the cause of an effect, but rather to explore the effect itself.
Your questions should be clear, concise, and understandable to those outside of your field. In addition, they should generate rich data. The questions you choose will also depend on the type of research you are conducting:
Whenyou have well-written questions, it is much easier to develop your research design and collect data that accurately reflects your inquiry.
In writing your questions, it may help you to refer to this simple flowchart process for constructing questions:
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It's easy enough to cover the theory of writing a qualitative research question, but sometimes it's best if you can see the process in practice. In this section, we'll list 25 examples of B2B and B2C-related qualitative questions.
Let's begin with five questions. We'll show you the question, explain why it's considered qualitative, and then give you an example of how it can be used in research.
Qualitative research questions are often open-ended and invite respondents to share their thoughts and feelings on a subject. This question is qualitative because it seeks customer feedback on the company's brand.
This question can be used in research to understand how customers feel about the company's branding, what they like and don't like about it, and whether they would recommend it to others.
This question is also qualitative because it seeks to understand the customer's motivations for purchasing a product. It can be used in research to identify the reasons customers buy a certain product, what needs or desires the product fulfills for them, and how they feel about the purchase after using the product.
Again, this question is qualitative because it seeks to understand customer behavior. In this case, it can be used in research to see how customers use the product, how they interact with it, and what emotions or thoughts the product evokes in them.
By seeking to understand customer frustrations, this question is qualitative and can provide valuable insights. It can be used in research to help identify areas in which the company needs to make improvements with its products.
Rather than asking why customers like or dislike something, this question asks how they feel. This qualitative question can provide insights into customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a company.
This type of question can be used in research to understand what customers think of the company's customer service and whether they feel it meets their needs.
Now that youâre aware of what makes certain questions qualitative, let's move into 20 more examples of qualitative research questions:
As you can see, these kinds of questions are completely open-ended. In a way, they allow the research and discoveries made along the way to direct the research. The questions are merely a starting point from which to explore.
Wrap-up: crafting your own qualitative research questions.
Over the course of this article, we've explored what qualitative research questions are, why they matter, and how they should be written. Hopefully you now have a clear understanding of how to craft your own.
Remember, qualitative research questions should always be designed to explore a certain experience or phenomena in-depth, in order to generate powerful insights. As you write your questions, be sure to keep the following in mind:
If you can answer "yes" to all of the questions above, and you've followed the tips for writing qualitative research questions we shared in this article, then you're well on your way to crafting powerful queries that will yield valuable insights.
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Asking the right questions in the right way is the key to research success. Thatâs true for not just the discussion guide but for every step of a research project. Following are 100+ questions that will take you from defining your research objective through screening and participant discussions.
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The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is not focused or researchable. The second question is a clearer comparative question, but note that it may not be practically feasible. For a smaller research project or thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two countries.
Good research questions often investigate _____, which means that two qualities or characteristics are tied together or connected in some way. a. relationships b. the intentions of researchers c. morality d. opinions. a.
A good research question is essential to guide your research paper, dissertation, or thesis. All research questions should be: Focused on a single problem or issue. Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources. Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints. Specific enough to answer thoroughly.
A good research question (and a research topic, ... It's the central issue you're investigating. The research objective, on the other hand, outlines the steps you'll take to answer your research question. Research objectives are often more action-oriented and can be broken down into smaller tasks that guide your research process. In a ...
5. Review the questions. Evaluate your list of potential questions to determine which seems most effective. Ensure you consider the finer details of every question and possible outcomes. Doing this helps you determine if the questions meet the requirements of a research question. 6.
A good or well-constructed research question is: Original and of interest to the researcher and the outside world; ... An investigation which simply reiterates what is previously proven is not worth the effort and cost. A question doesn't have to be completely original. It may ask whether an earlier observation could be replicated, whether ...
A well-crafted research question (or set of questions) sets the stage for a robust study and meaningful insights. But, if you're new to research, it's not always clear what exactly constitutes a good research question. In this post, we'll provide you with clear examples of quality research questions across various disciplines, so that you can approach your research project with confidence!
Assess your chosen research question using the FINER criteria that helps you evaluate whether the research is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant. 1. Formulate the final research question, while ensuring it is clear, well-written, and addresses all the key elements of a strong research question.
A good research question must have the following characteristics. ... It is the heart of the systematic investigation. Research questions are the most important step in any research project. In essence, it initiates the research project and establishes the pace for the specific research ... The problem requires in-depth analysis. It is often ...
Abstract. Good science is driven by rigorous questions. Much like the foundation of a house, a research question must be carefully constructed to prevent downstream problems in project execution. And yet, pharmacy researchers and scholars across all career stages may find themselves struggling when developing research questions.
The process of formulating a good research question can be challenging and frustrating. While a comprehensive literature review is compulsory, the researcher usually encounters methodological difficulties in the conduct of the study, particularly if the primary study question has not been adequately selected in accordance with the clinical dilemma that needs to be addressed.
Excellent research always starts with a compelling question.. However, developing a good research question is often challenging. But, doing appropriate data analysis or drawing meaningful conclusions from your investigation with a well-defined question make it easier.
Applications of Research Questions. Here are some of the key applications of research questions: Defining the scope of the study: Research questions help researchers to narrow down the scope of their study and identify the specific issues they want to investigate.; Developing hypotheses: Research questions often lead to the development of hypotheses, which are testable predictions about the ...
This research question design often includes both dependent and independent variables and use words such as "association" or "trends." ... Exploratory research questions investigate little-known areas of a particular topic. ... Criteria for Good Research Questions: Good research questions should be feasible, interesting, novel, ...
A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question. Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative, descriptive, longitudinal, experimental, or correlational. What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.
Good research questions often investigate _____, which means that two qualities or characteristics are tied together or connected in some way. Relationships The potential for a research study to contribute to practice and/or to theory is the main criterion for evaluating its significance.
Step 1: Develop a Targeted Question. To develop a meaningful research question, it's important to narrow your interest to a very specific area. "Often people get excited and want to study a big topic," Robertson says. This could be something like the factors related to hypertension among adults of all ages. "But you can actually do your ...
A good research question focuses on one researchable problem relevant to your subject area. To write a research paper, first make sure you have a strong, relevant topic. Then, conduct some preliminary research around that topic. It's important to complete these two initial steps because your research question will be formulated based on this ...
25 examples of expertly crafted qualitative research questions. It's easy enough to cover the theory of writing a qualitative research question, but sometimes it's best if you can see the process in practice. In this section, we'll list 25 examples of B2B and B2C-related qualitative questions. Let's begin with five questions.
So, it is also best to join conferences, attend talks, and be on social networks and connect to other people. This way, you will have a better idea of what your research community is interested in. So, start with your immediate community first. Tip #2: Review state of the art literature.
Good research questions often investigate _____, which means that two qualities or characteristics are tied together or connected in some way. Relationships. t/f The potential for a research study to contribute to practice and/or to theory is the main criterion for evaluating its significance.
Good research questions often investigate _____, which means that two qualities or characteristics are tied together or connected in some way. a. relationships b. the intentions of researchers c. morality d. opinions. a. relationships.