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Life and reign

• Cleopatra through the ages

Why is Cleopatra famous?

How did cleopatra come to power, how did cleopatra die.

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• King College - Women's History Resource Site - Cleopatra VII
• Encyclopedia Romana - The Beauty of Cleopatra
• Jewish Virtual Library - Biography of Cleopatra
• CNN - Who was the real Cleopatra?
• Ancient Origins - The Enigma of Cleopatra's Death: Was it Suicide or Murder?
• LiveScience - Cleopatra: Facts and Biography
• GlobalSecurity.org - Cleopatra VII
• World History Encyclopedia - Biography of Cleopatra VII
• Spartacus Educational - Biography of Cleopatra
• Cleopatra - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
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• Table Of Contents

While queen of Egypt (51–30 BCE), Cleopatra actively influenced Roman politics at a crucial period and was especially known for her relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony . She came to represent, as did no other woman of antiquity, the prototype of the romantic femme fatale. Cleopatra inspired numerous books, plays, and movies.

When her father, Ptolemy XII , died in 51 BCE, Cleopatra and her brother, Ptolemy XIII , coruled until she was forced to flee, about 50 BCE. Aided by Julius Caesar , her lover, she returned to power upon her brother’s death in 47. She ruled with her brother-husband, Ptolemy XIV , and then with her son Caesarion .

What was Cleopatra like?

Cleopatra was charismatic and intelligent, and she used both qualities to further Egypt's political aims. She was also ruthless, reportedly killing several family members in order to solidify her power. The only member of her house to learn Egyptian, she was said to be a popular ruler.

With the arrival of the conquering Octavian (the future Roman emperor Augustus ), Cleopatra’s husband, Mark Antony , committed suicide under the false impression that she was dead. After burying him, the 39-year-old Cleopatra took her own life, though how is uncertain. Some claim it was by means of an asp , the symbol of divine royalty.

Cleopatra (born 70/69 bce —died August 30 bce , Alexandria) was an Egyptian queen, famous in history and drama as the lover of Julius Caesar and later as the wife of Mark Antony . She became queen on the death of her father, Ptolemy XII , in 51 bce and ruled successively with her two brothers Ptolemy XIII (51–47) and Ptolemy XIV (47–44) and her son Ptolemy XV Caesar (44–30). After the Roman armies of Octavian (the future emperor Augustus ) defeated their combined forces, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, and Egypt fell under Roman domination. Cleopatra actively influenced Roman politics at a crucial period, and she came to represent, as did no other woman of Classical antiquity , the prototype of the romantic femme fatale .

Daughter of King Ptolemy XII Auletes , Cleopatra was destined to become the last queen of the Macedonian dynasty that ruled Egypt between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 bce and its annexation by Rome in 30 bce . The line had been founded by Alexander’s general Ptolemy, who became King Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt. Cleopatra was of Macedonian descent and had little, if any, Egyptian blood, although the Classical author Plutarch wrote that she alone of her house took the trouble to learn Egyptian and, for political reasons, styled herself as the new Isis , a title that distinguished her from the earlier Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra III, who had also claimed to be the living embodiment of the goddess Isis. Coin portraits of Cleopatra show a countenance alive rather than beautiful, with a sensitive mouth, firm chin, liquid eyes, broad forehead, and prominent nose. When Ptolemy XII died in 51 bce , the throne passed to his young son, Ptolemy XIII , and daughter, Cleopatra VII. It is likely, but not proven, that the two married soon after their father’s death. The 18-year-old Cleopatra, older than her brother by about eight years, became the dominant ruler. Evidence shows that the first decree in which Ptolemy’s name precedes Cleopatra’s was in October of 50 bce . Soon after, Cleopatra was forced to flee Egypt for Syria , where she raised an army and in 48 bce returned to face her brother at Pelusium , on Egypt’s eastern border. The murder of the Roman general Pompey , who had sought refuge from Ptolemy XIII at Pelusium, and the arrival of Julius Caesar brought temporary peace.

Cleopatra realized that she needed Roman support, or, more specifically, Caesar’s support, if she was to regain her throne. Each was determined to use the other. Caesar sought money for repayment of the debts incurred by Cleopatra’s father, Auletes, as he struggled to retain his throne. Cleopatra was determined to keep her throne and, if possible, to restore the glories of the first Ptolemies and recover as much as possible of their dominions, which had included southern Syria and Palestine . Caesar and Cleopatra became lovers and spent the winter besieged in Alexandria . Roman reinforcements arrived the following spring, and Ptolemy XIII fled and drowned in the Nile . Cleopatra, now married to her brother Ptolemy XIV, was restored to her throne. In June 47 bce she gave birth to Ptolemy Caesar (known to the people of Alexandria as Caesarion, or “little Caesar”). Whether Caesar was the father of Caesarion, as his name implies, cannot now be known.

It took Caesar two years to extinguish the last flames of Pompeian opposition. As soon as he returned to Rome, in 46 bce , he celebrated a four-day triumph—the ceremonial in honour of a general after his victory over a foreign enemy—in which Arsinoe , Cleopatra’s younger and hostile sister, was paraded. Cleopatra paid at least one state visit to Rome, accompanied by her husband-brother and son. She was accommodated in Caesar’s private villa beyond the Tiber River and may have been present to witness the dedication of a golden statue of herself in the temple of Venus Genetrix, the ancestress of the Julian family to which Caesar belonged. Cleopatra was in Rome when Caesar was murdered in 44 bce .

Soon after her return to Alexandria, in 44 bce , Cleopatra’s coruler, Ptolemy XIV, died. Cleopatra now ruled with her infant son, Ptolemy XV Caesar. When, at the Battle of Philippi in 42 bce , Caesar’s assassins were routed, Mark Antony became the heir apparent of Caesar’s authority—or so it seemed, for Caesar’s great-nephew and personal heir, Octavian , was but a sickly boy. Antony, now controller of Rome’s eastern territories, sent for Cleopatra so that she might explain her role in the aftermath of Caesar’s assassination. She set out for Tarsus in Asia Minor loaded with gifts, having delayed her departure to heighten Antony’s expectation. She entered the city by sailing up the Cydnus River in a barge while dressed in the robes of the new Isis. Antony, who equated himself with the god Dionysus , was captivated . Forgetting his wife, Fulvia , who in Italy was doing her best to maintain her husband’s interests against the growing menace of young Octavian, Antony returned to Alexandria, where he treated Cleopatra not as a “protected” sovereign but as an independent monarch.

In Alexandria, Cleopatra and Antony formed a society of “inimitable livers” whose members lived what some historians have interpreted as a life of debauchery and folly and others have interpreted as lives dedicated to the cult of the mystical god Dionysus.

In 40 bce Cleopatra gave birth to twins, whom she named Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Antony had already left Alexandria to return to Italy, where he was forced to conclude a temporary settlement with Octavian. As part of this settlement, he married Octavian’s sister, Octavia (Fulvia having died). Three years later Antony was convinced that he and Octavian could never come to terms. His marriage to Octavia now an irrelevance, he returned to the east and reunited with Cleopatra. Antony needed Cleopatra’s financial support for his postponed Parthian campaign; in return, Cleopatra requested the return of much of Egypt’s eastern empire, including large portions of Syria and Lebanon and even the rich balsam groves of Jericho .

The Parthian campaign was a costly failure, as was the temporary conquest of Armenia . Nevertheless, in 34 bce Antony celebrated a triumphal return to Alexandria. This was followed by a celebration known as “the Donations of Alexandria.” Crowds flocked to the Gymnasium to see Cleopatra and Antony seated on golden thrones on a silver platform with their children sitting on slightly lower thrones beside them. Antony proclaimed Caesarion to be Caesar’s son—thus relegating Octavian, who had been adopted by Caesar as his son and heir, to legal illegitimacy. Cleopatra was hailed as queen of kings, Caesarion as king of kings. Alexander Helios was awarded Armenia and the territory beyond the Euphrates, his infant brother Ptolemy the lands to the west of it. The boys’ sister, Cleopatra Selene, was to be ruler of Cyrene. It was clear to Octavian, watching from Rome, that Antony intended his extended family to rule the civilized world. A propaganda war erupted. Octavian seized Antony’s will (or what he claimed to be Antony’s will) from the temple of the Vestal Virgins , to whom it had been entrusted, and revealed to the Roman people that not only had Antony bestowed Roman possessions on a foreign woman but intended to be buried beside her in Egypt. The rumour quickly spread that Antony also intended to transfer the capital from Rome to Alexandria.

Antony and Cleopatra spent the winter of 32–31 bce in Greece. The Roman Senate deprived Antony of his prospective consulate for the following year, and it then declared war against Cleopatra. The naval Battle of Actium , in which Octavian faced the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra on September 2, 31 bce , was a disaster for the Egyptians. Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt , and Cleopatra retired to her mausoleum as Antony went off to fight his last battle. Receiving the false news that Cleopatra had died, Antony fell on his sword. In a last excess of devotion, he had himself carried to Cleopatra’s retreat and there died, after bidding her to make her peace with Octavian.

Cleopatra buried Antony and then committed suicide. The means of her death is uncertain, though Classical writers came to believe that she had killed herself by means of an asp , symbol of divine royalty. She was 39 and had been a queen for 22 years and Antony’s partner for 11. They were buried together, as both of them had wished, and with them was buried the Roman Republic .

• Ancient History

The tragic reality of Cleopatra's life

More than 2000 years after her death, Cleopatra VII, the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, is still one of the most well-known figures from ancient history.

Especially in the modern world, the details of her life and reign have been the subject of countless works of art, literature, and film.

However, the true story of her rise to power and her dramatic death is often overshadowed by the myths and legends that surround her.

Cleopatra's life was one of constant political intrigue in an effort to keep Egypt free from falling under the control of the powerful Roman Empire.

Despite Cleopatra's intelligence, charisma, and political acumen she was ultimately unable to save her kingdom from this fate.

How Cleopatra became pharaoh

Cleopatra VII was born in 69 BC into the Ptolemaic dynasty, a Hellenistic royal family that ruled Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great .

Specifically, the Ptolemies were of Macedonian-Greek origin who maintained their power over Egypt for nearly three centuries.

Their time in power, however, was not easy. As a foreign power, they faced frequent political instability and family infighting.

Cleopatra herself was the daughter of pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes. As a royal princess, she was educated in Egyptian and Greek traditions to prepare for her future role.

Sources indicate that she was highly intelligent and was one of the few Ptolemies to learn the Egyptian language, in addition to Greek, which was typically spoken by the ruling elite.

She is said to have also studied various subjects such as philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy, and was known for her sharp intellect and persuasive charm.

When her father died in 51 BC, the 18-year-old Cleopatra and her 10-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIII, were co-regents as per the tradition of the time.

However, it was a tumultuous co-rule, and Cleopatra began exploring ways to take sole control of the country from her younger brother.

In response, his advisors slowly turned Ptolemy XIII against her, and were even able to get her officially exiled from Egypt.

Cleopatra, however, was not one to be easily cast aside. She quickly gathered an army and returned to Egypt to take back control.

Her march into Egypt happened to coincide with the arrival in the country of the most powerful Roman military commander of the age: Julius Caesar .

Caesar had been in the process of pursuing his greatest rival, Pompey the Great, who he had defeated in battle and who had fled to Egypt for safety.

When Caesar landed in Egypt, he was told that Pompey had been executed by Ptolemy XIII's soldiers .

Disappointed that he had lost the opportunity to defeat his rival by himself, Caesar wanted to get revenge on the young pharaoh.

Recognizing this moment as an opportunity, Cleopatra approached Caesar with an offer of an alliance: the two of them could work together and combine their armies to defeat Ptolemy XIII.

As one version of the story goes, she had herself smuggled into Caesar's private rooms, wrapped in a carpet, to ask for his support.

Apparently, due to this outlandish introduction, Caesar was instantly captivated by her intelligence and charm, and he agreed to help her. 

Their combined forces besieged the Egyptian capital city of Alexandria in 47 BC.

The forces of Ptolemy XIII were defeated, and the young pharaoh died while escaping.

With her brother's death, Cleopatra reclaimed the throne, this time alongside a new co-regent: her other younger brother, Ptolemy XIV.

Cleopatra's dramatic reign

Cleopatra time as pharaoh of Egypt spanned from 51 BC to 30 BC. Her first concerns were to stabilize her country after the civil war.

However, it was a period that saw constant political maneuvering. This was due to the fact that it was  an era when Rome was actively expanding its power.

Cleopatra understood the importance of aligning herself with Rome to ensure Egypt's independence.

Firstly, she needed to project an image of authority for both her people to see, and to convince Rome to treat her with respect.

To this end, Cleopatra held several royal titles throughout her reign, including 'Thea Philopator,' which means 'Goddess Who Loves Her Father', which was a way of promoting her divine status in Egyptian society.

Furthermore, Cleopatra issued coins bearing her image, which was a traditional tool for spreading royal influence throughout her kingdom and their trading partners.

In fact, under Cleopatra's rule, Egypt experienced a period of relative stability and prosperity.

She was able to undertake major economic reforms, improved trade, and commissioned several building projects, including the construction of temples.

She also openly promoted the structures of traditional Egyptian religion and presented herself as the reincarnation of the goddess Isis.

This was a sign that Cleopatra wanted to preserve Egypt's culture and traditions in the face of increasing Roman influence.

This strategy even extended to her choice of clothing. She often dressed in traditional Egyptian attire, even when she was in the city of Rome.

Her relationships with Caesar and Mark Antony

It appears that Cleopatra used her relationships with powerful Roman men as a way of keeping her lands safe from encroachment.

She already had a close relationship with Julius Caesar from the events around her seizure of her throne from her brother, Ptolemy XIII.

Following her ascension, they began a romantic relationship, which produced a son, named Caesarion.

She was then invited by Caesar to visit Rome as a recognized ally. During her visit, she was given a golden statue in the temple of Venus Genetrix, which was considered a rare sign of honor.

However, the sudden assassination of Caesar in 44 BC, put Cleopatra and her son in a precarious position.

After Caesar's death, Cleopatra returned to Egypt and aligned herself with a new, powerful Roman general: Mark Antony.

He was one of the members of the Second Triumvirate that took charge of Rome.

Antony, like Caesar, was reportedly captivated by Cleopatra. In a similar fashion, their alliance also became personal and they three children together : Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy Philadelphus.

While he was with Cleopatra in Egypt, Antony spent the winter of 41-40 BC in Alexandria.

This period was known as 'the Alexandrian Winter', during which the Romans were becoming deeply concerned that he was being 'seduced' by Cleopatra and her lavish royal lifestyle.

What seemed to confirm these fears was then Antony offered part of the Roman lands to her.

In the so-called 'Donations of Alexandria' in 34 BC, Mark Antony was reported to have distributed Rome's eastern territories to Cleopatra and their children, in return for her military support against his Roman rival: Octavian.

Cleopatra's Downfall and Death

Unfortunately, this agreement would lead to the end of both of their lives. At the climactic  Battle of Actium in 31 BC, the combined naval forces of Antony and Cleopatra faced off against the fleets of Octavian.

Despite having a much larger force, Antony and Cleopatra were defeated. They had invested huge sums of money into this campaign, so the loss was seen as a major shift in the balance of power in the Mediterranean.

Running short of resources and lacking reinforcements to effectively response to Octavian as he started sailing for Egypt, Cleopatra's influence was starting to wane.

After the defeat at Actium, Antony and Cleopatra retreated to Alexandria. Antony, believing a false report that Cleopatra had died, committed suicide by falling on his own sword.

When Cleopatra was told of Antony's death, she was said to have been inconsolable.

Facing the prospect of being paraded in defeat through the streets of Rome by Octavian if she was captured, Cleopatra chose to end her own life instead.

The exact circumstances of her death still remain a mystery to this day, but the most widely told story is that she died by the bite of an asp or by poison on August 12, 30 BC.

The end of a free Egypt

With Cleopatra's death, the Ptolemaic dynasty finally came to an end. Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire, and Octavian, later known as Augustus , became the first Roman Emperor.

Sadly, Cleopatra's son by Julius Caesar, Caesarion, was executed by Octavian, extinguishing the last direct link to the Ptolemaic line.

Despite Cleopatra's tragic end, she is remembered as a powerful and influential queen who left a lasting impact on the ancient world.

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Literary Theory and Criticism

Home › Drama Criticism › Analysis of William Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra

Analysis of William Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra

By NASRULLAH MAMBROL on July 26, 2020 • ( 0 )

Antony and Cleopatra is the definitive tragedy of passion, and in it the ironic and heroic themes, the day world of history and the night world of passion, expand into natural forces of cosmological proportions.

—Northrup Frye, “The Tailors of the Earth: The Tragedy of Passion,” in Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy

Among   William   Shakespeare’s   great   tragedies,   Antony  and  Cleopatra  is   the   anomaly. Written around 1607, following the completion of the sequence of tragedies that began with Hamlet and concluded with Macbeth , Antony and Cleopatra stands in marked contrast from them in tone, theme, and structure. For his last great tragedy, Shakespeare returned to his first, Romeo and Juliet . Like   it,   Antony   and   Cleopatra   is   a   love   story   that   ends   in   a   double   suicide;   however, the lovers here are not teenagers, but the middle-aged Antony and Cleopatra   whose battle between private desires and public responsibilities is played   out   with   world   domination   in   the   balance.   Having   raised   adolescent   love   to   the   level   of   tragic   seriousness   in   Romeo   and   Juliet,   Shakespeare   here   dramatizes a love story on a massive, global scale. If Hamlet , Othello, King Lear , and Macbeth conclude with the prescribed pity and terror, Anthony and Cleopatra ends very differently with pity and triumph, as the title lovers, who have   lost   the   world,   enact   a   kind   of   triumphant   marriage   in   death.   Losing   everything,   they   manage   to   win   much more   by   choosing   love   over   worldly   power. Antony  and  Cleopatra  is   the   last in a   series   of   plays,   beginning   with  Romeo and Juliet and including Troilus and Cressida and Othello, that explores the   connection   between   love   and   tragedy.   It also can be   seen   as   the   first of the playwright’s final series of romances, followed by Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale, and The Tempest in which love eventually triumphs over every obstacle. Antony and Cleopatra is therefore a peculiar tragedy of affirmation, setting the dominant tone of Shakespeare’s final plays.

Structurally,   as   well,   Antony   and   Cleopatra   is   exceptional.   Ranging over the Mediterranean world from Egypt to Rome to Athens, Sicily, and Syria, the play has 44 scenes, more than twice the average number in Shakespeare’s plays. The effect is a dizzying rush of events, approximating the method of montage in film. Shakespeare’s previous tragedies were constructed around a few major   scenes.   Here   there   are   so   many   entrances   and   exits,   so   many   shifts of locations and incidents that Samuel Johnson condemned the play as a mere string of episodes “produced without any art of connection or care of disposition.” Later critics have discovered the play’s organizing principle in   its   thematic   contrast   between   Rome   and   Egypt,   supported   by   an   elaborate pattern of images, contrasts, and juxtapositions. There is still, however, disagreement over issues of Shakespeare’s methods and intentions in Antony and Cleopatra . Critic Howard Felperin has suggested that the play “creates an ambiguity   of   effect   and   response   unprecedented   even   within   Shakespeare’s   work.” The critical debate turns on how to interpret Antony and Cleopatra , perhaps the most complex, contradictory, and fascinating characters Shakespeare ever created.

Antony and Cleopatra   picks up where Julius Caesar left off. Four years after Caesar’s   murder,   an   alliance   among   Octavius,   Julius   Caesar’s   grandnephew;   Mark   Antony;   and   the   patrician   politician   Lepidus   has   put   down   the   conspiracy   led   by   Brutus   and   Cassius   and   resulted   in   a   division   of   the   Roman   world among them. Antony, given the eastern sphere of the empire to rule, is   now   in   Alexandria,   where   he   has   fallen   in   love   with   the   Egyptian   queen   Cleopatra.   Enthralled,   Antony   has   ignored   repeated   summonses   to   return   to   Rome   to   attend   to   his   political   responsibilities.   By   pursuing   his   desires   instead, in the words of his men, Antony, “the triple pillar of the world,” has been “transform’d into a strumpet’s fool.” The play immediately establishes a dominant thematic contrast between Rome and Egypt that represents two contrasting worldviews and value systems. Rome is duty, rationality, and the practical   world   of   politics;   Egypt,   embodied   by   its   queen,   is   private   needs,   sensual pleasure, and revelry. The play’s tragedy stems from the irreconcilable division between   the   two,   represented   in   the   play’s   two   major   movements:   Antony’s   abandoning   Cleopatra   and   Egypt   for   Rome   and   his   duties   and   his   subsequent defection back to them. Antony’s lieutenant Enobarbus functions in the play as Antony’s conscience, whose sexual cynicism stands in contrast to the love-drenched Egyptian court.

Antony is forced to take action when he learns that his wife, Fulvia, who started   a   rebellion   against   Octavius,   has   died,   and   that   Sextus   Pompey,   son   of Pompey the Great, is claiming his right to power by harrying Octavius on the seas. His resolve to return to Rome to take up his duties there displeases Cleopatra,   and   they   engage   in   a   back-and-forth   lover’s   exchange   of   insults,   avowals of love, and jealous recriminations and, ultimately, a mutual   awareness of Antony’s dilemma in trying to reconcile his personal desires with his political responsibilities. Antony comforts Cleopatra by saying:

Our separation so abides and flies, That thou residing here, goes yet with me; And I hence fleeting, here remain with thee.

The   second   act   begins   in   the   house   of   Sextus   Pompey,   who   gauges   the   weakness of the three triumvirs, especially Antony, whom he hopes will continue to be distracted by Cleopatra: “Let witchcraft join with beauty, lust with both,   /   Tie   up   the   libertine   in   a   field   of   feasts.”   In   the   house   of   Lepidus,   a   quarrel between Antony and Octavius over Fulvia’s rebellion and Antony’s irresponsibility   threatens   to   sever   the   bond   between   them.   Agrippa,   Octavius’s   general,   suggests   a   marriage   between   Antony   and   Octavius’s   sister,   Octavia.   Antony agrees to the marriage as a political necessity, for the good of Rome and to patch up the quarrel. After Antony and Octavius leave to visit Octavia, Enobarbus   tells   Agrippa   and   Maecenas,   another   follower   of   Octavius,   about   the splendors of Egypt and Cleopatra’s remarkable allure. Maecenas remarks sadly   that,   because   of   the   marriage,   “Now   Antony   /   Must   leave   her   utterly.”   Enobarbus, despite his cynicism, understands Cleopatra’s powerful attractiveness and disagrees:

Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale Her infinite variety. Other women cloy The appetites they feed, but she makes hungry Where most she satisfies.

Enobarbus’s remarks make clear that the alliance between Antony and Octavius will be short lived, setting both on a collision course.

After his marriage Antony consults an Egyptian soothsayer, who predicts Octavius’s rise and counsels Antony to return to Egypt:

Nobel, courageous, high, unmatchable, Where Caesar’s is not. But near him thy ange l Becomes afeard, as being o’erpowered. Therefore Make space enough between you.

.Angrily dismissing the soothsayer, Antony nevertheless agrees with his analysis,   recognizing   that   “I’th’   East   my   pleasure   lies.”   Before   Antony   leaves   for   Egypt, however, the triumvirs and rebels meet on Pompey’s galley for a night of drinking and feasting following negotiations. Antony’s capacity for raucous merrymaking   shows   the   self-indulgence   that   will   lead   to   his   downfall,   while   Octavius’s sobriety, if puritanical and passionless, nevertheless bespeaks an iron will and determination that eventually will insure his victory over his rivals.

As the third act begins, Ventidius, another of Antony’s commanders, has conquered   the   Parthians,   a   victory   for   which   he   diplomatically   plans   to   let   Antony take credit. Antony, now in Athens with Octavia, learns that Octavius has slandered him and is warring against Pompey. The alliance between the two triumvirs, as well as Antony’s control over his own forces, is further threatened when Antony discovers that Octavius has imprisoned Lepidus to solidify his position and that one of his officers has murdered Pompey. Octavia returns to   Rome   to   try   to   repair   the   breach   between   husband   and   brother.   There,   Octavius tells her that Antony has returned to Egypt and convinces her that Antony   is   not   only   unfaithful   but   is   preparing   for   war:   “He   hath   given   his   empire / Up to a whore.” Octavius responds by preparing to engage Antony in battle at Actium. In Egypt Enobarbus fails to convince Cleopatra not to take part   in   the   battle,   and   the   lovers   also   discount   Enorbarbus’s   logical   reasons   for fighting Octavius on land rather than sea. This decision is partly due to Octavius’s   challenge:   He   dares   Antony   to   meet   him   in   a   naval   engagement.   Cleopatra claims, “I have   sixty   sails.   Octavius none   better,”   and   Antony   is   unable to resist either Octavius’s challenge or Cleopatra’s bravado. At Actium a   sickened   Enobarbus   watches   as   Cleopatra’s   ships   turn   tail   and   flee,   and   a   despairing, shame-filled Antony follows her “like a doting mallard” with his ships. Cleopatra apologizes to Antony for the retreat, and he forgives her, but when   Antony   sees   Octavius’s   ambassador   kissing   Cleopatra’s   hand   and   her   cordial   behavior   toward   him,   he   becomes   enraged,   berating   Cleopatra   and   ordering the messenger Thidias to be whipped. Again the couple are reconciled, and Antony decides to stake all on another battle. Enobarbus, however, has had enough of Antony’s clouded judgment and makes plans to desert him and join Octavius.

In the fourth act Octavius scoffs at Antony’s challenge to meet him in a duel and prepares for war with confidence, knowing that many of his rival’s men have defected to him. When Antony learns of Enobarbus’s desertion he forgives his friend and generously sends his treasure to him. Enobarbus reacts to Antony’s magnanimity with remorse and dies desiring Antony’s forgiveness. Antony scores an initial victory over Octavius, but in a later sea battle and on land in the Egyptian desert, Antony’s army is routed. Enraged, Antony blames Cleopatra and accuses her of betraying him. Terrified by his anger, Cleopatra seeks refuge in her monument and plots to regain Antony’s affection by send-ing word to him that she has slain herself. Her plan disastrously misfires when the news shames Antony into taking his own life:

I will o’ertake thee, Cleopatra, and Weep for my pardon. So it must be, for now All length is torture; since the torch is out, Lie down and stray no farther.

He orders his servant Eros to stab him, but Eros takes his own life instead to prevent carrying out the order. Antony then falls upon his sword and when he is told that Cleopatra is still alive, asks to be taken to her in a final acknowledgment that his life and happiness are inextricably bound to her. Just before he dies Antony offers his own eulogy at the end of his long struggle between desire and duty:

The miserable change now at my end Lament nor sorrow at; but please your thoughts In feeding them with those my former fortunes Wherein I liv’d the greatest prince o’ th’ world, The noblest; and do now not basely die, Not cowardly put off my helmet to My countryman— a Roman by a RomanValiantly vanquish’d.

In the fifth act Octavius hears of Antony’s death and mourns the passing of a great warrior before moving to procure his spoils: Cleopatra. He sends word that she has nothing to fear from him, but Cleopatra tries to stab herself to prevent the Roman soldiers from taking her prisoner and is stopped. When Dolabella, one of Octavius’s lieutenants, attempts to placate her, she accuses him of lying, and he admits that Octavius plans to display her as his conquest in Rome. Octavius arrives, promising to treat her well if she complies with his wishes while ominously threatening her destruction if she follows “Antony’s course.” Pretending compliance, Cleopatra says of Octavius to her attendants when he departs: “He words me, girls, he words me, that I should not / Be noble to   myself.”   Sending   for   a   basket   of   figs   containing   poisonous   snakes,   Cleopatra prepares herself for death:

Give me my robe, put on my crown, I have Immortal longings in me. Now no more The juice of Egypt’s grace shall moist this lip.

Stage-managing   her   own   end,   Cleopatra   anticipates   joining   Antony   as   his   worthy wife:                            

.     .     .     Methinks I hear Antony call. I see him rouse himself To praise my noble act. I hear him mock The luck of Caesar, which the gods give men To excuse their after wrath. Husband, I come. Now to that name my courage prove my title!

Placing one of the snakes at her breast, Cleopatra dies. When Octavius returns, he speaks admiringly of her:

Bravest at the last, She levell’d at our purposes, and being royal, Took her own way.

Implying by his words an envy of Antony and Cleopatra ’s passion and eminence, Octavius commands:

She shall be buried by her Antony; No grave upon the earth shall clip in it A pair so famous. High events as these Strike those that make them; and their story is No less in pity than his glory which Brought them to be lamented.

In the contest with Rome, Egypt must lose. Desire is no match against cold calculation for worldly power. Human frailty cannot survive an iron will, and   yet   the   play   makes   its   case   that   despite   all   the   contradictions   and   clear   character   imperfections   in   Antony   and   Cleopatra,   with   all   their   willful   self-indulgence, their love trumps all. By the manner of their going and the human values they ultimately assert, Antony and Cleopatra leave an immense emptiness by their death. Octavius wins, but the world loses by their passing. Shakespeare stages an argument on behalf of what makes us human, even at the cost of an empire. His lovers rise to the tragic occasion for a concluding triumph befitting a magnanimous warrior and a queen of “infinite variety.”

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Cleopatra’s Life, From Her Ascension to the Throne to Solemn Death Essay (Biography)

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Introduction

Ascension to the throne, relationship with julius caesar, relationship with mark antony, defeat and death, works cited.

The story of Cleopatra VII Philopator is still a myth to a lot of historians. Most of her traces have been lost or destroyed (Ebers 5). She is mostly remembered as a temptress who lured powerful rulers into accepting her wishes and her reign was marked by chaos and drama. This paper gives an account of Cleopatra’s life from her ascension to the throne to how she met her solemn death.

Born in 69 BC, Cleopatra rose to the throne after the death of her father, Ptolemy XII, the Egyptian pharaoh at that time. She was only 18 years old then and she first ruled Egypt together with her brother Ptolemy XIII (Roller 4). As soon the siblings ascended to the throne, Ptolemy XIII connived with his advisors to remove Cleopatra from power.

As a result of the threats imposed on her, she decided to seek asylum in Syria. She later returned to Egypt with the help of Julius Caesar, a rival of Pompey, the Roman general. Caesar had been welcomed to Alexandria by Ptolemy XIII after he had orchestrated the murder of Pompey.

Soon after Caesar’s arrival in Egypt, Cleopatra forged an alliance with him and persuaded him to oust Ptolemy XIII from power. After months of battle between Ptolemy XIII’s troops and those of Caesar, reinforcements from Rome arrived that saw the defeat of Ptolemy XIII.

Caesar then restored Cleopatra as the rightful heir to the throne (Tyldesley 97). The relationship between Cleopatra and Julius Caesar flourished and together they bore a son whom they named Caesarion. After the assassination of Caesar on the 15th of March, 44 BC, Cleopatra named Caesarion as her successor.

After the murder of Julius Caesar, conflicts ensued in Rome between his allies and assassins. Among Caesar’s allies was Mark Antony and Octavian. As these battles became intense, both groups sought help from Egypt. Cleopatra agreed to help Caesar’s allies and summoned troops to Rome.

This saw the defeat of Caesar’s assassins. Mark Antony and Octavian then agreed to share power as Roman rulers. Antony later called upon Cleopatra to discuss more about the aftermath of Caesar’s murder. When they met in Tarsus, Antony was seduced by Cleopatra’s charm and they started a romantic relationship which resulted in the birth of twins (Roller 5).

The bond between Antony and Cleopatra continued to strengthen and resulted in the return of most of Egypt’s empires that had been conquered by the Romans. Antony later left his wife for Cleopatra and declared Caesarion as the son of Caesar and the rightful heir (Tyldesley 172). His actions did not resonate well with the Romans and in late 32 BC, Octavian declared war on Mark Antony. The Battle of Actium in 31 BC saw the defeat of Egyptian’s forces by Octavian.

After receiving rumors that Cleopatra had committed suicide, Antony pierced himself with his sword and died (Tyldesley 186). The rumors turned out to be false and Cleopatra later buried her lover’s body. She then locked herself in her room together with two of her female servants and on around 30 BC, she met her death by allowing an asp to bite her (Tyldesley 193). Afterwards, Octavian established his Roman authority over Egypt. He had indeed defeated Cleopatra, the last pharaoh of Egypt.

Ebers, Georg. Cleopatra . Middlesex, UK: Echo Library, 2007. Print.

Roller, Duane W. Cleopatra: A Biography . New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.

Tyldesley, Joyce. Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt . London, England: Profile Books, 2011. Print.

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IvyPanda. (2018, November 20). Cleopatra’s Life, From Her Ascension to the Throne to Solemn Death. https://ivypanda.com/essays/cleopatra-2/

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IvyPanda . 2018. "Cleopatra’s Life, From Her Ascension to the Throne to Solemn Death." November 20, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/cleopatra-2/.

1. IvyPanda . "Cleopatra’s Life, From Her Ascension to the Throne to Solemn Death." November 20, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/cleopatra-2/.

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IvyPanda . "Cleopatra’s Life, From Her Ascension to the Throne to Solemn Death." November 20, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/cleopatra-2/.

Antony and Cleopatra

By william shakespeare, antony and cleopatra study guide.

Shakespeare lived in a time of great transformation for Western Europe. New advances in science were overturning ancient ideas about astronomy and physics. The discovery of the Americas had transformed the European conception of the world. Increasingly available translations of classical texts were a powerful influence on English literature and art. Christian and pagan world views interacted with each other in rich and often paradoxical ways, and signs of that complicated interaction are present in many of Shakespeare's works. England, having endured centuries of civil war, was in the middle of a long period of stability and peace.

Not least of the great changes of Shakespeare's time was England's dramatic rise to world power. When Queen Elizabeth came to power in 1558, six years before Shakespeare's birth, England was a weak and unstable nation. Torn by internal strife between Catholics and Protestants, an economy in tatters, and unstable leadership, England was vulnerable to invasion by her stronger rivals on the continent. By the time of Elizabeth's death in 1603, she had turned the weakling of Western Europe into a power of the first rank, poised to become the mightiest nation in the world. When the young Shakespeare came to London looking to make a life in the theatre, England's capitol was an important center of trade, learning, and art. In the few decades that he made his career there, the city's financial, intellectual, and artistic importance became still greater, as London continued its transformation from unremarkable center of a backwater nation to one of the world's most exciting metropolises. Drama was entering a golden age, and the young Shakespeare was to be that age's greatest writer.

Antony and Cleopatra was written in 1607, following the incredible period that gave us Hamlet, Othello, King Lear , and Macbeth. Although classified sometimes as a tragedy, the play is unique and difficult to categorize. Some put it with Julius Caesar and Corialanus, the Roman plays: all three use Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans as their primary source, and all three have concerns steeped in historical and political questions. In all three of these plays, Shakespeare shows an impressive (although sometimes overstated) ability to assimilate the classical world on its own terms. While Hamlet and Lear are basically Renaissance characters, far removed from the original settings of the source materials Shakespeare used, the characters of the Roman plays are, to a large extent, Romans moving in a Roman world. Partly, this phenomenon is a tribute to the strength and vitality of Plutarch's writing. Although Shakespeare alters Plutarch freely to match his own dramatic purposes, Plutarch's power to speak for his time and place shines through Shakespeare's adaptations. And while Shakespeare remains true to the essence of his source, he also deepens what he finds there.

Historically, the events of Antony and Cleopatra took place in the late first century BCE. Julius Caesar ends in victory for Octavius, Lepidus, and Antony, who defeat Caesar's assassins and divide the world between themselves. Antony and Cleopatra picks up the story years later. In the course of the play, the three-member alliance, called the triumvirate, will fall apart. The demands of history and power decree that Rome must be ruled by one man alone. Lepidus, the weakest of the three generals, is not a serious contender for ultimate power. The final contest will be between Antony and Octavius.

Because Shakespeare took no interest in the publication of his plays, his dramas got into print in uncertain and unreliable ways. Certain plays do not come to us straight from Shakespeare's manuscripts, and corrupt texts abound. Fortunately, Antony and Cleopatra seems free of these difficulties. The play was entered in the Stationer's Register in 1607, a step normally preceding publication, but in this case the play remained unpublished until 1623. In this year, it was included amongst the tragedies in the First Folio. The play's First Folio printing is the basis of all following editions. The evidence suggests that this printing comes to us directly from Shakespeare's own manuscript.

Antony and Cleopatra Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for Antony and Cleopatra is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

What does Antony mean when he says that Romans never link their love to the deserving

What scene is this in?

What is dramatic significance and theatrical appeal in 'Antony and Cleopatra'?

Shakespeare is dealing with history, so he can make events seem fated, but the Soothsayer and his dire predictions are taken from Plutarch. The use of the soothsayer underscores the theme of destiny, which in a play based on historical events can...

Do Shakespeare, in your opinion value more the goals of octavius or antony and why ?

I think Shakespeare is more interested in Antony. Antony is a great general, beloved by his men. He is middle-aged. He is also a lover of pleasure, far less single-minded than Octavius. He is a complicated and fatally divided man, failing to rise...

Study Guide for Antony and Cleopatra

Antony and Cleopatra study guide contains a biography of William Shakespeare, literature essays, a complete e-text, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

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Essays for Antony and Cleopatra

Antony and Cleopatra literature essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of Antony and Cleopatra.

• Infinite Virtue: A Close Reading of Antony and Cleopatra, IV.viii.12-18
• Stoic Constancy in Antony and Cleopatra
• The Power of True Loyalty
• Witchy Women: Female Magic and Otherness in Western Literature
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Agriculture: the foundation of egyptian civilization, transportation: the lifeline of ancient egypt, trade: the economic backbone of ancient egypt.

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The Morning

The best conversations.

Whether we’re participating in them or listening to them, the goal is to forget about the outcome and just connect.

By Melissa Kirsch

After my recent flight from Maine to New York was canceled, I found myself with the bounty of six hours alone in a rental car. I considered the headway I could make in the audiobook of “Demon Copperhead,” but quickly abandoned that option for several episodes of the podcast “Conan O’Brien Needs a Friend.” I wanted company. If I couldn’t chat away the hours with a passenger in the seat beside me, I wanted to listen to other people hitting it off.

Most episodes of the show run about an hour. Conan and his sidekicks shoot the breeze for a while, before he brings on a celebrity guest for an interview. The tone of the podcast is buoyant, full of comedic bits and good-natured teasing. It’s a fizzy soft drink, fun and weird and straightforward enough that you can follow along while keeping one eye on the GPS as you navigate the traffic around Worcester.

I listen to a lot of conversation-style podcasts — interview programs and panel discussions and shows where friends sit around and talk about whatever’s on their minds. What am I looking for in these podcasts? When celebrities are in the mix, there’s the thrill of getting a glimpse into the personal life of a public figure. When an expert is interviewed, I’m hoping to learn something. But I think what I’m really listening for is connection. The shows I love aren’t the ones where a host tees up questions and a dutiful guest answers. They’re the ones where you feel like you’re eavesdropping on real people getting closer, closer to each other or closer to a conversational destination that they didn’t know they were headed for when they set out.

Conan O’Brien has been having conversations professionally for most of his career. On his late-night shows, stars came on to promote their latest film projects, and he brought enough warmth and humor and weirdness to their repartee that viewers didn’t mind that they were being advertised to. His podcast feels much more intimate. I don’t delude myself that the sweet, affectionate chat Conan had with Woody Harrelson and Ted Danson on “Conan O’Brien Needs a Friend” is identical to the one they’d have if they weren’t creating entertainment for public consumption. But somewhere outside Hartford, I found myself so thoroughly entertained I stopped doing that thing where you keep pushing the speed limit a little more, hoping you’ll be able to knock a few minutes off your E.T.A. I didn’t care how long I had to go; I just wanted to keep listening and laughing along.

I’ve been making some conversation-style audio with The Times lately, and it’s made me listen to podcasts differently. It’s made me listen to other people differently. Is what makes a conversation interesting to take part in the same as what makes one interesting to listen to? My favorite conversations with friends, the ones in which I feel most connected, are sprawling, digressive, even repetitive. They go on for hours and often fail to reach a coherent conclusion.

But they have a key ingredient in common with the podcasts that I love: presence. In the best conversations, whether they’re between you and your mom on a marathon phone call or between a professional chat host and his comedically gifted guest, everyone is listening closely. They’re curious about each other, asking what my friend Aliza calls “generous questions.” They’re reacting authentically in the moment without a script or an agenda. They’re allowing the conversation to happen without muscling it toward any predetermined outcome.

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