imaginary essay on living on another planet

Living on Other Planets: What Would It Be Like?

Have you ever wondered what it would be like to live on the moon? What about Mars, or Venus or Mercury? We sure have and that's why we decided to find out what it might be like to live on other worlds in our solar system, from Mercury to Pluto and beyond in a new, weekly 12-part series.

For this series, written by Space.com contributor Joseph Castro, we wanted to know what the physical sensation of living on other worlds would be like: What would the gravity be like on Mercury; How long would your day be on Venus? What's the weather on Titan ?

For the sake of our solar system tour, let's take it as a given that humanity has the futuristic tech needed to set up a base on the planets. So join Space.com each week as we skip across the solar system and see what it would feel like to live beyond Earth. Check out our schedule for the tour through the solar system and beyond below:

Wednesday, Jan. 28 – Mercury

What Would It Be Like to Live on Mercury? The closest planet to the sun is an inhospitable place, and probably not the first choice for human colonization. But if somehow we had the technology, what would it be like for people to live on Mercury?

10 Strange Facts About Mercury (A Photo Tour)   Mercury is a weird place. See just how weird the closest planet to the sun is in our photo tour. 

Living on Mercury Would be Hard (Infogaphic) So you've read what it might be like to be a colonist on Mercury. Now see the details in visual form. Space.com's Karl Tate lays out what livingon Mercury might be like for an astronaut.

More about Mercury:

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• Planet Mercury: Facts About the Planet Closest to the Sun
• How Was Mercury Formed?
• What is Mercury Made Of?
• Mercury's Atmosphere
• How Hot is Mercury?
• How Far is Mercury From the Sun?
• How Big is Mercury?

Tuesday, Feb. 3 – Venus

What Would It Be Like to Live on Venus? From its hellish temperatures to crushing pressures and volcanoes, the planet Venus might be a hard place for an astronaut to set up camp. Here's what it might be like for an astronaut to live on the second planet from the sun. 

Living on Planet Venus: Why It Would Be Hard (Infographic) If you thought Venus was the perfect vacation spot, better think again. See how some if its most hellish aspects would challenge astronauts in this infographic by Space.com's Karl Tate.

The 10 Weirdest Facts About Venus Venus is the brightest planet in our night sky, and one of the strangest. Take a look at some of the oddest facts about this weird world.

More About Venus: 

• Planet Venus Facts: A Hot, Hellish & Volcanic Planet
• How Was Venus Formed?
• What is Venus Made Of?
• How Hot is Venus?
• Venus' Atmosphere: Composition, Climate and Weather
• How Far Away is Venus?
• How Big is Venus?

Tuesday, Feb. 10 – Earth's Moon

What Would It Be Like to Live on the Moon? From its lack of an atmosphere to dusty surface, the moon wouldn't be the most hospitable place for lunar colonizers to find themselves. Find out how they might be able to make the lunar surface a more cozy place to put down roots.

Living on the Moon: What It Would Be Like: Infographic How could you live on the moon? Space.com's Karl Tate explains some of the odds lunar explorers are up against in this infographic.

The Moon: 10 Surprising Lunar Facts Here are 10 amazing and surprising facts about the moon.

More about the moon : 

• Moon Master: An Easy Quiz for Lunatics
• The Apollo Moon Landings: How They Worked (Infographic )
• How the Moon Evolved: A Photo Timeline
• Apollo Quiz: Test Your Moon Landing Memory
• What is the Moon Made Of?
• How Far is the Moon?
• What is the Temperature on the Moon?

Tuesday, Feb. 17 – Mars

What Would It Be Like to Live on Mars? Humans have long-dreamed about potentially colonizing the Red Planet, but what would it really take for humans to comfortably live on Mars?

How Living on Mars Could Challenge Colonists (Infographic ) What kind of challenges would humans face when trying to set up shop on Mars? The thin Martian atmosphere, harsh climate and other factors would make the Red Planet is a tough place for Martian explorers to live, but it could be possible.

More about Mars :

• Moons of Mars: Amazing Photos of Phobos and Deimos
• 10 Years on Mars: Smithsonian Celebrates Spirit, Opportunity Rovers (Photos
• Photos: Ancient Mars Lake Could Have Supported Life
• Mars Myths & Misconceptions: Quiz
• A 'Curiosity' Quiz: How Well Do You Know NASA's Newest Mars Rover?
• How Long Does It Take to Get to Mars?

Tuesday, Feb. 24 – Asteroid Belt

What Would It Be Like to Live On Dwarf Planet Ceres in the Asteroid Belt?   The dwarf Planet Ceres may be round, but it doesn't have much of an atmosphere to speak of. What would it be like for human explorers if they visited this object in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter?

Living On Dwarf Planet Ceres in the Asteroid Belt (Infographic )  Learn more about what it might be like for human beings to live on the dwarf planet Ceres in the asteroid belt. 

More about Ceres and the asteroid belt :

• Mysterious Bright Spots Shine on Dwarf Planet Ceres (Photos )
• Dwarf Planet Ceres Coming Into NASA Probe’s View
• NASA Finds Mysterious Bright Spot on Dwarf Planet Ceres: What Is It?
• The Asteroid Belt Explained: Space Rocks by the Millions (Infographic ) 
• The Greatest Mysteries of the Asteroid Belt
• Asteroid Basics: A Space Rock Quiz  

Tuesday, March 3 – At Jupiter

What Would It Be Like to Live on Jupiter's Moon Europa?   What would human explorers visiting Jupiter's icy moon Europa find when they get there? It's possible some form of life might already be there waiting for them.

Living On Europa Explained: Humans Might Not Be First: Infographic Europa is one of the most viable places in the solar system to hunt for life as we know it, but could humans find a way to settle it?

More about Jupiter and its moons :

• Planet Jupiter: Facts About Its Size, Moons and Red Spot
• Jupiter's Moons: Facts About the Largest Jovian Moons
• Europa: Facts About Jupiter's Icy Moon and Its Ocean
• Jupiter Quiz: Test Your Jovian Smarts
• How Far Away is Jupiter?
• Jupiter's Atmosphere & the Great Red Spot
• What is Jupiter Made Of?
• How Was Jupiter Formed?
• What is the Temperature of Jupiter?
• How Big is Jupiter?
• Photos: Europa, Mysterious Icy Moon of Jupiter
• Photos: The Galilean Moons of Jupiter
• Target: Jupiter — 9 Missions to the Solar System's Largest Planet

Tuesday, March 10 – At Saturn, the Ringed Planet

What Would It Be Like to Live on Saturn's Moons Enceladus and Titan? Saturn might not be a place where huamns could live, but its moons Titan and Enceladus might hold more hope for human colonists.

How Humans Could Live on Saturn's Moon Titan (Infographic) Saturn's moon Titan might be the most hospitable place in the solar system for humans to set up shop. What would it be like for a human explorer to hang out on Titan?

More about Saturn and its moons:

• Submarine Explores Saturn's Moon Titan In NASA Animation
• Planet Saturn: Facts About Saturn’s Rings, Moons & Size
• Saturn's Rings: Composition, Characteristics & Creation
• Saturn's Moons: Facts About the Ringed Planet's Satellites
• Enceladus: Saturn's Tiny, Shiny Moon
• How Big is Saturn?
• How Far Away is Saturn?
• Saturn's Atmosphere: All the Way Down
• What is Saturn Made Of?
• How Was Saturn Formed?
• Cassini-Huygens: Exploring Saturn's System
• Titan: Facts About Saturn's Largest Moon

Tuesday, March 17 – At Uranus

What Would It Be Like to Live on a Moon of Uranus? How would it feel to bounce around in the low gravity of Titania or Miranda? Find out what it might be like to colonize the moons of Uranus.

Living on Titania: Uranus' Moon Explained (Infographic ) Get a close-up look at what it could be like to live on Titania, Uranus' largest moon.

More about Uranus and its moons :

• Moons of Uranus: Facts About the Tilted Planet's Satellites
• How Big is Uranus?
• How Far is Uranus?
• Uranus' Atmosphere: Layers of Icy Clouds
• What is the Temperature of Uranus?
• What is Uranus Made Of?
• How Was Uranus Formed?
• Who Discovered Uranus (and How Do You Pronounce It)?
• Planet Uranus: Facts About Its Name, Moons and Orbit
• Inside Gas Giant Uranus (Infographic )
• Photos of Uranus, the Tilted Giant Planet

Tuesday, March 24 – At Neptune

What Would It Be Like to Live on Neptune's Moon Triton? While Neptune doesn't have much of a solid surface under its layers and layers of gas, its huge moon Triton might be a fun (and maybe difficult) place for humans to settle in the solar system.

Living on Triton: Neptune's Moon Explained (Infographic ) Triton could be an interesting place to live in the solar sytem. Learn more about what the first human settlers of the world could possibly find.

More about Neptune and its moons :

• Triton: Neptune's Odd Moon
• Neptune's Moons: 14 Discovered So Far
• How Big is Neptune?
• How Far Away is Neptune?
• Neptune's Atmosphere: Composition, Climate & Weather
• What is Neptune's Temperature?
• What is Neptune Made Of?
• How Was Neptune Formed?
• Planet Neptune: Facts About Its Orbit, Moons & Rings
• Photos of Neptune, The Mysterious Blue Planet
• Moons of Neptune: Giant Blue Planet's 14 Satellites Unmasked (Infographic )
• Inside Gas Giant Neptune
• Neptune Quiz: How Well Do You Know the Other Blue Planet? 

Tuesday, March 31 – At  Pluto

What Would It Be Like to Live on Pluto? How cold would human settlers on Pluto really be? The mysterious dwarf planet will be explored in closer detail when NASA 's New Horizons probe flys by the icy body in July.

Living on Pluto: Dwarf Planet Facts Explained (Infographic)   Learn more about what it might be like to live on Pluto, if humans ever make it that far into the solar system.

More about Pluto and its moons : 

• How NASA's New Horizons Mission to Pluto Works Infographic
• Pluto's 5 Moons Explained: How They Measure Up: Infographic
• Pluto: A Dwarf Planet Oddity: Infographic
• Inside Dwarf Planet Pluto
• Destination Pluto: NASA's New Horizons Mission in Pictures
• Photos of Pluto and Its Moons
• Lowell Observatory: Where Pluto Was Discovered
• Clyde Tombaugh: Astronomer Who Discovered Pluto How Big is Pluto?
• How Far Away is Pluto?
• Does Pluto Have an Atmosphere?
• How Cold is Pluto?
• What is Pluto Made Of?
• How Was Pluto Formed?

Tuesday, April 7 – Following a Comet

What It Would Be Like to Live On a Comet Living on comets requires great care — the gravity is so weak that you could easily jump off the frozen bodies and into space. 

Living on a Comet: 'Dirty Snowball' Facts Explained: Infographic Halley's Comet, a dusty ball of ice and frozen gases, spends most of its time in the chilly outland of the solar system. See what it would be like to live on a comet in this infographic.

More about comets:

• Comets: Facts About The ‘Dirty Snowballs’ of Space
• Comet Quiz: Test Your Cosmic Knowledge
• Halley's Comet: Facts About the Most Famous Comet
• Comet 67P: Target of Rosetta Mission
• Best Close Encounters of the Comet Kind
• Photos: Spectacular Comet Views from Earth and Space

Saturday, May 9 – On a Strange New World 

What Would It Be Like to Live on Alien Planet Kepler-186f? There are many unknowns regarding the potentially habitable exoplanet Kepler-186f, but it may have similar light (from its star) and gravity as Earth. 

Living on an Alien Planet: Exoplanet Kepler-186f: Infographic At last humans are able to make educated guesses about what living on alien worlds might be like. Here's what we know about the alien planet Kepler-186f.

Earth-Size Planet Kepler-186f, a Possibly Habitable Alien World: Gallery The alien planet Kepler-186f is a planet only slightly larger than Earth orbiting inside the habitable zone of its red dwarf star. See images and photos of the Kepler-186f planet discovery in this Space.com gallery.

Exoplanet Kepler-186f: Earth-Size World Could Support Oceans and Life: Infographic A rocky planet that could have liquid water at its surface orbits a star 490 light-years away.

More resources on exoplanets:

• Exoplanets: Worlds Beyond Our Solar System
• Alien Planet Quiz: Are You an Exoplanet Expert?
• How Habitable Zones for Alien Planets and Stars Work: Infographic
• 10 Exoplanets That Could Host Alien Life
• 6 Most Likely Places for Alien Life in the Solar System

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Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: [email protected].

Tariq is the Editor-in-Chief of Space.com and joined the team in 2001, first as an intern and staff writer, and later as an editor. He covers human spaceflight, exploration and space science, as well as skywatching and entertainment. He became Space.com's Managing Editor in 2009 and Editor-in-Chief in 2019. Before joining Space.com, Tariq was a staff reporter for The Los Angeles Times covering education and city beats in La Habra, Fullerton and Huntington Beach. In October 2022, Tariq received the Harry Kolcum Award for excellence in space reporting from the National Space Club Florida Committee. He is also an Eagle Scout (yes, he has the Space Exploration merit badge) and went to Space Camp four times as a kid and a fifth time as an adult. He has journalism degrees from the University of Southern California and New York University. You can find Tariq at Space.com and as the co-host to the This Week In Space podcast with space historian Rod Pyle on the TWiT network . To see his latest project, you can follow Tariq on Twitter @tariqjmalik .

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Life on Other Planets Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Article Review

Article discussions, works cited.

The article chosen for this part of the assignment is titled “The Extremely Halophilic Microorganisms, a Possible Model for Life on Other Planets,” written by Sergiu Fendrihan, and published in 2017 in Current Trends in Natural Sciences journal. The researchers have analyzed the microscopic life that exists in areas of extreme heat, where water supply exists in the form of salt lakes (Fendrihan 148). Such areas include the Dead Sea, located in the Middle East, as well as various smaller salt lakes found in Africa and Australia.

What these locations have in common is the extremity of conditions in which microorganisms have to exist. According to Fendrihan (148), there is a multitude of halophilic and halotolerant microorganisms inhabiting these areas, up to 159 different subspecies belonging to the Halobacteriaceae family. In addition, these organisms prove to be very resistant to other extremes, such as UV radiation, heat, and lack of nutrients necessary for other bacteria.

Due to the extreme resistance of these bacteria to various hazards, this study provides important data for discovering life on other planets and moons. Mars exhibits signs of water having been present on its surface. In addition, evidence of salty underground oceans has been found on the moons of Saturn and Jupiter (Enceladus and Europa).

Thus, studying halophilic microorganisms supports the possibility of the existence of life on planets previously deemed uninhabitable. Low requirements for water and nutrients as well as high resistance to the elements increases their chances of survival. Investigating these planets would enrich the existing knowledge of space and biology.

The article titled “Life on Mars: Exploration and Evidence” by Nola Taylor Redd provides cursory information about the state of research regarding life on Mars. The planet used to have large water deposits that were lost due to irradiation and exposure to harsh temperatures. The article suggests that life on Mars may still exist underneath the surface of the planet (Redd). Question: What exactly happened that altered Mars’s climate and caused it to lose so much of its water?

The second article titled “Aliens May Well Exist in a Parallel Universe, New Studies Find” by Brandon Specktor speculates about the existence of life in other dimensions. This article seems more like speculation rather than a contribution to the scientific community, as evidence of the existence of other dimensions is purely theoretical (Specktor). Question: If parallel universes exist, can they influence the events in our universe?

The third article titled “The Four Best Places for Life in Our Solar System” by Nicole Mortillaro provides a summary of four potential places for finding life. These planets and moons include Mars, Europa, Enceladus, and Titan (Mortillaro). This article outlines the requirements currently used to determine the feasibility of life on other planets. Question: Why did NASA restrict itself to studying Mars instead of sending a drone on one of the moons?

The fourth article written by Mike Wall speaks of the protective gravitational barrier of our solar system, which filters out charged particles coming from outside of the solar system. The existence of this protective field makes life on Earth possible (Wall). Studying it would help determine which systems can potentially harbor life and which could not. Question: Is the gravitational barrier unique to the Solar system alone?

The fifth article written by Lisa Kaspin-Powell explores the potential of non-H2O-based lifeforms existing on Titan. The article informs the readers that the elements found in Titan’s atmosphere can form cellular membranes similar to phospholipid molecular chains (Kaspin-Powell). Question: What other elements could potentially form cellular membranes?

The last article written by Seth Shostack provides a list of eight planets within the scope of our solar system that has the potential of harboring life. Aside from the 4 candidates mentioned in the article by Mortillaro, the article adds Earth, Venus, Ganymede, and Callisto, which show gravitational signs of possessing underground water (Shostak). Question: How is gravity related to the presence or absence of water?

Fendrihan, Sergiu. “The Extremely Halophilic Microorganisms, A Possible Model for Life on Other Planets.” Current Trends in Natural Sciences, vol. 6, no. 12, 2017, pp. 147-151.

Kaspin-Powell, Lisa. “Does Titan’s Hydrocarbon Soup Hold a Recipe for Life?” Astrobiology Magazine . 2018. Web.

Mortillaro, Nicole. “ The Four Best Places for Life in Our Solar System .” Global News . 2014. Web.

Redd, Nola Taylor. “ Life on Mars: Exploration and Evidence. ” Space. 2017. Web.

Shostak, Seth. “ 8 Worlds Where Life Might Exist. ” Space. 2006. Web.

Specktor, Brandon. “ Aliens May Well Exist in a Parallel Universe, New Studies Find. ” Space. 2018. Web.

Wall, Mike. “ NASA Will Launch a Probe to Study the Solar System’s Protective Bubble in 2024. ” Space. 2018. Web.

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• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2021, May 29). Life on Other Planets. https://ivypanda.com/essays/life-on-other-planets/

"Life on Other Planets." IvyPanda , 29 May 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/life-on-other-planets/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Life on Other Planets'. 29 May.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Life on Other Planets." May 29, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/life-on-other-planets/.

1. IvyPanda . "Life on Other Planets." May 29, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/life-on-other-planets/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Life on Other Planets." May 29, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/life-on-other-planets/.

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Sayaka Murata on Making Friends with Imaginary Aliens

"i’m an earthling, but once i’ve finished writing this essay i’ll go home to their planet.".

Translated by Ginny Tapley Takemori.

Ever since I was a child, I’ve felt closer to extraterrestrials than I have to humans.

I don’t remember when I first grasped the concept of “aliens.” I think I must already have known about them in the moment I first realized I was an Earthling. The picture books I read as a child, the manga I read in my friends’ homes, and the books I secretly borrowed from my brother’s bookshelf were full of aliens. In children’s animation too, there were lots of aliens who fell in love and traveled to Earth.

In one children’s book, a family of aliens moved to Earth and took on human appearance to avoid being discovered, wearing clothes, speaking human language, and getting to know everyone in their neighborhood. There were other books in which lots of aliens pretended to be human in order to escape detection, too. I felt a peculiar empathy for them. I, too, felt like I was pretending to be an Earthling at kindergarten and school.

I had always been an extremely withdrawn child. My mother and father worried whether I would be able to go to school like normal kids. My kindergarten teacher warned the elementary school that I was abnormally sensitive, a crybaby, and overly quiet, and I was given the seat closest to the teacher. The last thing I wanted was to become a foreign body in the class, so I imitated the other children around me, and tried hard to be as normal as possible and not stand out. School was brutal. Foreign bodies were quickly spotted, persecuted by the group, and made objects of ridicule. I wanted to be the most ordinary Earthling there was. In a way, I resembled those aliens who scrupulously kept up the act of being Earthlings so as not to be outed as aliens. The only difference was that I couldn’t escape the fact of actually being an Earthling. I didn’t have a home planet to go back to.

It was around this time that I met an imaginary alien. I was eight years old.

During the day, while I was living together with Earthlings, I kept getting hurt all over. However much I pretended to be an ordinary Earthling and made light conversation, during the time I spent with other Earthlings little cuts were being made all over my heart. Every few days, I had to hide in the toilet and cry until I threw up. By the time I went home and got into bed, I was covered in scars inside. And it was at this point that Imaginary Alien A came in through my window.

A and I fell in love right away. In a twinkling, my bed became a spaceship, and we flew through space every night. Before long my bed reached a planet that wasn’t Earth. There were a lot of imaginary aliens there, and I made lots of friends. I started going to that planet so that my soul could recuperate.

That mysterious planet was the only place in the entire world where I could exist with the same personality I was born with and not be disliked for it, where I could feel affection even without successfully acting the part of a human being. I would spend practically all my time there when I didn’t have to converse with Earthlings.

My first love, my first kiss, first date, first game of hide-and-seek, sleeping together like a family smiling at each other—all of this I experienced in my dealings with the imaginary aliens.

I’m still doing this now, at the age of 41. But I’ve never told anyone about my imaginary aliens before. If I’d been accused of escapism and laughed at, or ended up being “cured” and losing my imaginary aliens, I’d have died. Humans die when the only place where their soul can recuperate is destroyed. So I never told anyone, in order to survive.

I’m still living with them now. Even now my bed often flies through space. They sometimes tell me what they think of my novels. (Lots of aliens tell me, “This book is scary!”)

When I was a college student, I attended a poetry class. The teacher once said: “I used to think I was an alien. I felt that the trees swaying outside my window or the rustling of the leaves was a sign to me from outer space. I thought life was hard for me because I was an alien. I was waiting for a UFO to come and get me. There are surprisingly many people like that. Is there anyone here like me?”

At the teacher’s question, the classroom was hushed for a moment, but soon a few hands went up here and there.

I was surprised. But at the same time, it was like I finally understood. The alien in our mind is always going around rescuing Earthlings with nowhere to turn. I suddenly realized that the lives of many more children and adults than I’d thought were being sustained by invisible aliens.

True aliens (ones that exist in the real world) might possibly attack Earth tomorrow and smash it to pieces. But I believe that imaginary aliens have all along been interacting with us in a much deeper place in our hearts than our fellow humans.

As I read a book, I am sometimes unable to return from its imaginary world. When this happens, imaginary aliens always come to get me. They take me back to their planet. That’s where I live. Only when it’s necessary do we hold hands and set out for Earth together.

Earth is the only planet where I can touch reality. This is something that has come to affect me deeply. I’m an Earthling, but once I’ve finished writing this essay I’ll go home to their planet. That is the only place I’m able to sleep. Tonight, too, we will go to sleep holding hands. Ever since I was a child, they have always been in the deepest part of my psyche. A lot of people will be making love, playing, and sleeping with their imaginary aliens tonight, too. I believe this is a precious miracle that enables us to survive.

__________________________________

Earthlings by Sayaka Murata is available now via Grove Press.

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Scientific researchers on a bat-collecting expedition in Sierra Leone. Photo by Simon Townley/Panos

There’s no planet B

The scientific evidence is clear: the only celestial body that can support us is the one we evolved with. here’s why.

by Arwen E Nicholson & Raphaëlle D Haywood   + BIO

At the start of the 22nd century, humanity left Earth for the stars. The enormous ecological and climatic devastation that had characterised the last 100 years had led to a world barren and inhospitable; we had used up Earth entirely. Rapid melting of ice caused the seas to rise, swallowing cities whole. Deforestation ravaged forests around the globe, causing widespread destruction and loss of life. All the while, we continued to burn the fossil fuels we knew to be poisoning us, and thus created a world no longer fit for our survival. And so we set our sights beyond Earth’s horizons to a new world, a place to begin again on a planet as yet untouched. But where are we going? What are our chances of finding the elusive planet B, an Earth-like world ready and waiting to welcome and shelter humanity from the chaos we created on the planet that brought us into being? We built powerful astronomical telescopes to search the skies for planets resembling our own, and very quickly found hundreds of Earth twins orbiting distant stars. Our home was not so unique after all. The universe is full of Earths!

This futuristic dream-like scenario is being sold to us as a real scientific possibility, with billionaires planning to move humanity to Mars in the near future. For decades, children have grown up with the daring movie adventures of intergalactic explorers and the untold habitable worlds they find. Many of the highest-grossing films are set on fictional planets, with paid advisors keeping the science ‘realistic’. At the same time, narratives of humans trying to survive on a post-apocalyptic Earth have also become mainstream.

Given all our technological advances, it’s tempting to believe we are approaching an age of interplanetary colonisation. But can we really leave Earth and all our worries behind? No. All these stories are missing what makes a planet habitable to us . What Earth-like means in astronomy textbooks and what it means to someone considering their survival prospects on a distant world are two vastly different things. We don’t just need a planet roughly the same size and temperature as Earth; we need a planet that spent billions of years evolving with us. We depend completely on the billions of other living organisms that make up Earth’s biosphere. Without them, we cannot survive. Astronomical observations and Earth’s geological record are clear: the only planet that can support us is the one we evolved with. There is no plan B. There is no planet B. Our future is here, and it doesn’t have to mean we’re doomed.

D eep down, we know this from instinct: we are happiest when immersed in our natural environment. There are countless examples of the healing power of spending time in nature . Numerous articles speak of the benefits of ‘forest bathing’; spending time in the woods has been scientifically shown to reduce stress, anxiety and depression, and to improve sleep quality, thus nurturing both our physical and mental health. Our bodies instinctively know what we need: the thriving and unique biosphere that we have co-evolved with, that exists only here, on our home planet.

There is no planet B. These days, everyone is throwing around this catchy slogan. Most of us have seen it inscribed on an activist’s homemade placard, or heard it from a world leader. In 2014, the United Nations’ then secretary general Ban Ki-moon said: ‘There is no plan B because we do not have [a] planet B.’ The French president Emmanuel Macron echoed him in 2018 in his historical address to US Congress. There’s even a book named after it. The slogan gives strong impetus to address our planetary crisis. However, no one actually explains why there isn’t another planet we could live on, even though the evidence from Earth sciences and astronomy is clear. Gathering this observation-based information is essential to counter an increasingly popular but flawed narrative that the only way to ensure our survival is to colonise other planets.

The best-case scenario for terraforming Mars leaves us with an atmosphere we are incapable of breathing

The most common target of such speculative dreaming is our neighbour Mars. It is about half the size of Earth and receives about 40 per cent of the heat that we get from the Sun. From an astronomer’s perspective, Mars is Earth’s identical twin. And Mars has been in the news a lot lately, promoted as a possible outpost for humanity in the near future . While human-led missions to Mars seem likely in the coming decades, what are our prospects of long-term habitation on Mars? Present-day Mars is a cold, dry world with a very thin atmosphere and global dust storms that can last for weeks on end. Its average surface pressure is less than 1 per cent of Earth’s. Surviving without a pressure suit in such an environment is impossible. The dusty air mostly consists of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and the surface temperature ranges from a balmy 30ºC (86ºF) in the summer, down to -140ºC (-220ºF) in the winter; these extreme temperature changes are due to the thin atmosphere on Mars.

Despite these clear challenges, proposals for terraforming Mars into a world suitable for long-term human habitation abound. Mars is further from the Sun than Earth, so it would require significantly more greenhouse gases to achieve a temperature similar to Earth’s. Thickening the atmosphere by releasing CO 2 in the Martian surface is the most popular ‘solution’ to the thin atmosphere on Mars. However, every suggested method of releasing the carbon stored in Mars requires technology and resources far beyond what we are currently capable of. What’s more, a recent NASA study determined that there isn’t even enough CO 2 on Mars to warm it sufficiently.

Even if we could find enough CO 2 , we would still be left with an atmosphere we couldn’t breathe. Earth’s atmosphere contains only 0.04 per cent CO 2 , and we cannot tolerate an atmosphere high in CO 2 . For an atmosphere with Earth’s atmospheric pressure, CO 2 levels as high as 1 per cent can cause drowsiness in humans, and once we reach levels of 10 per cent CO 2 , we will suffocate even if there is abundant oxygen. The proposed absolute best-case scenario for terraforming Mars leaves us with an atmosphere we are incapable of breathing; and achieving it is well beyond our current technological and economic capabilities.

Instead of changing the atmosphere of Mars, a more realistic scenario might be to build habitat domes on its surface with internal conditions suitable for our survival. However, there would be a large pressure difference between the inside of the habitat and the outside atmosphere. Any breach in the habitat would rapidly lead to depressurisation as the breathable air escapes into the thin Martian atmosphere. Any humans living on Mars would have to be on constant high alert for any damage to their building structures, and suffocation would be a daily threat.

F rom an astronomical perspective, Mars is Earth’s twin; and yet, it would take vast resources, time and effort to transform it into a world that wouldn’t be capable of providing even the bare minimum of what we have on Earth. Suggesting that another planet could become an escape from our problems on Earth suddenly seems absurd. But are we being pessimistic? Do we just need to look further afield?

Next time you are out on a clear night, look up at the stars and choose one – you are more likely than not to pick one that hosts planets. Astronomical observations today confirm our age-old suspicion that all stars have their own planetary systems. As astronomers, we call these exoplanets. What are exoplanets like? Could we make any of them our home?

The majority of exoplanets discovered to date were found by NASA’s Kepler mission, which monitored the brightness of 100,000 stars over four years, looking for dips in a star’s light as a planet obscures it each time it completes an orbit around it.

The solar system associated with star Kepler-90 has a similar configuration to our solar system with small planets found orbiting close to their star, and the larger planets found farther away. Courtesy NASA/Ames /Wendy Stenzel

Kepler observed more than 900 Earth-sized planets with a radius up to 1.25 times that of our world. These planets could be rocky (for the majority of them, we haven’t yet determined their mass, so we can only make this inference based on empirical relations between planetary mass and radius). Of these 900 or so Earth-sized planets, 23 are in the habitable zone. The habitable zone is the range of orbits around a star where a planet can be considered temperate : the planet’s surface can support liquid water (provided there is sufficient atmospheric pressure), a key ingredient of life as we know it. The concept of the habitable zone is very useful because it depends on just two astrophysical parameters that are relatively easy to measure: the distance of the planet to its parent star, and the star’s temperature. It’s worth keeping in mind that the astronomical habitable zone is a very simple concept and, in reality, there are many more factors at play in the emergence of life; for example, this concept does not consider plate tectonics , which are thought to be crucial to sustain life on Earth.

Planets with similar observable properties to Earth are very common: at least one in 10 stars hosts them

How many Earth-sized, temperate planets are there in our galaxy? Since we have discovered only a handful of these planets so far, it is still quite difficult to estimate their number. Current estimates of the frequency of Earth-sized planets rely on extrapolating measured occurrence rates of planets that are slightly bigger and closer to their parent star, as those are easier to detect. The studies are primarily based on observations from the Kepler mission, which surveyed more than 100,000 stars in a systematic fashion. These stars are all located in a tiny portion of the entire sky; so, occurrence rate studies assume that this part of the sky is representative of the full galaxy. These are all reasonable assumptions for the back-of-the-envelope estimate that we are about to make.

Several different teams carried out their own analyses and, on average, they found that roughly one in three stars (30 per cent) hosts an Earth-sized, temperate planet. The most pessimistic studies found a rate of 9 per cent, which is about one in 10 stars, and the studies with the most optimistic results found that virtually all stars host at least one Earth-sized, temperate planet, and potentially even several of them.

At first sight, this looks like a huge range in values; but it’s worth taking a step back and realising that we had absolutely no constraints whatsoever on this number just 20 years ago. Whether there are other planets similar to Earth is a question that we’ve been asking for millennia, and this is the very first time that we are able to answer it based on actual observations. Before the Kepler mission, we had no idea whether we would find Earth-sized, temperate planets around one in 10, or one in a million stars. Now we know that planets with similar observable properties to Earth are very common: at least one in 10 stars hosts these kinds of planets.

An artist’s concept shows exoplanet Kepler-1649c orbiting around its host red dwarf star. Courttesy NASA/Ames

Let’s now use these numbers to predict the number of Earth-sized, temperate planets in our entire galaxy. For this, let’s take the average estimate of 30 per cent, or roughly one in three stars. Our galaxy hosts approximately 300 billion stars, which adds up to 90 billion roughly Earth-sized, roughly temperate planets. This is a huge number, and it can be very tempting to think that at least one of these is bound to look exactly like Earth.

One issue to consider is that other worlds are at unimaginable distances from us. Our neighbour Mars is on average 225 million kilometres (about 140 million miles) away. Imagine a team of astronauts travelling in a vehicle similar to NASA’s robotic New Horizons probe, one of humankind’s fastest spacecrafts – which flew by Pluto in 2015. With New Horizons’ top speed of around 58,000 kph, it would take at least 162 days to reach Mars. Beyond our solar system, the closest star to us is Proxima Centauri, at a distance of 40 trillion kilometres. Going in the same space vehicle, it would take our astronaut crew 79,000 years to reach planets that might exist around our nearest stellar neighbour.

S till, let’s for a moment optimistically imagine that we find a perfect Earth twin: a planet that really is exactly like Earth. Let’s imagine that some futuristic form of technology exists, ready to whisk us away to this new paradise. Keen to explore our new home, we eagerly board our rocket, but on landing we soon feel uneasy. Where is the land? Why is the ocean green and not blue? Why is the sky orange and thick with haze? Why are our instruments detecting no oxygen in the atmosphere? Was this not supposed to be a perfect twin of Earth?

As it turns out, we have landed on a perfect twin of the Archean Earth, the aeon during which life first emerged on our home world. This new planet is certainly habitable: lifeforms are floating around the green, iron-rich oceans, breathing out methane that is giving the sky that unsettling hazy, orange colour. This planet sure is habitable – just not to us . It has a thriving biosphere with plenty of life, but not life like ours. In fact, we would have been unable to survive on Earth for around 90 per cent of its history; the oxygen-rich atmosphere that we depend on is a recent feature of our planet.

The earliest part of our planet’s history, known as the Hadean aeon, begins with the formation of the Earth. Named after the Greek underworld due to our planet’s fiery beginnings, the early Hadean would have been a terrible place with molten lava oceans and an atmosphere of vaporised rock. Next came the Archean aeon, beginning 4 billion years ago, when the first life on Earth flourished. But, as we just saw, the Archean would be no home for a human. The world where our earliest ancestors thrived would kill us in an instant. After the Archean came the Proterozoic, 2.5 billion years ago. In this aeon, there was land, and a more familiar blue ocean and sky. What’s more, oxygen finally began to accumulate in the atmosphere. But let’s not get too excited: the level of oxygen was less than 10 per cent of what we have today. The air would still have been impossible for us to breathe. This time also experienced global glaciation events known as snowball Earths, where ice covered the globe from poles to equator for millions of years at a time. Earth has spent more of its time fully frozen than the length of time that we humans have existed.

We would have been incapable of living on our planet for most of its existence

Earth’s current aeon, the Phanerozoic, began only around 541 million years ago with the Cambrian explosion – a period of time when life rapidly diversified. A plethora of life including the first land plants, dinosaurs and the first flowering plants all appeared during this aeon. It is only within this aeon that our atmosphere became one that we can actually breathe. This aeon has also been characterised by multiple mass extinction events that wiped out as much as 90 per cent of all species over short periods of time. The factors that brought on such devastation are thought to be a combination of large asteroid impacts, and volcanic, chemical and climate changes occurring on Earth at the time. From the point of view of our planet, the changes leading to these mass extinctions are relatively minor. However, for lifeforms at the time, such changes shattered their world and very often led to their complete extinction.

Looking at Earth’s long history, we find that we would have been incapable of living on our planet for most of its existence. Anatomically modern humans emerged less than 400,000 years ago; we have been around for less than 0.01 per cent of the Earth’s story. The only reason we find Earth habitable now is because of the vast and diverse biosphere that has for hundreds of millions of years evolved with and shaped our planet into the home we know today. Our continued survival depends on the continuation of Earth’s present state without any nasty bumps along the way. We are complex lifeforms with complex needs. We are entirely dependent on other organisms for all our food and the very air we breathe. The collapse of Earth’s ecosystems is the collapse of our life-support systems. Replicating everything Earth offers us on another planet, on timescales of a few human lifespans, is simply impossible.

Some argue that we need to colonise other planets to ensure the future of the human race. In 5 billion years, our Sun, a middle-aged star, will become a red giant, expanding in size and possibly engulfing Earth. In 1 billion years, the gradual warming of our Sun is predicted to cause Earth’s oceans to boil away. While this certainly sounds worrying, 1 billion years is a long, long time. A billion years ago, Earth’s landmasses formed the supercontinent Rodinia, and life on Earth consisted in single-celled and small multicellular organisms. No plants or animals yet existed. The oldest Homo sapiens remains date from 315,000 years ago, and until 12,000 years ago all humans lived as hunter-gatherers.

The industrial revolution happened less than 500 years ago. Since then, human activity in burning fossil fuels has been rapidly changing the climate, threatening human lives and damaging ecosystems across the globe. Without rapid action, human-caused climate change is predicted to have devastating global consequences within the next 50 years. This is the looming crisis that humanity must focus on. If we can’t learn to work within the planetary system that we evolved with, how do we ever hope to replicate these deep processes on another planet? Considering how different human civilisations are today from even 5,000 years ago, worrying about a problem that humans may have to tackle in a billion years is simply absurd. It would be far simpler to go back in time and ask the ancient Egyptians to invent the internet there and then. It’s also worth considering that many of the attitudes towards space colonisation are worryingly close to the same exploitative attitudes that have led us to the climate crisis we now face.

Earth is the home we know and love not because it is Earth-sized and temperate. No, we call this planet our home thanks to its billion-year-old relationship with life. Just as people are shaped not only by their genetics, but by their culture and relationships with others, planets are shaped by the living organisms that emerge and thrive on them. Over time, Earth has been dramatically transformed by life into a world where we, humans, can prosper. The relationship works both ways: while life shapes its planet, the planet shapes its life. Present-day Earth is our life-support system, and we cannot live without it.

While Earth is currently our only example of a living planet, it is now within our technological reach to potentially find signs of life on other worlds. In the coming decades, we will likely answer the age-old question: are we alone in the Universe? Finding evidence for alien life promises to shake the foundations of our understanding of our own place in the cosmos. But finding alien life does not mean finding another planet that we can move to. Just as life on Earth has evolved with our planet over billions of years, forming a deep, unique relationship that makes the world we see today, any alien life on a distant planet will have a similarly deep and unique bond with its own planet. We can’t expect to be able to crash the party and find a warm welcome.

Living on a warming Earth presents many challenges. But these pale in comparison with the challenges of converting Mars, or any other planet, into a viable alternative. Scientists study Mars and other planets to better understand how Earth and life formed and evolved, and how they shape each other. We look to worlds beyond our horizons to better understand ourselves. In searching the Universe, we are not looking for an escape to our problems: Earth is our unique and only home in the cosmos. There is no planet B.

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Many scientists believe we are not alone in the universe. It’s probable, they say, that life could have arisen on at least some of the billions of planets thought to exist in our galaxy alone — just as it did here on planet Earth. This basic question about our place in the Universe is one that may be answered by scientific investigations. What are the next steps to finding life elsewhere?

Experts from NASA and its partner institutions addressed this question on July 14, at a public talk held at NASA Headquarters in Washington. They outlined NASA’s roadmap to the search for life in the universe, an ongoing journey that involves a number of current and future telescopes. Watch the video of the event:

“Sometime in the near future, people will be able to point to a star and say, ‘that star has a planet like Earth’,” says Sara Seager, professor of planetary science and physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. “Astronomers think it is very likely that every single star in our Milky Way galaxy has at least one planet.”

NASA’s quest to study planetary systems around other stars started with ground-based observatories, then moved to space-based assets like the Hubble Space Telescope , the Spitzer Space Telescope , and the Kepler Space Telescope . Today’s telescopes can look at many stars and tell if they have one or more orbiting planets. Even more, they can determine if the planets are the right distance away from the star to have liquid water, the key ingredient to life as we know it.

The NASA roadmap will continue with the launch of the Transiting Exoplanet Surveying Satellite (TESS) in 2017, the James Webb Space Telescope (Webb Telescope) in 2018, and perhaps the proposed Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope – Astrophysics Focused Telescope Assets (WFIRST-AFTA) early in the next decade. These upcoming telescopes will find and characterize a host of new exoplanets — those planets that orbit other stars — expanding our knowledge of their atmospheres and diversity. The Webb telescope and WFIRST-AFTA will lay the groundwork, and future missions will extend the search for oceans in the form of atmospheric water vapor and for life as in carbon dioxide and other atmospheric chemicals, on nearby planets that are similar to Earth in size and mass, a key step in the search for life.

“This technology we are using to explore exoplanets is real,” said John Grunsfeld, astronaut and associate administrator for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington. “The James Webb Space Telescope and the next advances are happening now. These are not dreams — this is what we do at NASA.”

Since its launch in 2009, Kepler has dramatically changed what we know about exoplanets, finding most of the more than 5,000 potential exoplanets, of which more than 1700 have been confirmed. The Kepler observations have led to estimates of billions of planets in our galaxy, and shown that most planets within one astronomical unit are less than three times the diameter of Earth. Kepler also found the first Earth-size planet to orbit in the “habitable zone” of a star, the region where liquid water can pool on the surface.

“What we didn’t know five years ago is that perhaps 10 to 20 percent of stars around us have Earth-size planets in the habitable zone,” says Matt Mountain, director and Webb telescope scientist at the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore. “It’s within our grasp to pull off a discovery that will change the world forever. It is going to take a continuing partnership between NASA, science, technology, the U.S. and international space endeavors, as exemplified by the James Webb Space Telescope, to build the next bridge to humanity’s future.”

This decade has seen the discovery of more and more super Earths, which are rocky planets that are larger and heftier than Earth. Finding smaller planets, the Earth twins, is a tougher challenge because they produce fainter signals. Technology to detect and image these Earth-like planets is being developed now for use with the future space telescopes. The ability to detect alien life may still be years or more away, but the quest is underway.

Said Mountain, “Just imagine the moment, when we find potential signatures of life. Imagine the moment when the world wakes up and the human race realizes that its long loneliness in time and space may be over — the possibility we’re no longer alone in the universe.”

What Possible Life Forms Could Exist on Other Planets: A Historical Overview

• Defining Life
• Published: 26 February 2010
• Volume 40 , pages 195–202, ( 2010 )

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• Florence Raulin Cerceau 1  

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Speculations on living beings existing on other planets are found in many written works since the Frenchman Bernard de Fontenelle spoke to the Marquise about the inhabitants of the solar system in his Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes ( 1686 ). It was an entertainment used to teach astronomy more than real considerations about the habitability of our solar system, but it opened the way to some reflections about the possible life forms on other planets. The nineteenth century took up this idea again in a context of planetary studies showing the similarities as well as the differences of the celestial bodies orbiting our Sun. Astronomers attempted to look deeper into the problem of habitability such as Richard Proctor or Camille Flammarion, also well-known for their fine talent in popular writings. While the Martian canals controversy was reaching its height, they imagined how the living forms dwelling in other planets could be. Nowadays, no complex exo-life is expected to have evolved in our solar system. However, the famous exobiologist Carl Sagan and later other scientists, formulated audacious ideas about other forms of life in the light of recent discoveries in planetology. Through these few examples, this paper underlines the originality of each author’s suggestions and the evolution and contrast of ideas about the possible life forms in the universe.

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Introduction

As far back as Antiquity, philosophers and men of science (Anaximander, Lucretius) studied the subject of life on other worlds. Later, physicists and astronomers such as Huygens or Newton have dwelt upon the same fascinating theme. The history of the plurality of worlds can’t forget the dissenting Dominican Giordano Bruno who was burnt at the stake in 1600 for, among other things, having supported the idea of infinity of worlds.

The plurality of worlds became popular when heliocentrism supplanted geocentrism, since the Earth could be no more considered as the center of the universe. Other worlds could be regarded as inhabited and speculations could be put forward on the model of creatures living on our planet.

With the development of astronomical techniques of observation, astronomers took an active interest in a new concept named “habitability”, dealing with the conditions of planetary environment combined with the possibilities for life to exist (Raulin Cerceau 2006 ). Comparisons were made between the other planets of the solar system and the Earth. It was the time of the first maps of Mars and the idea of a Martian life was expanding, from the canals controversy to the hypothesis of a Martian vegetation. Life was supposed to be possible nearly everywhere in the solar system. Limitations came from spectroscopy when astronomers realized that the atmospheric conditions—more or less suitable for life—on each planet were a determining factor. Of course, our age of space exploration led to a new definition of “habitability” and to reconsider the way to conceive the life forms likely to exist on various planetary environments.

Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle’s Plurality of Worlds

The French philosopher and writer Fontenelle (1657–1757) was famous for popularizing science and philosophy in a lively and elegant way. His Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes (Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds) (Fontenelle 1686 ) offered an explanation of the Copernicus’ heliocentric model of the universe in popular language. It was an immediate success. The book presented a series of conversations between a gallant philosopher (Fontenelle himself) and a Marchioness. The question about life on other worlds was raised and one of the main problems to be discussed was the following one: are the inhabitants of these planets like us or are they quite different?

Here is Fontenelle’s view. The inhabitants of the solar system are very different from one planet to another. On the Moon, where there is no water, no cloud, no protection against the Sun, the Selenites live beneath the surface in deep wells that perhaps could be seen through our telescopes. But the Marchioness looks very doubtful about the humming and hawing coming from his pleasant teacher concerning the description of life on the Moon: “it’s a lot of ignorance based on very little science”, she asserts. She has the feeling that Fontenelle is going to populate all the planets and she is at once overwhelmed by the “unlimited number of inhabitants likely to be on all these planets”. How can we imagine these planet dwellers, so various indeed if nature is opposed to repetitions? Fontenelle enjoys himself imagining that differences increase as the planets become more and more distant from the Sun.

For instance, on Venus, where heat and sunlight are more intense than on our planet, the climate conditions are very favorable to love affairs. The Venusians (named Céladons and Silvandres ) are clever and lively but all are infertile, except a very little number of procreators and the Queen who is extremely prolific. Millions of children are descended from her and this fact is quite similar to the bee kingdom on the Earth. The Marchioness looks very amazed!

Fontenelle spends very little time on the case of Mars, a planet which seems to be very similar to the Earth. According to him, Mars has nothing special and it’s not worth mentioning it.

Jupiter, Saturn and their moons seem to be more interesting and are worthy of being habitable. The inhabitants of Saturn, very far from the Sun, are very wise and phlegmatic. They never laugh and they need a whole day to answer the least question one asks them. What about far away in the universe? All the stars are so many suns lighting up a world. Fontenelle’s plurality of worlds seems finally to be so probable that the Marchioness appears disheartened by such a diversity of living beings…

Fontenelle offers to the reader a very broad plurality of living worlds. Its merit is to have been the first to popularize in a pleasant style the idea of diversity of life in the universe.

Camille Flammarion’s Diversity of Beings

“Terrestrial life is not the type of other lives. An unlimited diversity reigns over the universe”. (Flammarion 1891 )

The French astronomer Camille Flammarion (1842–1925) founded the Juvisy Observatory (France) in 1883 and the Société Astronomique de France (SAF) in 1887. He was a very prolific writer. Above all, he was well-known for his Pluralité des Mondes habités (Plurality of Inhabited Worlds) published in 1862, when he was only twenty years old. This book, translated in many languages, explained the conditions of habitability of earthlike celestial bodies discussed from the astronomical, physiological and philosophical viewpoint (Flammarion 1862 ). A comparative study of the planets of our solar system led him to state that “the Earth was, considering its physical characteristics, a planet of medium kind, without anything remarkable.” Following this idea, life would have been present everywhere in the solar system. In the chapter entitled Humanity in the Universe , Flammarion studied the case of other humanities likely to exist on other worlds, while raising the question of anthropomorphism.

Most of Flammarion’s successful books dealt with the question of planet habitability seen from the scientific angle. Sometimes however, Flammarion devoted himself to fiction. A few of his narratives were turned towards the description of imaginary worlds though punctuated with scientific observations and philosophical reflections. Such was the case in Uranie (Urania) published in 1891, in which the narrator met the statue of the heavenly Muse Urania and felt under her spell. It gave rise to a debate on the diversity of life in the universe, as follows.

One night, Urania took her admirer off towards a sidereal journey to visit a selection of other worlds filling the universe. She wanted to show him some of astronomical truths, invisible to anyone else on Earth. While approaching other suns, the narrator was captivated by the amazing diversity of the living beings populating the planetary systems. None of them had an earthly human form. The Muse behaved like a teacher of the plurality of worlds:

“To be in a condition to understand the infinite diversity displayed in the different phases of creation, it is necessary to cast aside all terrestrial feelings and ideas.” As examples of this diversity, the Muse asserted that “life is earthly on the Earth, Martian on Mars, Saturnian on Saturn, Neptunian on Neptune,—that is to say, appropriate to each habitat.” (Flammarion 1891 )

On one world, the human beings enjoyed the organic faculty of those insects endowing the capacity to sleep in a chrysalis state and to metamorphose themselves into winged butterflies. On another world, the inhabitants had a sixth sense which might be called magneto-telegraphic, by virtue of which the thought became outwardly manifest and could be read upon a feature which occupied the same place as a forehead. With such a magnificence of the spectacle, the Muse wanted to demonstrate that astronomy inevitably led to the study of universal and eternal life and that anthropomorphism had to be excluded from this context.

In this book, Flammarion made use of imagination to make the reader aware of the problem of life’s diversity on other worlds. However, his aim was obviously scientific even if the narrative form was poetic. Contrary to most of his contemporaries, he dismissed any form of anthropomorphism when he described the other inhabitants of the universe. Other worlds meant other conditions of habitability and necessarily other forms of beings: “Beings are born on each world in close correlation with its physiological state” (Flammarion 1865 ). The plurality of worlds supported by Flammarion was then also a plurality of life forms.

Richard Proctor’s Planetary Worlds

The British astronomer Richard A. Proctor (1837–1888) is best remembered for having produced one of the earliest maps of Mars in 1867 and for having written many popular books. Among them, Other Worlds Than Ours, The Plurality of Worlds Studied Under The Light of Recent Scientific Researches , published for the first time in 1870, immediately attracted attention not only of the scientific world but also of a very wide audience. Proctor used a poetical description to show what astronomy taught us about the Sun and its planets. He also discussed the probability that other worlds could be inhabited.

However, according to Proctor, difficulties arise when the discussion comes to the possible forms of life (Proctor 1870 ). Habitability would be the key argument able to answer this question, even if it is quite hard to know the conditions under which these beings could live. In Proctor’s opinion, habitability could nevertheless be defined in considering analogy with the Earth, i.e. parameters resembling those existing upon our planet. Proctor also integrated the Darwinian theory of biological evolution into his reasoning in order to see if life would be possible in very exotic environments. He underlined that we have learned from Darwin’s theory that slight differences between two regions of the Earth could lead to life forms differently adapted. Moreover, there are places on the Earth where species belonging to other regions would quickly perish. He deduced from what our planet taught us about evolution that other worlds could be the abode of living creatures but they would support life in other ways.

Proctor studied the habitability of every planet of the solar system. He suggested that the existence of organized forms of life depended on the conditions supposed to have an effect on the planetary surface, such as climate, seasons, atmosphere, geology, gravity. For instance, the physical conditions of Venus—size, location in the solar system, density, rotation, seasons, heat and light received from the Sun- seemed to show very close resemblances to the Earth. Arguments coming from analogy allowed him to conclude that this planet could be inhabited. Proctor assumed that Venus could be the abode of creatures as far advanced in the scale of evolution as any existing upon the Earth.

However, it clearly appeared that the best candidate to be the abode of life was Mars, “the miniature of our Earth” (Proctor 1870 ). Of course, at that time, among all the celestial bodies observed in our solar system, Mars had been examined more minutely and under more favorable circumstances than any object except the Moon. The surface of Mars was supposed to be covered by oceans and continents (the darker regions were assumed to be seas and the lighter parts continents). The Martian geography—or areography —was intensively studied and seemed to demonstrate the presence of a vast equatorial zone of continents, seas and straits: no doubt remained as to the interpretation of the features looking like land or water. Mars seemed to offer very strong analogies with the Earth and everything appeared possible regarding the forms of life likely to be on its surface. With seasons equivalent to terrestrial ones, water vapor in the atmosphere and forms of vegetation growing abundantly, Proctor’s Martian world was perfectly fitted for complex life.

Proctor admitted also life on Jupiter. The giant planet might be inhabited by “the most favored races existing throughout the whole range of the solar system” (Proctor 1870 ), thanks to the very symmetry and perfection of the system which circles round it. It had been proposed at that time that the huge dimensions of Jupiter and its distance from the sun led to the conclusion that Jovians must be of the giant kind. Their eyes would have been in accordance with the weakness of the sunlight: less light, larger pupil and larger eyes, and then larger body. But Proctor did not support this hypothesis. Because of gravity and in order to make a Jove-man as active as our terrestrial counterpart, he underlined that we would have to give to these beings a size comparable to pygmies’one. However Proctor wanted to stay under the control of exact knowledge. He though we could only claim that “the beings of other worlds are very different from any we are acquainted with, without endeavoring to give shape and form to fancies that have no foundation in fact (Proctor 1870 ).”

Carl Sagan and Edwin Salpeter’s Sinkers, Floaters and Hunters

“Nature is not obliged to follow our speculations. But if there are billions of inhabited worlds in the Milky Way Galaxy, perhaps there will be a few populated by the sinkers, floaters and hunters which our imaginations, tempered by the laws of physics and chemistry, have generated.” (Sagan 1980 )

Since Flammarion or Proctor’s time, the idea of plurality of worlds has significantly evolved. Exobiology was born in the 1960s as a result of the space exploration and its confrontation to the problem of biological contamination and planetary protection. In the meantime, the developments in genetics and molecular biology led to clarify the major components of the living systems. In this new context, planetary studies and advances in biology benefited to the speculations about life forms on other worlds. The historical debate continued with modern “pluralists” such as the American astronomer Carl Sagan (1934–1996) who contributed to the establishment of Exobiology as a credible science among institutional research programs.

Three years after the first fly-by of Jupiter by a space probe (Pioneer 10), Carl Sagan and Edwin Salpeter envisaged in 1976 the possibility of exotic biota in the upper regions of Jupiter’s atmosphere (Sagan and Salpeter 1976 ). They proposed that other metabolic strategies such as chemoautotrophy or photoautotrophy would have to be employed by organisms present in the Jovian atmosphere. They discussed many aspects of a possible Jovian biology and deduced from the supposed composition of Jupiter’s atmosphere (thought to present some similarities to the primitive terrestrial one) that organic molecules might be falling from the upper strata to the lower ones. They suggested that life could exist at a level of the Jovian atmosphere where descending organic molecules could be captured and used for energy (Schulze-Makuch and Irwin 2004 ). But how organisms could subsist in an environment so turbulent and, in the depths of the atmosphere, subjected to excessive heat?

Sagan and Salpeter made comparisons between ecology in the Jovian atmosphere and ecology in terrestrial oceans (food chain existing at three different levels in our oceans, i.e. photosynthetic plankton, fishes, predators). The three hypothetical Jovian equivalents of these organisms were named “sinkers”, “floaters” and “hunters” by Sagan and Salpeter. They imagined that the sinkers could be carried by convection to cooler layers of the atmosphere and that the floaters could behave like our terrestrial hydrogen balloons: the deeper a floater is carried, the stronger is the buoyant force returning it to the higher, cooler, safer regions of the atmosphere (Sagan 1980 ). The bigger a floater is, the more efficient it will be. Finally they imagined very large floaters, a few kilometers size, likely to be eaten by hunters attracted by their organic composition.

Sagan admitted that one cannot know precisely what life would be like in such a place, but he and his colleague just wanted to see if, within the laws of physics and chemistry, a world of this sort could possibly be inhabited (Sagan 1980 ). If Sagan’s Jupiter world seems today a little bit eccentric, Sagan’s main fruitful initiative was to consolidate the search for life elsewhere, especially the starting up of the first Exobiology experiments on Mars.

Dirk Schulze-Makuch and Louis N. Irwin’s Xenobiology

Nowadays, Exobiology is looking for life-as-we-know-it or similar to it, based on carbon chemistry and liquid water as solvent, in outer space in every suited place accessible to our technology. Of course, this assumption is based on the fact that we would not be able to draw a reliable conclusion from experimental results no comparable to the ones biochemical or biological known on Earth. In spite of this, very few (theoretical) attempts to imagine alternative forms of life with other parameters than the terrestrial ones have been suggested by scientific authors since Exobiology was created.

The geologist Dirk Schulze-Makuch (Washington State University-USA) and the biologist Louis N. Irwin (University of Texas-USA) recently studied the possible pathways followed by life on other worlds, as alternatives to life-as-we-know-it on Earth (Schulze-Makuch and Irwin 2004 ). They questioned the possibility of a silicon-based life, a substitute to the carbon-based life known on our planet, a hypothesis previously suggested in the 1960s by V.A. Firsoff (Firsoff 1963 , 1974 ). The best form offered by silicon for an exo-life would be a series of silicon hydrides, the silanes, consisting of Si-H and Si-Si single bonds. However the conditions required to make possible a silane-based life seem to be very restrictive: little or no water in liquid form, very low temperatures, little or no oxygen, suitable solvent such as methane, restricted abundance of carbon (Schulze-Makuch and Irwin 2004 ). According to these authors, the Saturnian moon Titan could meet these criteria, except the low abundance of carbon (but perhaps the cold and reducing conditions on Titan could lead silicon to have an advantage over carbon). However, no silane has been detected in Titan’s atmosphere, in spite of more than five years of closed observation of Titan.

Life-as-we-know-it requires water as solvent and the search for the origins of life and exo-life is usually focused on chemical reactions occurring in aqueous environments. However, if there is a consensus on the point that life positively needs a solvent, other solvents could replace water under environmental conditions very different from those existing on Earth. As soon as 1954, the British geneticist J.B.S. Haldane suggested the possibility of building proteins, nucleic acids and polypeptides using liquid ammonia as solvent. Firsoff studied other pathways for exo-life and compared synthesis reactions in water-based, ammonia-based and water-ammonia liquid mixtures (Firsoff 1963 ). More recently, F. Raulin suggested that “ammono” analogs of terrestrial biomolecules in which NH groups replaced oxygen atoms might yield an equally viable pseudo-biochemistry on Titan (Raulin et al. 1995 ; Raulin and Owen 2002 and refs included). As for Schulze-Makuch and Irwin, they studied the physical and chemical properties of ammonia and the acceptable conditions allowing the formation of prebiotic macromolecules in such a solvent (Schulze-Makuch and Irwin 2004 ). Likewise, non-polar solvents like methane (CH 4 ) and ethane (C 2 H 6 ) offering interesting properties are presently under consideration since the results of the Cassini-Huygens mission related to Titan (Brown et al. 2009 ). Ch. McKay and H.D. Smith have suggested a possible life in Titan’s hydrocarbon lakes using as an energy source the conversion of hydrocarbons into methane (McKay and Smith 2005 ).

Besides this, Schulze-Makuch and Irwin have proposed that life could be possible in the Venusian atmosphere (Schulze-Makuch and Irwin 2002 ), a hypothesis previously put forward by Sagan ( 1961 ), Morowitz and Sagan ( 1967 ), and Grinspoon ( 1997 ). Sagan made the assumption that if life based upon carbon-hydrogen-oxygen-nitrogen chemistry ever developed in the early history of Venus, it must subsequently have evolved to subsurface or atmospheric ecological niches (although he was not convinced that life ever arose on Venus). Schulze-Makuch and Irwin suggested that during the time period when liquid water was stable on the surface of Venus, life may have evolved independently or been delivered by meteorites from Earth or Mars (Schulze-Makuch and Irwin 2002 ). Changes in environmental conditions could have led primitive organisms to be adapted to other habitats.

The clouds of Venus could have then offered an acceptable ecological niche to microorganisms. This idea could be supported by some parameters: the dense atmosphere of Venus could be more stable and more richly endowed with organic molecules; on this planet, H 2 S might serve as nutrient source. However, the problem of this type of habitat is the question of a suitable solvent for the support of life-sustaining reactions. The clouds of Venus (at altitudes between 48 and 70 km) consist primarily of sulfuric acid droplets. In the lower cloud level, they contain large droplets similar in size to cloud droplets on Earth which could act as solvent and provide energetic reactions (involving H 2 S and CO 2 ) sustaining a microbial life (Schulze-Makuch et al. 2004 ).

Schulze-Makuch and Irwin’s Venusian putative world, attractive though it was, is not (yet) a part of the future Astrobiology programs intended for planetary exploration.

Until the beginning of space exploration, science and speculation were mixed together when philosophers or astronomers talked about life forms on other worlds. In spite of this, some assumptions have led to look more deeply into the problem of habitability on other worlds. Habitability has rapidly been perceived as the key question to understand what kind of living beings could be adapted to other planetary environments. It also led to a critical examination of the nature of life and the place of anthropomorphism in the way to imagine other “humanities”.

Would human imagination be more fruitful than Nature? A question asked by Flammarion who thought that it was more probable that natural processes, thanks to flexibility in forces and variability in effects, could produce a larger variety of living beings than imagination. Nowadays, as claimed by Carl Sagan himself, imagination could still be needed to envisage some of the possibilities by which living systems could be manifested. Thus the uncertain limit between scientific parameters and conjectural thought seems to be very thin.

At the time of the first planetary explorations, Exobiology envisaged larger possibilities about the environmental niches supposed to be the best candidates to shelter hypothetical life forms. Xenobiology looked for alien forms in habitats more exotic than terrestrial-like planets. This concept was widely accepted until the 1980s. After this date however, NASA’s Exo/Astrobiology goals became more pragmatic and mainly focused on the search for life based on liquid water, with chemical or biological parameters closely linked to terrestrial ones.

Eventually, Exo/Astrobiology projects—at least in the solar system- are conceived with the idea that we know what and where to search for alien organisms. While becoming more and more concrete, this science studying the possible life forms on other worlds is mainly based on the terrestrial example: a view that could obviously be discussed and that is closely linked to our classification of “what is living” and “what is not”. The definition of life could be then a crucial point to both specify and extend the field of possibilities leading to identify the experiments necessary to detect other life forms in the universe.

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Raulin Cerceau, F. What Possible Life Forms Could Exist on Other Planets: A Historical Overview. Orig Life Evol Biosph 40 , 195–202 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11084-010-9200-7

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Living on Another Planet Essay 3 Models

admin October 24, 2022

Living on Another Planet Essay, in this topic we will present  a 500 word essay and sentences for all educational levels. We will talk about space and the possibility of living on Mars.

Is living on a planet other than Earth possible or impossible? This is what we will talk about in detail below.

 We will introduce a presentation on living in space to university students, where they are asked to write sentences and terms about space colonization.

• Living on Another Planet Essay

We also know that the solar system has several planets other than Earth. All of these planets revolve around the sun and have one or more moons. And when people began noticing that the globe had been polluted with what their hands had made, they decided to go out to space and look for an alternative homeland.

Countries have spent on these space flights incalculable sums. These expeditions go to discover any planet suitable for life, that it contains water under its soil, or that there is any trace of other life in it.

Is there life outside Earth?

In the middle of the twentieth century scientists moved to search for any evidence of the existence of any life outside the planet. The life they are looking for is not for huge creatures like the ones on planet Earth, but they are looking for creatures that can’t be seen with the naked eye.

For this reason, they developed several telescopes and sent vehicles to collect samples from the moon’s surface, in order to analyze and look at them closely.

While the scientists searched for any form of life, the people on the planet were feeling the thrill, as they began to unleash their imaginations.

So they started making films about this topic. Each writer used his own imagination to express what he saw as real. Some of them portray aliens as good creatures and will help us to live on other planets and save humanity. Some of them portrayed it as hostile and would destroy humanity. But in fact, there is no life outside the planet so far.

Why do scientists believe there is life in space?

Scientists infer their claim to the existence of life in outer space, the planet Earth itself and its nature, they say it is similar to what happened and is happening in other planets of the solar system. According to them, the rest of the planets of the group may receive life in line with its nature, as the planet Earth received man.

They say that life on planet Earth was a simple life and then evolved over millions of years. The same could happen for the other planet. Where you have very tiny organisms and over time will evolve and appear larger and more intelligent beings as humans appeared on Earth.

The search for life in space

NASA decided to send the first mission to space with the purpose of searching for life, and that was in 1964. And it began sending signals to space with calculations or pictures of humans.

The purpose of sending these signals was to be heard by any rational being in space, and to respond to them by revealing the presence of life.

The research did not stop, but the funding allocated to it increased, and 350 antennas were installed so that they could receive signals that might come to them from far space.

And the research didn’t stop there, but they launched “City at Home”, a project that gets everyone to share their knowledge of space online.

Journey to Mars

After several years and after a large number of attempts, NASA managed to go to Mars for the first time in 2012. Mars was the dream that astronomers expected to come true and find life on it. But after landing on it, visualizing it and collecting samples, no life appeared on it.

However, scientists did not back down from searching inside the Martian soil, as they went again and dug under the surface of Mars.

At first, they did not find anything, but as the drilling continued and with time, specifically in 2015, NASA announced that they had found water on Mars.

What do we need in space to live in it?

Humans have their own nature, they need several factors to say that this place is livable or not. Humans need oxygen in order to breathe. They need water to drink and water the crops. And they need carbon, hydrogen and amino acids.

Without these things, people would not survive.

And we will not forget the temperature, as humans live in certain temperatures, they do not tolerate extreme heat or extreme cold. Therefore, we must live on a planet that is located at a reasonable distance from the sun, so that it is neither near nor very far, and this applies to planet Earth.

Our planet is one

After several years of searching for extraterrestrial life, and after searching for another planet for humans to live on, we have come to the fact that the Earth is unique. And it is the only planet equipped with everything that helps humans to live comfortably and safely.

Therefore, we must focus all our efforts on taking care of this planet and preserving it from pollution and destruction.

The solution is not to let our planet die and search for another planet. Searching for another planet and giving hope for an alternative to it makes people more and more violate this blue planet, which has no alternative except in science fiction films.

At the end of  Living on Another Planet Essay , we talked about the continuous efforts made by scientists to search for an alternative to planet Earth, and what they eventually reached.

And we learned the importance of this planet, which scientists used to say is undistinguished, but we discovered that it is distinguished in its position in relation to the sun and distinguished in its air, soil and water content, which reaches about 70% of its area. And in the end, we must all preserve our planet.

For more articles, click on the following link:

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Space Exploration — Aliens And The Probability Of Life On Other Planets

Aliens and The Probability of Life on Other Planets

• Categories: Aliens Space Exploration

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Words: 1243 |

Published: Mar 18, 2021

Words: 1243 | Pages: 3 | 7 min read

Works Cited

• Arnold, P. (2020, January 7). Scientists Find 60 Potentially Habitable Planets Near Earth. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/scientists-find-60-potentially-habitable-planets-near-earth-1480824
• The Catholic Church and ET Life. (n.d.). SETI Institute. https://www.seti.org/catholic-church-and-et-life
• Hawking, S. (2010). The Grand Design. Bantam Books.
• NASA. (n.d.). Kepler Mission.
• NASA. (n.d.). TESS.
• Roudman, S. (2021, February 5). Scientists are searching for life around these stars. Big Think. https://bigthink.com/space/scientists-are-searching-for-life-around-these-stars
• Scarpino, P. (2019, September 20). A Brief History of Space Exploration. Smithsonian Magazine.
• Spacecraft Cassini-Huygens. (n.d.). NASA.
• United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. (n.d.). Space Law.
• Von Daniken, E. (1968). Chariots of the Gods? Unsolved Mysteries of the Past. Tantor Audio.

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Is There Life on Other Planets?

The ultimate goal of NASA's exoplanet program is to find unmistakable signs of current life on a planet beyond Earth. How soon that can happen depends on two unknowns: the prevalence of life in the galaxy and how lucky we get as we take those first, tentative, exploratory steps.

Our early planet finding missions, such as NASA’s Kepler and its extended incarnation, K2, or the James Webb Space Telescope, could yield bare bones evidence of the potentially habitable worlds. James Webb, designed in part to investigate gas giants and super-Earths, might find an outsized version of our planet. NASA's Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope or the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope, could zero in on a distant planet’s reflected light to detect the signatures of oxygen, water vapor, or some other powerful indication of possible life.

But unless we get lucky, the search for signs of life could take decades. Discovering another blue-white marble hidden in the star field, like a sand grain on the beach, will probably require an even larger imaging telescope. Designs are already underway for that next-generation planet finder, to be sent aloft in the 2030s or 2040s.

MIT physics professor Sara Seager looks for possible chemical combinations that could signal the presence of alien life. She and her biochemistry colleagues first focused on the six main elements associated with life on Earth: carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, sulfur and hydrogen.

“We’re going to have so few planets, we have to get lucky,” Seager said. “I don’t want to miss anything. I don’t want to miss it because we weren’t smart enough to think of some molecule.”

To find out how about the advanced, space-based telescope technology being developed at NASA to search for life among the stars, read Inventing the Future .

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Essay on Possibility Of Life On Other Planets

Students are often asked to write an essay on Possibility Of Life On Other Planets in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Possibility Of Life On Other Planets

Is there life beyond earth.

Our universe is vast, filled with stars and planets. Scientists believe there might be life on other planets besides Earth. They study space, looking for places that have water and the right temperatures for life.

Searching the Skies

Telescopes help scientists find planets in far-away solar systems. They look for signs that these planets could support life, like having an atmosphere and being not too hot or cold.

Missions to Mars

Mars is our neighbor and has been explored by robots. These robots send back pictures and check if there’s water or signs of past life.

Moons and Beyond

Some moons around other planets might have oceans under their icy surfaces. These hidden seas could be homes for alien creatures.

Life’s Ingredients

250 words essay on possibility of life on other planets.

Many people wonder if we are alone in the universe or if other planets have living things like us. Scientists are working hard to find the answer. They look at planets and moons to see if they have what life needs to survive.

What Life Needs

All living things on Earth need water, food, and the right temperature to live. So, scientists search for places with water because it’s very important for life. They also look for air that living things can breathe and not too hot or too cold temperatures.

Planets Like Earth

Our Earth is just right for life because it’s not too close or too far from the Sun. This makes the temperature good for water to stay liquid. Scientists have found other planets that are a bit like Earth, in what they call the “Goldilocks Zone.” These planets might have the right conditions for life.

Moons and Microbes

It’s not just planets that could have life. Some moons around other planets have oceans under their icy surfaces. Tiny life forms called microbes might live there. These microbes don’t need sunlight; they can live off chemicals in the water.

Looking for Signs

Spacecraft and telescopes help scientists look for signs of life far away. They can find out what’s in the air of other planets and see if it’s like Earth’s air. They also look for signs of water and chemicals that living things make.

500 Words Essay on Possibility Of Life On Other Planets

The universe is huge, with countless stars and planets. For a long time, people have wondered if there are other living things somewhere out there. With new tools and technology, scientists are getting closer to finding an answer.

What Makes a Planet Livable?

To support life as we know it, a planet needs certain things. Water is very important because all living things on Earth need it. The planet should not be too hot or too cold, which means it has to be at just the right distance from its star. This area is called the “Goldilocks Zone.” Also, the air should have gases that living things can breathe.

Robots and Space Probes

Robots and space probes are sent to other planets and moons in our solar system. They take pictures, collect samples, and send back information. Mars, for example, has robots on it right now. These robots are checking if there was ever life there. They look for water, chemicals, and other signs that could mean Mars once had living things.

What Could Alien Life Look Like?

If there is life on other planets, it might be very different from what we see on Earth. It could be tiny bacteria or something we can’t even imagine. The conditions on other planets are not the same as Earth, so life there might have adapted in strange ways.

Challenges in Finding Life

What does this mean for us.

Thinking about life on other planets is exciting. It can teach us more about our own planet and how life started here. It also makes us think about our place in the universe. Are we alone, or is there a big family of living things out there?

In conclusion, the possibility of life on other planets is a question that makes us curious. With new discoveries and technology, we might find answers someday. Until then, we keep looking up at the stars and wondering.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Collection Finding Our Place in the Cosmos: From Galileo to Sagan and Beyond

Messages to and from outer space.

As the 20th century began, interest in the potential of life on Mars and the possible civilizations there lead to a search for signals. Could we communicate with another planet? How might we look for signals and messages from other worlds?

An 1896 newspaper article titled " A Signal from Mars " offered one example of how we might receive communications from the planet. In noting "a luminous projection on the southern edge of the planet", the article suggests that this might be because "the inhabitants of Mars were flashing messages" to Earth. We can find this same idea in a piece of music. The 1901 piece, " A Signal From Mars, March and Two Step " offers music that Martians might be playing for us. From the cover illustration, it would appear that one rather civilized Martian is using a spotlight to communicate the tune while the other watches Earth with a telescope, likely waiting to see if we have the same taste in marches and two steps.  Soon, the development of radio technology would provide a much more powerful way to listen for and send messages to other worlds.

Tesla Promises Radio Communication with Mars

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the idea and development of wireless telegraphy, sending and receiving electromagnetic waves through the air, offered new method of searching for communications from space. In 1901, engineer Nicola Tesla made the astonishing claim that he was receiving radio communications from Mars. His story was picked up and reported on broadly in the press.

An article from the Richmond Times offered an extensive description and commentary on his alleged discovery. "As he sat beside his instrument on the hillside in Colorado, in the deep silence of that austere, inspiring region, where you plant your feet in gold and your head brushes the constellations — as he sat there one evening, alone, his attention, exquisitely alive at that juncture, was arrested by a faint sound from the receiver — three fairy taps, one after the other, at a fixed interval. What man who has ever lived on this earth would not envy Tesla that moment!" While Tesla's alleged communications with Mars captured media attention, it did not capture much serious interest from scientists.

Hello Earth!

As radio took off, so did stories of communicating with Mars. One such article from 1920, Hello, Earth! Hello! Marconi believes he is receiving signals from the planets provides extensive commentary on similar signals observed by the Italian engineer Guglielmo Marconi. Aside from describing this discovery, the article quotes Thomas Edison as saying Marconi's work offers "good grounds for the theory that inhabitants of other planets are trying to signal to us." As radio developed as a medium for communications in the early 20th century it was also positioned for listening for contact from other worlds. While it would quickly become clear that there weren't signals from Mars, radio would play a critical role in the search for life on worlds outside our solar system.

In the 1930s and 40s radio became an invaluable instrument for observing the heavens. As astronomers began developing radio telescopes they made discoveries of various sources of electromagnetic waves in the heavens and these became useful sources of observational data about the space.

Intergalactic Contact & The Drake Equation

In the 1960s Frank Drake, Carl Sagan and a number of other scientists began searching for signals indicating the existence of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe. As it became increasingly clear that there was no intelligent life on other planets in the solar system, it became possible to detect signals from much further away. The Drake Equation was a way to estimate the number of civilizations out in the galaxy that could be sending out radio signals we could detect.  

The goal of this equation is to define the parameters for figuring out the possible number of civilizations in our galaxy that we might be able to communicate with. Each of the variables after the equals sign are multiplied together to get the result. R is the rate of star formation, fp  is the fraction of those stars that have planets, ne  is the average number of planets that could, in theory, support life, f ℓ would be the fraction of planets that could support life that, at some point, do in fact support life, fi  is the fraction of those planets that actually develop intelligent  life, fc is the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space, and L  is an estimate for the length of time for which such civilizations would last for. All together the Drake equation looks like this N = R* • fp • ne • fl • fi • fc • L.

In general, Sagan and Drake were excited about the possibility of contacting intelligent life in the universe because of their own ideas about the progressive value of technology and science. Those civilizations, which possibly could have existed longer than ours, would have, in their minds, likely gotten past petty things like war, violence and conquest.

Voyager's Message "To Future Times & Beings"

What do you say to a super intelligent alien race on behalf of all the inhabitants of Earth? Or at least, how would you sum up humanity to the universe just in case someone was listening?  This was the question posed to Carl Sagan and a team he assembled who developed the content for the Voyager record.

In a letter to Alan Lomax, Carl Sagan called the Voyager Record " a cosmic greeting card. " Both of the Voyager spacecraft, launched in 1977, carry copies of these records. Earlier, Sagan had been involved in crafting a message placed on Pioneer 10 and 11, the first NASA missions that would leave our solar system. The plans for messages to travel with the Voyager missions were set out on a much grander scale.

The records contain sounds and images selected to portray the diversity of life and culture on Earth. To illustrate the diversity of its image content it contains; an X-ray of a human hand, a street scene from Pakistan, an image of a violin next to a music score, images of the planets Mercury and Mars, diagrams of the structure of DNA, and the definitions of a range of units of measure. For audio recordings, each record contains greetings from earth in 55 languages and 90 minutes of music, including recordings as diverse as; "Johnny B. Goode," written and performed by Chuck Berry, a selection from Stravinsky's Rite of Spring, and ethnographic recordings of music from the Solomon Islands, Peru, China and India. After the launch of the Voyager probes, in a birthday message to Chuck Berry , Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan suggest that his music is now "quite literally out of this world." As these images and recordings now leave our solar system they collectively represent the furthest reach of humanity into our universe. 

In selecting audio recordings to include, Carl Sagan found a collaborator in folklorist Alan Lomax . In this letter to Lomax , Sagan describes the Voyager mission and explains that the record has "a probable lifetime of a billion years" noting that "it is unlikely that many other artifacts of humanity will survive for so prodigious a period of time; it is clear, for example, that most of the present continents will be ground down and dissipated by then." In this respect, Sagan suggests, "Inclusion of the musical selections on the Voyager Record ensures for them a kind of immortality which could not be achieved in any other way." It's unlikely that the voyager records now at the edge of our solar system will ever be found by alien life forms. Just like the ideas about life on the moon , intelligent alien life , civilization on Mars and preoccupations with UFOs  the Voyager records tells us a lot about how we see ourselves in a cosmic context. Reflecting on the ideas behind the record offers an opportunity to consider how we have presented ourselves on an artifact Sagan insisted would outlast nearly everything else humanity produces.

At the dawn of the 20th century, many looked to find signals from Mars in patterns in light. The advent of radio greatly expanded that search beyond our solar system. While scientists have yet to find signals from another world they haven't stopped looking.  In fact we took it upon ourselves to reach out first and have tried to compose literally universal messages for the ages.

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10 Words to Describe an Alien Planet

By Isobel Coughlan

If you’re writing a Sci-Fi novel and need some inspiration, this post is for you. Below, we’ve shared 10 words to describe an alien planet for your perusal.

1. Peculiar

Something or somewhere that’s  unusual , strange, or different.

“The  peculiar  alien planet didn’t feel like home, and she desperately wished to return to her cozy bed.”

“He acknowledged that the alien planet was  peculiar , but he was willing to spend more time there learning about the society’s beliefs.”

How it Adds Description

Fictional aliens are usually different from humans, and if you  want to emphasize  the contrast between your alien world and Earth the word “peculiar” can help. This adjective highlights that the location is different, and not in a good way since “peculiar” often has negative connotations. “Peculiar” is a strong word for setting scenes and exposing a character’s inner feelings about the setting.

2. Eccentric

Someone or  somewhere  that’s strange and has different actions or opinions than most of society.

“She explored the  eccentric  alien planet. Nothing made sense to her, but she had a good feeling about the place.”

“The aliens started to sing without warning. However, this seemed normal on their  eccentric  alien planet.”

If you want to show how your alien society is different, but in a positive light, the word “eccentric” can help. This adjective helps your reader understand that your fictional world doesn’t subscribe to the same social conventions as Earth, yet it works for them. The term can also be used to show a character’s curiosity about the society, or to pique your reader’s interest and make them want to read on.

3. Exceptional

Somewhere that’s  extremely  good quality and better than others.

“They glanced around at the  exceptional  alien world; this was the most advanced planet they’d ever seen.”

“The aliens thought their world was normal, but she knew their  exceptional  alien world was more special than they realized.”

The word “exceptional” can be used to convey how positive and amazing your alien world is. Whether it’s technologically advanced or full of natural wonders, “exceptional” ensures your reader knows it’s better than the rest. Ideal if you’re trying to create a paradise-like world.

4. Progressive

Somewhere that has modern  innovations  or ideas.

“He’d never expected a civilized society or a  progressive  alien world. Acknowledging that his home was low-tech was a tough pill to swallow.”

“She enjoyed the diplomacy of the  progressive  alien world.”

If you want to highlight how forward-thinking or modern your alien world is, “progressive” will help you describe its values to your reader. This is a great adjective for Sci-Fi novels, as you can show your reader that the fictional world is ahead of other civilizations.

5. Unnatural

Somewhere that contrasts what you’d  normally  expect.

“He didn’t feel safe in the  unnatural  alien world, everything looked similar but behaved differently.”

“They were stuck in the  unnatural  alien world, whether they liked it or not.”

Creating contrast between the real world and your fictional world is a great method to set the scene for your reader. “Unnatural” will show your alien world is at odds with their usual expectations. This adjective allows you to create a world that’s as weird or as wonderful as you like, however the term is usually reserved for negative descriptions. This can also foreshadow important plot points later on in the novel.

Somewhere that feels slightly scary or  frightening .

“He didn’t feel comfortable in the  spooky  alien world. Something about the setting turned his stomach.”

“As she wandered through the  spooky  alien world, it seemed like someone was following her. Yet every time she turned around no one was there.”

Some alien world’s might be full of wonder and positivity. However, if you’re creating an alien world and want to send shivers down your readers’ spines, “spooky” is an appropriate word to use. This adjective hints that the world is frightening your characters and you can use it to build suspense before a major plot point or dramatic moment.

7. Advanced

Somewhere that’s extremely  modern  or more developed than other places.

“The  advanced  alien world put his primitive hometown to shame.”

“She wanted to stay in the  advanced  alien world, but she’d need to learn how to function in their innovative society.”

Many great alien stories take place in high-tech worlds, and the word “advanced” is one of the best adjectives to show your modern world off. “Advanced” conveys that the alien world is home to new technologies and lifestyles, but it can also link to ways of thinking. This will help your reader understand the inner workings of the setting, thus building their overall understanding of the book.

8. Astonishing

Somewhere that  surprises  you.

“When she first visited the  astonishing  alien world she’d gasped. But now everything felt very normal to her.”

“The group stood there with open mouths. The  astonishing  alien world never fails to impress visitors.”

An alien world might be a new experience for visitors, especially if they come from completely different planets. Therefore, the word “astonishing” will show your characters’ reactions to the unique world. This also helps your reader to understand the awe they feel towards the new society, and this can make them want to read on and find out more.

9. Fantastic

Somewhere very  good  or somewhere you like.

“This alien world is simply  fantastic !”

“The  fantastic  alien world was the most popular destination in the solar system.”

“Fantastic” is a positive adjective that can be used to describe the positive aspects of your alien world. From the physical qualities to the way the world is set up, “fantastic” will ensure your reader understands how great the setting is.

10. Untamed

A place that’s never been  changed  and is in its natural state.

“The group slowly walked through the  untamed  alien world. They had no clue what to expect.”

“As she looked around, she noticed the  untamed  alien world was free from technology and laws she was used to at home.”

Not all alien worlds are technologically advanced! If you want to explain how your alien world is yet to be developed, the world “untamed” can help. This adjective implies to your reader that the inhabitants (if any) have left the setting as discovered. “Untamed” can also evoke curiosity within your reader, as an “untamed” world has many possibilities.

January 1, 2014

15 min read

Living in an Imaginary World

Daydreaming can help solve problems, trigger creativity, and inspire great works of art and science. When it becomes compulsive, however, the consequences can be dire

By Josie Glausiusz

When Rachel Stein (not her real name) was a small child, she would pace around in a circle shaking a string for hours at a time, mentally spinning intricate alternative plots for her favorite television shows. Usually she was the star—the imaginary seventh child in The Brady Bunch , for example. “Around the age of eight or nine, my older brother said, ‘You're doing this on the front lawn, and the neighbors are looking at you. You just can't do it anymore,’” Stein recalls.

So she retreated to her bedroom, reveling in her elaborate reveries alone. As she grew older, the television shows changed—first General Hospital , then The West Wing —but her intense need to immerse herself in her imaginary world did not.

“There were periods in my life when daydreaming just took over everything,” she recalls. “I was not in control.” She would retreat into fantasy “any waking moment when I could get away with it. It was the first thing I wanted to do when I woke up in the morning. When I woke up in the night to go to the bathroom, it would be bad if I got caught up in a story because then I couldn't go back to sleep.” By the time she was 17, Stein was exhausted. “I loved the daydreams, but I just felt it was consuming my real life. I went to parties with friends, but I just couldn't wait to get home. There was nothing else that I wanted to do as much as daydreaming.

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Convinced that she was crazy, she consulted six different therapists, none of whom could find anything wrong with her. The seventh prescribed Prozac, which had no effect. Eventually Stein began taking another antidepressant, Luvox, which, like Prozac, is also a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor but is usually prescribed for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Gradually she brought her daydreaming under control. Now age 39, she is a successful lawyer, still nervously guarding her secret world.

The scientific study of people such as Stein is helping researchers better understand the role of daydreaming in normal consciousness—and what can happen when this process becomes unhealthy. For most of us, daydreaming is a virtual world where we can rehearse the future, explore fearful scenarios or imagine new adventures without risk. It can help us devise creative solutions to problems or prompt us, while immersed in one task, with reminders of other important goals.

For others, however, the draw of an alternative reality borders on addiction, choking off other aspects of everyday life, including relationships and work. Starring as idealized versions of themselves—as royalty, raconteurs and saviors in a complex, ever changing cast of characters—addictive daydreamers may feel enhanced confidence and validation. Their fantasies may be followed by feelings of dread and shame, and they may compare the habit to a drug or describe an experience akin to drowning in honey.

The recent discovery of a network in the brain dedicated to autobiographical mental imagery is helping researchers understand the multiple purposes that daydreaming serves in our lives. They have dubbed this web of neurons “the default network” because when we are not absorbed in more focused tasks, the network fires up. The default network appears to be essential to generating our sense of self, suggesting that daydreaming plays a crucial role in who we are and how we integrate the outside world into our inner lives. Cognitive psychologists are now also examining how brain disease may impair our ability to meander mentally and what the consequences are when we just spend too much time, well, out to lunch.

Videos in the Mind's Eye

Most people spend between 30 and 47 percent of their waking hours spacing out, drifting off, lost in thought, woolgathering, in a brown study or building castles in the air. Yale University emeritus psychology professor Jerome L. Singer defines daydreaming as shifting attention “away from some primary physical or mental task toward an unfolding sequence of private responses” or, more simply, “watching your own mental videos.” The 89-year-old Singer, who published a lyrical account of his decades of research on daydreams in his 1975 book, The Inner World of Daydreaming (Harper & Row), divides daydreaming styles into two main categories: “positive-constructive,” which includes upbeat and imaginative thoughts, and “dysphoric,” which encompasses visions of failure or punishment. Most people experience both kinds to some degree.

Other scientists distinguish between mundane musings and extravagant fantasies. Michael Kane, a cognitive psychologist at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, considers “mind wandering” to be “any thoughts that are unrelated to one's task at hand.” In his view, mind wandering is a broad category that may include everything from pondering ingredients for a dinner recipe to saving the planet from alien invasion. Most of the time when people fall into mind wandering, they are thinking about everyday concerns, such as recent encounters and items on their to-do list. More exotic daydreams in the style of James Thurber's grandiose fictional fantasist Walter Mitty—such as Mitty's dream of piloting an eight-engine hydroplane through a hurricane—are rare.

Humdrum concerns figured prominently in one study that rigorously measured how much time we spend mind wandering in daily life. In a 2009 study Kane and his colleague Jennifer McVay asked 72 U.N.C. students to carry PalmPilots that beeped at random intervals eight times a day for a week. The subjects then recorded their thoughts at that moment on a questionnaire. About 30 percent of the beeps coincided with thoughts unrelated to the task at hand. Mind wandering increased with stress, boredom or sleepiness or in chaotic environments and decreased with enjoyable tasks. That may be because enjoyable activities tend to grab our attention.

Intense focus on our problems may not always lead to immediate solutions. Instead allowing the mind to float freely can enable us to access unconscious ideas hovering underneath the surface—a process that can lead to creative insight, according to psychologist Jonathan W. Schooler of the University of California, Santa Barbara.

We may not even be aware that we are daydreaming. We have all had the experience of “reading” a book yet absorbing nothing—moving our eyes over the words on a page as our attention wanders and the text turns into gibberish. “People oftentimes don't realize that they're daydreaming while they're daydreaming; they lack what I call ‘meta-awareness,’ consciousness of what is currently going on in their mind,” Schooler says. Aimless rambling across the moors of our imaginings may allow us to stumble on ideas and associations that we may never find if we strive to seek them.

A Key to Creativity

Artists and scientists are well acquainted with such playful fantasizing. Orhan Pamuk, the Turkish novelist who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2006, imagined “another world,” to which he retreated as a child, where he was “someone else, somewhere else ... in my grandmother's sitting room, I'd pretend to be inside a submarine.” Albert Einstein pictured himself running along a light wave—a reverie that led to his theory of special relativity. Filmmaker Tim Burton daydreamed his way to Hollywood success, spending his childhood holed up in his bedroom, creating posters for an imaginary horror film series.

Why should daydreaming aid creativity? It may be in part because the waking brain is never really at rest. As psychologist Eric Klinger of the University of Minnesota explains, floating in unfocused mental space serves an evolutionary purpose: when we are engaged with one task, mind wandering can trigger reminders of other, concurrent goals so that we do not lose sight of them. Some researchers believe that increasing the amount of imaginative daydreaming we do or replaying variants of the millions of events we store in our brain can be beneficial. A painful procedure in a doctor's office, for example, can be made less distressing by visualizations of soothing scenes from childhood.

Yet to enhance creativity, it is important to pay attention to daydreams. Schooler calls this “tuning out” or deliberate “off-task thinking.” In an as yet unpublished study, he and his colleague Jonathan Smallwood asked 122 undergraduates at the University of British Columbia to read a children's story and press a button each time they caught themselves tuning out. The researchers also periodically interrupted the students as they were reading and asked them if they were “zoning out” or drifting off without being aware of it. “What we find is that the people who regularly catch themselves—who notice when they're doing it—seem to be the most creative,” Schooler says. Such subjects score higher on a standard test of creativity, in which they are asked to describe all the uses of a common object, such as a brick; high scorers compile a longer and more creative list. “You need to have the mind-wandering process,” he explains, “but you also need to have meta-awareness to say, ‘That's a creative idea that popped into my mind.’”

The mind's freedom to wander during a period of deliberate tuning out could also explain the flash of insight that may pop into a person's head when he or she takes a break from an unsolved problem. Ut Na Sio and Thomas Ormerod, two researchers at the University of Lancaster in England, conducted a recent meta-analysis of studies of these brief reveries. They found that people who engaged in a mildly demanding task, such as reading, during a break from, say, a visual assignment, such as the hat-rack problem—in which participants have to construct a sturdy hat rack using two boards and a clamp—did better on that problem than those who did nothing at all. They also scored higher than those engaged in a highly demanding task—such as mentally rotating shapes—during the interval. Allowing our mind to ramble during a moderately challenging task, it seems, enables us to access ideas not easily available to our conscious mind or to combine these insights in original ways. Our ability to do so is now known to depend on the normal functioning of a dedicated daydreaming network deep in our brain.

The Mental Matrix of Fantasy

Like Facebook for the brain, the default network is a bustling web of memories and streaming movies, starring ourselves. “When we daydream, we're at the center of the universe,” says neurologist Marcus Raichle of Washington University in St. Louis, who first described the network in 2001. It consists of three main regions: the medial prefrontal cortex, the posterior cingulate cortex and the parietal cortex. The medial prefrontal cortex helps us imagine ourselves and the thoughts and feelings of others; the posterior cingulate cortex draws personal memories from the brain; and the parietal cortex has major connections with the hippocampus, which stores episodic memories—what we ate for breakfast, say—but not impersonal facts, such as the capital of Kyrgyzstan. “The default mode network is critical to the establishment of a sense of self,” Raichle says.

It was not until 2007, however, that cognitive psychologist Malia Fox Mason, now at Columbia University, discovered that the default network—which lights up when people switch from an attention-demanding activity to drifting reveries with no specific goal—becomes more active when people engage in a monotonous verbal task, when they are more likely to mind wander. In an experiment, participants were shown a string of four letters such as R H V X for one second, which was then replaced by an arrow pointing either left or right, to indicate whether the sequence should be read forward or backward. When one of the characters in the string appeared, subjects were asked to indicate its position (first, second, third or last, depending on the direction of the arrow). The more the participants practiced on each of the four original letter strings, the better they performed. They were then given a novel task, consisting of letter sequences they had not seen before. Activity in the default network went down during the novel version of the test. Subjects who daydreamed more in everyday life—as determined by a questionnaire—also showed greater activity in the default network during the monotonous original task.

Mason did not directly measure mind wandering during the scans, however, so she could not determine exactly when subjects were “on task” and when they were daydreaming. In 2009 Smallwood, Schooler and Kalina Christoff of the University of British Columbia published the first study to directly link mind wandering with increased activity in the default network. The researchers scanned the brains of 15 U.B.C. students while they performed a simple task in which they were shown random numbers from zero to nine. Each was asked to push a button when he or she saw any number except three. In the seconds before making an error—a key sign that an individual's attention had drifted—default network activity shot up. Periodically the investigators also interrupted the subjects and asked them if they had zoned out. Again, activity in the default network was higher in the seconds before the moment they were caught in the act. Notably, activity was strongest when people were unaware that they had lost their focus. “The more complex your mind-wandering episode is, the more of your mind it's going to consume,” Smallwood says.

Defects in the default network may also impair our ability to daydream. A range of disorders—including schizophrenia and depression—have been linked to malfunctions in the default network. In a 2007 study neuroscientist Peter Williamson of the University of Western Ontario found that people with schizophrenia have deficits in the medial prefrontal cortex, which is associated with self-reflection. In patients experiencing hallucinations, the medial prefrontal cortex dropped out of the network altogether. Although the patients were thinking, they could not be sure where the thoughts were coming from. People with schizophrenia daydream normally most of the time, but when they are ill, “they often complain that someone is reading their mind or that someone is putting thoughts in their head,” Williamson says.

On the other hand, those who ruminate obsessively—rehashing past events, repetitively analyzing their causes and consequences, or worrying about all the ways things could go wrong in the future—are well aware that their thoughts are their own, but they have intense difficulty turning them off. The late Yale psychologist Susan Nolen-Hoeksema did not believe that rumination is a form of daydreaming, which she defined as “imagining situations in the future that are largely positive in tone.” Nevertheless, she had found that in obsessive ruminators, who are at greater risk of depression, the same default network circuitry turns on that is activated when we daydream.

These ruminators—who may repeatedly scrutinize faux pas, family issues or lovers' betrayals—have trouble switching off the default network when asked to focus mentally on a neutral image, such as a truckload of watermelons. They may spend hours going over some past incident, asking themselves how it could have happened and why they did not react differently and end up feeling overwhelmed instead of searching for solutions. Experimental studies have shown that positive distraction—for example, exercise and social activities—can help ruminators reappraise their situation, as can techniques for cultivating mindfulness that teach individuals to pay precise attention to activities such as breathing or walking, rather than to thoughts. Yet people who daydream excessively may have the same problems ignoring their thoughts once they get going. Indeed, extreme daydreamers find their private world so difficult to escape that they describe it as an addiction—one as enslaving as heroin.

When Daydreaming Becomes a Drug

“I'm like an alcoholic with an unlimited supply of booze everywhere I go,” says Cordellia Amethyste Rose. A 33-year-old woman in Oregon, she started an online forum called Wild Minds ( http://wildminds.ning.com ) for people who simply cannot stop daydreaming. Since childhood, Rose has conjured up countless imaginary characters in ever changing plots. “They've grown right along with me, had children—some have died,” she says. The deeper she delved into her virtual world, though, the more distressed she became. “I couldn't pay attention for more than a split second. I would look at a book and zone out after every word.” Even so, she found her invented companions more compelling than anyone real. “I've learned to socialize internally with fictional characters I get along with,” she says. She could engage them in intellectual debate, whereas “socializing with outside people frustrates me. They all want to talk about the silliest things.”

Rose says that she has no friends, but on Wild Minds she has found her peers. Many people posting to the site express relief that they have found others like themselves, emerging from a cocoon of loneliness and shame to share their experiences: misdiagnoses, lack of understanding from families and therapists, and rituals like the one described by a quiet girl who spends “endless hours” swaying in a rocking chair listening to music, daydreaming her life away. “It's like a drug, poisoning and destroying your life,” says one anonymous fantasist, who admits to bingeing for days on a story line. “It's even worse because an addict can put a drug down and walk away. You can't put down your mind and walk away from it.”

Yet few of the members of the Wild Minds community would abandon their mental creations, even if they could. One hardworking nurse revels in imagined adventures starring a fictional medieval Queen Eleanor of Scotland, a skilled horsewoman with four concurrent husbands, who practices a made-up religion and is “a genius in both state and battle-craft ... trained in martial arts and is always inventing marvelous things.” Like Thurber's fictional fantasist, Queen Eleanor's creator spends a lot of time mentally rescuing disaster victims from burning buildings or “abseiling over cliffs, being winched in and out of helicopters with casualties.”

She has also documented her preposterous plots for independent biopsychologist Cynthia Schupak, a researcher with a single-minded mission to understand compulsive daydreamers, who treated Rachel Stein and described her ordeal in a journal article published in 2009. Schupak is convinced that compulsive daydreaming is a unique disorder, characterized by an inability to control it and the deep distress over the condition. “Everyday escapist fantasy is fine and dandy, but this syndrome is different,” she says.

In 2011 Schupak and psychology researcher Jayne Bigelsen published a study of 90 compulsive fantasizers—75 women and 15 men—garnered from Web sites such as the Yahoo group Maladaptive Daydreamers ( http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/maladaptivedaydreamers ). The self-selected respondents devoted between 12.5 and 99 percent of their waking hours to daydreaming, and 79 percent of them engaged in physical movement such as pacing while doing so. Many said everyday activities paled by comparison with their vivid inner worlds, and some drifted in and out of their alternative reality in the midst of conversation. Typically they reported that their daydreams made them feel comforted or confident “because it's me, just magnified,” as one subject put it. Nevertheless, 88 percent said they anguished over the amount of time spent fantasizing, even though most were gainfully employed or students. Nine percent had no friends or meaningful relationships, and 82 percent kept their daydreaming habit hidden from almost everyone.

Some evidence suggests that maladaptive daydreaming could be a distinctive disorder. Eleven years ago clinical psychologist Eli Somer of the University of Haifa in Israel recounted cases of six people consumed by fantasy lives packed with sadism and bloodshed. All had suffered some form of childhood trauma. One had been sexually molested by her grandfather. Another described his father as a brutal man who humiliated and physically abused family members.

Somer believes that this mental activity emerged as a coping mechanism to help his patients deal with intolerable or inescapable realities. When their enhanced ability to conjure up vivid imagery is under control and does not interfere with social or academic success, “the phenomenon should probably be classified as a talent rather than a disorder,” he says. Attitude may also be important.

Singer, who grew up during the Great Depression and had no formal musical training, he says, entertained himself through childhood and adolescence with the imaginary achievements of “Singer the Composer,” an alter ego who wrote a complete repertoire of classical music, including operas and an unfinished Seventh Symphony. He does not consider his inner adventures harmful but rather sees them as a boredom-banishing sport—one that likely helped to propel him into his profession.

Is Your Mind Wandering Out of Control?

How do you know when you have tipped over from useful and creative daydreaming into the netherworld of compulsive fantasizing? First, notice whether you are deriving any useful insights from your fantasies. “The proof is in the pudding,” Schooler says. “Creative individuals—artists, scientists, and so on—oftentimes report ideas that have occurred to them during daydreams.” Second, it is important to take stock of the content of your daydreams. To distinguish between beneficial and pathological imaginings, he adds, “Ask yourself if this is something useful, helpful, valuable, pleasant, or am I just rehashing the same old perseverative thoughts over and over again?” And if daydreaming feels out of control, then even if it is pleasant it is probably not useful or valuable.

Whether or not mind wandering causes distress often depends on the context, Kane observes. “We argue that it's not inherently good or bad; it all depends on what the goals of the person are at the time.” It may be perfectly reasonable for a scientist to mentally check out in the midst of a repetitive experiment. And a novelist who can publish her reveries is clearly putting them to good use.

“Happily, a lot of what we do in life doesn't require that much concentration,” Kane says. “But there are going to be some contexts in which it is costly. Does the cost to your activity, to your reputation, to your performance, overwhelm the benefit that you may be getting from those thoughts? You can imagine situations where it is so costly that there's no thought you could be having that's worth it,” he says, pausing to consider the possibilities. “You've crossed the line,” he concludes, “if you walk into traffic and get killed.”

JOSIE GLAUSIUSZ is a science journalist who has written for Nature, National Geographic and Discover . She writes the weekly On Science column for the American Scholar and is author of Buzz: The Intimate Bond between Humans and Insects (Chronicle, 2004).

Further Reading

The Secret Life of Walter Mitty. James Thurber in My World and Welcome to It . Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1937.

The Inner World of Daydreaming. Jerome L. Singer. Harper and Row, 1975.

Maladaptive Daydreaming: A Qualitative Inquiry. Eli Somer in Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy , Vol. 32, Nos. 2–3; Fall 2002.

Rethinking Rumination. Susan Nolen-Hoeksema, Blair E. Wisco and Sonja Lyubomirsky in Perspectives on Psychological Science , Vol. 3, No. 5, pages 400–424; 2008.

Compulsive Fantasy: Proposed Evidence of an Under-Reported Syndrome through a Systematic Study of 90 Self-Identified Non-normative Fantasizers. Jane Bigelsen and Cynthia Schupak in Consciousness and Cognition , Vol. 20, No. 4, pages 1634–1648; December 2011.

The Costs and Benefits of Mind-Wandering: A Review. Benjamin W. Mooneyham and Jonathan W. Schooler in Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology , Vol. 67. No. 1, pages 11–18; March 2013.

We have imagined the possibility that life exists on other planets. Do you believe that there is life in the universe outside of Earth? What would the implications of proving that alien life exists? Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge and experience

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• statistical probability
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• Drake Equation
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• hydrothermal vents
• adaptability
• philosophical
• human-centric viewpoints
• interstellar
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Some children spend hours every day on their smartphones. Why is this the case? Do you think this is a positive or a negative development?

Completing university education is thought by some to be the best way to get a good job. on the other hand, other people think that getting experience and developing soft skills is more important. discuss both sides and give your opinion, nowadays for many people internet is replacing books. what is your opinion, when choosing a job, the salary is the most important consideration. to what extent do you agree or disagree give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own experience or knowledge. write at least 250 words., computers and ai technology are increasingly being used for online education. can artificial intelligence enhance the learning experience is this a positive or negative development.

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Imagine yourself travelling / living on another planet , write an imaginary essay on it please do not post that this type of questions should be done by yourself please do not post like this

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