it project management research papers

• Technical Support
• Find My Rep

You are here

Project Management Journal

Preview this book.

• Description
• Aims and Scope
• Editorial Board
• Abstracting / Indexing
• Submission Guidelines

Project Management Journal ® publishes research relevant to researchers, reflective practitioners, and organizations from the project, program, and portfolio management fields. Project Management Journal ® seeks papers that are of interest to a broad audience.

• Clarivate Analytics: Current Contents - Social & Behavioral Sciences
• Clarivate Analytics: Social Science Citation Index

Author Guidelines

Papers published in Project Management Journal ® must relate to research and provide new contributions to project management theory and/or project management practices. Each paper should contain clear research questions, which the author should be able to state in one paragraph. Authors are expected to describe the knowledge and foundations underlying their research approach, and theoretical concepts that give meaning to data or to proposed decision support methods, and to demonstrate how they are relevant to organizations in the realm of project management. Papers that speculate beyond current thinking are more desirable than papers that use tried-and-true methods to study routine problems, or papers motivated strictly by data collection and analysis.

Authors should strive to be original, insightful, and theoretically bold; demonstration of a significant value-added advance to the understanding of an issue or topic is crucial to acceptance for publication. Multiple-study papers that feature diverse methodological approaches may be more likely to make such contributions.

Project Management Journal ® considers all papers in the project, program, or portfolio management field and its governance, or in the fields of project-oriented organizations and networks. We do not attach a greater significance to one methodological style over another.  Authors should make contributions of specialized research to project, program, and portfolio management and its governance theory and to the theory of the project-oriented organization or project network. They should define any specialized terms and analytic techniques used. Papers should be well argued and well written, avoiding jargon at all times.

The Project Management Journal ® is not a platform to uncritically promote or denigrate procedures, credentials, or certifications of standard-setting bodies or professional associations. Papers should be balanced, objective, and critical assessments that contribute to the project management field or provide a constructive review of the methodology. Papers that are descriptive or commercial in nature (e.g., those that endorse or disparage specific products or services) will not be published.

We encourage papers derived from dissertations and conference proceedings. However, care should be taken to submit a significantly advanced version.  The work embodied in the preparation of a dissertation often represents innovative thought on the management of projects, but expectations are that dissertations will be significantly different in form from the submitted paper due to different standards of reporting between papers and dissertations. Conference proceedings should advance substantially from the original based on modifications, improvements, or further evidence.  For guidance, visit https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/prior-publication .

For author resources provided by the editors', click here .

Manuscript Organization

Manuscripts should include the following in the order listed:

• Title page . Include only the title of the manuscript (do not include authors’ names).
• Abstract . Outline the purpose, scope, and conclusions of the manuscript in 100 words or less.
• Keywords. Select 4 to 8 keywords.
• Headings . Use 1st, 2nd, and 3rd-level, unnumbered and unlettered headings.
• Text. To permit objective reviews by two or more referees, the abstract, first page, and the rest of the text should not reveal the authors and/or affiliations.
• References . Present in a proper, consistent format (APA style required on final version).
• Illustrations and tables. These should be titled, numbered (in Arabic numerals), and placed appropriately within the body of the text.
• Acknowledgments . Acknowledgments should recognize prior publication as a conference proceeding, indicate grant or other support, and state significant contributions from non-authors.

Man uscript Format/Style

Make sure papers adhere to the theme or question to be answered. Write in clear and concise English (American spelling), using active rather than passive voice. Manuscripts should not exceed 12,000 words, inclusive of figures, tables, appendices (if applicable), and references. Count each figure as 300 words.

To be considered, all manuscripts submitted must meet the following guidelines:

• Use a 12-point Times or Times New Roman font for the text. You may use bold and italics in the text, but do not underline. Use 10-point Helvetica or Arial font for text within tables and graphics.
• Papers should be double-spaced and in a single-column format.
• All margins should be 1 inch.
• Use 1st, 2nd, and 3rd-level headings only. Do not number or letter headings.
• To permit objective double-blind reviews, do not reveal the author(s) or their affiliation(s) in the manuscript (including the title page). When authors cite their own work, they should refer to themselves in the third person.  
• Papers must be submitted electronically in a recent Microsoft Word format (.docx). 

Graphics and Illustrations

Be sure to number tables and figures with Arabic numerals, include titles for tables and captions for figures, and insert them in their preferred location within the body of the text. In addition, provide artwork in 300-dpi jpg, tiff, or PowerPoint formats.

Tips for creating graphics:

• Provide only the essential details (too much information is difficult to display).
• All figures, graphics, and illustrations must be in grayscale.
• Helvetica or Arial font should be used for text within the graphics and tables.
• Figure numbers and titles are centered and appear in boldface type below the figure.
• Table numbers and titles are centered and appear in boldface type above the table.
• Figures and tables should be cited and numbered consecutively in the order in which they appear in the text.
• Tables with lines separating columns and rows are acceptable.

If necessary, use an appendix to provide detailed information.

References, Footnotes, Tables, Figures, and Appendices

Always acknowledge the work of others used to advance a point in your paper. The first submission has no required format for citations and references as long as they are evident and consistently represented. All revised submissions, including the final version, must follow American Psychological Association ( APA) guidelines or will be returned to the author(s) for formatting.   For questions regarding format, refer to the current edition (the sixth edition is the most current) of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association .  

Minimal guidelines: Identify text citations with the author name and publication date in parentheses (e.g., Cleland & King, 1983), and listed in alphabetical order as references at the end of the manuscript. Include page numbers for all quotations (page numbers should be separated by an en dash, not a hyphen).  Example formats are below:

Baker, B. (1993). The project manager and the media: Some lessons from the stealth bomber program. Project Management Journal , 24 (3), 11–14.

Cleland, D. I., & King, W. R. (1983). Systems analysis and project management . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Hartley, J. R. (1992). Concurrent engineering . Cambridge, MA: Productivity Press.

Submission Instructions

A submitted manuscript must not be under review for publication in any other outlet including conference proceedings.  Submission of an article implies the work has not been previously published.  For more information on the ethics of publishing, see https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/ethics-responsibility .

Submit manuscripts electronically in a Microsoft Word document or (.docx) using Project Management Journal’s Manuscript Central .

Manuscript Central is a web-based peer-review system (a product of ScholarOne). Authors will be asked to create an account (unless one already exists) prior to submitting a paper. Step-by-step instructions are provided online. The progress of the review process can be obtained via Manuscript Central. Other questions regarding publication may be sent to the Managing Editor at [email protected] .

Project Management Journal ® subjects all submissions to the plagiarism detection software iThenticate®. Any paper with a significant level of plagiarism from any source will be desk rejected. It is the practice of some universities to put examined theses online, and iThenticate will also pick these up in a web search and report papers derived from the online thesis as an instance of plagiarism if they are sufficiently similar. Please take care to differentiate the submitted paper from the thesis.

As part of our commitment to ensuring an ethical, transparent and fair peer review process Sage is a supporting member of ORCID, the Open Researcher and Contributor ID . ORCID provides a unique and persistent digital identifier that distinguishes researchers from every other researcher, even those who share the same name, and, through integration in key research workflows such as manuscript and grant submission, supports automated linkages between researchers and their professional activities, ensuring that their work is recognized.

The collection of ORCID iDs from corresponding authors is now part of the submission process of this journal. If you already have an ORCID iD you will be asked to associate that to your submission during the online submission process. We also strongly encourage all co-authors to link their ORCID ID to their accounts in our online peer review platforms. It takes seconds to do: click the link when prompted, sign into your ORCID account and our systems are automatically updated. Your ORCID iD will become part of your accepted publication’s metadata, making your work attributable to you and only you. Your ORCID iD is published with your article so that fellow researchers reading your work can link to your ORCID profile and from there link to your other publications.

If you do not already have an ORCID iD please follow this link to create one or visit our ORCID homepage to learn more.

Cover Letter

A cover letter is required only to declare potential conflicts of interest or potential threats to the originality of the manuscript.  It is not necessary to include a description or summary of the paper. At the time of submission, a cover letter should declare when:

• A conflict-of-interest exists with a member of the editorial board
• The data appeared in other published papers
• A prior version appeared in conference proceedings (in print or online).
• The paper is a derivative of a longer work, such as a doctoral dissertation
• One or more authors have financial relationships with organizations that could potentially bias their work
• Upon resubmission, the authorship list is changed through the order, addition, or removal

Review Process

The reputation of Project Management Journal ® and contribution to the field depend upon our attracting and publishing the best research. Project Management Journal ® competes for the best available manuscripts by having the largest and widest readership among all project management journals. Equally important, we also compete by offering high-quality feedback. The timeliness and quality of our review process reflect well upon all who participate in it.

Each manuscript is first reviewed by the Managing Editor for compliance with submission requirements. A manuscript failing the requirements review may be resubmitted when brought into compliance. Manuscripts passing this stage will be reviewed by the Editor-in-Chief and may be desk-rejected for four primary reasons: (1) it has a high similarity index or another misconduct issue, (2) it does not fit the mission and the scope of the journal, (3) it has major flaws, and (4) it does not provide sufficient contribution to knowledge and theory in managing projects. The manuscript is then passed on to a department editor for more specialized content review. Should the editor pass the manuscript, it is then sent to a minimum of two reviewers.

Developmental Reviews

It is important that authors learn from the reviews and feel that they have benefited from the Project Management Journal ® review process. Therefore, reviewers will strive to:

• Be Specific. Reviewers point out the positives about the paper, possible problems, and how problems can be addressed. Specific comments, reactions, and suggestions are required.
• Be Constructive. In the event that problems cannot be fixed in the current study, suggestions are made to authors on how to improve the paper on their next attempt. Reviewers should document whether the issue is with the underlying research, the research conclusions, or the way the information is communicated.
• Identify Strengths . One of the most important tasks for a reviewer is to identify the portions of the paper that can be improved in a revision. Reviewers strive to help an author shape a mediocre manuscript into an insightful contribution.
• Consider the Contribution of the Manuscript. Technical correctness and theoretical coherence are obvious issues for a review, but the overall contribution that the paper offers is also considered. Papers will not be accepted if the contribution it offers is not meaningful or interesting. Reviewers will address uncertainties in the paper by checking facts; therefore, review comments will be as accurate as possible.
• Consider Submissions from Authors Whose Native Language Is Not English . Reviewers will distinguish between the quality of the writing, which may be fixable, and the quality of the ideas that the writing conveys.

Respectful Reviews

PMI recognizes that authors have spent a great deal of time and effort on every submission. Reviewers will always treat an author’s work with respect, even when the reviewer disagrees or finds fault with what has been written.

Double-Blind Reviews

Submissions are subjected to a double-blind review, whereby the identity of the reviewer and the author are not disclosed. In the event that a reviewer is unable to be objective about a specific manuscript, another reviewer will be selected for this manuscript. Reviewers will not discuss a manuscript with anyone (other than the Project Management Journal ® editor) at any time.

Pointers on the Substance of the Review TheoryAuthorship

• Does the manuscript has a well-articulated theory that provides conceptual insight and guides hypotheses formulation?
• Does the study inform or improve our understanding of that theory?
• Are the concepts clearly defined?
• Does the manuscript critically engage with the classic and recent  literature in the field and provide proper credit to existing work on the topic? Has the author offered critical references? Does the paper contain an appropriate number of references?
• Do the sample, measures, methods, observations, procedures, and statistical analyses ensure internal and external validity? Are the statistical procedures used correctly and appropriately? Are the author’s major assumptions reasonable?
• Does the empirical study provide a good test of the theory and hypotheses? Is the method chosen appropriately for the research question and theory?
• Does the paper make a new and meaningful contribution to the project management literature in terms of theory, empirical knowledge, and management practice?
• Has the author given proper citation to the original source of all information given in the work or in others’ work that was cited?

Authors receiving a “revise and resubmit with major revisions” will have three months to complete the revision.  Authors receiving a “revise and resubmit with minor revisions” will have one month to complete the revision. Authors receiving a “conditional acceptance” will have two weeks to complete the revision. An extension may be requested of the Managing Editor or Editor-in-Chief.  With any revision, authors must address in a separate response how they resolved the issues raised by the reviewers and editor. 

Accepted Manuscripts

Upon acceptance of a manuscript, Project Management Journal ® will provide instructions on sending biographical details for each author, completing a copyright agreement, proofing a final version, tracking a paper through the production process, and posting of an early view online (to include the DOI).

Copyright Policy

By submitting a manuscript, the author certifies that it is not under consideration by any other publication; that neither the manuscript nor any portion of it is copyrighted; and that it has not been published elsewhere. Exceptions must be noted at the time of submission.

Authors using their own previously published or submitted material as the basis for a new submission are required to cite the previous work and explain how the new submission differs from the previously published work. Any potential data overlap with previous studies should be noted and described in the submission letter to the editor. The editorial team makes software-supported checks for identifying plagiarism, including self-plagiarism.

Accepted manuscripts become the property of PMI, which holds the copyright for materials that it publishes. Material published in Project Management Journal ® may not be reprinted or published elsewhere, in whole or part, without the written permission of PMI. 

Accepted manuscripts may be subject to editorial changes made during copyediting, but will be reviewable by the author during online proof correction. The author is solely responsible for all statements made in his or her work.

• Read Online
• Sample Issues
• Current Issue
• Email Alert
• Permissions
• Foreign rights
• Reprints and sponsorship
• Advertising

Member Subscription, Member Subscription, Print Only

Individual Subscription, E-access

Institutional Subscription, E-access

Institutional Backfile Purchase, E-access (Content through 1998)

Institutional Subscription & Backfile Lease, E-access Plus Backfile (All Online Content)

Institutional Subscription, Print Only

Institutional Subscription, Combined (Print & E-access)

Institutional Subscription & Backfile Lease, Combined Plus Backfile (Current Volume Print & All Online Content)

Institutional, Single Print Issue

To order single issues of this journal, please contact SAGE Customer Services at 1-800-818-7243 / 1-805-583-9774 with details of the volume and issue you would like to purchase.

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Impact of agile management on project performance: Evidence from I.T sector of Pakistan

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Management Science, COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Cantt, Pakistan

Roles Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Roles Data curation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Management Science, Riphah International University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision

Affiliation Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Cantt, Pakistan

Roles Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation

Roles Project administration, Resources, Validation, Writing – review & editing

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Project administration, Validation

Roles Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Computer Science, COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Cantt, Pakistan

• Umer Muhammad, 
• Tahira Nazir, 
• Najam Muhammad, 
• Ahsen Maqsoom, 
• Samina Nawab, 
• Syeda Tamkeen Fatima, 
• Khuram Shafi, 
• Faisal Shafique Butt

• Published: April 5, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Over the past several years, global project management teams have been facing dynamic challenges that continue to grow exponentially with the increasing number of complexities associated with the undertaken tasks. The ever-evolving organizational challenges demand project managers to adapt novel management practices to accomplish organizational goals rather than following traditional management practices. Considering which, the current study aims to explain the effect of agile management practices upon project performance directly as well as while being mediated through project complexity. Furthermore, the aforementioned mediatory relationship is evaluated in terms of the moderating effect of leadership competencies. The current study utilized the survey approach to collect the data from registered I.T firms deployed in the potential metropolitans of each province of Pakistan including, Peshawar, Islamabad, Lahore, Sialkot, Faisalabad, Hyderabad, Sukkur, and Karachi. A total of 176 responses were utilized for statistical evaluations. As result, it was observed that the negative influence anticipated by project complexity on project performance was compensated by the agile management practices. Further, the leadership competencies played a pivotal role in managing project complexity while implementing agile management practices and therefore enhancing project performance. The current study abridges the potential knowledge gap conceptually by evaluating the direct impact of agile management upon project performance while considering all of its aspects, exploring the mediatory role of project performance and evaluating the moderating role of leadership competencies in attaining optimum project performance. In contextual terms, the current study fills the knowledge gap by gauging the implications of agile management practices within the I.T sector of Pakistan. The results of the current study can be a potential guide for both the academicians and the industry professionals.

Citation: Muhammad U, Nazir T, Muhammad N, Maqsoom A, Nawab S, Fatima ST, et al. (2021) Impact of agile management on project performance: Evidence from I.T sector of Pakistan. PLoS ONE 16(4): e0249311. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311

Editor: Dejan Dragan, Univerza v Mariboru, SLOVENIA

Received: October 1, 2020; Accepted: March 16, 2021; Published: April 5, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Muhammad et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting information files.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The agile management approach in terms of project development process remains rather a novel practice for most of the organizations of today to adapt and practice. Regardless, recent studies have indicated that organizations around the globe considering their long terms benefits are adapting the agile management practices more, in comparison to the traditionally followed waterfall management practices; especially in the IT sector. Research so far has highlighted the relevance of the agile management practices as well as has justified its constructive impact on the performance of an organization [ 1 , 2 ]. In specific to the management trends being followed, a recent global report of PMI comprising opinion of 727 executive members deployed on 3,234 projects across Europe, Asia Pacific, North America, Latin American, Middle East, Africa, and Caribbean Regions, proposed the implementation of agile management practices as a potential reason to trigger organizational productivity. Therefore, signifying the impact of agile management practices upon the performance of the firms [ 3 ]. Moreover, another recent study conducted by Ambysoft indicated agile management practices to deliver a success rate of 55% in comparison to the waterfall management practices with a success rate of 29% only. The report further indicated that 36% of the projects completed under the agile management practices remained challenged and required limited fulfillment of constraints to accomplish the projects. In contrast, the waterfall management practices were credited 67% of the challenged projects. The study also revealed the agile management practices to be attributed with only a mere 3% of project failure rate [ 4 ]. Thus, justifying the constructive impact of agile management practices in terms of enhanced performance measures. Regardless, the precise study indicating the impact of implementing agile management practices upon the project performance while considering all of its related aspects is yet to be explored [ 5 , 6 ]. Considering the potential research gap, the current study took into account of all relevant aspects of project performance including ‘time’, ‘finances’, ‘magnitude of efforts’, ‘work environment moral’, ‘fulfillment of quality criterions’ as well as the ‘satisfaction of regarding stakeholders’ and further observed the variation, in terms of the implementation of the agile management practices.

Considering the organizational accomplishment related aspect of the current research, the performance associated with the projects is often challenged by the magnitude of the complexity faced by the firms. Complexity, if not addressed timely can rile up to potential risks and consequently result in declined performance to a limit where it can jeopardize the existence of an organization itself. Considering which, research so far has indicted that implementation of relevant management practices can enable the mitigation of complexity associated to a project [ 7 , 8 ]. As Sohi, Hertogh [ 9 ] in their recent study were able to justify the association of agile management practices with the abridged level of project complexity to some extent. It was further speculated by the researchers to enhance the project performance of any given firm. Therefore, to address the existing knowledge gap the current study took into account the mediating role of project complexity, to be able to analyze the direct impact of agility upon project complexity as well as the project performance. Moreover, justify the theorized impact of agility in terms of reduced project complexity and enhanced project performance.

Taking into account the managerial aspect of the current study, prior studies have indicated that the efficient and effective implementation of management practices for the most part has remained predominated by the human factor, and of which leadership competencies is of most vital consideration [ 10 ]. In various contexts, the effective implementation of leadership competencies has been found to have a significant impact on the overall organizational performance of any given firm [ 11 , 12 ]. In relevance, a consolidated view of the implementation of leadership competencies to mitigate the organizational complexities and enhance performance measures is yet to be evaluated [ 13 ]. It is very much expectant of the agile management practices to depict enhanced performance as a result of effective leadership competency mitigating the magnitude of dynamic organizational challenges. Considering which, the current study evaluated the moderating role of leadership competencies to observe the controlled impact of professional complexities and the delivered project performance. Therefore, filling in the existing conceptual knowledge gap indicated by prior researchers.

Furthermore, in specific to filling in the contextual research gap, the current study explored the implication of the targeted variables within the I.T sector of Pakistan, which itself has seen significant progression over the years.

The present study aims to accomplish the following research objectives:

• RO1 : Determine the effect of agile management practices on project performance .
• RO2 : Evaluate the mediating role of project complexity between agile management practices and project performance .
• RO3 : Gauge the moderating role of leadership competencies between agile management practices and project complexity .

The following sections of the study comprises of the detailed literature review of all the opted variables of the current study as well as their hypothetical development. Further, the methodological approach to collect the data from the targeted population is presented, which is then further statistically evaluated and explained in the results and analysis section. Followed to which, the deduction based upon the evaluated results are presented in the discussion. Lastly, the outcomes of the current research are deduced in the conclusion section.

Literature review

Agile management..

The concept of agile management got tossed in 1991 when the term agility was defined in a report by the Lacocca Institute, as “the ability to thrive in rapidly changing, fragmented markets”. As the concept evolved, agility was redefined as, “the state or quality of being able to move quickly in an easy fashion”. Therefore, for any firm labeled as agile is expectant to resolve unforeseeable challenges. Therefore, assuring the organizational sustainability in uncertain environments [ 14 , 15 ]. The concept of agile management is multifaceted in nature and the remnants of its implementation have been observed across various disciplines over last few decades. Most early implementation of agile management practices was embraced by the manufacturing sector. At time, agility was defined as, “the capability of an organization to meet changing market requirements, maximize customer service levels and resultantly minimize the cost of goods” [ 16 ]. The agile management practices for a decade and more remained implemented within the manufacturing industry only [ 17 ]. It wasn’t until the commercialization of the internet in 1995 when the agile management practices attained maturity in other industrial sectors as well, especially the software development [ 18 ]. To formalize the agility practices in terms of the software development process the OOPSA conference held in the same year played a momentous role when Ken Schwaber and Jeff Sutherland defined the cardinal principles for the implementation of agility on an organizational scale. Later, the agility saw minuscule implementation in the years to come, till 2001. It happened when various professionals, practitioners, and theorists came up with “Agile Manifesto”, which was mutually signed and published on the internet. The manifesto challenged the implications of traditionally followed management practices onto the project-related outcomes with a higher level of uncertainties. Further, in addition to declaring the traditional management practices misaligned towards the dynamically natured projects, the report emphasized the induction of agile management practices in such environments. Thus, effectively managing organizational objectives, minimizing project complexity, and delivering efficiency in terms of organizational performance [ 16 , 19 ].

To understand what made the implementation of agile management practices a success in the software industry as well as its spread across the globe on the exponential rate in contrast to any other industry, one has to take into consideration the following factors on which the dynamics of agile management rely onto and further draw a comparison of them with the traditionally followed management practices [ 2 , 20 ] (See Table 1 ).

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t001

The software industry has for most part evolved over the past 30 years. But the last decade has depicted a significant surge in the industry’s growth and its respective performance. The reason justifying the phenomena has been the broader application of agile management practices, that replaced the traditionally followed management practices over time. The earlier research has justified the execution of agility in terms of ensuring enhanced performance, and also have supported the fact that implementation of agility is most suitable for the business environs that are dynamic in nature. Since, it has very vividly been observed that the implementation of software project development requires the dynamic implementation of operational measures as the problems are evolving real-time, which justifies the complexity associated with the software industry. Considering which, the software development sector is a perfect fit to adapt agile management practices [ 5 ].

Apart from the software products and services, one of the major parts of the project development process is the interaction between the stakeholders which plays a pivotal in determining the performance of the project. Considering which, Uludag, Kleehaus [ 22 ] and Hobbs and Petit [ 23 ] in their respective studies indicated that agile management practices allow organizations for its internal stakeholders to communicate freely as well as maintain a consistent stream of feedback from the external stakeholders. Thus, assuring the regarding organization to achieve optimal performance levels.

Considering the ability of agile management practices to enable its utilizers to accomplish projects in a dynamic environment and be able to deliver optimized performance while considering its respective dimensions i.e., competency, flexibility, quickness, and responsiveness, the current study took into account the implementation of agile management practices in relation to all the aspects of performance.

• H1: Agile management practices will significantly impact the project performance, in a positive manner.

Project complexity.

Any given organization that functions onto various organizational factors either human or non-human operating in parallel to one another, is bound to face unexpected challenges to manage through and accomplish its goals. Considering which, the software industry has been the most critical one on the list [ 24 ]. It has been so because regardless of the business type, every operational entity is reliant on the software utilization either it is in form of communication, logistics, traveling, academia, and even fields as critical as healthcare. Therefore, justifying the software industry to be the one facing crucial levels of complexity [ 25 ].

Typically, for a large-scale operation with a higher magnitude of complexity, like software development, is often considered as a project rather than a routine-based operation/task, by most of the organizations. This demands a persistent application of relevant management practices under effective supervision to tackle the complexity.

For the successful accomplishment of a project, opting relevant management approach plays a pivotal role in tackling the complexities associated with the environment. Since only the right management approach can enable the managers to make correct calculations to allocate the right percentage of resources to the right places at the right time. Moreover, the application of a relevant management approach enables the mitigation of risk and the magnitude of projected losses [ 2 , 26 ].

Prior studies have indicated a directly proportionate relationship between the complexity and the respective performance of an organization and the projects associated with it. This suggests that if the complexities associated with any given project are not handled effectively on time, are probable to cause an escalation in the level of hindrances associated with the project and may even result in failure of the project itself [ 27 , 28 ].

Project complexity attributed to any given project is determined upon the variation in the number of tasks, their respective types, individuals deployed, and numerous other considerations. Considering which, effective prioritization of the entities involved, and the correct allocation of resources is necessary. All of which is only possible through the application of the relevant management approach [ 8 ].

Past decades have seen an evolution in terms of management practices and their respective application. Which have encouraged both academia as well as practitioners to extend the knowledge upon. As a matter of fact, among the two widely practiced project development management approaches i.e. waterfall and agile, it is the agile management approach that has proved itself to be more efficient to accomplish projects, across the world [ 29 ].

Considering which, Zhu and Mostafavi [ 8 ] in their study indicated the ability of agile management practices to manage through complex settings more effectively and efficiently. Thus, suggesting to lead the project towards better performance. Moreover, in another study Maylor and Turner [ 27 ] highlighted the aspect of stakeholder’s involvement in the development process, which justified the mitigation of project complexity to a greater extent. As agile management encourages the internal stakeholders of the project to seek continuous feedback from one another as well as from the clients throughout the process. Doing so reduces the amount of ambiguity from the development phase as much as possible and induce desired changes along the process. Thus, the finished project is much more of a reflection of the client’s expectations and assurance of enhanced performance. Moreover, in specific to the software industry the nature of projects is bound to change much more rapidly than any other industry, which classifies the software industry with the highest level of complexity attributed to it. For its resolution, the agile management approach suggests breaking down of complex scenarios into smaller tasks with reduced complexity. Thus, resulting in the effective and focused application of management practices, which would further result in mitigation of complexity associated with the project as well as elevated project performance [ 18 , 27 ].

Considering, the ability of agile management practices to mitigate the magnitude of complexity associated with the project and enhance the chances of the performance associated to the regarding project accomplish projects in a dynamic environment, the current study took into account the direct implementation of agile management practices in relation to the diminished project complexity. Moreover, the project complexity was evaluated in terms of a mediator.

• H2: Agile management practices will significantly impact the project complexity, in a negative manner.
• H3: Project complexity will significantly impact the project performance, in a negative manner.
• H4: Project complexity will significantly mediate the relationship between agile management practices and project performance.

Leadership competencies.

The opting of management practices is not enough for an organization to function properly. Rather it is the effective implementation of those defined policies that ensure the magnitude of performance delivered and subsequently the overall sustainability of an organization. For which, it is the human factor in terms of leadership, within an organization that contributes the most towards it. This is where leadership and its respective competencies come into play. Andriukaitienė, Voronkova [ 30 ] in their study defined project manager competence as a combination of knowledge (qualification), skills (ability to do a task), and core personality characteristics (motives, traits, self-concepts) that lead to superior results.

In the project management literature, few topics are too frequently discussed yet are very rarely agreed upon; such as the aspect of project performance [ 2 ]. The last two decades have extended the scope of project performance far beyond the measures of cost, time, and functionality. The project performance measures of today demand to fulfill the satisfaction criterion of the stakeholder associated with the given project, attainment of business/organizational goals, product success, and development of the team involved. All of which is very much reliant upon the effectiveness of the implied organizational practice under human supervision [ 31 ]. Refereed to which, Maqbool, Sudong [ 32 ] in their study identified the possible shortcoming that may hinder the performance associated to any given project. The findings identified the hindering effects as the ineffective management practice observed in the planning, organization, and controlling of the project. Furthermore, Alvarenga, Branco [ 33 ] identified various performance measures associated with well-executed projects. Overall, the findings reflected the leadership competency in terms of maintaining effective communication and problem solving resulted in enhanced project performance. While, the absence of leadership competency in terms of inadequate administration/supervision, human skills, and emotional influencing skills (IQ & EQ) resulted in declined performance or even failure in some cases. Ahmed and Anantatmula [ 34 ] in his study suggested that the manager’s perception of performance and belief in his/her ability can play a significant role in determining the performance delivered. Thus, deeming the leadership competency to play a pivotal role in the accomplishment of a project. Akin to which, Turner came up with the seven forces model to define the factors influencing the project’s performance. The model highlights the people as the cardinal force to drive the project towards accomplishment; which is only possible through leadership competencies, teamwork, and industrial relations. Hassan, Bashir [ 35 ] in their studies brought up the subject that despite the vast research on the project performance and its related measures the organizations still fail to satisfy its stakeholders. It was because most of the research done so far was considering time, cost, and quality as the only measure to determine the project performance delivered. Hassan, Bashir [ 35 ] and Maqbool, Sudong [ 32 ] indicated the criticality of including the human factor in terms of leadership competence/ability to determine the performance of the project. Zuo, Zhao [ 36 ] and Gunter [ 37 ] as well in their studies reviewed the impact of leadership’s competence and style to determine the project’s outcomes and concluded the fact that the existing literature has for most part overlooked the impact of leadership competence on the project’s performance. Therefore, to evaluate the controlling effect of leadership competency to observe change in the magnitude of the performance delivered, the current study proposed the following hypothesis (See Fig 1 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.g001

• H5: Leadership competencies will significantly impact the project performance, in a positive manner.
• H6: Leadership competencies will significantly moderate the relationship between project complexity and project performance.

Research methodology

The survey questionnaire was composed of 48 items in total. To determine the application of agile management practices on the organizational level a 20 relevant items were adapted from the scale developed by Zhang and Sharifi [ 42 ]. The scale itself was based upon four dimensions i.e. ability, flexibility, quickness, and responsiveness. To determine the leadership competencies of managers on various hierarchical levels of an organization, an 10 items were adapted from the scale developed by Chung-Herrera, Enz [ 43 ]. The scale was composed of 8 unique dimensions i.e. self-management, strategic positioning, implementation, critical thinking, communication, interpersonal, leadership, and industry knowledge. To determine the overall magnitude of complexity associated with the project under study, 12 items were adapted from the scale developed by Xia and Lee [ 44 ]. To determine the overall performance of the undertaken projects, a 6 items scale developed by Yusuf, Sarhadi [ 45 ] was utilized in the current study. The responses were recorded upon the 5-Point Likert scale, which had (1) to refer to “Strongly Disagree” up to (5) referring to “Strongly Agree” [ 46 ].

The current study included the opinion of the respondents recorded in terms of quantitative scale. During the data collection process, no confidential information (personal/organizational) was inquired about. Also, the presented research did not categorize the involved workers in terms of race/ethnicity, age, disease/disabilities, religion, sex/gender, sexual orientation, or other socially constructed groupings. Therefore, COMSATS University Islamabad’s Ethics Review Committee declared the current study exempted from the requirement of consent from the respondents. Considering which, a total of 250 questionnaires were disseminated to survey the professionals of the Pakistani IT industry. By the end of the survey process, a total of 190 responses got collected. Thus, the overall response rate of the study was 76%. Further, 7% of the responses were discarded as a result of being incomplete or erroneous. Since both incomplete or redundant data can affect the results adversely [ 47 ]. Followed to the collection of data the next phase demanded the application of appropriate statistical tools and respective data analysis techniques to make deductions regarding the objectives of the study. For which the current study utilized the SmartPLS GmbH’s SMART Partial Least Squares (SMART PLS 3.0) to analyze the dataset. Various studies in recent years have utilized a similar tool and respective techniques to analyze the data and make respective deductions [ 48 , 49 ].

Statistical results & analysis

To begin with, the information was gauged to assess the instrument’s reliability and validity. Further, the instrument’s fitness was evaluated in terms of factor loadings. The results identified few unfit components associated with the variables under study. Suggested to which, the identified unfit components of the hypothesized model were then removed. Followed by which, the information was evaluated to gauge the direct and indirect effects of variables, in alignment with the hypothesized model. Finally, the hypothesized model was concluded upon the evaluation of the total impact of the predictor variables upon the dependent variable [ 50 , 51 ].

Demographical classification

The respondents of the study had variating attributions associated with them in terms of demographics. The current study classified the respondents in terms of age, tenure of employment, sector of employment, the status of employment, and the geographical location of their organization.

As a response to which 63.6 percent of employees were aged between 20–29 years, 21.6 percent were aged between 30–39 years, 10.8 percent were aged between 40–49 years and 4.0 percent were aged 50 years or above.

In specific to the tenure of employment or the managerial experience, 27.8 percent of respondents had an experience of less than 1 year, 20.5 percent had experience ranged between 1–2 years, 19.3 percent had experience ranged between 2–5 years, 9.1 percent had experience ranged between 5–10 years and, 23.3 percent had an experience of 10 years or over.

In terms of the employment sector, 53.9 percent of the individuals were employed in the public sector. While 46.1 percent of the individuals were employed in the private sector.

In terms of the geographical placement of the surveyed organizations, 12.5 percent of the firm were deployed in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit Baltistan, 50 percent of the firm were deployed in Punjab, 25 percent of the firm were deployed in the Sindh and, 12.5 percent of the firm were deployed in the Balochistan. Thus, deeming the study to utilize the equivalently proportionate responses from each province, that were aligned with the proportion of firms in each province, nationwide.

Structural equation modeling

Structural equation modeling is a multivariate based statistical evaluation approach that is utilized to determine structural associations between the components of a hypothesized model [ 52 , 53 ]. The adapted approach is a combination of factor analysis and multiple- regression analysis. The current study took a two-stage approach to conduct SEM. The first stage involved the application of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which justified the consistency of the research instrument and its associated components/items. Followed by which, the research instrument was tested for its respective reliability and validity in the first stage of SEM, as commended by prior research [ 53 ]. The second stage of SEM involved the evaluation of measuring the magnitude of impact existent between the observed and latent variables under discussion. Which were further justifies in terms of their significance and their respective relevance in alignment to the hypothesized relationships [ 54 ].

SEM (stage 1).

To begin with, the first stage of the SEM tested the measurement model for its reliability, validity (convergent, discriminant), and consistency to the components towards the research instrument, utilizing the CFA approach. CFA is a commended approach to test adapted research instruments for their consistency [ 49 , 55 ].

Instrument’s reliability.

The reliability of a research instrument is its ability to give consistent results with negligible variation regardless of the environment it is utilized in. SEM utilizes Cronbach’s Alpha as the criterion of reliability associated with a research instrument. For a research instrument and its respective components to be reliable the value of Cronbach’s Alpha is commended to be higher than 0.70 [ 56 ]. Keeping that in view, the values of Cronbach’s Alpha associated with all the variables under study were above 0.70 (See Table 2 ). Thus, deeming the respective research instrument to be reliable.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t002

Instrument’s validity (convergent).

The validity of a research instrument is defined as its ability to measure the phenomena that it is supposed to measure. There are two types of validity i.e. convergent and discriminant [ 57 , 58 ]. The convergent validity associated with a research instrument is the measure to determine the relatability of research items to their respective variable. SEM utilizes Average Variance Extracted (AVE) as the criterion of validity associated with a research instrument. For a research instrument and its respective components to be convergently valid, the value of AVE is commended to be higher than 0.5 [ 49 , 59 ]. Keeping, that in view the values of AVE associated with all the variables under study were above 0.5 (See Table 3 ). Thus, deeming the respective research instrument to be convergently valid.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t003

Instrument’s validity (discriminant).

The discriminant validity associated with a research instrument is the measure to determine the magnitude of dissimilarity of research items associated with a variable towards the research items of the rest of the variables under study. SEM utilizes Fornell-Larcker Criterion as the criterion of discriminant validity associated with a research instrument. For a research instrument and its respective components to be discriminately valid, the correlative value of Fornell-Larcker Criterion of a variable with its components is commended to be higher than the correlative value of other variables in the study [ 48 , 49 ]. Keeping, that in view the values of the Fornell-Larcker Criterion associated with all the variables under study were comparatively higher than the correlative values of other variables in the study (See Table 4 ). Thus, deeming the respective research instrument to be discriminately valid.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t004

Another measure to determine, the discriminant validity associated to a research instrument is the Cross Loadings. For a research instrument and its respective components to be discriminately valid, the correlative values of Cross Loadings of the items of a variable are commended to be higher than the correlative values of similar items with other variables in the study [ 49 ]. Keeping, that in view the values of Cross Loadings associated to all the items of the variables under study were comparatively higher than the correlative values of similar items with rest of the variables in the study (See Table 5 ). Thus, deeming the respective research instrument to be discriminately valid.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t005

Lastly, in terms of evaluating the discriminant validity, the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) is considered as the most precise measurement. HTMT is based upon a higher level of specificity that is ranged between the measurement precision of 97%-99%. On the contrary, the measures of Cross Loadings followed by the Fornell-Larcker Criterion can only depict a measurement precision ranged between 0.00%-20.82% [ 49 , 60 ]. In terms of HTMT, for a research instrument to be valid, the correlational terms must be valued lower than the 0.90. Keeping that in view, the correlation values associated with all the variables were below 0.90 (See Table 6 ). Thus, deeming the respective research instrument to be discriminately valid.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t006

Multi-collinearity.

Multi-Collinearity is the state of higher correlation existent between the variables and the indicators associated with them. Which can further lead to unreliable statistical projections and inferences. To test a variable and its respective indicators for collinearity, the proposed criterion of VIF is followed. The referred criterion suggests for all the indicators of the regarding variable to have a VIF value lower than 5 to be fit in terms of collinearity measure [ 48 ]. Keeping that in view all the indicators associated with the variables under study were found to have VIF value under 5 (See Table 7 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t007

Factor loadings.

Followed to fulfilling the criterion of the research instrument’s reliability and validity the respective components must fulfill the criterion of factor analysis that is measured in terms of Factor Loadings. Factor Loadings are determinant of the variability and correlation associated with the items of the observed variables under study. For an item associated with a variable to fulfill the Factor Loading criterion, must be valued above 0.7 [ 61 , 62 ]. In comparison to which, selective items associated with agile management (AM13) and project complexity (PC2, PC4) were found below the commended threshold value (See Table 8 ). Thus, these items were removed from the measurement model, to enhance the overall fit.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t008

SEM (stage 2).

After the deletion of unfit components of the measurement model, the second stage involved the reassessment of the measurement model. The model was retested in terms of Factor Loadings, which depicted all of the values to be ranged above the minimum threshold of 0.70 [ 62 ] (See Table 9 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t009

Path coefficients.

After conforming to the component fitness criterion, the structural model was evaluated in terms of the magnitude of the effect the observed variables had on the latent variables. The said magnitude was evaluated utilizing the measure of Path Coefficients. The value associated to the measure of path coefficient varies between ±1, which suggests the positive and negative relationship between the variables under consideration [ 48 , 63 , 64 ]. The effect of agile management practices over the project performance was valued at 0.473. The effect of agile management practices over the project complexity was valued as 0.703. The effect of leadership competencies over the project performance was valued at 0.664. Lastly, the effect of project complexity over the project performance was valued at 0.149. The evaluated effects were further justified in terms of the level of significance attributed to them i.e. p-value ≤ 0.05. Since all the results fulfilled the significance criterion, for which the evaluated effects were considered as accepted (See Table 10 ). Thus, justifying the following hypothesized relationships between the variables under study:

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t010

Coefficient of determination ( r 2 ).

Coefficient of Determination ( r 2 ) is representative of the amount of variance the exogenous variable/s can cause in the associated endogenous variable/s. The value of the Coefficient of Determination (r2) varies between 0–1. The higher the value of r 2 the higher the magnitude of impact implied by the exogenous variables [ 65 ]. Keeping that in view, the exogenous variables of the study i.e. (Agile Management, Project Complexity, and Leadership Competencies) impacted the endogenous variable i.e. (Project Performance) with an r 2 valued at 0.582. Thus, justifying 58.20% of the variance explained (See Table 11 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t011

Effect size ( f 2 ).

Effect Size ( f 2 ) is representative of the magnitude of effect an exogenous variable can have on an endogenous variable. The respective magnitude of the effect is classified into three tiers. For a given relationship the values of Effect Size ( f 2 ) ranged between 0.02–0.14 are attributed as a small effect. Likewise, values ranged between 0.15–0.35 are attributed as a medium effect, and values ranged 0.36 and above are attributed as a large effect [ 48 , 51 ]. Keeping that in view, both the agile management and project complexity had a medium impact. While leadership competencies and project complexity had a large effect on their respective dependent variables. (See Table 12 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t012

Mediation analysis.

A mediatory variable of the study is known to add an explanation or justify the effect of an exogenous variable over an endogenous variable. The current study took project complexity as a mediator to explain the effect of agile management over the project performance. SmartPLS explains the mediation in terms of Indirect Effects and its respective significance [ 66 , 67 ]. Keeping, that in view the hypothesized mediation was approved (See Table 13 ). Thus, accepting the following hypothesis:

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t013

Moderation analysis.

A moderating variable of the study is known to control the magnitude of the effect of an exogenous variable over an endogenous variable. This effect can be tilted either positively or negatively in presence of a moderator. The current study took leadership competencies as a moderator to control the effect of project complexity over the project performance. SmartPLS explains the moderation in terms of inducing a product indicator term in the structural model and its respective significance [ 68 ]. Keeping, that in view the hypothesized moderation was approved (See Table 14 ). Thus, accepting the following hypothesis:

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t014

Results summary.

The proposed hypotheses for the current study were accepted while considering their significance. The respective summary is depicted in the following Table 15 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.t015

To begin with, the first research hypothesis stated, “Are the agile management practices a significant predictor of project performance?”. Keeping that in view, the current study depicted a significantly positive influence of implementing agile management practices onto the overall performance of the projects undertaken. This suggests, that resolving a project into smaller functional proportions and responding timely is a commendable approach to enhance the performance of the undertaken projects.

Furthermore, the statistical findings in accordance with the dimensions of the agile management the significance of the relationship emphasized that an organization must undertake only the projects that it is competent enough to accomplish. Moreover, for a project that is undertaken, must be resolved down to work units that can be matched with the competency level of the employed individual. This would enable them to achieve the targeted goals with fewer hurdles faced along the process. Similar results were concluded by Alvarenga, Branco [ 33 ] in their study conducted on 257 project managers; each having an extensive experience of over 10 years. As it was indicated that it is the competency associated to the employed individuals in an organization that assures the efficient and effective execution of organizational task and result in accomplishment of the undertaken projects. Followed to which, agile management commends the adaption of flexibility in the project development process that allows the project team to incorporate the changes more easily than the traditional implementation of the projects. Similarly, the loss incurred during the development process is relatively less. Since the failure is often observed in one or a few modules at a time, which doesn’t affect the rest of the development process in any way. Most importantly, agile management is most responsible for responding quickly to the areas of projects that demand prioritized completion or technical handling. The respective findings were found in alignment to the study conducted by Serrador and Pinto [ 5 ] on 1002 projects deployed across various nations, that depicted a similar notion of a positive impact of implementing agile management to attain enhanced organizational outcomes. In another mixed-mode study conducted by Drury-Grogan [ 69 ] on various teams utilizing agile tools in the I.T sector as well suggested that application of the referred tools resulted in enhancing the success associated with the regarding projects.

The second research hypothesis stated, “Are the agile management practices a significant predictor of project-related complexities?” Keeping that in view, the current study depicted a significantly negative influence of implementing agile management on the project complexity. This suggests that the implementation of agile management enabled the regarding project managers to be able to effectively foresee the undertaken projects to a greater extent by adapting agile management practices than they would otherwise have had by adapting traditional management practices. The respective findings were found in alignment with the study conducted by Sohi, Hertogh [ 9 ] on 67 projects of complex nature, depicted that in a hybrid system with agile management practices coupled with traditional management approach was able to mitigate the magnitude of complexity faced by the regarding firms. In another subjective study conducted by Maylor and Turner [ 7 ] projected deduction being based upon 43 workshops and the opinion of 1100 managers. The results suggested an agile management approach as possibly the most effective approach to diminish the project complexity to commendable levels. Akin to which, in an extensive literature review conducted by Bergmann and Karwowski [ 70 ] also concluded the similar findings that adaptation of agile management is very effective in terms of mitigating the project related complexities and a accomplishing project outcomes.

The third research hypothesis stated, “Is the project complexity a significant predictor of project performance?” Keeping that in view, the current study depicted a significantly negative influence of project complexity on the overall performance of the projects. This suggests that the uncertainties faced by the project manager may hinder the accomplishment of the project. This would further possibly result in causing unnecessary delays, financial losses, overused employee efforts, working environment with moral, quality compromises, and unsatisfied clients. The respective findings were found in alignment with the study conducted by Floricel, Michela [ 71 ] on 81 projects deployed 5 across continents, depicted the possible negative impact of complexities on the overall performance of the organizations; that may be faced at each step of the development process. In another hybrid study conducted by Zhu and Mostafavi [ 8 ] on various senior project managers employed in the construction sector as well opinionated that complexities associated with organizations can deter the performance observed across their respective projects. Likewise, Luo, He [ 72 ] compile the opinion of 245 project managers that expressed the fact that project complexity can jeopardize the accomplishment of desired organizational outcomes. Therefore, their mitigation is a necessity for an organization to thrive.

The fourth research hypothesis stated, “Are leadership competencies a significant predictor of project performance?” Keeping that in view, the current study depicted a significant relationship between leadership competencies and project performance. This suggests that effective leadership can play a pivotal role in enabling an organization to attain the desired performance targets associated to its respective project. The respective findings were found in alignment to the study conducted by Ahmed and Anantatmula [ 34 ] on 286 project managers serving various construction firms in Pakistan, suggested leadership competencies be an effective measure to enhance the performance of the projects it is utilized onto. In another hybrid study conducted by Berssaneti and Carvalho [ 73 ] on 336 project managers deployed across various Brazilian firms opinionated that effective supervision and managerial support can prove itself to be a potential factor in enabling a firm to deliver desired outcomes.

The fifth research hypothesis stated, “Does the project complexity mediate the relationship between agile management practices and project performance?” Keeping that in view, the current study depicted a significant relationship between agile management and project performance while considering leadership competencies as a moderator. This suggests that effective implementation of agile management practices in a project can prove themselves to be effective in elevating project performance. Though the magnitude of complexity associated with the project can explain the possible decline observed in project performance; regardless of the management practices being observed. Though the observed decline can be minimized to a laudable extent through the utilization of agile management practices. The respective findings were found in alignment with an in-depth correlational study conducted by Sohi, Hertogh [ 9 ] on 67 project managers supervising various projects. The results suggested that inducing agile management practices within any compatible system can enable an organization to manage through its professional challenges which can possibly lead an organization to perform better.

The sixth research hypothesis stated, “Do the leadership competencies moderate the relationship between agile management practices and project performance?” Keeping that in view, the current study depicted a significant relationship between project complexity and project performance while considering leadership competencies as a moderator. Which suggests that effective implication of human factor in terms of leadership competencies can play a vital role in mitigating the hindrances faced during the project development process and can further result in enhanced performance. On the contrary, the absence of required leadership competencies can result in augmentation of adversities that may lead to a decline in the project performance. The respective findings were found in alignment to a mixed-mode study conducted by Aurélio de Oliveira, Veriano Oliveira Dalla Valentina [ 74 ] on 32 highly skilled and influential project managers in the field of R&D; who have served various forms globally. The correlational study depicted a possibly potential impact of an appropriate leadership approach to resolve organizational situations and deliver targeted performance.

Considering the hypothetical contemplations of the current study, various deductions have been made. To begin with, the implementation of agile management practices in the Pakistani I.T industry proves itself to be effective in terms of enhancing the overall performance of the undertaken projects. Thus, ensuring the sustainability of organizations in the industry. Moreover, it was observed that agile management practices enabled its utilizers to cope up with the complexities, by breaking down tasks into smaller work units and implementing the supervision on a horizontal scale rather than top-down. This approach not only made managing tasks effectively and efficiently but also made the decision making swift. Though it was observed that the organizations that weren’t able to take on the implementation of agile management practices on a full scale, faced complexities in various organizational terms, that would lead to declined performance. In addition to the mitigation of complexities through the implementation of agile management practices, it was the effective consideration of human factors in terms of leadership competencies that extended the reduction of organizational complexities and upscaled the magnitude of performance delivered.

The current study offers a pathway to understanding the application of agile management practices in the IT sector. Though it faces various shortcomings in both contextual and conceptual manner, which can further serve as a pathway to future researchers and professionals to look into and extend the knowledge pool.

In conceptual terms, the current study only took into account one mediatory variable i.e., project complexity to explain the implications of agile management onto the project performance. Akin to which, only one moderating variable was considered to evaluate the variability in the magnitude of project performance. Both of these are not enough of a consideration to depict the full potential of application of agile management practices in determining the project performance. Referred to which, it is commended for the future researchers and professionals to look into considering other variables that can explain the phenomena of agile management to variate the magnitude of project performance delivered. In alignment to which, it will also be interesting to see the implementation of agile management to enhance the organizational accomplishments such as, attaining competitive advantage, innovation, industrial sustainability, and more.

In contextual terms, the current study has targeted the IT sector of Pakistan; a developing nation. Since other industries as well are realizing the necessity of agile management and embracing its practices, it will be interesting to see the application of similar study in other developing nations, as well as other industrial sectors.

Supporting information

S1 appendix..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.s001

S1 Dataset.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249311.s002

• View Article
• Google Scholar
• 2. Kerzner H, Kerzner HR. Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling: John Wiley & Sons; 2017.
• 3. Langley MA. Success Rates Rise: Transforming the high cost of low performance. In: PMI, editor. Pulse of the Profession2017. p. 32.
• 4. Ambler SW. 2018 IT Project Success Rates Survey Results. Ambysoft, 2018.
• 12. Northouse PG. Leadership: Theory and practice: Sage publications; 2018.
• PubMed/NCBI
• 14. Denning S. How major corporations are making sense of Agile. Strategy & Leadership. 2018.
• 15. Denning S. Succeeding in an increasingly Agile world. Strategy & Leadership. 2018.
• 16. Levy R, Short M, Measey P, editors. Agile Foundations: Principles, practices and frameworks2015: BCS.
• 18. Abrahamsson P, Salo O, Ronkainen J, Warsta J. Agile software development methods: Review and analysis. 2017.
• 19. Marcus Ries DS. Agile Project Management, A Complete Beginner’s Guide To Agile Project Management: Ries Publications, New York; 2016.
• 20. Turk D, France R, Rumpe B. Limitations of agile software processes. Third International Conference on Extreme Programming and Flexible Processes in Software Engineering. 2014:43–6.
• 21. Kerzner H. Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling: John Wiley & Sons; 2017.
• 22. Uludag Ö, Kleehaus M, Caprano C, Matthes F, editors. Identifying and structuring challenges in large-scale agile development based on a structured literature review. 2018 IEEE 22nd International Enterprise Distributed Object Computing Conference (EDOC); 2018: IEEE.
• 27. Maylor H, Turner N. Understand, reduce, respond: project complexity management theory and practice. International Journal of Operations & Production Management. 2017.
• 28. Morcov S, Pintelon L, Kusters RJ. Definitions, characteristics and measures of IT project complexity-a systematic literature review. International Journal of Information Systems and Project Management. 2020.
• 31. Larson EW, Gray CF, editors. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge: PMBOK ( ® ) Guide2015: Project Management Institute.
• 33. Alvarenga JC, Branco RR, Guedes ALA, Soares CAP, e Silva WdS. The project manager core competencies to project success. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business. 2019.
• 36. Zuo J, Zhao X, Nguyen QBM, Ma T, Gao S. Soft skills of construction project management professionals and project success factors. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management. 2018.
• 37. Gunter RC. Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship to Project Manager Leadership Competencies and Project Success: Saint Leo University; 2020.
• 38. Association PSH. P@SHA IT Industry Report 2017. Report. 2017 Contract No.: 1.
• 39. Neuman WL. Understanding research: Pearson; 2016.
• 41. Hox JJ, Moerbeek M, van de Schoot R. Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications: Routledge; 2017.
• 47. Heeringa SG, West BT, Berglund PA. Applied survey data analysis: Chapman and Hall/CRC; 2017.
• 50. Ringle CM, Da Silva D, Bido DdS. Structural equation modeling with the SmartPLS. 2015.
• 51. Ringle C, Wende S, Becker J. SmartPLS—Statistical Software For Structural Equation Modeling. 2017.
• 52. Bowen NK, Guo S. Structural equation modeling: Oxford University Press; 2011.
• 53. Klem L. Structural equation modeling. 2000.
• 55. Byrne BM. Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming: Routledge; 2016.
• 56. Gliem JA, Gliem RR, editors. Calculating, interpreting, and reporting Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for Likert-type scales2003: Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, and Community Education.
• 60. Ab Hamid M, Sami W, Sidek MM, editors. Discriminant Validity Assessment: Use of Fornell & Larcker criterion versus HTMT Criterion. Journal of Physics: Conference Series; 2017: IOP Publishing.
• 63. Hair JF, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE, Tatham RL. Multivariate data analysis: Prentice hall Upper Saddle River, NJ; 1998.
• 64. Hair Jr JF, Hult GTM, Ringle C, Sarstedt M. A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM): Sage Publications; 2016.
• 65. Di Bucchianico A. Coefficient of determination (R2). Encyclopedia of Statistics in Quality and Reliability. 2008.
• 68. Bae B. Analyses of moderating and mediating effects with SPSS/Amos/LISREL/SmartPLS. Seoul: Chungram Publishing. 2015.
• 70. Bergmann T, Karwowski W, editors. Agile project management and project success: A literature review. International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics; 2018: Springer.

• Corpus ID: 252691806

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT RESEARCH: A BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS

• Published 2022
• Computer Science, Business

Figures and Tables from this paper

8 Citations

Exploring the challenges and impacts of artificial intelligence implementation in project management: a systematic literature review, evaluating the inclusiveness of artificial intelligence software in enhancing project management efficiency – a review and examples of quantitative measurement methods, future trends in it project management – large organizations perspective, evaluating the inclusiveness of artificial intelligence software in enhancing project management efficiency - a review, analysis of factors causing information systems projects delays in it consulting company, the nature and practices of the use of machine learning and deep learning frameworks to assist software project management: a developing country context.

• Highly Influenced

Artificial Intelligence in Education – Emerging Trends, Thematic Analysis & Application in Lifelong Learning

Quantifying the impact of wearable health monitoring and machine learning research: a bibliometric analysis, 37 references, an authoritative study on the near future effect of artificial intelligence on project management knowledge areas, how artificial intelligence can help project managers, the trajectory of artificial intelligence research in higher education: a bibliometric analysis and visualisation, using artificial intelligence techniques to support project management, role of artificial intelligence in operations environment: a review and bibliometric analysis, data science and artificial intelligence in project management: the past, present and future, a history of project management models: from pre-models to the standard models☆☆☆, a comparative study of artificial intelligence methods for project duration forecasting, artificial intelligence in health care: bibliometric analysis, organisational competence in project management —new perspectives on assessing and developing organisations, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

Perspectives on research in project management: the nine schools

• Theoretical Articles
• Published: 16 January 2013
• Volume 1 , pages 3–28, ( 2013 )

Cite this article

• J. Rodney Turner 1 , 4 ,
• Frank Anbari 2 &
• Christophe Bredillet 3  

19k Accesses

40 Citations

Explore all metrics

This paper demonstrates that project management is a developing field of academic study in management, of considerable diversity and richness, which can make a valuable contribution to the development of management knowledge, as well as being of considerable economic importance. The paper reviews the substantial progress and trends of research in the subject, which has been grouped into nine major schools of thought: optimization, modelling, governance, behaviour, success, decision, process, contingency, and marketing. The paper addresses interactions between the different schools and with other related management fields, and provides insights into current and potential research in each and across these schools.

Similar content being viewed by others

Further Research Opportunities in Project Management

How Calls for New Theory Might Address Contemporary Issues Affecting the Management of Projects

Closing Thoughts

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

For the past 60 years, organizations have increasingly been using projects and programs to achieve their strategic objectives (Morris and Jamieson 2004 ), while dealing with increasing complexity, uncertainty, and ambiguity affecting organizations and the socio-economic environment within which they operate (Gareis 2005 ). Through projects, resources and competencies are mobilized to bring about strategic change, and thereby create competitive advantage and other sources of value.

Until the mid-1980s, interest in project management was limited to engineering, construction, defense, and information technology. More recently interest has diversified into many other areas of management activity. Currently, more than 20 % of global economic activity takes place as projects, and in some emerging economies it exceeds 30 %. World Bank ( 2008 ) data indicate that 22 % of the world’s $55 trillion gross domestic product (GDP) is gross capital formation, which is almost entirely project-based. In India it is 39 % and in China it is 43 %. Gross capital formation is defined as “outlays on additions to the fixed assets of the economy plus net changes in the level of inventories. Fixed assets include land improvements (fences, ditches, drains, and so on); plant, machinery, and equipment purchase; and the construction of roads, railways, and the like, including schools, offices, hospitals, private residential dwellings, and commercial and industrial buildings. Inventories are stocks of goods held by firms to meet temporary or unexpected fluctuations in production or sales and work in progress… Net acquisitions of valuables are also considered capital formation.” (World Bank 2008 ). In many public and private organizations some operating expenditures are also project-based. Project management makes an important and significant contribution to value creation globally.

Developing relevant competence at all levels, individual, team, organization, and society is key to better performance (Gareis and Huemann 2007 ). Grabher ( 2004a ) discusses the processes of creating and sedimenting knowledge at the interfaces between projects, organizations, communities, networks, and the socio-economic environment within which projects operate. He proposes the notion of project ecologies and their constitutive layers of the core team, the firm, the epistemic community, and personal networks. He contrasts two opposing logics of project-based learning by juxtaposing learning that is geared towards moving from ‘one-off’ to repeatable solutions with the discontinuous learning that is driven by originality and creativity. He proposes a differentiation of social and communicative logics, wherein “ communality signifies lasting and intense ties, sociality signifies intense and yet ephemeral relations and connectivity indicates transient and weak networks.” (Grabher 2004b ).

Educational programs in project management have grown rapidly during the last three decades to support the need for competence (Atkinson 2006 ; Umpleby and Anbari 2004 ). The number of academic project management programs leading to degrees in project management increased greatly from 1990 onwards. This growth is evident in the US, Europe, Australia, Japan and other parts of the world. Institutions of Higher Education (IHEs) with programs in project management in the US include: Boston University–Metropolitan College, Colorado Technical University, DeVry University, Drexel University, Eastern Michigan University, Northeastern University, Stevens Institute of Technology, The George Washington University, University of Alaska, University of Management and Technology, University of Maryland–A. J. Clark School of Engineering, University of Maryland University College, University of Texas at Dallas, University of Wisconsin–Platteville, Western Carolina University, and several others. Project management programs are offered internationally by several IHEs including the University of Quebec at Montreal, University of Technology at Sydney, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, University of Limerick–Kemmy Business School, School of Knowledge Economy and Management–SKEMA (which resulted from the merger of two French business schools, CERAM Business School and ESC Lille), and several others. In the last 3 years the Chinese Ministry of Education has supported the creation of 120 masters degree programs in project management to support their rapid economic development. To support this global development it is necessary for project management to develop as a rigorous academic field of study in management. This is essential so that the rapid economic development that is so dependent on project management can be underpinned by sound theory and not just case histories and opinions of doubtful rigour.

Modern project management started as an offshoot of Operations Research, with the adoption of optimization tools developed in that field, and some members of the community have continued to present it as such. However, authors of this paper wish to demonstrate that project management has now grown into a mature academic discipline of some diversity and complexity. At least nine schools of thought in project management can be identified, and project management is increasingly drawing on and making contributions to research in other fields of management, as the authors aim to demonstrate in this paper. In this way, project management is becoming substantially different from Operations Management, which continues to emphasize the application of optimization tools to the analysis of production processes (Slack et al. 2006 ).

The paper is based on an extensive review of academic research literature on project management that reflects the evidence advanced by leading thinkers and researches in the field. The literature is organized into nine major schools of thought on the basis of the key premise that drives each one. The intent of separating these schools of thought is to gain insight into current and potential research, within a manageable number of research themes without over-simplification of the richness of the underlying thought. However, the overlap and interactions between project management schools is also discussed.

Project management as a recognizable field of study

Audet ( 1986 ) defines a knowledge field as:

… the space occupied by the whole of the people who claim to produce knowledge in this field, and this space is also a system of relationships between these people competing to gain control over the definition of the conditions and the rules of production of knowledge.

We use this definition to structure our discussion of project management as a knowledge field, while recognizing that other elements can be used to augment and enhance this definition based on other perspectives on how knowledge is gained in other fields (North 1987 ), and different approaches to the classification of a knowledge field (Mintzberg 1990 ), including empirical, rational, historic, and pragmatic methods (Hjørland 1998 ).

With project management making such a significant contribution to the global economy, developing relevant competence at all levels, individual, team, organization, and society is seen as a key for better performance (Gareis and Huemann 2007 ). Knowledge is needed to develop competence (Crawford 2007 ), and that knowledge should be based on sound, academically rigorous research.

In the early days of modern project management in the 1950s, the development of knowledge was led by the users. The US military made significant early contributions to the new discipline, developing such concepts as the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), the Cost and Schedule Control Systems Criteria (C/SCSC) (which evolved into Earned Value Management, EVM), and the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), (see Morris 1997 ). Construction companies and their clients also made significant early contributions. For instance, DuPont developed the Critical Path Method (CPM) from a technique devised in the field of Operations Research. The baton was picked up by the growing computer industry in the 1960s (see Brooks 1995 ).

In the 1980s, leadership of the development of knowledge was taken over by the professional associations: The Project Management Institute (PMI ® ), based outside Philadelphia, the UK’s Association for Project Management (APM), the Australian Institute of Project Management (AIPM), and the International Project Management Association (IPMA). They needed to develop bodies of knowledge to support their certification programs. The focus of this work continued to be very user oriented, and so did not always adhere to recognized standards of academic rigour.

It is only over the last 15 to 20 years that universities and other academic research institutions have begun to provide leadership. The first academic research conference in project management, the biennial IRNOP conference (International Research Network for Organizing by Projects), was initiated in 1994. PMI ® started holding its biennial research conference in 2000, and the annual EURAM conference has had a project management track since its inception in 2001.

So we see that project management is a relatively young field of study as an academic discipline. Initially advanced study in project management in universities was located in schools of engineering or construction, and then in schools of computing, and so was viewed as a technical subject. More recently project management has also been incorporated into schools of business or management, and so is now gaining recognition as a branch of management. To our knowledge, the first doctorates in the field were done in engineering and construction in the late 1960s at the University of Manchester, Faculty of Technology (degrees conferred in 1971 and 1972), and the first doctorates in the field in schools of business in the UK were done during the 1980s at Henley Management College and the Cranfield School of Management. Europe has led the way in the growth of project management as an academic subject in management. The first doctorate in the field in a school of business in the US was done in the late 1980s at Drexel University, Department of Decision Sciences (degree conferred in 1993). At a recent meeting of a government sponsored research network in the UK (Winter et al. 2006 ), there were more researchers from business schools than schools of engineering, construction, and computing combined.

As a young discipline, the epistemological foundation of the field is still in its early stages of development. Meredith ( 2002 ) indicated that development of a theory of project management is important to progress in the field. Söderlund ( 2004 ) highlighted the wider interest in project management from other academic disciplines, the increasing need for discussing research on the subject, and the usefulness of examining project management and project organization from several perspectives. He discussed emerging perspectives within the field and presented questions that project research needs to discuss to further knowledge about project management. He argued that these questions include: why project organizations exist, how they behave and why they differ, what is the value added by the project management unit, and what determines the success or failure of project organizations. Turner ( 2006a , b , c , d ) outlined a theory of project management based on work he did in the early 1990s (see Turner 2009 , first edition published in 1993). Sauer and Reich ( 2007 ) agreed that such a theory was necessary as a basis for sound research in the subject, but suggested that Turner’s approach was very normative, and that alternatives were possible. Cicmil et al. ( 2006 ) suggested that to develop a sound theoretical basis for project management, the very nature of projects needs to be examined, and fundamental questions addressing the different underlying theoretical perspectives emerging from and supporting the project management field are yet to be explored. Walker et al. ( 2008 ) highlighted the value of reflective academic research to project management practitioners and suggested that a reflective learning approach to research can drive practical results through the commitment of academic and industry partners. Artto et al. ( 2009 ) conducted a comparative bibliometric study and showed that projects have product development as their dominant theory basis, whereas programs take an open system view, seek change in permanent organizations, and have organizational theories, strategy, product development, manufacturing and change as their theoretical bases.

With the academic community now providing leadership to the development of knowledge in the field, greater academic rigour is being applied, meaning project management is now more deserving of recognition as an academic subject, and the admission of the International Journal of Project Management to the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) is an important step in that process. Project management is drawing on other management disciplines and making contributions to them (Kwak and Anbari 2008 ), and we believe that all fields of management will be richer for that growing interchange. Against this background, several schools of project management thought have developed reflecting different trends, and the influence of other management disciplines. We now outline these major schools of thought and review progress, trends, and potential research in each of them.

Project management schools of thought

Project management is a relatively young academic discipline, but with the help of other fields of management, it has quickly evolved into a field of some diversity and richness. It has been common to assume that projects and project management are fairly homogeneous (Project Management Institute 2008 ; Association for Project Management 2006 ; International Project Management Association 2006 ). However, there is a growing belief that projects are different, their success can be judged in different ways, and they can require different competency profiles for their successful management (Crawford et al. 2005 , 2006 ; Shenhar and Dvir 1996 ; Turner and Müller 2006 ). Building on prior work, we can recognize several perspectives of project management. Anbari ( 1985 ) identified five schools of thought. Söderlund ( 2002 ) through a literature search and Bredillet ( 2004a ) through a co-word analysis each identified seven similar schools. We can now identify at least nine schools, and most research in project management can be said to fall into one of them. Table  1 shows the nine schools, and how they compare to the five schools of Anbari ( 1985 ), and the seven of Söderlund ( 2002 ) and Bredillet ( 2004a ). In fact all nine schools were previously identified by the other three authors. Compared to Söderlund and Bredillet we have added the Process School and split the Optimization School into the Optimization and Modelling Schools to reflect the modelling of multiple parameters and the use of soft systems modelling. Anbari ( 1985 ) called the Process School the Systems School, and his Management Science School covered the Optimization, Modelling and Decision Schools. He did not identify the Success or Marketing Schools. Table  1 also compares the nine schools to conventional fields of management study and to the management disciplines identified by Kwak and Anbari ( 2008 ) in their study of project management research published in top management and business journals. Table  2 shows the key idea associated with each school and the metaphor we have adopted to reflect it. The nine schools are depicted in Fig.  1 in the order in which the school came to prominence.

The Nine Schools of Project Management Research

The Oxford English Dictionary gives the following definition of the word “school” amongst several others:

School: a group of people sharing common ideas or methods; a specified style, approach or method; the imitators, disciples or followers of a philosopher, artist, etc.

That is what we mean by the word school. A group of researchers investigating and developing common methods, tools and techniques (for practitioners to use), often with one or more lead researchers providing the vision in that area. We strongly believe that the word “school” reflects what we mean here.

The optimization school: the project as a machine

Modern project management has its roots in the field of Operations Research of the 1940s and 1950s (Morris 1997 ). During and immediately after World War II, there was an explosion in the development of optimization theory, particularly in the US and the UK (Gass and Assad 2005 ). Optimization tools such as network scheduling techniques including the Critical Path Methods (CPM) and Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) reflect the genesis of modern project management in the management science/decision sciences field. Bar (Gantt) charts, developed in the early 1900s by Henry Gantt for production scheduling, and network scheduling techniques were adopted during the 1950s (Archibald and Villoria 1967 ). Subsequent developments included the resource allocation and leveling heuristics, project crashing, resource constrained scheduling, Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique (GERT), Critical Chain, Theory of Constraints, Monte Carlo Simulation of project networks and cost estimates, and variations of these methods.

The main premise of this school is to define the objective(s) of the project, break the project into smaller components, ensure careful planning, scheduling, estimating, and execution of project tasks, and strive for cost and time efficiency throughout the project to achieve the optimum outcome. This school is very Taylorian in its approach. It treats the project as a system or a machine, once mathematically defined and analyzed will perform in predictable ways.

An important contribution is the textbook by Cleland and King ( 1983 , first published in 1968), in which the authors set out a theory of project management based on the view that the project is a system to be optimized. This textbook had a substantial influence on the early development of the field, and became a dominant view. The textbook by Kerzner ( 2009 , first published in 1979) can be considered the main textbook for this school. Its title reflects what the school is about: the use of a systems approach to planning and controlling the project, to model and optimize its outcome. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ® Guide) (Project Management Institute 2008 , originally published in 1996) is currently considered the de facto global standard for project management, and has done much to shape the subject globally (its predecessor publication (1987) was entitled Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) of the Project Management Institute ). Several elements of the PMBOK ® Guide derive from this school, particularly the management of scope, time, and cost.

A current, prominent area of research in the optimization school is the EVM method and its extensions (Anbari 2003 ). We expect research to continue into the extensions of EVM such as forecasting project completion time, the earned schedule method, integration of planning and control of various project parameters, in particular scope, time, cost, quality, and risk, as well as the relationship of project management to the operational life cycle of the completed project.

Both fields of Operations Management and Project Management continued to develop their mathematical arsenals to improve decision making in operations, projects, and supply chain management, as well as incorporate contributions from other management disciplines. The field of Operations Management did not move substantially beyond the Optimization School (Slack et al. 2006 ), but in the field of project management this was found to be insufficient. The need to model multiple parameters, growing calls to include organizational and behavioural factors, and limitations of most optimization algorithms, led to the adoption of soft systems modelling to reflect the significant social element in projects. Project management has now advanced along a number of different avenues, which we review.

The modelling school: the project as a mirror

Project management thought progressed from optimization of one or two objectives (such as time and cost) to modelling the total project management system and the interactions among its components (Williams 2002 ). Thus the optimization school, based on a hard systems approach evolved into the modelling school, in which project management is broken into its main elements for study and understanding, and these elements integrated to obtain a full view of the total system. This is akin to Descartes’ reductionism approach of dividing a complex problem into its parts, solving each part, and then integrating back to solve the entire problem.

Anbari ( 1985 ) discussed elements of the project management system and their interactions, and postulated the quadruple objectives/constraints of project management: scope, time, cost, and quality. Turner ( 2009 , first published 1993) independently added project organization to give five project objectives. Anbari et al. ( 2008 ) suggested two sets of constraints: the primary triple constraints (scope, time, and cost) and the secondary triple constraints (meeting customer expectations, final quality, and mitigation of risks). Eisner ( 2008 ) stressed the importance of using a systems approach in projects and highlighted the relationship between Systems Engineering and project management. Williams ( 2002 ) postulated that “it is generally held that the complexity of projects is also increasing” (p. 4), and suggested that the compounding causes of complexity in projects are the increasing complexity of products being developed and tightening of timescales. He provided a comprehensive approach to developing models to understand the behaviour of complex projects. Techniques used in modelling are based on the System Dynamics approach developed by Forrester ( 1961 ) and applied to a wide variety of situations (Sterman 2000 ). While fundamentally similar to discrete event simulation, System Dynamics modelling focuses on the understanding of feedback and feed-forward relationships. Williams and others showed that projects can contain complex causal chains of “hard” and “soft” effects that can form into reinforcing feedback loops, and at times applying accepted project management theory can make these loops worse. For example, adding resource, which CPM predicts would expedite the project, could exacerbate the problems that are causing the delay and result in further delays. This calls for the application of more sophisticated modelling tools (Williams 2005 ).

The Modelling School later encompassed soft-systems methodology and sense-making with the aim of addressing organizational, behavioural, political, and other issues affecting projects and the complex environments within which they operate. Whereas the focus of hard systems is optimization, the focus of soft systems is clarification and making sense of the project and its environment. The soft systems methodology (SSM) was originally proposed by Checkland ( 1972 ) to resolve unstructured management, planning, and public policy problems that often have unclear or contradictory multi-objectives. Thus, SSM extends the ideas of optimization to modelling of real-world messy problems. SSM does not assume a systemic view of such problems but uses ideas of systems analysis to help form the process of inquiry (Gass and Assad 2005 ). Yeo ( 1993 ) linked project management to SSM, and Neal ( 1995 ) suggested using the soft systems approach for managing project change. Winter and Checkland ( 2003 ) examined the main differences between hard systems and soft systems thinking through a comparison of their different perspectives on the practice of project management. Crawford and Pollack ( 2004 ) identified dimensions of hardness and softness of projects based on differences in the philosophical basis of that dichotomy.

Alderman et al. ( 2005 ) drew upon sense-making literature to address the management of complex long-term service-led engineering projects and suggested such an approach may help untangle project management challenges in a new way. Atkinson et al. ( 2006 ) maintained that “common project management practice does not address many fundamental sources of uncertainty, particularly in ‘soft’ projects where flexibility and tolerance of vagueness are necessary” (p. 687), and suggested that to manage sources of uncertainty more sophisticated efforts are needed encompassing aspects of organizational culture and learning. Winter ( 2006 ) highlighted the importance of problem structuring during the front-end of projects and the potential role that SSM can play. Pollack ( 2007 ) indicated that there is a growing acceptance of the soft paradigm, and suggested that a paradigmatic expansion to include soft systems thinking could provide increased opportunities for researchers and practitioners. Integrating into models the interactions among people and their relationships, communications, and power relationships, could add even more power to the tools of the Modelling School (Williams 2007 ).

It can be argued that hard systems include simulation, which provides a way of reflecting how a system evolves according to the influence and level of the initial conditions of its parameters. As such, hard systems are about sense-making as well. However, models are managed and analyzed by people who have to observe and judge to gain data to populate their models. The models that we have discussed in this section try to incorporate some consideration of the causes of attitudes and biases, and thus start to capture the socially constructed nature of “reality” in a project (Bredillet 2004b ). Thus, the Modelling School is about acting and understanding, a mirror to reflect the project and shape our understanding of it. Research in this area will continue into integrating hard systems and soft systems methodologies for modelling the total project management system, including optimization of multiple objectives under multiple constraints, and consideration of various forces in the internal and external project environments, as well as formulation and adoption of lessons learned from previous and ongoing projects to enhance the total system and the approaches used for modelling it.

The governance school: the project as a legal entity

The governance school has had several bursts of activity. The first investigated the relationship between contract management and project management, and the second looked at the mechanisms of governance on a project and in a project-oriented organization. The contract sub-school takes one of two views of the project:

either it views the project as a legal entity in its own right, and describes how the relationship between the parties to that legal entity should be managed (Turner 2004 ), or

it views the project as an interface between two legal entities, the client and the contractor, and describes how that interface should be managed (Barnes 1983 ).

Researchers had been studying contract management on construction contracts for several decades before project management began to develop as a field. The UK’s Institution of Civil Engineers first published its conditions of contract in the 1930s (Institution of Civil Engineers 1999 ). However, with the development of modern project management, researchers began specifically researching contract management from a project perspective (Barnes 1983 ), and the Institution of Civil Engineers ( 1995 ) developed its New Engineering Contract from a more specifically project management perspective.

The second burst of activity began by viewing the project as a temporary organization (Lundin and Söderholm 1995 ; Midler 1995 ; Turner and Müller 2003 ), and moved on to investigate the mechanisms of governance both of the project as a temporary organization (Turner 2006b ; Turner and Keegan 2001 ) and of the project-oriented parent organization (Association for Project Management 2004 ).

The concept of the project as a temporary organization was first propounded in Sweden in the mid 1990s. The Scandinavian literature (Lundin and Söderholm 1995 ; Midler 1995 ) focused on the temporary nature of the project organization and its various implications. Lundin and Söderholm ( 1995 ) point out that mainstream organizational theory is based on the assumption that organizations are (or should be) permanent entities and “theories on temporary organizational settings (projects) are much less prevalent” (p. 437). They stress the importance of developing a theory of the temporary organization, highlight the difference between the role of time in a temporary organization and its role in the permanent firm, and specify that ‘action’ as opposed to ‘decision’ is central to a theory of the temporary organization (p. 437). Turner and Müller ( 2003 ) added to the discussion by showing that the view of the project as a temporary organization leads to the concepts of principal-agency theory and governance. In a series of editorials in the International Journal of Project Management, Turner ( 2006a , b , c , d ) aimed to develop a theory of project management, and defined a project as “a temporary organization to which resources are assigned to do work to bring about beneficial change” (Turner 2006a , p. 1).

The focus of the project governance literature covers three areas:

The principal-agency relationship between client and contractor

Two parties are in a principal-agency relationship when one party, the principal, is dependent on the other, the agent, to do work on their behalf (Jensen 2000 ). The principal suffers two problems, which are at the heart of project management:

they do not always know why the agent takes the decisions they do (the adverse selection problem),

the agent can act opportunistically and will act to optimize their economic outcomes from the project and not the client’s (the moral hazard problem). The contractor will only optimize the client’s economic outcomes if they are aligned with the contractor’s, placing contract management at the heart of this school.

Harrison and Harrell ( 1993 ) showed that the principal-agency theory can explain the decision to continue a failing project when the agent has private information to make such a decision rational from the agent’s perspective despite its being irrational from the principal’s perspective.

Transaction costs associated with projects

Winch ( 1989 ) aimed to identify transaction costs associated with construction projects. Turner and Keegan ( 2001 ) analyzed transaction costs on projects, and what that suggested about mechanisms of governance, roles, and responsibilities. Turner and Simister ( 2001 ) and Turner ( 2004 ) showed how a transaction or agency cost analysis could be used to determine contract strategy, and showed that residual loss (Jensen 2000 ) is the main determining factor. Gerwin and Ferris ( 2004 ) analyzed transaction costs, potential for learning, and development of relations for future projects, in organizing strategic alliances for new product development projects. They determined the points at which it is more beneficial for partners to work with little or considerable interaction, and to have decision-making authority reside in a project manager or be consensual.

Mechanisms of governance of projects

Mechanisms of governance of the individual project are discussed by Turner and Keegan ( 2001 ). Mechanisms in the project-oriented parent organization are being investigated by a special interest group of the UK’s APM ( 2004 ). Rentz ( 2007 ) highlighted the governance gap between project operations and control bodies, suggested that it “applies to any development project, independent of its size, type, or geographic location ” (p. 222), and proposed a project governance model to support the institutionalization of ethical responsibility in nonprofit organizations. Garland ( 2009 ) described the logical steps necessary to establish and implement a project governance framework for a project or across an organization to support effective project decision-making, including the accountabilities and responsibilities of the main roles.

Current research in this area includes effective governance of projects, programs, and organizational portfolio (Jamieson and Morris 2007 ; Morris and Jamieson 2004 ), effective organization and functions of the project management office (PMO), project support office (PSO), and project management centre for excellence (PMCE) (Hobbs and Aubry 2007 ). Winch ( 2006 ) also proposes the need to investigate the governance of project coalitions. Research in this area may continue into project and program selection, portfolio refinement and management, the PMO, and the role of regulatory compliance in project management.

The behaviour school: the project as a social system

The behaviour school is closely associated with the governance school, and takes as its premise that the project as a temporary organization is a social system, and includes several areas focused on organizational behaviour (OB), team building and leadership, communication, and more recently human resource management (HRM).

Pioneering work in this school was done by Galbraith ( 1973 ) on designing complex organizations, and Youker ( 1977 ) on organizational alternatives for project management, in which we believe that Youker coined the term ‘projectized organization’ (p. 47). Other pioneering works include studies extending OB research to the project environment. These works include studies on conflict management in temporary organizational systems (Wilemon 1973 ) and managing conflict in project life cycles (Thamhain and Wilemon 1975 ). Subsequently Thamhain ( 2004 ) has extensively researched working in project teams, and more recently research has begun to investigate working in virtual project teams (Massey et al. 2003 ; DeLisle 2004 ).

In the 1980s, work was done on project start-up (Fangel 1987 ) both from a perspective of project planning and team formation and maintenance (Turner 2009 ). Project Managers have a reputation for being task focused rather than people focused (Turner and Müller 2006 ). A seminal work on bringing a people focus to project management was Graham ( 1989 ). In the early 1990s researchers became interested in the leadership skills of project managers (Briner et al. 1996 , first published in 1990; Pinto and Trailer 1998 ), and recently Müller and Turner ( 2007 ) demonstrated that different profiles of leadership are needed for different types of projects. Pinto ( 1996 ) researched power and politics in projects, and Müller and Turner ( 2005 ) investigated communication between the project manager and sponsor from an agency theory perspective. Pitsis et al. ( 2003 ) studied a significant portion of the Sydney 2000 Olympic infrastructure and concluded that the project was a success, and that problems that arose were largely focused on social rather than on technical issues. Other significant research includes examination of the influence of goals, accessibility, proximity and procedures on cross-functional cooperation and perceived project outcomes (Pinto et al. 1993 ), deployment of dynamic capabilities within the resource-based view of the firm to enhance new product development and other organizational processes (Eisenhardt and Martin 2000 ), team dynamics in Six Sigma projects (Eckes 2002 ), and cross-cultural issues in project management (Anbari et al. 2004 ).

Research has now shifted from strictly OB view on projects to HRM view. Huemann et al. ( 2007 ) and Turner et al. ( 2007 ) researched HRM on projects and in project-oriented organizations. They found that project-oriented firms need to adopt new HRM practices specific to the project and different HRM practices in the line when compared to traditional HRM theory.

Research continues into the workings of virtual project teams, and HRM in project-oriented organizations. Cross-cultural issues and potential synergistic and antagonistic effects on project teams are important areas for research, particularly in view of the growing diversity of project teams, globalization, and global sourcing of project work. Research can also address knowledge management and knowledge sharing issues in view of the temporary nature of project workers who, upon completion of the project, are released and dispersed throughout the organization or may leave the organization entirely and take their knowledge with them.

The success school: the project as a business objective

This school focuses on the success and failure of the project. Project success literature describes two major components of project success:

Project success factors . The elements of a project that can be influenced to increase the likelihood of success; the independent variables that make success more likely.

Project success criteria . The measures by which we judge the successful outcome of a project; the dependent variables which measure project success. These are the business objectives we wish to achieve from the project.

Wateridge ( 1995 ) suggests that the project manager should identify the success criteria for the project, from them determine appropriate success factors to deliver those criteria, and then choose an appropriate project management methodology. Jugdev and Müller ( 2005 ) published a comprehensive review of this school. There has been a shift in emphasis in the project success literature from the 1970s to the present day. Early on the focus for success criteria was achieving time, cost and performance objectives, and it was felt that the greatest contribution to success was in the planning and control of the project—this is in line with the optimization school. Now it is accepted that a much wider range of stakeholders have a view on project success, and a much wider range of factors from project initiation to project commissioning and ensuing operations have an impact on its perceived success—this is in line with the governance and process schools.

Considerable research has been conducted on the factors that affect the success and failure of projects and project management. The first statement in modern project management of what causes project success and failure was made in Andersen et al. ( 2004 , first Norwegian edition 1984), followed by Morris and Hough ( 1987 ), who studied several major projects from the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s in the UK to identify how people judged success and what elements contributed to success. Another seminal study was the work of Pinto and Slevin ( 1987 ), who examined critical factors for project success.

This area continues to provide fertile grounds for research. Recent studies have investigated the relationship between the success of new product development projects and balancing firmness and flexibility in the innovation process (Tatikonda and Rosenthal 2000 ), and further refined our understanding of success factors and success criteria (Cooke-Davies 2002 ; Turner and Müller 2005 ). Other research has examined the relationship between project success and the implementation of the PMO (Dai and Wells 2004 ), use of project management software (Bani-Ali et al. 2008 ), and project risk management practices (Voetsch et al. 2005 ). Other studies showed that teamwork quality is significantly associated with team performance, and assessed the effects of collaborative processes within and between teams on overall project performance, quality, budget, and schedule (Hoegl et al. 2004 ). Other works have addressed project management maturity (Kerzner 2001 , 2006 ), the relationship of capabilities to best practices and to project, program and portfolio outcomes (Project Management Institute 2003 ), and the relationships between project management and the Six Sigma method (Kwak et al. 2006 ). Recently, a major research study was completed to understand how project management is applied within organizations and the value it provides to the organizations that use it. This global, multi-year study, was sponsored partially by PMI ® and was conducted by an international team of 48 researchers. The study demonstrated unequivocally that project management delivers value to the organizations that implement it. “More than half of our case study organizations demonstrate tangible value being realized as a result of their project management implementation (p. 350)… Most organizations demonstrate intangible value as a result of their project management implementation (p. 351)… Almost every organization that participated in a case study within this research project received some degree of value whether tangible, intangible, or both as a result of their project management implementation. For many of those organizations, the level of value was quite high (p. 356).” (Thomas and Mullaly 2008 , p. 356). However, the study cautioned that for many organizations that received value from their project management implementation, there was no assurance that such value would be sustained. For such organizations, there is a question as to whether value would continue to grow or begin to decline. The causes of this “included attitudes that perceived project management as being ‘done’ and something that required no further investment, changes in the market or competitive conditions of the organization, changes in oversight and involvement by executives or parent organizations and loss of key resources that were originally responsible for the implementation.” (Thomas and Mullaly 2008 , p. 357). Research can continue to further refine our understanding of success factors, success criteria, stakeholder satisfaction with project outcomes, causes of failure of projects and programs, and approaches to ensure sustainability of the value of project management.

The decision school: the project as a computer

This school focuses on factors relevant to the initiation, approval, and funding of projects as well as factors relevant to project completion, termination, and conclusions about their success or failure. This approach addresses economic, cultural, and political rules that cause investments in projects. It encompasses issues considered in the application of SSM in project management, and considers the ambiguity surrounding decision-making in the pre-project fuzzy environment.

There are two focuses of this school. The first is on the decision-making processes in the early stages of projects. In particular, why certain decisions are made, and the impact this has on the overall project. Much of the research has focused on major project disasters, what led to them, and whether these disasters were avoidable (Morris and Hough 1987 ; Morris 1997 ). Flyvbjerg ( 2006 ) investigated optimism and political bias in the early decision making processes to explain the continued underestimating of project out-turns. The other focus of this school is on information processing in projects. Winch ( 1989 , 2002a , b ) takes the view that a project is a vehicle for processing information and reducing uncertainty in the process. This links to the process school, the project is a process for processing information, and to the success school, processing information enables us to make better decisions, which is a success factor. Winch ( 2002a , b ) links this view to the importance of decision-making and sense-making at end of stage reviews, and reducing uncertainty there. As such, this school of thought brings project management research a full circle to its optimization and decision making roots while considering various issues that affect organizational decisions.

Current research is addressing factors affecting initial estimates of cost and time required to accomplish project objectives to the level of expected quality, and methods for handling deliberately optimistic estimates and improving such estimates (Flyvbjerg 2006 ; Morris and Hough 1987 , Williams 2002 ), the relationship of the organization’s portfolio of projects and programs to its strategy (Artto et al. 2001 ), as well as factors affecting inclusion of projects and programs in the organization’s portfolio and the ongoing refinement of such portfolio (Morris and Jamieson 2004 ).

The process school: the project as an algorithm

This school became popular in the late 1980s, particularly in Europe. The premise is to define structured processes from the conceptual start of the project to achieving the end objectives. Turner ( 2009 ) suggests that project management is about converting vision into reality; you have a vision of some future state you wish to achieve, and project management is a structured process, a road map, which takes you from the start to the desired end state. Winch ( 2002a ) suggests that through this process we convert desire into memory. The project is like an algorithm that helps you solve the problem of how to get to that desired future state. Proponents include Turner ( 2009 ), Gareis ( 2005 ), and Meredith and Mantel ( 2006 , first published in 1985). The emphasis of Turner’s books is on defining the process to follow to achieve the project’s objectives. He also defines processes for managing scope, organization, quality, cost, time, risk, project life-cycle, and management life-cycle. Gareis argues for process management and bases the maturity and benchmarking models he developed (Gareis and Huemann 2007 ), including the project-oriented company and project-oriented society models, on defining processes for the elements of project management. Meredith and Mantel ( 2006 ) organize various project management processes around the project life cycle as the primary organizational guideline. As such, project life-cycle and management life-cycle belong to this school. Winch ( 1989 , 2002a , b ) advanced this school by taking an information processing approach to managing construction projects. Bendoly and Swink ( 2007 ) extended this approach to the effect of information on post-task sense-making and suggested that greater visibility of situational information impacts project outcomes by affecting the project manager’s actions and perceptions. Several elements of the PMBOK ® Guide derive from this school, particularly the concepts of project life-cycle, management processes, integration management, and the management of quality and risk. Turner ( 2006b ) also showed that the governance of projects implies the project and management life-cycles, and processes for managing the project functions (Turner 2006b , c , d ).

A current area of research is project categorization (Crawford et al. 2005 ; Shenhar and Dvir 1996 , 2004 ) which suggests different processes to be applied to different categories of projects. Research in this area can continue into the extensions of categorization systems of projects, and the effectiveness and refinements of processes used to manage various categories of projects in different environments, as well as project audits and post project reviews aimed at improvement of project management processes in the organization.

The contingency school: the project as a chameleon

This school recognizes the difference between different types of projects and project organizations, considers the approaches most suitable for various project settings, and adapts project management processes to the needs of the project. It stresses that every project is different, and so the management approach and leadership style adopted need to be adapted to the needs of the project. Significant early research included work on project typology (Shenhar and Dvir 1996 ; Turner and Cochrane 1993 ) and more recently on project categorization systems to ensure alignment of capability with strategy (Crawford et al. 2005 , 2006 ), and on the different competencies and leadership styles required to manage different types of projects (Müller and Turner 2007 ). Crawford et al. ( 2005 , 2006 ) showed that project categorization systems have two main elements:

the purposes for which the projects are categorized,

the attributes used to categorize projects.

Most organizations undertaking projects have two main reasons for categorizing projects:

to align projects with strategic intent, and so prioritize projects for assigning resources, that is to choose to do the correct projects,

to assign and develop appropriate capabilities to manage those projects selected, that is to do the chosen projects correctly.

This approach asserts that an organization’s ability to manage complex new projects is related to its ability to remember factors associated with past successes. It considers limitations on this ability due to classifications systems that have evolved over time, rather than being actively designed through a logical, organized categorization process. Further research in this school should clarify the project management approaches most suitable for different project settings and methods for adapting the organization’s existing approaches to various types of projects, and highlight interactions between success factors and criteria, project management approaches, and project categories.

The marketing school: the project as a billboard

This school focuses on the identification of stakeholders and client needs, stakeholder management (McElroy and Mills 2007 ), formation of project organizations, interactions between clients and contractors, and internal marketing of the project to the organization (Cova and Sale 2005 ; Foreman 1996 ). Research also addresses marketing the project to its customers (Pinto and Rouhainen 2001 ), and selling project management to senior executives (Thomas et al. 2002 ). This research addresses the disconnect between the tremendous growth in project management and its impact on increasing productivity and bottom line earnings, and the view of project management by some senior-level executives (and some academics in business schools) that it is not something of value to them.

Future research in this school may investigate the integration of strategic and tactical components of business success, address the linkages between strategic goals and project objectives, and investigate effective approaches for alignment of project management with the perspective of senior executives that focuses on strategic issues (Mintzberg 1990 ) and their common view of project management as an operational/tactical matter. Research can highlight the value of recognizing that everything an organization does is based on previously completed projects, and what it will do in the future is based on the projects it currently does. Research can also investigate customer relationship management in project management, as well as public and media relations in the context of the temporary project organization.

Interactions between project management schools of thought

The discussion above indicates that there is a fair amount of distinction yet overlap in research in various project management schools of thought. Our aim in separating them is to gain insight into current and potential research in each area, but we should not lose sight of their inevitable interactions. After all, all these schools are aiming to understand various perspectives of the same thing—project management:

Governance defines the objectives of the project, success criteria. Governance defines project review points along the process.

The success school defines what has to be marketed. The project has to be marketed to the organization, client(s), and governance council.

Success provides the vision for the process. The process provides a path for making decisions directly and through appropriate model(s). The process is a model of the project.

Success provides the objectives for optimization and the objectives for decision-making.

Governance influences the nature of OB and HRM in the project. Behaviour of the project team needs to be included in the models, and makes every project different. The nature of the project also influences how success will be judged. The nature of the project influences what has to be optimized and how it will be optimized.

Modelling helps us to optimize the project. Modelling helps us to make better decisions.

The decision school provides guidance for improved decision-making. Over time, better decisions at various levels support the success of projects, strengthen the competitive position of organizations, and ultimately enhance the well-being of society.

Conclusions

We have shown that modern project management is a relatively young academic discipline with its roots in Operations Research. After borrowing tools from that discipline and bar (Gantt) charts from Operations Management, project management research was mainly inward-looking for as much as 30 or 40 years. However, as Table  1 illustrates, the development of research in the nine schools led the project management research community to interact strongly with other areas of management. Project management has benefited from progress in research in many areas of management, and has adopted ideas developed in other management disciplines, to apply them to the management of complex projects conducted in a dynamic environment. Project management has thus grown beyond its origins in Operations Research and management science. Project management has also contributed to other fields of management. It is used in strategy, marketing, innovation, change, information, and technology management, amongst others. There is significant interest in project management in the field of information technology management, exploring the various factors affecting the success or failure of systems development projects.

We have summarized in Table  2 the key idea and the key variable or unit of analysis in each of the nine schools of project management research. We have discussed promising areas of productive research in each school, throughout the paper. These areas include:

EVM and its extensions to forecasting project completion time, the earned schedule method, integration of planning and control of various project parameters, in particular scope, time, cost, quality, and risk, and the relationship of project management to the operational life cycle of the completed project.

Integration of hard systems and soft systems methodologies for modelling the total project management system, including optimization of multiple objectives under multiple constraints, consideration of various forces in the internal and external project environments, as well as formulation and adoption of lessons learned from previous and ongoing projects to enhance the total system and the approaches used for modelling it.

Effective governance of projects, programs, and portfolios, project and program selection, portfolio refinement and management, effective organization and functions of the project management office (PMO), project support office (PSO), and project management centre for excellence (PMCE), governance of project coalitions, the role of regulatory compliance in project management, and ethical responsibility.

The workings of virtual project teams, HRM in project-oriented organizations, cross-cultural issues and their potential synergistic and antagonistic effects on project teams, knowledge management and knowledge sharing issues in view of the temporary nature of project workers.

Further refinements of our understanding of success factors, success criteria, stakeholder satisfaction with project outcomes, causes of failure of projects and programs, and approaches to ensure sustainability of the value of project management.

Factors affecting initial estimates of cost and time required to accomplish project objectives to the level of expected quality, and methods for handling and improving deliberately optimistic estimates, the relationship of the organization’s portfolio of projects and programs to its strategy, as well as factors affecting decisions related to the inclusion of projects and programs in the organization’s portfolio.

Extensions of categorization systems of projects, and the effectiveness and refinements of processes used to manage various categories of projects in different environments, as well as project audits and post project reviews aimed at improvement of project management processes in the organization.

Clarification of the project management approaches most suitable for different project settings and methods for adapting the organization’s existing approaches to various types of projects, as well as interactions between success factors and criteria, project management approaches, and project categories.

The integration of strategic and tactical components of business success, the linkages between strategic goals and project objectives, and effective approaches for alignment of project management with the perspective of senior executives that focuses on strategic issues, as well as customer relationship management in project management, and public and media relations in the context of the temporary project organization.

Clarification of the interactions between the nine schools of project management research and with other management disciplines.

Project management is an identifiable field of study. We illustrated its diversity and richness as evidenced by nine schools of thought. Project management continues to draw on and make contributions to other fields of management. We have outlined the research trends in the nine schools of project management thought, highlighted promising areas of productive research in each of them, and shown that they will continue to draw strongly on other areas. We also expect that they will continue to make contributions back in return.

Alderman, N., Ivory, C., McLoughlin, I., & Vaughan, R. (2005). Sense-making as a process within complex service-led projects. International Journal of Project Management, 23 , 380–385.

Article   Google Scholar  

Anbari, F. T. (1985). A systems approach to project evaluation. Project Management Journal, 16 (3), 21–26.

Google Scholar  

Anbari, F. T. (2003). Earned value project management method and extensions. Project Management Journal, 34 (41), 12–23.

Anbari, F. T., Carayannis, E. G., & Voetsch, R. J. (2008). Post project reviews as a key project management competence. Technovation: The International Journal of Technological Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Technology Management, 28 (10), 633–643.

Anbari, F. T., Khilkhanova, E., Romanova, M., & Umpleby, S. (2004). Managing cultural differences in international projects. Journal of International Business and Economics, 2 , 267–274.

Andersen, E. S., Grude, K. V., & Haug, T. (2004). Goal directed project management . London: Kogan Page.

Archibald, R. D., & Villoria, R. L. (1967). Network-based management systems (PERT/CPM) . New York: Wiley.

Artto, K. A., Martinsuo, M., & Aalto, T. (Eds.). (2001). Project portfolio management: Strategic management through projects . Helsinki: Project Management Association of Finland.

Artto, K. A., Martinsuo, M., Gemünden, H. G., & Murtoaro, J. (2009). Foundations of program management: A bibliometric view. International Journal of Project Management, 27 , 1–18.

Association for Project Management. (2004). Directing change: A guide to governance of project management. High Wycombe, UK: Association for Project Management (APM). Retrieved on April 9, 2007 from http://www.apm.org.uk/Governance2.asp .

Association for Project Management. (2006). APM body of knowledge (5th ed.). High Wycombe: Association for Project Management.

Atkinson, R. (2006). Guest editorial: Excellence in teaching and learning for project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24 , 185–186.

Atkinson, R. W., Crawford, L. H., & Ward, S. (2006). Fundamental uncertainties in projects and the scope of project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24 , 687–698.

Audet, M. (1986). Le procès des connaissances de l’administration. In M. Audet & J. L. Malouin (Eds.), La production des connaissances de l’administration (pp. 23–56). Québec: Les Presses de l’Université Laval.

Bani-Ali, A. S., Anbari, F. T., & Money, W. H. (2008). Impact of organizational and project factors on acceptance and usage of project management software and perceived project success. Project Management Journal, 39 (2), 5–33.

Barnes, M. (1983). How to allocate risks in construction contracts. International Journal of Project Management, 1 , 24–28.

Bendoly, E., & Swink, M. (2007). Moderating effects of information access on project management behavior, performance and perceptions. Journal of Operations Management, 25 , 604–622.

Bredillet, C. N. (2004a). Theories and research in project management: Critical review and return to the future . Thèse de Doctorat, Lille School of Management (ESC Lille), France.

Bredillet, C. N. (2004b). Understanding the very nature of project management: A praxiological approach. Proceedings of PMI Research Conference [CD], London. Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Briner, W., Hastings, C., & Geddes, M. (1996). Project leadership (2nd ed.). Aldershott: Gower.

Brooks, F. P. (1995). The mythical man-month (20th anniversary ed.). Boston, MA: Addison Wesley.

Checkland, P. (1972). Towards a systems-based methodology for real-world problem solving. Journal of Systems Engineering, 3 (2), 87–116.

Cicmil, S., Williams, T., Thomas, J., & Hodgson, D. (2006). Rethinking project management: Researching the actuality of projects. International Journal of Project Management, 24 , 675–686.

Cleland, D. I., & King, W. R. (1983). Systems analysis and project management (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cooke-Davies, T. J. (2002). The “real” success factors on projects. International Journal of Project Management, 20 , 185–190.

Cova, B., & Sale, R. (2005). Six points to merge project marketing into project management. International Journal of Project Management, 23 , 354–359.

Crawford, L. H. (2007). Developing individual competence. In J. R. Turner (Ed.), The Gower Handbook of Project Management (4th ed., pp. 677–694). Aldershot: Gower.

Crawford, L. H., Hobbs, J. B., & Turner, J. R. (2005). Project categorization systems: Aligning capability with strategy for better results . Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Crawford, L. H., Hobbs, J. B., & Turner, J. R. (2006). Aligning capability with strategy: Categorizing projects to do the right projects and do them right. Project Management Journal, 37 (2), 38–50.

Crawford, L., & Pollack, J. (2004). Hard and soft projects: A framework for analysis. International Journal of Project Management, 22 , 645–653.

Dai, X. C., & Wells, W. G. (2004). An exploration of project management office features and their relationship to project success. International Journal of Project Management, 22 , 523–532.

Delisle, C. L. (2004). Contemporary views on shaping, developing and managing teams. In P. W. G. Morris & J. K. Pinto (Eds.), The Wiley guide to managing projects (pp. 983–1013). New York: Wiley.

Eckes, G. (2002). Six Sigma team dynamics: The elusive key to project success . New York: Wiley.

Eisenhardt, K. M., & Martin, J. A. (2000). Dynamic capabilities: What are they? Strategic Management Journal, 21 , 1105–1121.

Eisner, H. (2008). Essentials of project and systems engineering management (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.

Fangel, M. (Ed.). (1987). Handbook of project start-up: How to launch projects effectively . Zurich: International Project Management Association.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). From Nobel prize to project management: Getting risks right. Project Management Journal, 37 (3), 5–15.

Foreman, S. (1996). Internal marketing. In J. R. Turner, K. V. Grude, & L. Thurloway (Eds.), The project manager as change agent (pp. 116–125). London: McGraw-Hill.

Forrester, J. W. (1961). Industrial dynamics . Cambridge: MIT Press.

Galbraith, J. R. (1973). Designing complex organizations . Boston: Addison-Wesley Longman.

Gareis, R. (2005). Happy projects! . Vienna: Manz.

Gareis, R., & Huemann, M. (2007). Maturity models for the project oriented company. In J. R. Turner (Ed.), The Gower Handbook of Project Management (4th ed., pp. 183–208). Aldershot: Gower.

Garland, R. (2009). Project governance: A practical guide to effective project decision making . London: Kogan Page.

Gass, S. I., & Assad, A. A. (2005). An annotated timeline of operations research: An informal history . New York: Springer/Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Gerwin, D., & Ferris, J. S. (2004). Organizing new product development projects in strategic alliances. Organization Science, 15 , 22–37.

Grabher, G. (2004a). Temporary architectures of learning: Knowledge governance in project ecologies. Organization Studies, 25 (9), 1491–1514.

Grabher, G. (2004b). Learning in projects, remembering in networks? European Urban and Regional Studies, 11 (2), 103–123.

Graham, R. J. (1989). Project management as if people mattered . Bala Cynwyd: Primavera Press.

Harrison, P. D., & Harrell, A. (1993). Impact of ‘adverse selection’ on managers’ project evaluation decisions. Academy of Management Journal, 36 , 635–643.

Hjørland, B. (1998). The classification of psychology: A case study in the classification of a knowledge field. Knowledge Organization, 25 (4), 162–201.

Hobbs, J. B., & Aubry, M. (2007). A multi-phase research program investigating project management offices (PMOs): Results of phase 1. Project Management Journal, 38 (1), 74–86.

Hoegl, M., Weinkauf, K., & Gemuenden, H. G. (2004). Interteam coordination, project commitment, and teamwork in multiteam R & D projects: A longitudinal study. Organization Science, 15 , 38–55.

Huemann, M., Keegan, A. E., & Turner, J. R. (2007). Human resource management in the project oriented company: A critical review. International Journal of Project Management, 25 , 312–320.

Institution of Civil Engineers. (1995). The engineering and construction contract (2nd ed.). London: Thomas Telford.

Institution of Civil Engineers. (1999). Conditions of contract: Measurement version (7th ed.). London: Thomas Telford.

International Project Management Association. (2006). International competency baseline (3rd ed.). Zurich: International Project Management Association.

Jamieson, H. A., & Morris, P. W. G. (2007). Implementing strategy through programs of projects. In J. R. Turner (Ed.), The Gower Handbook of Project Management (4th ed., pp. 27–46). Aldershot: Gower.

Jensen, M. C. (2000). The theory of the firm: Governance, residual claims, and organizational forms . Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Jugdev, K., & Müller, R. (2005). A retrospective look at our evolving understanding of project success. Project Management Journal, 36 (4), 19–31.

Kerzner, H. (2001). Strategic planning for project management using a project management maturity model . New York: Wiley.

Kerzner, H. (2006). Project management best practices: Achieving global excellence . New York: Wiley.

Kerzner, H. (2009). Project management: A systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling (10th ed.). New York: Wiley.

Kwak, Y. H., & Anbari, F. T. (2008). Impact on project management of allied disciplines: Trends and future of project management practices and research . Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Kwak, Y. H., Wetter, J., & Anbari, F. T. (2006). Understanding the interrelationships between project management and Six Sigma method. Proceedings of PMI Research Conference [CD], Montreal, Canada. Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Lundin, R. A., & Söderholm, A. (1995). A theory of the temporary organization. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 11 , 437–455.

Massey, A. P., Montoya-Weiss, M. M., & Hung, Y. T. (2003). Because time matters: Temporal coordination in global virtual project teams. Journal of Management Information Systems, 19 (4), 129–155.

McElroy, W., & Mills, C. (2007). Managing stakeholders. In J. R. Turner (Ed.), The Gower Handbook of Project Management (4th ed., pp. 757–778). Aldershot: Gower.

Meredith, J. R. (2002). Developing project management theory for managerial application: The view of a research journal’s editor. Proceedings of PMI Research Conference 2002: Frontiers of Project Management Research and Application [CD], Seattle, WA. Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Meredith, J. R., & Mantel, S. J, Jr. (2006). Project management: A managerial approach (9th ed.). New York: Wiley.

Midler, C. (1995). “Projectification” of the firm: The Renault case. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 11 , 363–376.

Mintzberg, H. (1990). Strategy formation: Schools of thought. In J. W. Frederickson (Ed.), Perspectives on strategic management (pp. 105–209). Boston: Ballinger.

Morris, P. W. G. (1997). The management of projects (2nd ed.). London: Thomas Telford.

Morris, P. W. G., & Hough, G. H. (1987). The anatomy of major projects: A study of the reality of project management . Chichester: Wiley.

Morris, P. W. G., & Jamieson, H. A. (2004). Translating corporate strategy into project strategy: Achieving corporate strategy through project management . Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Müller, R., & Turner, J. R. (2005). The impact of principal agent relationship and contract type on communication between project owner and manager. International Journal of Project Management, special issue: What is project business, papers from IRNOP, 6 (23), 398–403.

Müller, R., & Turner, J. R. (2007). Matching the project manager’s leadership style to project type. International Journal of Project Management, 25 , 21–32.

Neal, R. A. (1995). Project definition: The soft-systems approach. International Journal of Project Management, 13 , 5–9.

North, S. M. (1987). The making of knowledge in composition: Portrait of an emerging field . Upper Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook Publishers.

Pinto, J. K. (1996). Power and politics on projects . Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Pinto, M. B., Pinto, J. K., & Prescott, J. E. (1993). Antecedents and consequences of project team cross-functional cooperation. Management Science, 39 , 1281–1297.

Pinto, J. K., & Rouhainen, P. J. (2001). Customer-based project organizations . New York: Wiley.

Pinto, J. K., & Slevin, D. P. (1987). Critical factors in successful project implementation. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 34 , 22–27.

Pinto, J. K., & Trailer, J. W. (1998). Leadership skills for project managers . Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Pitsis, T. S., Clegg, S. R., Marosszeky, M., & Rura-Polley, T. (2003). Constructing the Olympic dream: A future perfect strategy of project management. Organization Science, 14 , 574–590.

Pollack, J. (2007). The changing paradigms of project management. International Journal of Project Management, 25 , 266–274.

Project Management Institute. (2003). Organizational project management maturity model (OPM3 ® ) . Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Project Management Institute. (2008). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK ® Guide) (4th ed.). Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Rentz, P. S. (2007). Project governance: Implementing corporate governance and business ethics in nonprofit organizations . Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag.

Sauer, C., & Reich, B. H. (2007). Guest editorial: What do we want from a theory of project management? A response to Rodney Turner. International Journal of Project Management, 25 , 1–2.

Shenhar, A. J., & Dvir, D. (1996). Toward a typological theory of project management. Research Policy, 25 , 607–632.

Shenhar, A. J., & Dvir, D. (2004). How projects differ, and what to do about it. In P. W. G. Morris & J. K. Pinto (Eds.), The Wiley guide to managing projects (pp. 1265–1286). New York: Wiley.

Slack, N., Chambers, S., & Johnston, R. (2006). Operations management . London: Financial Times/Prentice Hall.

Söderlund, J. (2002). On the development of project management research: Schools of thought and critique. Project Perspectives, 8 , 20–31.

Söderlund, J. (2004). Building theories of project management: Past research, questions for the future. International Journal of Project Management, 22 , 183–191.

Sterman, J. D. (2000). Business dynamics: Systems thinking and modeling for a complex world . New York: Irwin McGraw-Hill.

Tatikonda, M. V., & Rosenthal, S. R. (2000). Successful execution of product development projects: Balancing firmness and flexibility in the innovation process. Journal of Operations Management, 18 , 401–425.

Thamhain, H. J. (2004). Linkages of project environment to performance: Lessons for team leadership. International Journal of Project Management, 22 , 533–544.

Thamhain, H. J., & Wilemon, D. L. (1975). Conflict management in project life cycles. Sloan Management Review, 16 (3), 31–50.

Thomas, J., Delisle, C., & Jugdev, K. (2002). Selling project management to senior executives: Framing the moves that matter . Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Thomas, J., & Mullaly, M. (2008). Researching the value of project management . Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Turner, J. R. (2004). Project contract management: Incomplete in its entirety. Construction Management and Economics, 22 (1), 75–83.

Turner, J. R. (2006a). Editorial: Towards a theory of project management: The nature of the project. International Journal of Project Management, 24 , 1–3.

Turner, J. R. (2006b). Editorial: Towards a theory of project management: The nature of project governance and project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24 , 93–95.

Turner, J. R. (2006c). Editorial: Towards a theory of project management: The functions of project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24 , 187–189.

Turner, J. R. (2006d). Editorial: Towards a theory of project management: The nature of the functions of project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24 , 277–279.

Turner, J. R. (2009). The handbook of project based management (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Turner, J. R., & Cochrane, R. A. (1993). The goals and methods matrix: Coping with projects with ill-defined goals and/or methods of achieving them. International Journal of Project Management, 11 , 93–102.

Turner, J. R., Huemann, M., & Keegan, A. E. (2007). Human resource management in the project-oriented organization . Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Turner, J. R., & Keegan, A. E. (2001). Mechanisms of governance in the project-based organization: The role of the broker and steward. European Management Journal, 19 (3), 254–267.

Turner, J. R., & Müller, R. (2003). On the nature of the project as a temporary organization. International Journal of Project Management, 21 , 1–8.

Turner, J. R., & Müller, R. (2005). The project manager’s leadership style as a success factor on projects: A review. Project Management Journal, 36 (2), 49–61.

Turner, J. R., & Müller, R. (2006). Choosing appropriate project managers: Matching their leadership style to the type of project . Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Turner, J. R., & Simister, S. J. (2001). Project contract management and a theory of organization. International Journal of Project Management, 19 , 457–464.

Umpleby, S., & Anbari, F. T. (2004). Strengthening the global university system and enhancing projects management education. Review of Business Research, 4 , 237–243.

Voetsch, R. J., Cioffi, D. F., & Anbari, F. T. (2005). Association of reported project risk management practices and project success. Project Perspectives, 27 , 4–7.

Walker, D. H. T., Cicmil, S., Thomas, J., Anbari, F. T., & Bredillet, C. (2008). Collaborative academic/practitioner research in project management: Theory and models. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 1 (1), 17–32.

Wateridge, J. H. (1995). IT projects: A basis for success. International Journal of Project Management, 13 , 169–172.

Wilemon, D. L. (1973). Managing conflict in temporary management systems. Journal of Management Studies, 10 (3), 282–296.

Williams, T. (2002). Modelling complex projects . Chichester: Wiley.

Williams, T. (2005). Assessing and moving on from the dominant project management discourse in the light of project overruns. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 52 , 497–508.

Williams, T. M. (2007). Project modelling. In J. R. Turner (Ed.), The Gower Handbook of Project Management (4th ed., pp. 587–599). Aldershot: Gower.

Winch, G. M. (1989). The construction firm and the construction project: A transaction cost approach. Construction Management and Economics, 7 (4), 331–345.

Winch, G. M. (2002a). Managing construction projects: An information processing approach . Oxford: Blackwell Science.

Winch, G. M. (2002b). Rethinking project management: Project organizations as information processing systems? Proceedings of PMI Research Conference 2002: Frontiers of Project Management Research and Application [CD], Seattle, WA. Newtown Square: Project Management Institute.

Winch, G. M. (2006). The governance of project coalitions: Towards a research agenda. In D. Lowe & R. Leiringer (Eds.), Commercial management of projects: Defining the discipline (pp. 323–324). Oxford: Blackwell.

Winter, M. (2006). Problem structuring in project management: An application of soft systems methodology. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 57 , 802–812.

Winter, M., & Checkland, P. (2003). Soft systems—A fresh perspective for project management. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Civil Engineering, 156 (4), 187–192.

Winter, M., Smith, C., Morris, P. W. G., & Cicmil, S. (2006). Directions for future research in project management: The main findings of a UK government funded research network. International Journal of Project Management, 24 , 638–649.

World Bank. (2008). Little Data Book . Washington, DC: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, Development Data Group.

Yeo, K. T. (1993). Systems thinking and project management—Time to reunite. International Journal of Project Management, 11 , 111–117.

Youker, R. (1977). Organization alternatives for project managers. Management Review, 66 (11), 46–53.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Skema Business School, LSMRC, Univ Lille Nord de France, Avenue Willy Brandt, 59777, Euralille, France

J. Rodney Turner

Goodwin College of Professional Studies, Drexel University, One Drexel Plaza, 3001 Market St., Suite 100, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA

Frank Anbari

Project Management Academy, Queensland University of Technology, 2 George St, GPO Box 2434, Brisbane, QLD, 4001, Australia

Christophe Bredillet

Wildwood, Manor Close, East Horsley, Surrey, KT24 6SA, UK

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to J. Rodney Turner .

About this article

Turner, J.R., Anbari, F. & Bredillet, C. Perspectives on research in project management: the nine schools. Glob Bus Perspect 1 , 3–28 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40196-012-0001-4

Download citation

Published : 16 January 2013

Issue Date : March 2013

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40196-012-0001-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Optimization
• Contingency
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Barriers to implementing environmental sustainability in uae construction project management: identification and comparison of iso 14001-certified and non-certified firms.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 2.1. integrating sustainability into construction project management, 2.2. the implementation of iso 14001 in the construction industry, 3. research gap and study justification.

• What are the barriers to implementing environmental sustainability practices in UAE construction project management?
• Which barriers have the greatest impact on implementing environmental sustainability practices in UAE construction project management?
• Does the level of importance of barriers differ significantly between ISO 14001-certified and non-certified firms?

4. Methodology

4.1. questionnaire design, 4.2. data collection, 4.3. data analysis methods, 6. discussion, 6.1. overall analysis of barriers, 6.2. factor analysis of barriers, 6.3. comparative analysis: iso 14001-certified vs. non-iso certified firms, 6.4. addressing the barriers, 6.4.1. insufficient support from policymakers, 6.4.2. weak management decision-making, 7. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Arocho, I.; Rasdorf, W.; Hummer, J.; Lewis, P. Time and cost characterisation of emissions from non-road diesel equipment for infrastructure projects. Int. J. Sustain. Eng. 2016 , 10 , 123–134. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gharzeldeen, M.; Beheiry, S. Investigating the use of green design parameters in UAE construction. Int. J. Sustain. Eng. 2015 , 8 , 93–101. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, G.; Yang, H.; Fu, Y.; Mao, C.; Xu, P.; Hong, J.; Li, R. Cyber-physical system-based real-time monitoring and visualization of greenhouse gas emissions of prefabricated construction. J. Clean. Prod. 2020 , 246 , 119059. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Benachio, G.; Freitas, M.; Tavares, S. Circular economy in the construction industry: A systematic literature review. J. Clean. Prod. 2020 , 260 , 121046. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• BIMhow. Impact of the Construction Industry on the Environment. Available online: http://www.bimhow.com/impact-of-the-construction-industry-on-the-environment (accessed on 22 May 2023).
• Sáez, P.; Osmani, M. A diagnosis of construction and demolition waste generation and recovery practice in the European Union. J. Clean. Prod. 2019 , 241 , 118400. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bamgbade, J.; Kamaruddeen, A.; Nawi, M.; Adeleke, A.; Salimon, M.; Ajibike, W. Analysis of some factors driving ecological sustainability in construction firms. J. Clean. Prod. 2019 , 208 , 1537–1545. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, W.; Jin, R.; Xu, Y.; Wanatowski, D.; Li, B.; Yan, L.; Pan, Z.; Yang, Y. Adopting recycled aggregates as sustainable construction materials: A review of the scientific literature. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019 , 218 , 483–496. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yates, J. Design and construction for sustainable industrial construction. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2014 , 140 , 673. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• ISO 14001 ; Environmental Management Systems—Requirements with Guidance for Use. ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.
• Kabirifar, K.; Mojtahedi, M.; Wang, C.; Tam, V. Construction and demolition waste management contributing factors coupled with reduce, reuse, and recycle strategies for effective waste management: A review. J. Clean. Prod. 2020 , 263 , 121265. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• ISO. The ISO Survey of Management System Standard Certifications—2022—Explanatory Note ; International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2023; Available online: https://www.iso.org/committee/54998.html?t=KomURwikWDLiuB1P1c7SjLMLEAgXOA7emZHKGWyn8f3KQUTU3m287NxnpA3DIuxm&view=documents#section-isodocuments-top (accessed on 6 April 2024).
• Banihashemi, S.; Hosseini, M.R.; Golizadeh, H.; Sankaran, S. Critical success factors (CSFs) for integration of sustainability into construction project management practices in developing countries. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2017 , 35 , 1103–1119. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Carvalho, M.; Rabechini, R. Can project sustainability management impact project success? an empirical study applying a contingent approach. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2017 , 35 , 1120–1132. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bashir, H.; Ojiako, U.; Haridy, S.; Shamsuzzaman, M.; Musa, R. Implementation of environmentally sustainable practices and their association with ISO 14001 certification in the construction industry of the United Arab Emirates. Sustain. Sci. Pract. Policy 2022 , 18 , 55–69. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Turk, A. ISO 14000 environmental management system in construction: An examination of its application in Turkey. Total Qual. Manag. Bus. Excell. 2009 , 20 , 713–733. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Al-Hajj, A.; Hamani, K. Material waste in the UAE construction industry: Main causes and minimization practices. Archit. Eng. Des. Manag. 2011 , 7 , 221–235. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• El-Sayegh, S.M.; AbdRaboh, T.; Elian, D.; ElJarad, N.; Ahmad, Y. Developing a bi-parameter bidding model integrating price and sustainable construction practices. Int. J. Constr. Manag. 2020 , 22 , 2191–2198. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Estidama. Building Rating System, Design & Construction. The Pearl Rating System for Estidama. Version 1.0. 2010. Available online: https://bit.ly/3sH9SQs (accessed on 22 May 2022).
• Alencar, L.; Alencar, M.; Lima, L.; Trindade, E.; Silva, L. Sustainability in the construction industry: A systematic review of the literature. J. Clean. Prod. 2021 , 289 , 125730. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Araujo, A.; Carneiro, A.; Palha, R. Sustainable construction management: A systematic review of the literature with meta-analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 2020 , 256 , 120350. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Goh, C.; Chong, H.; Jack, L.; Faris, A. Revisiting triple bottom line within the context of sustainable construction: A systematic review. J. Clean. Prod. 2020 , 252 , 119884. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Murtagh, N.; Scott, L.; Fan, J. VSI editorial—Sustainable and resilient construction: Current status and future challenges. J. Clean. Prod. 2020 , 268 , 122264. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Udomsap, A.; Hallinger, P. A bibliometric review of research on sustainable construction, 1994–2018. J. Clean. Prod. 2020 , 254 , 120073. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chofreh, A.G.; Goni, F.A.; Malik, M.N.; Khan, H.H.; Klemeš, J.J. The imperative and research directions of sustainable project management. J. Clean. Prod. 2019 , 238 , 117810. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sabini, L.; Muzio, D.; Alderman, N. 25 years of ‘sustainable projects’: What we know and what the literature says. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2019 , 37 , 820–838. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Stanitsas, M.; Kirytopoulos, K.; Leopoulos, V. Integrating sustainability indicators into project management: The case of construction industry. J. Clean. Prod. 2021 , 279 , 123774. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Silvius, A.; Schipper, R. A conceptual model for exploring the relationship between sustainability and project success. Procedia Comput. Sci. 2015 , 64 , 334–342. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Haavaldsen, T.; Laedre, O.; Volden, G.; Lohne, J. On the concept of sustainability—Assessing the sustainability of large public infrastructure investment projects. Int. J. Sustain. Eng. 2014 , 7 , 2–12. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Armenia, S.; Dangelico, R.; Nonino, F.; Pompei, A. Sustainable project management: A conceptualization-oriented review and a framework proposal for future studies. Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 2664. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dasović, B.M.; Galić, M.; Klanšek, U. A survey on integration of optimization and project management tools for sustainable construction scheduling. Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 3405. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gijzel, D.; Bosch-Rekveldt, M.; Schraven, D.; Hertogh, M. Integrating sustainability into major infrastructure projects: Four perspectives on sustainable tunnel development. Sustainability 2019 , 12 , 6. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hasheminasab, H.; Gholipour, Y.; Kharrazi, M.; Streimikiene, D. A quantitative sustainability assessment framework for petroleum refinery projects. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2021 , 28 , 15305–15319. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• O’Connor, J.; Torres, N.; Woo, J. Sustainability actions during the construction phase. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2016 , 142 , 04016016. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yu, W.; Cheng, S.; Ho, W.; Chang, Y. Measuring the sustainability of construction projects throughout their lifecycle: A Taiwan lesson. Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 1523. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kibert, C. Sustainable Construction: Green Building Design and Delivery ; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2013. [ Google Scholar ]
• Toljaga-Nikolić, D.; Todorović, M.; Dobrota, M.; Obradović, T.; Obradović, V. Project management and sustainability: Playing trick or treat with the planet. Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 8619. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gunduz, M.; Almuajebh, M. Critical success factors for sustainable construction project management. Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 1990. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yusof, N.; Iranmanesh, M.; Awang, H. Pro-environmental practices among Malaysian construction practitioners. Adv. Environ. Biol. 2015 , 9 , 117–119. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Willar, D.; Waney, E.V.Y.; Pangemanan, D.D.G.; Mait, R.E.G. Sustainable construction practices in the execution of infrastructure projects: The extent of implementation. Smart Sustain. Built Environ. 2021 , 10 , 106–124. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pham, H.; Kim, S.; Luu, T. Managerial perceptions on barriers to sustainable construction in developing countries: Vietnam case. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2020 , 22 , 2979–3003. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zuofa, T.; Ochieng, E. Sustainability in construction project delivery: A study of experienced project managers in Nigeria. Proj. Manag. J. 2016 , 47 , 44–55. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mansell, P.; Philbin, S.; Konstantinou, E. Redefining the use of sustainable development goals at the organization and project levels—A survey of engineers. Adm. Sci. 2020 , 10 , 55. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Onubi, H.O.; Yusof, N.; Hassan, A.S. Understanding the mechanism through which adoption of green construction site practices impacts economic performance. J. Clean. Prod. 2020 , 254 , 120170. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Durdyev, S.; Ismail, S.; Ihtiyar, A.; Abu Bakar, N.F.S.; Darko, A. A partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) of barriers to sustainable construction in Malaysia. J. Clean. Prod. 2018 , 204 , 564–572. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Elkhalifa, A. The magnitude of barriers facing the development of the construction and building materials industries in developing countries, with special reference to Sudan in Africa. Habitat Int. 2016 , 54 , 189–198. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kamranfar, S.; Damirchi, F.; Pourvaziri, M.; Xalikovich, P.A.; Mahmoudkelayeh, S.; Moezzi, R.; Vadiee, A. A partial least squares structural equation modelling analysis of the primary barriers to sustainable construction in Iran. Sustainability 2023 , 15 , 13762. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kineber, A.F.; Kissi, E.; Hamed, M.M. Identifying and assessing sustainability implementation barriers for residential building projects: A case of Ghana. Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 15606. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Opoku, A.; Cruickshank, H.; Ahmed, V. Organizational leadership role in the delivery of sustainable construction projects in the UK. Built Environ. Proj. Asset Manag. 2015 , 5 , 154–169. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Opoku, D.-G.J.; Ayarkwa, J.; Agyekum, K. Barriers to environmental sustainability of construction projects. Smart Sustain. Built Environ. 2019 , 8 , 292–306. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• De Oliveira, J.C.F.; de Melo, F.J.C. Barriers and drivers of sustainable construction: A systematic literature review. Int. J. Serv. Oper. Manag. 2024 , 47 , 3. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ahmed, S.; El-Sayegh, S. The challenges of sustainable construction projects delivery—Evidence from the UAE. Archit. Eng. Des. Manag. 2022 , 18 , 299–312. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fathalizadeh, A.; Hosseini, M.R.; Vaezzadeh, S.S.; Edwards, D.J.; Martek, I.; Shooshtarian, S. Barriers to sustainable construction project management: The case of Iran. Smart Sustain. Built Environ. 2022 , 11 , 717–739. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Khural, R.A.; Shashi; Ertz, M.; Cerchione, R. Moving toward sustainability and circularity in hill road construction: A study of barriers, practices, and performance. Eng. Constr. Archit. Manag. 2024 , 31 , 1608–1641. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mosgaard, M.; Bundgaard, A.; Kristensen, H. ISO 14001 practices—A study of environmental objectives in Danish organizations. J. Clean. Prod. 2022 , 331 , 129799. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• ISO 14004 ; Environmental Management Systems—General Guidelines on Implementation. ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2016.
• ISO 14006 ; Environmental Management Systems—Guidelines for Incorporating Ecodesign. ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2020.
• ISO 14015 ; Environmental Management—Guidelines for Environmental due Diligence Assessment. ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2022.
• ISO 14064 ; Greenhouse Gases. ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018.
• Mosgaard, M.; Kristensen, H. Companies that discontinue their ISO 14001 certification–reasons, consequences and impact on practice. J. Clean. Prod. 2020 , 260 , 121052. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sambasivan, M.; Fei, N. Evaluation of critical success factors of implementation of ISO 14001 using analytic hierarchy process (AHP): A case study from Malaysia. J. Clean. Prod. 2008 , 16 , 1424–1433. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chiarini, A. Factors for succeeding in ISO 14001 implementation in the Italian construction industry. Bus. Strategy Environ. 2019 , 28 , 794–803. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Johnstone, L. The construction of environmental performance in ISO 14001-certified SMEs. J. Clean. Prod. 2020 , 263 , 121559. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• To, W.; Lam, K. Green project management from employees’ perspective in Hong Kong’s engineering and construction sectors. Eng. Constr. Archit. Manag. 2021 , 29 , 1890–1907. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Treacy, R.; Humphreys, P.; McIvor, R.; Lo, C. ISO 14001 certification and operating performance: A practice-based view. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 2019 , 208 , 319–328. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bravi, L.; Santos, G.; Pagano, A.; Murmura, F. Environmental management system according to ISO 14001: 2015 as a driver to sustainable development. Corp. Soc. Responsib. Environ. Manag. 2020 , 27 , 2599–2614. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Phan, T.; Baird, K. The comprehensiveness of environmental management systems: The influence of institutional pressures and the impact on environmental performance. J. Environ. Manag. 2015 , 160 , 45–56. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Waxin, M.; Knuteson, S.; Bartholomew, A. Drivers and challenges for implementing ISO 14001 environmental management systems in an emerging Gulf Arab country. Environ. Manag. 2017 , 63 , 495–506. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Boiral, O.; Heras-Saizarbitoria, I.; Brotherton, M. Corporate biodiversity management through certifiable standards. Bus. Strategy Environ. 2018 , 27 , 389–402. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Garrido, E.; González, C.; Orcos, R. ISO 14001 and CO 2 emissions: An analysis of the contingent role of country features. Bus. Strategy Environ. 2020 , 29 , 698–710. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ikram, M.; Zhang, Q.; Sroufe, R.; Shah, S. Towards a sustainable environment: The nexus between ISO 14001, renewable energy consumption, access to electricity, agriculture and CO 2 emissions in SAARC countries. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2020 , 22 , 218–230. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Brahmana, R.; Kontesa, M. Does clean technology weaken the environmental impact on the financial performance? Insight from global oil and gas companies. Bus. Strategy Environ. 2021 , 30 , 3411–3423. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Heras-Saizarbitoria, I.; Arana, L.; Boiral, O. Outcomes of environmental management systems: The role of motivations and firms’ characteristics. Bus. Strategy Environ. 2016 , 25 , 545–559. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wu, W.; An, S.; Wu, C.H.; Tsai, S.; Yang, K. An empirical study on green environmental system certification affects financing cost of high energy consumption enterprises—Taking metallurgical enterprises as an example. J. Clean. Prod. 2019 , 244 , 118848. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Turk, A. The benefits associated with ISO 14001 certification for construction firms: Turkish case. J. Clean. Prod. 2009 , 17 , 559–569. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cronbach, L.J. Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika 1951 , 16 , 297–334. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rummel, R.J. Applied Factor Analysis ; Northwestern University Press: Evanston, IL, USA, 1988. [ Google Scholar ]
• Awang, A.; Khalid, S.A.; Yusof, A.A.; Kassim, K.M.; Ismail, M.; Zain, R.S.; Madar, A.R.S. Entrepreneurial orientation and performance relations of Malaysian Bumiputera SMEs: The impact of some perceived environmental factors. Int. J. Bus. Manag. 2009 , 4 , 84–96. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bashir, H.A.; Alzebdeh, K.; Al Riyami, A.M. Factor analysis of obstacles restraining productivity improvement programs in manufacturing enterprises in Oman. J. Ind. Eng. 2014 , 2014 , 195018. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hamdan, B.; Bashir, H.; Cheaitou, A. A novel clustering method for breaking down the symmetric multiple traveling salesman problem. J. Ind. Eng. Manag. 2021 , 14 , 199–218. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ortiz, J.D.; Avouris, D.M.; Schiller, S.J.; Luvall, J.C.; Lekki, J.D.; Tokars, R.P.; Anderson, R.C.; Shuchman, R.; Sayers, M.; Becker, R. Evaluating visible derivative spectroscopy by varimax-rotated, principal component analysis of aerial hyperspectral images from the western basin of Lake Erie. J. Great Lakes Res. 2019 , 45 , 522–535. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kvam, P.; Vidakovic, B.; Kim, S.-J. Non-Parametric Statistics with Applications to Science and Engineering with R ; Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2022. [ Google Scholar ]
• Serpell, A.; Kort, J.; Vera, S. Awareness, actions, drivers and barriers of sustainable construction in Chile. Technol. Econ. Dev. Econ. 2013 , 19 , 272–288. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Djokoto, S.D.; Dadzie, J.; Ohemeng-Ababio, E. Barriers to sustainable construction in the Ghanaian construction industry: Consultants perspectives. J. Sustain. Dev. 2014 , 7 , 134–152. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Martin, D.M.; Schouten, J. Sustainable Marketing ; Pearson Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2011; p. 264. [ Google Scholar ]
• Willard, B. The New Sustainability Advantage: Seven Business Case Benefits of a Triple Bottom Line ; New Society Publishers: Gabriola Island, BC, Canada, 2012. [ Google Scholar ]
• Albastaki, F.M.; Bashir, H.; Ojiako, U.; Shamsuzzaman, M.; Haridy, S. Modeling and analyzing critical success factors for implementing environmentally sustainable practices in a public utilities organization: A case study. Manag. Environ. Qual. 2021 , 32 , 768–786. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hafezi, M.; Zolfagharinia, H. Green product development and environmental performance: Investigating the role of government regulations. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 2018 , 204 , 395–410. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sun, J. Analyses of green products in duopoly market on the base of environment quality model. Int. J. Comput. Commun. Eng. 2012 , 1 , 22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kolaventi, S.S.; Momand, H.; Tezeswi, T.P.; Kumar, M.V.N.S. Implementing site waste-management plans, recycling in India: Barriers, benefits, measures. In Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Engineering Sustainability ; Thomas Telford Ltd.: London, UK, 2021. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Iqbal, M.; Ma, J.; Ahmad, N. Promoting sustainable construction through energy-efficient technologies: An analysis of promotional strategies using interpretive structural modeling. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021 , 18 , 3479–3502. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bright, D.S.; Cortes, A.H.; Hartmann, E.; Parboteeah, K.P.; Pierce, J.L.; Reece, M.; Shah, A.; Terjesen, S.; Weiss, J.; White, M.A.; et al. Principles of Management ; OpenStax: Houston, TX, USA, 2019; ISBN 978-0-9986257-7-5. [ Google Scholar ]
• Di Fabio, A.; Peiró, J.M. Human capital sustainability leadership to promote sustainable development and healthy organizations: A new scale. Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 2413. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fry, L.W.; Egel, E. Global leadership for sustainability. Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6360. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sadiq, N.; Khan, A.H. ISO 14001 Step by Step: A Practical Guide ; IT Governance Ltd.: Ely, UK, 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
• Weina, A.; Yanling, Y. Role of knowledge management on the sustainable environment: Assessing the moderating effect of innovative culture. Front. Psychol. 2022 , 13 , 861813. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bal, M.; Bryde, D.; Fearon, D.; Ochieng, E. Stakeholder engagement: Achieving sustainability in the construction sector. Sustainability 2013 , 5 , 695–710. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kaur, A.; Lodhia, S. Stakeholder engagement in sustainability accounting and reporting: A study of Australian local councils. Account. Audit. Account. J. 2018 , 31 , 338–368. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Alhammad, M.; Eames, M.; Vinai, R. Enhancing building energy efficiency through building information modeling (BIM) and building energy modeling (BEM) integration: A systematic review. Buildings 2024 , 14 , 581. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Epstein, M.J.; Buhovac, A.R. Solving the sustainability implementation challenge. Organ. Dyn. 2010 , 39 , 306–315. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Bashir, H.; Al-Hawarneh, A.; Haridy, S.; Shamsuzzaman, M.; Aydin, R. Barriers to Implementing Environmental Sustainability in UAE Construction Project Management: Identification and Comparison of ISO 14001-Certified and Non-Certified Firms. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 6779. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166779

Bashir H, Al-Hawarneh A, Haridy S, Shamsuzzaman M, Aydin R. Barriers to Implementing Environmental Sustainability in UAE Construction Project Management: Identification and Comparison of ISO 14001-Certified and Non-Certified Firms. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):6779. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166779

Bashir, Hamdi, Ammar Al-Hawarneh, Salah Haridy, Mohammed Shamsuzzaman, and Ridvan Aydin. 2024. "Barriers to Implementing Environmental Sustainability in UAE Construction Project Management: Identification and Comparison of ISO 14001-Certified and Non-Certified Firms" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 6779. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166779

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• Rivers State University of Science and Technology

Please i need research works on business management relating to project management?

Top contributors to discussions in this field.

• University of Kelaniya

• University of Houston

• Technical College Požarevac

• Parthenope University of Naples

• The World Islamic Science and Education University (WISE)

Get help with your research

Join ResearchGate to ask questions, get input, and advance your work.

All Answers (3)

• Project Management Institute (PMI) Publications: Includes various reports and research papers on best practices and case studies.
• Harvard Business Review: Articles on strategic project management and business impact.
• Journal of Project Management: Research articles focusing on project management theories and practices.
• International Journal of Project Management: Provides academic research on project management methodologies and case studies.
• Data Analytics’ Role in Company Performance and Decision-Making : Explore how data analytics impacts business decisions and overall performance.
• Revolution of Firm Operations Due to Artificial Intelligence : Investigate how AI is transforming business operations and strategy.
• Sustainable Business Practices and Financial Performance : Analyze the link between sustainability practices and a company’s financial health.
• Blockchain Technology in Business : Study the role of blockchain in enhancing business processes.
• Impact of Fintech on Traditional Financial Institutions : Examine how financial technology affects traditional banks and financial services.
• Digital Transformation and Organizational Culture : Understand the impact of digital transformation on company culture.
• Social Media Marketing and Customer Engagement : Investigate the consequences of social media marketing for customer interaction.
• Agile Methodologies in Business Management : Explore how agile approaches influence organizational success.
• Emotional Intelligence in Business Leadership : Study the role of emotional intelligence in effective leadership.
• Business Continuity Planning in Disaster Management : Examine strategies for maintaining business continuity during crises.

Similar questions and discussions

• Asked 29 July 2024

• Asked 28 July 2024

• Asked 26 July 2024

• Asked 29 June 2024

• Asked 3 May 2024

• Asked 12 April 2024

• Asked 10 March 2024

• Asked 15 February 2024

• Asked 8 January 2024

Related Publications

• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

• Open access
• Published: 08 August 2024

Roadmap for low-carbon ultra-low temperature storage in biobanking

• Matthew Graham   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0415-431X 1 ,
• Gabrielle Samuel 1 &
• Martin Farley 2  

Journal of Translational Medicine volume  22 , Article number:  747 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Biobanks have become an integral part of health and bioscience research. However, the ultra-low temperature (ULT) storage methods that biobanks employ [ULT freezers and liquid nitrogen (LN2)] are associated with carbon emissions that contribute to anthropogenic climate change. This paper aims to provide a ‘Roadmap’ for reducing carbon emissions associated with ULT storage in biobanking. The Roadmap offers recommendations associated with nine areas of ULT storage practice: four relating to ULT freezers, three associated with LN2 storage, and two generalised discussions regarding biosample management and centralisation. For each practice, we describe (a) the best approaches to mitigate carbon emissions, (b) explore barriers associated with hindering their implementation, and (c) make a series of recommendations that can help biobank stakeholders overcome these barriers. The recommendations were the output of a one year, UK-based, multidisciplinary research project that involved a quantitative Carbon Footprinting Assessment of the emissions associated with 1 year of ULT storage (for both freezers and LN2) at four different case study sites; as well as two follow up stakeholder workshops to qualitatively explore UK biobank stakeholder perceptions, views, and experiences on how to consider such assessments within the broader social, political, financial, technical, and cultural contexts of biobanking.

Introduction

Biobanks collect and process a wide variety of biological samples and associated data. They provide a crucial role in biomedical, health-oriented research because, by providing researchers access to these samples and data [ 1 ], they decrease the time and resources researchers would otherwise spend on collecting, storing and curating their own samples [ 2 ]. Biobanks vary in size, from small scale project-led repositories, to university or institutional biobanks, to national and international institutions, though the drive for ever larger biobanks continues, with some of the biggest biobanks collecting samples and data from a million or more patients and/or participants [ 3 , 4 ].

While biobanks have become integral to health research, they are associated with adverse environmental impacts (Text A in Appendix 1 ). Most prominently, this relates to the carbon emissions associated with the ultra-low temperature (ULT) storage of biobanked biosamples. Ultra-low temperatures—typically considered temperatures below the − 30  °C ordinarily reached by standard freezers—are normally achieved using ULT freezers and/or liquid nitrogen (LN2), using large amounts of energy [ 5 ]. ULT freezers are the more ubiquitous storage method of the two, with each freezer sometimes consuming as much as 20 kWh per day, more than the average daily energy consumption of a UK household [ 6 , 7 ].

Given the increasing risk that anthropogenic climate change poses to both humanity and the planet as a whole, as well as increasing societal concern about environmental issues more generally [ 8 ], it is imperative that stakeholders within biobanking and the medical and life sciences research field as a whole both understand the global warming contribution and other environmental impacts associated with ULT storage, as well as take steps to mitigate these impacts as much as possible. While some research regarding the environmental impacts of ULT storage exists, both in terms of carbon specific impact and wider impacts [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ], there has been minimal drive to connect this research to a greater understanding of how this should be considered within biobanks in practice . Indeed, the idea that the biobanking sector should consider its own adverse environmental impacts at all represents a relatively new shift [ 14 ]. In line with this thinking, the environment needs to be considered alongside other pillars of biobanking sustainability, that is, financial and social sustainability. At the same time, how to implement such a perspective in practice raises concerns, with recent research suggesting that this is often difficult for those who manage and use biobanks because their responsibilities are often entangled with the cultural milieus and institutional networks to which they belong [ 15 ].

To address this, the aim of this paper is to provide a ‘Roadmap’ for how an environmental perspective can be implemented in practice in one specific aspect of biobanking: reducing carbon emissions associated with ULT storage (this paper is primarily focused on UK biobanks, however we believe the lessons can be applied globally) (Text B in Appendix 1 ). This Roadmap represents the output of a one year, UK-based, multidisciplinary research project that involved a quantitative Carbon Footprinting Assessment (CFA) of the emissions associated with one year of ULT storage [for both freezers and LN2 (reported in more detail in a forthcoming paper)] at four different case study sites (see Text C in Appendix 1 for full list), and two follow up stakeholder workshops to qualitatively explore UK biobank stakeholder perceptions, views, and experiences on how to consider such assessments within the broader social, political, financial, technical, and cultural contexts of biobanking (see Text D in Appendix 1 for methodology). Our roadmap provides a series of recommendations for nine important areas of practice relevant to mitigating the carbon emissions associated with ULT storage: four specific to ULT freezers, three for LN2 storage, and two generalised discussions regarding sample management/security and centralisation. These are listed below (Table  1 ). There are no simple solutions for implementing these nine practices, and as such, our recommendations reflect a balance between understanding the importance of each practice for reducing carbon emissions associated with ULT storage, alongside the current barriers associated with their implementation. The remainder of the paper discusses these practices in detail.

• Ultra-low temperature freezers

‘Warming up’ ULT freezers

The massive energy savings that can be achieved by warming up the temperature during a ULT freezer's use phase makes it a crucial intervention to prioritise when attempting to reduce energy consumption of ULT storage. Raising ULT freezers from − 80  ° C to − 75 °C has been shown to reduce electricity consumption by 15%, with that figure rising to 28% when a ULT is warmed 10 °C to − 70 °C [ 11 ], as well as prolonging a ULT freezer’s life by reducing the stress placed on the compressor over the course of its life cycle. Moreover, for ULT freezers that are housed in rooms with heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, the freezer requires less energy to maintain lower internal temperatures, therefore expelling less heat and, in turn, lowering HVAC requirements to maintain room set-temperature. This provides a large carbon saving for ULT storage given that the results of our own Carbon Footprinting Assessment, as well as other studies assessing the carbon impact of ULT freezer life cycles, show that the energy consumed during the use phase of a ULT freezer’s life cycle accounts for upwards of 90% of the product’s entire carbon footprint (assuming a standard UK electricity grid mix), or just under 13 tonnes of CO2e (Text E, Text F., Fig.  1 in Appendix 1 , [ 9 , 13 ]). To put this in perspective, the average household fridge-freezer’s electricity consumption will account for 0.89 tonnes of CO2e in the same time frame (12 years) [ 16 ].

Given the potential energy savings achieved from warming up, it has long been advocated as an important strategy for reducing carbon emissions [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ], with advocates also pointing to the mutual financial benefit due to the money saved on energy bills. Nevertheless, a norm has developed within biobanking, and laboratory science more generally, to maintain ULT freezers at − 80 °C as default [ 11 , 20 ]. This norm has become so widespread that within biobanking culture there is now a strong resistance to warming ULT freezers above this temperature. In fact, many biobank managers have raised concerns about effects on sample quality and viability at higher temperatures—concerns that some authors argue are blurred by emotional attachments to the samples themselves, with reports of biobank managers labelling them as “precious” and “irreplaceable” [ 15 ].

Concerns about sample quality are underpinned by the ‘magic number’ of cryopreservation of − 136.5 °C—a temperature known as the ‘glass transition stage of water’ [ 21 ]—at which the vast majority of metabolic activity ceases. At this temperature, sample quality and viability is perceived to be ensured for long periods of time [ 5 ], with sample quality being more ‘secure’ the closer the temperature is to − 136.5 °C. Once technical capacity permitted ULT freezers to operate at − 80 °C, this became deemed the optimum temperature—possibly also because the number corresponds to the sublimation point of ‘dry ice’ (− 78.5 °C), a fact that seems to have contributed to historical standards in cryopreservation [ 22 , 23 ].

Some scholars have criticised the importance of the − 80 °C set-temperature, arguing that it merely represents a push from ULT manufacturers as they invested in evermore technological capacity as a way to sell newer models capable of reaching ever colder temperatures, rather than the fact that these lower temperatures were necessarily required for the maintenance of biosample quality [ 17 , 19 ]. While these claims have not been substantiated, prior to the turn of the century, ULT freezers operated at − 70 °C without any known effect on sample quality [ 22 , 24 ]. Furthermore, a growing body of evidence points toward ongoing safety and stability of biosamples stored at − 70 °C [ 19 ].

Nevertheless, despite the progressing demystification of the − 80 °C figure, biobank managers have other concerns to contend with. Research suggests that the internal temperature of ULT freezers can often fail to correlate with the display temperature [ 25 ] meaning that a − 80 °C display temperature could mean an internal temperature of several degrees higher than − 80 °C. During our workshops, participants explained that this was a cause of concern for some, as a − 70 °C display temperature might actually mean an internal temperature closer to − 65 °C.

Logistical issues also contribute to reluctance to warm up. ULT’s can often hold more than one researcher’s samples, leading to a collective reluctance, either on the side of technical staff or researchers (or both), due to the perceived risk of jeopardizing multiple research projects. Furthermore, some research projects may have started storing samples at − 80 °C and while a researcher may be willing to warm up in principle, there is a fear that it might impact the reproducibility of their experiments.

Workshop participants also raised concerns that funding bodies stipulate that ULTs used for storage in research projects must be set to − 80 °C. Furthermore, they spoke about the need to align with the regulatory requirements of the UK Human Tissue Authority (HTA), which licenses biobanks. Participants emphasised that Designated Individuals (DI) (the individual within the biobank designated to ensure regulatory compliance [ 26 ]) are uncertain about how the HTA would react should a DI choose to warm up a biobank’s ULTs, and therefore are concerned that DIs would bear the burden of negative repercussions. Finally, participants explained that those who worked at larger biobanks, which collect samples for access by a range of researchers for unspecified future purposes, may be particularly cautious about warming up freezers because of the uncertainty about the effect on the full range of (potentially currently unknown) analytes within samples that future researchers might seek to access.

Recommendations

To demystify the − 80 °C norm that currently exists in biobanking, we recommend:

stakeholders to refrain from using ‘− 80s’ as a shorthand for ULT freezers as this perpetuates the − 80 °C norm.

widespread promotion of the University of Colorado, Boulder database [ 19 ], which records instances of active and successful − 70 °C ULT set point temperature practice.

promote future research on the quality and viability of common analytes stored at − 70 °C vs. − 80 °C in order to assuage biobank stakeholder concerns.

compiling historic and future research and evidence that specifically explores the effects of − 70 °C on samples into an accessible comprehensive database/library.

intra-institutional promotion of warming up examples—workshop participants emphasised that once researchers saw that freezers within a biobank had been warmed up without any effect on sample quality and viability, this practice ‘rippled out’ and encouraged more to follow suit.

implementing warming up protocols at the start of a research cycle, when researchers can be confident that it will not have an effect on the reproducibility of their experiments.

biobank managers supporting researchers to warm up ULT freezers by referencing existing evidence of sample viability at -70 °C, as well as the potential financial and carbon-saving benefits—as one of our workshop attendees put it—“don’t mandate researchers, take them on a journey”.

backup ULT freezers, which are maintained in case of emergencies, such as freezer failure, should be maintained at higher set point temperatures than in use ULTs [ 11 ] and be filled with materials such as polystyrene or spare ULT racking to increase thermal mass inside the freezer (see ULT freezer management practices and cooling strategies for more information).

deconstructing attitudes towards sample preciousness—(unpacked further in Sample management and centralisation ).

Biobank managers should be aware of discrepancies between ULT display temperatures and internal temperatures, which could be redressed by requesting extra temperature probes from manufacturers.

Biobank stakeholders should push manufacturers to address internal temperature issues and guarantee the proper functioning of new ULT models.

Biobank stakeholders should push for clarity from HTA and funding bodies regarding their stance on warming up in order to ease DI concerns. This process can begin with researchers requesting specification in the early stages of HTA applications.

ULT freezer management practices and cooling strategies

Effective ULT management best practices to help maintain biosample quality can ensure the efficient running of freezers and therefore play a vital role in decreasing freezer-associated energy use. These include regular de-icing, regular cleaning of air filters, efficient use of freezer space and capacity, maintenance of an appropriate room set point temperature, adequately spaced freezers, and limiting the number of daily door openings. They also include the location of ULT freezers: institutional building space constraints often lead to the placement of ULT freezers in unusual locations such as corridors or basements, which lack proper ventilation and/or air conditioning. This leaves them vulnerable to excess heat build-up (due to heat expelled by ULT freezers’ compressors, external weather conditions, or both) which, in turn, affects freezer efficiency [ 10 ]. As a result, most facilities will require a cooling strategy. Both passive and active solutions are possible, including the positioning of freezers so that heat is not trapped but pushed out, as well as the usage of supplementary cooling.

The importance of these practices for reducing the energy consumption of ULTs is often not stressed enough. Combined dust build-up on the filter and an obstructed door seal from a lack of de-icing can increase energy consumption by as much as 27% [ 10 , 25 ]—an energy loss that approximately equates to the gains associated with warming a ULT freezer by 10 °C. In another example, poor door-opening practices (leaving doors open for longer than needed) can lead to a rise in a freezer’s internal temperature [ 7 , 11 ], which forces the compressor to work harder, using more energy, and ultimately placing increased stress on the compressor over time [ 10 ]. Meanwhile, poor ULT freezer placement can lead to a 4% increase in energy consumption [ 25 ].

The stresses placed on ULT freezer’s compressors also becomes relevant when considering biobanks’ need for backup freezers. These freezers will, by definition, be mostly empty, and ULT freezers with little to no thermal mass inside will require the compressor to work harder in order to maintain set point temperature [ 27 ]. As mentioned in Sect. " ‘Warming up’ ULT Freezers ", backup freezers should maintain a higher set-point temperature in order to save energy and reduce compressor load, but they might also be used as decanting spaces when in use freezers are being defrosted, so that this compressor wear might be spread across a biobank’s ULT catalogue.

A best practice freezer management plan should be implemented to ensure all freezers are working as close to their optimal efficiency as possible and that energy savings can be secured.

Backup ULT freezers can be used as decanting spaces when fully loaded ULTs are being defrosted in order to share the load on ULT compressors across a biobank’s ULT catalogue.

Biobanks should employ a facility cooling strategy:

effective spacing between ULT freezers.

maintain a facility temperature of between 15 and 20 °C, through both passive and active cooling solutions [ 28 , 29 ].

Biobank managers need to maintain and document freezer management programmes to ensure that ULT freezer replacement is due to freezer inefficiency caused by age and/or mechanical fault, rather than poor management practices.

Thorough assessment of ULT replacement strategies

Our Carbon Footprinting Assessment of ULT freezers, and other such analyses, suggest that because the energy generated by a ULT freezer’s use phase dwarfs that generated by its manufacturing phase ([ 9 , 13 , Text F, Fig.  1 in Appendix 1 ), within most scenarios it makes sense solely from a carbon perspective to replace ULT freezers even if they are relatively new and their energy efficiency has only dropped slightly. This is because the amount of electricity saved by replacing a relatively young freezer with a new more efficient replacement will always outweigh the amount of carbon ‘lost’ by not using the old unit for its full lifespan, despite the replacement only running at a marginally better efficiency. For example, if we take 7.5 kWh per day as an assumed ‘maximum’ efficiency for a new replacement ULT (570 L), a figure cited in manufacturer’s literature [ 30 ], if a biobank manager meters their freezers and finds that a 5-year old freezer is running at 10 kWh per day, it would make ‘carbon sense’ to replace it.

However, this distorted picture ignores two important factors. First, freezer replacement is expensive and biobanks often lack resources. Whilst replacement is often touted as a cost savings method because of savings in energy use, only in extreme cases does replacement become justified from a financial perspective (such as when a freezer is performing at two to three times the energy efficiencies that a replacement would) (Text G, Table 2 in Appendix 1 ). Second, as we saw above, new ULT freezers may not operate at ‘maximum’ efficiency in practice because of poor freezer management practices. Equally, older freezers may run at high efficiencies even though it is generally assumed that they decrease in efficiency as they age up to their end of ‘lifespan’ (normally placed at somewhere between 10 and 12 years). In fact, during our research, we came across freezers that maintained efficiency levels comparable to ‘new’ freezers well-over the 12-year mark (Table 3 in Appendix 1 ), and some workshop participants discussed freezers running efficiently upwards of 20 years, suggesting that hypothetical energy efficiency claims can be inaccurate in practice. Indeed, in the same vein as the − 80 °C debate, a pertinent question emerges regarding the origin of the 10–12 year lifespan figure, though not one we have to the time to explore here.

As such, a replacement strategy based on hypothetical maximum efficiencies of ULTs is fundamentally flawed. Instead, collecting ‘in situ’ data on ULT freezers through freezer metering is needed—this is despite the financial and time-based considerations associated with the increased workload it entails for biobank employees. Without this metering data, a replacement strategy can only be based on the limited assumption that new freezers operate at their maximum efficiency, and older freezers operate far less inefficiently, without ruling out the possibility that poor ULT management practices are contributing to energy inefficiencies.

Rather than a blanket policy of age-based replacement, we recommend that replacement should occur only when metering data can be collected. Replacement of functional freezer units should only be considered where there is a potential energy saving of 2.5 kWh per day available.

Where the above is not possible, emphasis should be placed on why a freezer is not performing and an understanding of a biobank site’s limitations and areas of potential improvement, before replacement is considered (also see section below).

If these conditions are met and ULT is still not performing as well as a new ULT might be expected, then replacement should be considered, targeting the oldest units first.

End-of-life practices

End-of-life (EOL) best practice for ULT freezers is a relatively unexplored research area, however, in principle, they are similar to best practices in EOL scenarios for domestic refrigeration appliances. ULT freezer removal and disposal services must perform relevant processes to minimise emissions, including ensuring that oil and refrigerants from the ULT’s compressor are drained so that gasses with high global warming potentials can be removed and degassed. This is particularly important for older ULT models that utilise hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants, such as R-404a and R-508b, which have global warming potentials of 4728 and 13,412 times that of carbon dioxide, respectively [ 8 ]. Should large quantities of these gasses escape the ULT system due to improper disposal it could multiply the carbon footprint of the ULT’s lifecycle by many times. This point equally applies to the processing of polyurethane foam used for insulation in older ULT freezer models: older ULT freezers used HFC blowing agents in the manufacturing of polyurethane foam, such as HFC-245fa, which has a global warming potential of 962 times that of carbon dioxide [ 8 , 31 ].

Beyond gas escape, waste management centres should reclaim recyclable material, such as steel, from the ULT unit, to ensure that the EOL phase has as low an impact on a ULT freezer’s overall carbon footprint as possible. Finally, if a ULT freezer is being replaced due to energy concerns, rather than a complete age-related failure, biobanks might consider recycling their ULT unit with a company that refurbishes second-hand laboratory equipment for re-use [ 32 ]. This can extend the overall lifespan of a ULT freezer by allowing a second-hand user to avoid incurring the full carbon price of a newly manufactured ULT freezer, provided the second-hand freezer runs at comparable efficiency to that of a new ULT.

Ensure the use of waste management services that provide explicit information on their disposal processes when disposing ULT freezers.

During tender for new units or when units are to be disposed of, biobank managers should engage manufacturers and suppliers to reclaim parts and materials.

Consider repurposing ULT freezers through laboratory equipment reclamation companies, unless freezer units have been identified as particularly inefficient, in which case they should be targeted for disposal.

Liquid nitrogen

Very little research has assessed the carbon footprint of liquid nitrogen (LN2) storage, and as such, the literature regarding best practices for LN2 storage in biobanking is almost entirely focused on safety as opposed to considerations around carbon impact. This focus is appropriate given the danger LN2 handling poses, but is also indicative of a lack of understanding and knowledge surrounding its associated carbon impact. This was reinforced by our workshop participants who noted that the carbon impact of LN2 is neither discussed in their respective biobanks, nor did they know how to reduce carbon emissions associated with the use of LN2 storage. In the following sections we explore the carbon footprint of LN2 storage, discuss strategies to mitigate this footprint, whilst also surveying the barriers that prevent low-carbon LN2 storage in biobanking.

LN2 delivery and manual refill

For all our case study sites, road emissions associated with delivery from industrial manufacturing sites to respective use sites accounted for at least half of the carbon footprint associated with LN2 storage, ranging from a low of 56% to a high of 80% total carbon emissions (Text H, Fig. 2 in Appendix 1 ). Furthermore, all our case study sites had negligible differences in distances between manufacturing sites, distribution hubs, and use sites because of their proximity to major cities, meaning that these figures might be even larger for those biobanks further from distribution hubs. Factors affecting variation in total carbon emissions included the volume of LN2 being delivered each year, the frequency of delivery, and the distance between manufacturing sites, distribution sites and case study sites. For all respective case study sites, the smaller the volume of LN2 delivered per annum and the more frequent LN2 deliveries were per year, the larger the proportion of road-associated carbon emissions. This means that for larger sites, requiring more LN2 per delivery, the emissions due to road miles are ‘spread out’ across the larger volumes being delivered. Essentially, economies of scale play a factor in LN2 storage, pointing to the relevance of centralisation as a way to mitigate road-related emissions (see “ Centralisation ” section below).

Given the economies of scale available, the consolidation of LN2 deliveries into larger orders suggests itself as a natural solution. This could be accommodated by the use of bulk LN2 storage tanks that allow for the storage of larger amounts of liquid nitrogen on biobanking sites. Furthermore, the use of piping to deliver LN2 directly to use points can remove unnecessary losses of LN2 when decanting into smaller vessels for transportation from storage locations. However, the storage of larger amounts of LN2 comes with a variety of practical concerns. In particular, LN2 storage requires specific safety requirements to prevent against the risk of asphyxiation: when storing LN2 in contained spaces, there is a possibility that nitrogen could build up in the air, displacing the oxygen in a room [ 33 ]. As such, large quantities of LN2 need to be stored in rooms with adequate ventilation or outside. This may create logistical issues in practice, for example, if laboratories are located on the fifth floor of a building and LN2 storage is outside due to space constraints, biobank managers will need to transport LN2 to the fifth floor when required, a task that in itself has strict safety requirements and may prove difficult or impractical [ 33 ]. The specific layout of biobanking sites might also pose difficulties when considering piping LN2 directly to use points, as seen in the example above. Furthermore, for sites that have not been set up with LN2 piping capabilities, installing piping may prove costly. However, LN2 piping systems should be considered when building purpose-built biobanking facilities (see “ Centralisation ” section below).

Where the constraints considered above allow, biobanks should consolidate LN2 deliveries in order to avoid delivery multi-runs.

Auto-refill systems

One of our case study sites—the University of Nottingham (UoN) Cell Bank—used an LN2 auto-refill system rather than the manual fill LN2 dewars that were used at our other case sites. Our analysis showed a plummet in the amount of LN2 required for this site per year with respect to storage capacity, compared to other case study sites. Specifically, the volume of LN2 required per annum per litre of LN2 storage capacity for sites that used manual refill dewars was between 13 and 15 L, compared to ~ 2 L at UoN Cell Bank (Table 4 in Appendix 1 ). We hypothesise that this difference is likely attributed to the loss rate associated with manual fill LN2 dewars compared to auto-refill systems. Moreover, the large capacity of UoN’s LN2 system, in which samples are stored across just two auto-refill units, allows for less LN2 escape than configurations in which samples are stored across a large number of dewars. In fact, during the workshop, participants estimated a 30% loss rate from manual fill dewars, particularly in decentralised storage configurations, in which many individual LN2 dewars are manually replenished from onsite storage vessels and then separately accessed by different researchers across the site.

Where constraints considered above allow, biobanks should implement an auto-refill LN2 system.

On-site generation

On-site LN2 generators are increasingly being considered for large-scale biobanks. Their major advantage versus the delivery of industrially produced LN2 is the elimination of road emissions. In fact, our analysis shows that if on-site LN2 generation is combined with auto-refill systems (described above), there is potential to reduce the LN2 storage carbon footprint by 54% (Text I, Fig. 3 in Appendix 1 ). On-site LN2 generation, however, is not necessarily suitable for smaller scale biobanks. LN2 generators are often prohibitively expensive, starting in the range of £20,000. Their production capacity is also far greater than required by smaller biobanks and their physical configurations can, in some instances, be prohibitive. For instance, as a part of a Higher Education Institution, the UoN Cell Bank shares its LN2 supply with a range of other laboratories, and therefore requires a large 2000 L storage vessel to be filled once weekly. The likely cost of such a large unit is upwards of £100,000; the purchase of multiple smaller units for all the laboratories relying on this supply, will be even more financially onerous. Nevertheless, for biobanks that have or are looking toward centralisating their LN2 storage, on-site LN2 generators offer a unique opportunity to drastically reduce the carbon footprint associated with their LN2 storage.

Where constraints considered above allow, biobanks should implement an on-site LN2 generator.

Sample management and centralisation

Sample management and security.

Sample management refers to how biobanks track, store, and utilise samples once they have been collected and processed. The number of samples stored and the time the biobank stores them will directly impact the amount of ULT storage required (both in terms of volume and time) and therefore, a biobank’s carbon footprint. From a strictly carbon perspective, this means only storing samples that are actively being used. This aligns with a biobank’s financial, institutional and ethical motivations to ensure sample usage [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 ]. However, research indicates that samples in biobanks are often underutilised [ 34 ]. Indeed, some workshop participants described storing samples that were rarely used and/or belonged to researchers that had moved institutions or projects. Here, attitudes described in the above ‘warming up’ section become relevant again, with concerns that discarding samples goes against their perceived potential future ‘value’ as ‘irreplaceable’ samples [ 15 ]. This possibility of future value is also emphasised in HTA regulation, which encourages researchers to ‘maximise’ the possibility of human tissue use before disposal [ 38 ]. The point is especially pertinent for biobanks that have been established to provide access to samples for future unknown use—as their potential value is unknown at the point of collection—but also holds true for those who have collected their own samples and stored them in institutional biobanks, because of the ‘just in case it has value’ mentality. This mindset may also manifest at the beginning of research projects, with researchers collecting more samples than are required or samples that are not strictly necessary for the research project, something one workshop participant described as ‘collection for collection’s sake.’

At the same time, underutilisation is also seen as an issue tied to the lack of infrastructure to advertise the availability of biosample collections and/or the lack of streamlined application processes for researchers to gain access to biocollections [ 37 , 39 ], as well as the lack of sharing culture within biobanking. Both workshop participants and the broader literature rationalise this culture as a lack of trust and reluctance to relinquish control of samples that have taken time and effort to collect into centralised, accessible collections [ 15 ]. And while some workshop participants described increasing attention to sharing information about other biobanks’ samples with researchers, they also mentioned particular independent biobanks that were more focused on maximising financial reward and capitalising on intellectual property claims, rather than making their collections accessible for sharing.

This question of sample management also intersects with carbon emission issues when we consider the wider ramifications on sample access. While some biobanks allow open access to researchers, access at others is more controlled through designated biobank technicians and managers. While designated staff come with a cost, they provide crucial controls for the facility, and importantly, can ensure that facility storage is not abused by research staff unnecessarily maintaining large sample collections. Limited access may entail simply removing open access to the facility, but can also include providing a charge per sample (or per shelf), both to cover the cost of designated staff, but also to deter sample hoarding.

Finally, sample management involves considering which steps are in place in the event of an emergency, including which staff will be present both day and night, and who has access to biobanking protocols during those times. This is because ULT freezer failures not only represent a catastrophic possibility for researchers due to the potential for lost samples, but also the possibility of a huge carbon loss when we consider the resources already sunk into existing samples.

If not already required by regulation, electronic management systems should be implemented in biobanks.

If not already required by regulation, regular sample audits should be introduced in biobanks as part of sample management best practice.

Encouragement of reflection on which samples are needed at the beginning of long-term studies, as well as the quantity of samples required—discouragement of sample collection for collection’s sake.

‘Use, discard, pay’ schemes that encourage researchers to either utilise existing samples, discard them, or pay for their storage on-site or in independent off-site facilities should be considered by biobank stakeholders. This could be combined with placing time-limits on sample collections at the beginning of studies, after which utilization rates will be reviewed with a view to sample discardment or payment for ongoing storage. These charges can also cover costs for designated biobanking managers.

The storage of samples in correctly sized equipment and storage boxes to maximise storage capacity.

Efforts should be made to bolster biobanking infrastructure within the UK. For example, the expansion of advertising infrastructure so that there is a greater awareness of which samples already exist and the formalisation of specialised biobanking networks, a possibility instantiated by the UKCRC Tissue Directory and Coordination Centre and, at a more specialised level, the UK Brain Banks Network [ 40 , 41 ].

Biobank stakeholders should engage national funders and regulators on developing clearly communicated and effective joint policy to promote the use of existing research samples and infrastructure after initial study use [ 42 ].

An effort to change attitudes within biobanking culture should be promoted. Reframing research collections as commons, rather than ‘belonging’ to individual researchers, and encouraging communitarian approaches to biobanking, will help address over-attachment to samples and promote sample sharing amongst biobanks and researchers.

Clear instructions should be made visually available for all staff regarding what to do in (a) the scenario of a single unit failing, and (b) a power-failure across the facility. These should include keeping units closed during power failure, unless transporting samples or adding dry-ice (the location of which should be indicated).

Centralisation

Biobank centralisation can take different forms. For example, UK Biobank represents a large-scale, national biobanking project that collected biosamples from over 500,000 UK participants for access by many researchers [ 43 ]. Meanwhile, one of UK Biobank’s subsidiaries, the UK Biocentre, is a purpose-built biobanking facility that collects, processes, and stores huge numbers of samples on behalf of other researchers [ 44 ]. Centralisation may also entail the unification of many smaller, previously existing sample collections under a single management infrastructure [ 45 ]. Whatever approach is taken, centralisation is purported to provide financial and operational benefits from economies of scale, standardisation of biobanking practice, simplification and harmonisation of sample access, and greater quality assurance for biosamples, amongst other reasons [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ].

Whether centralisation could also improve the carbon impact of ULT storage within biobanking remains a relatively unexplored research topic. Nevertheless, existing research, as well as workshop participants’ perceptions, indicate that some biobank stakeholders do see this potential [ 15 ]. There are many reasons to believe this view is correct. First, centralisation of ULT storage can promote standardisation of practices that reduce energy inefficiencies, such as warming up freezers, coordinated replacement and purchasing strategies, and the bulk delivery of consolidated LN2 orders. Second, the construction of purpose-built centralised facilities (where relevant) could lift pressure on existing institutional building infrastructure, a factor that often contributes to ULT freezers being stored in inappropriate locations that negatively impact energy consumption. Purpose built facilities could also allow for a building design that can mitigate safety concerns associated with LN2 storage by allowing for purpose-built ventilation systems. Third, centralisation may allow institutions to explore previously unavailable technical options, such as a Nordic system [ 49 ], that have been shown to significantly reduce the energy impact of collective ULT storage [ 50 ], LN2 piping directly to use points, on-site LN2 generators, and auto-refill systems. Centralised sample management systems might allow for more effective auditing, utilisation, and disposal protocols by streamlining the infrastructure, time, and money required for these processes, a benefit that would apply equally to LN2 and ULT freezer storage. Finally, purpose-built, centralised facilities offer the opportunity to provide additional layers of facility security, a feature that biobanks arising out of embedded institutional departments might lack.

Nevertheless, centralisation is not a silver-bullet fix. For instance, such an approach does not mean that low-carbon decision making is emphasised in operations. The UK Biocentre, for instance, runs its ULT freezers exclusively at − 80 °C. Workshop participants also shared experiences of researcher pushback to centralisation efforts based on concerns regarding their proximity to research samples (also see [ 15 ]). Where centralisation involves the construction of a new facility, space constraints will often mean that the facility must be built some distance from the existing biobank site, a fact that researchers cite as a concern, as well as being incredibly expensive. Purpose-built research facilities, large-scale ULT storage options, such as an on-site LN2 generator or a Nordic system, and centralised research infrastructures require millions of pounds of investment in order to achieve. Building such facilities also have their own embodied carbon footprint. This alone makes centralisation a long-term option for reducing the carbon impact of ULT storage that may only be available to large-scale organisations with access to vast funding networks and have calculated the net carbon emissions over a multiple-year time frame.

We recommend the incorporation of the low-carbon case for centralisation into institutional level decision-making and planning for ULT storage:

for higher education institutions this process could begin with faculty restructures that allow more streamlined decision-making processes and centralised budget management. This should act as a first step before considering larger capital projects for purpose-built biobanking facilities.

it should also be stressed that decision-making regarding centralisation should be made in conjunction with other recommendations made in this paper:

before the decision to build a new biobanking facility due to space constraints, it should be a priority to ensure sample management techniques are maximising existing space and preventing expansion for its own sake.

old ULT storage units, both freezers and LN2 vessels, should be carried over to new facilities, unless a new, more efficient, large-scale system have been requisitioned i.e. Nordic system, automated LN2 system.

In conclusion, mitigating the carbon emissions associated with ULT storage presents complexity. While this complexity manifests in the competing areas of interest within biobanking (financial, operational, technical, social, cultural), between a variety of different stakeholders, it also offers many areas for progress for those concerned with implementing low-carbon strategies. In our recommendations, we hope to have offered a path forward for biobanking decision-makers that are struggling to implement already well-known strategies for centering low-carbon decision making.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files]. Further data sets pertaining to the quantitative information included in the article [and its supplementary information] are available from the authors upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Ultra-low temperature

Carbon footprinting assessment

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

Human tissue authority

Designated individual

End-of-life

Hydrofluorocarbon

University of Nottingham

Meir K, Cohen Y, Mee B, Gaffney E. Biobank networking for dissemination of data and resources: an overview. J Bioreposit Sci Appl Med. 2014;2:29.

Article   Google Scholar  

Chalmers D, Nicol D, Kaye J, Bell J, Campbell AV, Ho CWL, et al. Has the biobank bubble burst? Withstanding the challenges for sustainable biobanking in the digital era. BMC Med Ethics. 2016;17(1):39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-016-0124-2 .

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

National Institutes of Health. National Institutes of Health (NIH)—all of Us. National Institutes of Health; 2019. Available from: https://allofus.nih.gov/ .

Medical University of Graz. Biobank Graz [Internet]. Medical University of Graz; 2024. Available from: https://biobank.medunigraz.at/en/ .

Day JG, Stacey GN. Biobanking. Mol Biotechnol. 2008;40(2):202–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12033-008-9099-7 .

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Chatterton TJ, Anable J, Barnes J, Yeboah G. Mapping household direct energy consumption in the United Kingdom to provide a new perspective on energy justice. Energy Res Soc Sci. 2016;18:71–87.

Legett R. Field demonstration of high-efficiency ultra-low-temperature laboratory freezers. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy: US Department of Energy; 2014. Available from: https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2014/11/f19/ult_demo_report.pdf .

IPCC. The Physical Science Basis Climate Change 2021 Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2021. Available from: https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg1/IPCC_AR6_WGI_FullReport.pdf .

Berchowitz D, Kwon Y. Environmental profiles of stirling-cooled and cascade-cooled ultra-low temperature freezers. Sustainability. 2012;4(11):2838–51.

Gumapas LAM, Simons G. Factors affecting the performance, energy consumption, and carbon footprint for ultra low temperature freezers: case study at the National Institutes of Health. World Rev Sci Technol Sustain Dev. 2013;10(123):129.

Farley M, McTeir B, Arnott A, Evans A. Efficient ULT freezer storage. Social Responsibility & Sustainability: University of Edinburgh; 2015. Available from: https://www.ed.ac.uk/files/atoms/files/efficient_ult_freezer_storage.pdf .

Faugeroux D. Ultra-low temperature freezer performance and energy use tests. Office of Sustainability: University of California, Riverside; 2016. Available from: https://sustainability.ucsc.edu/engage/green-certified/green-labs/resources/Green%20Procurement/ucr2016_tempfreezertest .

Hajagos B. Life cycle assessment and emission reduction of cascade and Stirling ultra-low temperature freezers [Internet] [Master’s Thesis]. [Eindhoven University of Technology]; 2021. Available from: https://pure.tue.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/183343183/1492306_MasterThesisBenceHajagos.pdf .

Samuel G, Lucivero F, Lucassen AM. Sustainable biobanks: a case study for a green global bioethics. Global Bioethics. 2022;33(1):50–64.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Samuel G, Sims JM. Drivers and constraints to environmental sustainability in UK-based biobanking: balancing resource efficiency and future value. BMC Med Ethics. 2023;24(1).

Carbon Footprint. carbonfootprint.com—household energy consumption. Carbonfootprint.com. 2019. Available from: https://www.carbonfootprint.com/energyconsumption.html .

Bousema T. -70 is the new-80 [Internet]. RadboudUMC; 2020. Available from: https://www.freezerchallenge.org/uploads/2/1/9/4/21945752/minus_70_is_the_new_minus_80_updated_may_2022_v2.pdf .

Internation Freezer Challenge. Cold Storage Best Practices. International Laboratory Freezer Challenge. Available from: https://www.freezerchallenge.org/best-practices-overview.html .

University of Colorado Boulder. Freezer Energy Efforts. Environmental Center. University of Colorado, Boulder; 2023. Available from: https://www.colorado.edu/ecenter/greenlabs/lab-energy-efforts/freezers/70-0c-efforts .

University of Exeter. ULT freezers. Sustainable Labs. University of Exeter. Available from: https://www.exeter.ac.uk/about/sustainability/whatweareng/sustainablelabs/energy/ultfreezers/ .

Lucas P, Pries J, Wei S, Wuttig M. The glass transition of water, insight from phase change materials. J Non-Cryst Solids. 2022;1(14):100084.

Google Scholar  

Radin J. Life on ice: a history of new uses for cold blood. Chicago: The University Of Chicago Press; 2017.

Book   Google Scholar  

Coriell LL, Greene AE, Silver RK. Historical development of cell and tissue culture freezing. Cryobiology. 1964;1(1):72–9.

Blackham I, Jim C. The culture of cryopreservation: supercooling, seeding and subzero safety. Biotechnology. 1994;12:82.

Evans A. ULT Freezer Best Practice: Impacts. Green Light Labs; 2022. Available from: https://www.scientificlabs.co.uk/file/1991/Defrost%20the%20Freezer%20Regularly%20to%20Prevent%20a%20Build-up%20of%20Frost .

Human Tissue Authority. How licensing works under the Human Tissue Quality and Safety Regulations [Internet]. Human Tissue Authority; 2023. Available from: https://www.hta.gov.uk/guidance-professionals/licences-roles-and-fees/licensing/how-licensing-works-under-human-tissue .

Groover K, Kulina L, Franke J. Effect of increasing thermal mass on chamber temperature stability within ultra-low freezers in bio-repository operations. 2009. Available from: https://biospecimens.cancer.gov/meeting/brnsymposium/2009/docs/posters/poster%2015%20groover.pdf .

Muenz R. How to operate and maintain an ultralow temperature freezer. Lab Manager. 2021. Available from: https://www.labmanager.com/big-picture/lab-ultralow-cold-storage/how-to-operate-and-maintain-an-ultralow-temperature-freezer-24970

Scientific Laboratory Supplies. ULT Freezer best practice: Ambient air temperature [Internet]. Scientific Laboratory Supplies. 2023 [cited 2024 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.scientificlabs.co.uk/news/article/1181 .

Eppendorf. CryoCube ® F570 Series—ULT Freezer—Eppendorf United Kingdom [Internet]. Eppendorf; 2023. Available from: https://www.eppendorf.com/gb-en/eShop-Products/Cold-Storage/ULT-Freezers/CryoCube-F570-Series-p-PF-908034 .

Deng Y, Dewil R, Appels L, Ansart R, Baeyens J, Kang Q. Reviewing the thermo-chemical recycling of waste polyurethane foam. J Environ Manage. 2021;278(1):111527.

Richmond Scientific. Reducing the energy used by ULT freezers in the lab. Richmond Scientific; 2022. Available from: https://www.richmondscientific.com/reduce-energy-used-by-ult-freezers-in-the-lab .

University of Edinburgh—School of Chemistry. Standard Operating Procedure—Liquid Nitrogen - Storage, Use & Transportation Guidance & Code of Practice [Internet]. University of Edinburgh; 2014. Available from: https://www.chem.ed.ac.uk/sites/default/files/safety/documents/cryogenic.pdf .

Annaratone L, De Palma G, Bonizzi G, Sapino A, Botti G, Berrino E, et al. Basic principles of biobanking: from biological samples to precision medicine for patients. Virchows Arch. 2021;479(2):233–46.

UKRI. UK Funders’ Vision for Human Tissue Resources [Internet]. UKRI; 2011. Available from: https://www.ukcrc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Vision+for+human+tissue+resources.pdf .

Scudellari M. Biobank managers bemoan underuse of collected samples. Nat Med. 2013;19(3):253–63.

Cadigan RJ, Juengst E, Davis A, Henderson G. Underutilization of specimens in biobanks: an ethical as well as a practical concern? Genet Med. 2014;16(10):738–40.

Medical Research Council. Research and the Human Tissue Act 2004: Disposal [Internet]. Medical Research Council Support Centre; 2019. Available from: https://www.ukri.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/MRC-301121-ResearchHumanTissueAct2004-DisposalSummary.pdf .

Paradiso AV, Daidone MG, Canzonieri V, Zito A. Biobanks and scientists: supply and demand. J Transl Med. 2018;16(1):136. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-018-1505-8 .

UKCRC Tissue Directory and Coordination Centre. About Us. UKCRC Tissue Directory and Coordination Centre; 2024. Available from: https://www.biobankinguk.org/about-us/ .

UK Brain Banks Network. Brain Banks [Internet]. UK Brain Banks Network; 2024. Available from: https://brainbanknetwork.ac.uk/BrainBank/BrainBanks .

UKCRC Tissue Directory and Coordination Centre. State of Biobanking in the UK: Future Directions for Coordination. 2021. Available from: https://www.biobankinguk.org/wp-content/uploads/UKCRCTDCC_2030Vision-DraftConsultation.pdf .

Allen N, Sudlow C, Downey P, Peakman T, Danesh J, Elliott P, et al. UK Biobank: current status and what it means for epidemiology. Health Policy Technol. 2012;1(3):123–6.

UK Biocentre. The Centre for Biomedical Services. UK Biocentre; 2023. Available from: https://www.ukbiocentre.com/pdf/UKBiocentre.pdf .

Hummel M, Specht C. Biobanks for future medicine. J Lab Med. 2019;43(6):383–8. https://doi.org/10.1515/labmed-2019-0106 .

Ginsburg GS, Burke TW, Febbo P. Centralized biorepositories for genetic and genomic research. J Am Med Assoc. 2008;299(11):1359.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Rogers J, Carolin T, Vaught J, Compton C. Biobankonomics: a taxonomy for evaluating the economic benefits of standardized centralized human biobanking for translational research. JNCI Monogr. 2011;2011(42):32–8.

van der Stijl R, Manders P, Eijdems EWHM. Recommendations for a Dutch sustainable biobanking environment. Biopreserv Biobank. 2021;19(3):228–40. https://doi.org/10.1089/bio.2021.0011 .

Labmode. Nordic Modular ULT Freezer System [Internet]. Labmode; 2023. Available from: https://labmode.co.uk/product/nordic-modular-ult-freezer-system/ .

Erasmus MC Central Biobank. Annual Report-Service Platforms 2022. Erasmus MC Central Biobank; 2023.

UK Government. Greenhouse Gas Reporting: Conversion Factors 2023. Department for Energy Security and Net Zero; 2023.

International Organization for Standardisation. ISO 14067:2018 - Greenhouse Gases-Carbon Footprint of Products—Requirements and Guidelines for Quantification. International Organization for Standardisation; 2018.

Hammond G, Jones C. Inventory of Carbon and Energy-Version 3.0. University of Bath; 2019.

Johnson RW. The effect of blowing agent choice on energy use and global warming impact of a refrigerator. Int J Refrig. 2004;27(7):794–9.

Xiao R, Zhang Y, Liu X, Yuan Z. A life-cycle assessment of household refrigerators in China. J Cleaner Prod. 2015;15(95):301–10.

European Industrial Gases Association. Position Paper - Indirect CO2 emissions compensation: Benchmark proposal for Air Separation Plants [Internet]. European Industrial Gases Association; 2010. Available from: https://puritygas.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/EIGA-PP33.pdf .

APEL. LIN10 liquid nitrogen generator-Triton|Noblegen. APEL LASER. APEL LASER; 2023. Available from: https://apellaser.ro/en/product/lin10-liquid-nitrogen-generator-triton-noblegen .

Download references

Acknowledgements

Special thanks to all those who made the writing of this paper, including the biobank managers that allowed us access to case study sites, the attendees of both the first and second qualitative workshops, and those who offered feedback on an early draft of the Roadmap. We’d also like to thank those who reviewed this paper and offered insightful feedback and thoughtful additions. In particular we’d like to thank the following contributors: Dr. Lee Stanyer, Mr. Sam Wadge, Mr. Lee Hibbett, Mr. John Grist, Dr. Mireia Mato Prado, Mr. Mark Gaskin, Dr. Cheryl Gillet, Ms. Caitlin Broadbent, Dr. Ainhoa Mielgo Iza, Mr. Andy Evans, Dr. Sue Ring, Dr. Alison Parry-Jones, Dr. Laura Palmer, Dr. Gareth Bicknell, Dr. Chantal Colmont, Mr. Sean James, Dr. Marcelo Salierno, Ms. Claire Cox, Dr. Hannah Davies, Ms. Allison Hunter, Ms. Juliane Miani, Mr. Richard Lee, Dr. Jan-Hedrik Berbermeier.

This work was supported by the Medical Research Council under grant number MR/X011690/1.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department for Global Health and Social Medicine, King’s College London, London, WC2R 2LS, UK

Matthew Graham & Gabrielle Samuel

Medical Research Council, Swindon, SN2 1FL, UK

Martin Farley

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All three co-authors, Matthew Graham, Dr. Gabrielle Samuel, and Martin Farley, were involved in the conception and design of this work. They were all involved in the drafting of the work and the critical review of the work for important intellectual content. All the authors gave approval of the final work to be published and to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gabrielle Samuel .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Competing interests.

The authors report there are no competing interests to declare.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

There is an argument that claims that biobanking as an enterprise represents a more sustainable set up to its ‘alternative’, a situation in which samples and data are not shared and many different researchers must undertake the work, and incur the environmental costs, that is done only once in a biobanking setup. This argument, however, has not been quantitatively substantiated and, moreover, is beyond the scope of this paper to address.

CO 2 vs. energy

Given the UK focus of this paper, we are working under the assumption that reducing the energy consumption of ULT storage, whether freezers or LN2, reduces the carbon footprint of these storage methods. This assumption is based on the fact that the UK currently has an emission conversion factor of 0.27386 kgCO 2 e/kWh [ 51 ], meaning that the large amounts of energy required for the ULT freezer use phase and the LN2 production phase will result in the production of CO 2 e. However, in extrapolating our recommendations to biobanks that are located in institutions/buildings that generate their own energy, as well as to different nations around the world, we understand that this assumption becomes problematic because of differences in the electrical mix. Indeed, while we did not explicitly discuss the use of renewable energy as a way of moving toward low-carbon biobanking, we do acknowledge that the transition to renewable energy sources is a crucial part of mitigating the carbon impact of ULT storage. However, it must be noted that this transition comes with its own set of environmental challenges that are beyond the scope of the paper.

Case study sites

School of Neuroscience, Wolfson Centre, King’s College London

The Department for Twins Research and Epidemiology, St. Thomas’ Hospital, King’s College London

The Institute of Neurology, Queen’s Square House, University College London

The University of Nottingham Cell Bank

Workshop methods

The first workshop was held online in July 2023 and attended by 14 biobank stakeholders, including researchers, biobank managers, a biobank director, and Higher Education Institution biobanking and sustainability leads. Participants were invited based on the authors’ existing network of biobanking stakeholders as well as via snowballing (n = 5 in London; n = 3 in other parts of southern England; n = 3 Midlands; n = 1 Northern England; n = 2 Wales). The workshop explored participant views on decision-making regarding ULT storage options with respect to these storage options’ environmental impact. A pre-workshop activity asked participants about their current decision-making processes in relation to low-carbon ULT storage, as well as their perspectives on which barriers and/or drivers were most prominent in their decision-making. During the workshop, we presented the results of the Carbon Footprinting Assessment on ULT storage space before holding a Q&A of open discussion in which participants shared their experiences of carbon-based decision making in biobanking. Participants then entered breakout rooms to discuss follow up questions, including:

When making decisions about buying a ULT freezer/LN2: Where do you get information from to make decisions and do you have enough information? Do you think the information is credible? Do the findings that we presented today change your perceptions of this information at all?

Are there any opportunities to overcome the barriers mentioned in the earlier discussions of this workshop/pre-workshop activity in terms of:

Efficient freezer management (e.g., needing to be housed appropriately)

Principal Investigators: how can we engage them in terms of sample management?

Opportunities for institutional change—how to get around issues mentioned in the pre-activity exercise (inc. power mix/renewables)?

Other economic/social issues that need to be overcome, and how?

Current regulations (are they barriers or are they useful)?

How can we move past the above mentioned barriers—are they insurmountable?

How do you imagine the future of the UK biobanking sector? What does it look like (be as broad or specific as you like)?

Is there anything else we need to consider in our Roadmap for low carbon ULT storage in biobanking? Is any aspect of our carbon assessment missing that needs to be included in the next workshop? Are there any other sustainability issues (environmental/waste/social/calculations that would be useful)?

The second workshop was held online in December 2023 and was attended by 7 biobank stakeholders, including four biobank managers, a sustainability manager, a researcher, and a lead of campus operations at a university (n = 3 London; n = 2 Midlands; n = 1 Northern England; n = 1 Switzerland). Two of these participants attended the first workshop, while the remaining participants were invited based on the authors’ existing network of biobanking stakeholders as well as via snowballing. The workshop explored participant views and feedback on a draft version of this paper, which was shared with participants in advance of the workshop, and ‘test’ the framework developed in the first workshop in terms of its potential efficacy and actionability.

The information below contains text, tables and data drawn from two Carbon Footprinting Assessments (CFA) carried out by the authors as part of the project from which this paper resulted. For the purposes of this study a CFA methodology was chosen, and followed in accordance with ISO 14067:2018 standards [ 52 ]. The first CFA took an Eppendorf CryoCube F570n as its functional unit and establishes a carbon footprint for its entire lifecycle. The second CFA took 1 L of ultra-low storage (ULT) space for 1 year as its functional unit and established the carbon footprint of this unit. A full description of these studies will be presented in a forthcoming paper.

The life cycle inventory (LCI) for the first CFA was comprised of various data categories, collected from a variety of sources. Firstly, original equipment manufacturers (OEM) were contacted in order to compile a list of components that comprise an Eppendorf F570n ULT freezer (570L listed internal volume [ 30 ]). This list was then cross-referenced with existing literature, specifically the Berchowitz and Kwon study [ 9 ]. From this list of components conversion factors were sourced from existing literature, with the Inventory of Carbon and Energy database (version 3.0) being utilized for the majority of the raw materials [ 53 ].

Existing literature was consulted in order to determine values for the raw material transformation, while OEM data was used to determine values for both the transportation of raw materials and the manufactured product to its use site. In order to determine the values associated with the product’s use phase, an average of the CryoCube F570n’s metered was taken and adjusted to account for aging over a 12-year life-span, an assumed set temperature of − 80 °C, a room set point temperature of 21 °C, used capacity of 80%, and an average of one door opening per week. As such, a power consumption of 9.7 kWh per day has been set. The emission factor for grid electricity was taken from the UK GHG Report 2023 [ 51 ]. Existing literature was consulted in order to determine refrigerant leakage rate [ 54 ]. Finally, the transportation to waste reclamation sites was calculated, and existing literature was used to gather data on the EOL processes [ 55 ].

In considering the financial dimension of ULT freezer replacement (Table 2 ) we modelled a situation in which a ULT freezer with an assumed lifespan of 12 years runs at an efficiency of 8kWh per day and then modelled variables. In Table 2 , it was assumed that a ULT freezer was disposed of after 8 years. We have also assumed a purchase price of £10,000 and an electricity cost of £0.31 per kWh.

The LCI for the liquid nitrogen (LN2) portion of the second CFA was comprised of various data categories, collected from a variety of sources. Firstly, the LN2 storage capacity of each case study site was provided by the respective sites, as well as the LN2 usage per annum at each site. The energy required to produce LN2 on an industrial scale was taken from a European Industrial Gases Association position paper [ 56 ], whilst the energy required to maintain the auto-refill system at the University of Nottingham (UoN) Cell Bank was provided by the UoN. The emission factor for grid electricity was taken from the UK GHG Report 2023 [ 51 ].

To determine the contribution of road transportation to the LN2 carbon footprint, distances were calculated between case study sites, LN2 distribution hubs, and the primary sites of LN2 production. These distances were then multiplied by the emission factor for a diesel HGV (7.5–17 tonnes—rigid/average laden) provided by the UK GHG Report 2023 [ 51 ].

The figures for the hypothetical case study site comparison of different LN2 systems were based on the figures described above ( Text F ), while also including figures for the electricity required to maintain an LN2 generator, which were taken from manufacturer data [ 57 ] (Figs. 1 , 2 , 3 ; Tables 2 , 3 , 4 ).

The lifetime kgCO 2 e impact of an Eppendorf CryoCube F570 n—see “ Text F ” for more detail

A comparison contributions of electricity use and road transportation of the carbon footprint of respective case study sites

LN2 systems comparison of a hypothetical case study site using LN2 generation in combination with auto-refill system to a site using industrially produced LN2 and road transportation delivery

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Graham, M., Samuel, G. & Farley, M. Roadmap for low-carbon ultra-low temperature storage in biobanking. J Transl Med 22 , 747 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-024-05383-5

Download citation

Received : 17 April 2024

Accepted : 07 June 2024

Published : 08 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-024-05383-5

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Sustainability
• Liquid nitrogen storage
• Carbon footprint

Journal of Translational Medicine

ISSN: 1479-5876

• Submission enquiries: Access here and click Contact Us
• General enquiries: [email protected]

• Español (Spanish)
• Français (French)
• Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian)
• Brasil (Portuguese)
• India (English)
• हिंदी (Hindi)
• Feature Stories
• Explore All
• Subscribe page
• Submissions
• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Use
• Advertising
• Wild Madagascar
• Selva tropicales
• Mongabay.org
• Tropical Forest Network

Amazon Fraud 101: How timber credits mask illegal logging in Brazil

Share this article

If you liked this story, share it with other people.

• Sustainable forest management plans in the Brazilian Amazon are intended to ensure compliance with strict environmental rules, but many are used fraudulently as cover for illegal logging, according to new research.
• One expert estimates that 20% of all forest management plans in the Brazilian Amazon fall under this category, where applicants file the plans simply to obtain the timber credits that correspond with the volume of wood they claim to want to harvest.
• These credits are then used to launder illegal timber — often felled in Indigenous territories or conservation areas — into the legal supply chain.
• Criminal groups use many strategies to defraud the timber credit system, including misrepresenting the species of tree they claim to want to log, or its size.

Sustainable forest management is an important strategy for generating income for local communities while keeping forests standing. Compliance with the label requires following strict rules on the choice of trees that may be cut and when and how to do so.

In the Brazilian Amazon, this works out to a maximum of three to five trees per hectare, Leonardo Sobral, forestry director at the Institute for Forest and Agricultural Management and Certification (Imaflora), a Brazilian NGO, told Mongabay.

Loggers need to plan exactly where the tree will fall and the path to drag it out of the forest so it doesn’t damage other plants on its way out. Once the trunk is removed, they won’t be able to harvest another tree in the same area for around 30 years. “There are a series of techniques that need to be followed in order to comply with the legislation,” said Sobral, whose NGO advocates for good practices in the logging sector and audits certified forest management plans.

Life on the ground, however, is often very different. “I’ve always worked inspecting forest management plans, and I’ve seen many brutal irregularities,” Vinicius Otavio Benoit Costa, an analyst with Brazil’s federal environmental agency, IBAMA, told Mongabay. “There are a number of very serious frauds, up to and including the formation of gangs and criminal organizations involving forest management.”

This mismatch between theory and real life prompted Costa, a forest engineer, to explore the issue in a master’s degree program at the Federal University of Paraná (UFP) . The results of his research were published in April in the journal Trees, Forests and People .

To understand the most common irregularities in these projects, he analyzed the administrative processes initiated by IBAMA against holders of 184 forest management plans in the Amazon, most of them located in the states of Pará (88) and Rondônia (37).

The first thing that caught his attention was the checkered background of the offenders. Almost 60% had previously been fined more than three times for environmental violations, and 18.5% had been fined 10 or more times. Two companies had accumulated more than 30 penalties each. “They are in the business of crime,” Costa said.

When it comes to the most common irregularities, Costa found that 72.8% of the forest management plans presented fraudulent movement of logging credits, which is closely associated with timber laundering.

In Brazil, all logged timber must be accompanied by paperwork called the forest origin document (DOF), also known as a timber credit. Once a forest management plan is approved by environmental authorities, its owner can issue a certain number of DOFs, corresponding to the volume of trees they’re allowed to extract from that area.

“Without credit, the wood can’t reach the consumer centers,” Edevar Sovete, an environmental analyst at IBAMA, told Mongabay.

Given the DOF’s significance to the timber trade, criminal groups in the Amazon specialize in getting approval for forest management plans in areas where they don’t necessarily intend to log. They then sell the newly generated timber credits to loggers targeting areas where logging is forbidden. By attaching the genuine credits to the illegal wood, they can thus launder the timber into the legal supply chain, according to Costa.

This kind of fraud has been uncovered even in supposedly “green” initiatives. In May, Mongabay published an investigation revealing the links between a carbon credit project and an illegal logging scheme in Amazonas state. The same areas used to generate the carbon credits also had forest management plans used to generate DOFs.

The Federal Police raided the group a few weeks after the publication of the Mongabay investigation, in an enforcement known as Operation Greenwashing. They arrested five people, including the alleged leader of the organization, Ricardo Stoppe Jr. According to the investigation, these individuals were behind the illegal extraction of more than 1 million cubic meters (35 million cubic feet) of wood, the equivalent of almost 5,000 truckloads.

According to Sovete, who works in IBAMA’s specialized plant inspection center, a credit for a cubic meter of timber costs around 1,500 reais ($270), almost the same price at which it’s sold in the illegal market.

Environmental agents working on the ground have found numerous strategies for generating DOFs that are then used to launder illegal timber. Sometimes it’s glaring, like the case of a landowner whose forest management plan claimed to have extracted 170 m³ (6,000 ft³) of wood from a single tree — more than eight times the volume a large Amazonian species can supply. “There’s no tree in Brazil that can produce that much wood,” said Sovete, the official who spotted this fraud.

However, on other occasions, offenders are more creative. Costa recalled monitoring a forest management plan whose owner had claimed to have felled a particularly large ipê tree. Once in the field, Costa headed straight to the point in the forest where the tree was supposedly extracted from. To his surprise, he came across a huge chestnut tree — still standing, and nowhere near as valuable as ipê.

“That tree listed in the inventory as an ipê was actually a chestnut tree that generated 30 m³ [1,060 ft³] in credits from a species with high economic value,” Costa said.

What this indicates is that someone, somewhere, cut down an actual ipê tree, almost certainly illegally, then moved it into the legal supply chain using the credits for the other site.

Fraud also happens during transportation of the wood. Costa analyzed IBAMA inspection reports that describe heavy logs being transported by motorcycles or trucks traveling at unrealistically high speeds — clear signs that something wasn’t right. In one case, he calculated that a loaded truck would have had to travel at an average of 190 kilometers per hour (118 miles per hour) to cover the distance between the logging site and the sawmill, according to the report’s description. “It is a fraud,” Costa concluded. In fact, no timber was sent, only the credits.

The hunt for fraudsters

Sovete spends his days in his office in the federal capital, Brasília, looking at the flow of timber credits on his computer screen. His job is to detect suspicious transactions in IBAMA’s DOF system and, if necessary, to block those issuing the credits.

Thanks to his expertise, he knows that credits traveling long distances to reach sawmills near Indigenous territories or conservation areas should ring alarm bells. “The companies located in these places are the ones that cheat the system the most because they need the credit to cover up the illegal wood that they’re getting from these protected areas,” he said.

Once a suspicious transaction is detected, Sovete and his colleagues look at satellite imagery of the logging site associated with the particular forest management plan to verify if there are signs of logging in the area. Occasionally, an on-site inspection is also necessary. In some cases, however, the remote analysis is enough to prove the area is only used to issue credits that are then used fraudulently. “You look at the satellite image, and there’s not even an access road to the [logging site]. So how is he getting wood out of there?” Sovete said.

He estimated that around 20% of all the forest management plans in the Amazon are used solely to issue DOFs that are then sold to launder illegal wood. In 2022, some of the leading Amazonian research institutes reported that between 44% and 68% of the timber from the main wood-producing states in Brazil was illegal.

“Illegality in the timber sector is organic, decentralized and cultural,” Mikael Freitas, a data analyst at the Center for Climate Crime Analysis (CCCA) , a nonprofit that investigates emitters of climate-warming greenhouse gases, told Mongabay. “We see it happening at all ends of the chain, from the source to the last step.”

Freitas said he believes importers of Brazilian timber have no guarantee they’re not buying timber from illegally deforested areas. “Even certification bodies like the FSC are unable to guarantee it,” he said, referring to the Forest Stewardship Council, the world’s leading certifier of sustainable forestry .

Imaflora is one of the organizations accredited to conduct audits of forest management plans certified by the FSC. Sobral, its forestry director, said inspectors at the site can easily detect irregularities in forest management plans. “We know that fraud is possible at various links in the chain,” he said. “But when we have forest management in a certified area or one that has had some kind of third-party verification, you reduce the risk of this fraud.”

One of the main bottlenecks in curbing timber fraud is the small number of environmental agents monitoring forest management plans. According to the association that represents Brazil’s federal environmental agents, ASCEMA, there are only 700 such inspectors nationwide . That’s nowhere near enough even to cover just the Brazilian Amazon, which, if it were a country of its own, would be the sixth largest in the world. Sovete’s team, which specializes in monitoring illegal logging, has only three people. “There are too few of us to supervise so many companies,” he said.

In 2022, the federal government implemented the DOF+ scheme, which introduces an identification number for each tree section to improve timber traceability and avoid fraud. Once the sawmill processes the wood, however, tracking is lost.

“It should be tracked until it reaches the end consumer,” Sovete said.

“The new DOF makes it more difficult [to use credits fraudulently],” Costa added, “but it doesn’t stop someone from doing something illegal.”

Banner image: Sustainable forest management plans must comply with a series of environmental rules to allow the forest to regenerate. Image courtesy of Fábio Nascimento .

Top brands buy Amazon carbon credits from suspected timber laundering scam

Costa, V. O., Koehler, H. S., & Robert, R. C. (2024). Characterization of technical and legal irregularities in management plans in the Brazilian Amazon. Trees, Forests and People, 16 , 100548. doi: 10.1016/j.tfp.2024.100548

FEEDBACK:   Use this form  to send a message to the author of this post. If you want to post a public comment, you can do that at the bottom of the page.

To wipe or to wash? That is the question

Toilet paper: Environmentally impactful, but alternatives are rolling out

Rolling towards circularity? Tracking the trace of tires

Getting the bread: What’s the environmental impact of wheat?

Consumed traces the life cycle of a variety of common consumer products from their origins, across supply chains, and waste streams. The circular economy is an attempt to lessen the pace and impact of consumption through efforts to reduce demand for raw materials by recycling wastes, improve the reusability/durability of products to limit pollution, and […]

Free and open access to credible information

Latest articles.

From selfies to treetops: Thai NGOs rescue and release captive gibbons

Uttarakhand villagers thirst for water as tourism, temps & development rise

Scaling up the Amazon’s many bioeconomies requires investment in nature, prosperity, and inclusion (commentary)

‘Polycrisis’ threatens planetary health; UN calls for innovative solutions

Disputed Manono lithium mining project in DRC sparks concern

Indonesia palm oil lobby pushes 1 million hectares of new Sulawesi plantations

In Brazil’s Pantanal, women find empowerment working with nature’s bounty

you're currently offline