what does presentation mean in drama

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Presentational and Representational Acting

Presentational acting and related representational acting are opposing ways of maintaining an actor-audience relationship. The actor acknowledges the audience with the presentational act. With representational acting, the audience is carefully ignored and treated as voyeurs.

In the sense of the actor-character relationship, the type of theater that uses ‘presentational acting’ in the actor-audience relationship is often associated with the performer using ‘representational acting’ in their actor-character methodology. Conversely, the type of theater that uses ‘representational acting’ in the first sense is often associated with the performer using ‘presentational acting’ methodology.

Actor-Audience Relationship

In each theater performance, the way in which each individual actor treats the audience establishes, maintains or varies the relationship between the actor and the audience.

In some plays, all actors may have the same attitude towards the audience (for example, the entire production of a Chekhovian drama usually ignores the audience until the curtain call); in other plays, performers create a range of different relationships with the audience (for example, most Shakespearean dramas have certain characters who often adopt a downstage ‘platea” playing position that is in direct contact with the audience, while other characters behave as if unaware of the audience’s presence.

Presentational Acting

‘ Presentational acting ‘ refers, in this sense, to a relationship that recognizes the audience, whether directly or indirectly through a general attitude or a specific use of language, appearances, gestures or other signs that indicate that the character or actor is aware of the presence of the audience. (For example, Shakespeare’s use of punning and wordplay often has this function of indirect contact.)

Representational Acting

In this sense, ‘representational acting’ refers to a relationship in which the audience is carefully ignored and treated as ‘peeping tom’ voyeurs by an actor who remains in-character and absorbed in dramatic action. The actor behaves as if there was a fourth wall, which maintains the absolute autonomy of the dramatic fiction from the reality of the theater.

Actor-Character Relationship

The use of these critical terms (almost directly opposed to the critical mainstream usage detailed above) to describe two different forms of actor-character relationship within the actor methodology originates from the American actor and teacher Uta Hagen. In chapter two of its acting manual An Actor’s Work, the seminal Russian theater practitioner Konstantin Stanislavski developed this use from a much more ambiguous wording (1938).

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Entertainism

The Elements of Drama: Theme, Plot, Characters, Dialog, and More

Drama is a composition of prose or poetry that is transformed into a performance on stage. The story progresses through interactions between its characters and ends with a message for the audience. What are the different elements of drama? How are they related to each other? How do they affect the quality and thereby the popularity of a play? Read on to find out.

The six Aristotelian elements of drama are, plot , character , thought , diction , spectacle , and song . Out of these, the first two are the most important ones according to Aristotle.

Drama can be defined as a dramatic work that actors present on stage. A story is dramatized, which means the characters and events in the story are brought to life through a stage performance by actors who play roles of the characters in the story and act through its events, taking the story forward. In enacting the roles, actors portray the character’s emotions and personalities. The story progresses through verbal and non-verbal interactions between the characters, and the presentation is suitably supplemented by audio and visual effects.

Through the characters involved, the story has a message to give. It forms the central theme of the play around which the plot is built. While some consider music and visuals as separate elements, others prefer to club them under staging which can be regarded as an independent element of drama. Lighting, sound effects, costumes, makeup, gestures or body language given to characters, the stage setup, and the props used can together be considered as symbols that are elements of drama. What dictates most other dramatic elements is the setting; that is the time period and location in which the story takes place. This Buzzle article introduces you to the elements of drama and their importance.

The theme of a play refers to its central idea. It can either be clearly stated through dialog or action, or can be inferred after watching the entire performance. The theme is the philosophy that forms the base of the story or a moral lesson that the characters learn. It is the message that the play gives to the audience. For example, the theme of a play could be of how greed leads to one’s destroyal, or how the wrong use of authority ultimately results in the end of power. The theme of a play could be blind love or the strength of selfless love and sacrifise, or true friendship. For example, the play Romeo and Juliet , is based on a brutal and overpowering romantic love between Romeo and Juliet that forces them to go to extremes, finally leading them to self-destruction.

The order of events occurring in a play make its plot. Essentially, the plot is the story that the play narrates. The entertainment value of a play depends largely on the sequence of events in the story. The connection between the events and the characters in them form an integral part of the plot. What the characters do, how they interact, the course of their lives as narrated by the story, and what happens to them in the end, constitutes the plot. A struggle between two individuals, the relation between them, a struggle with self, a dilemma, or any form of conflict of one character with himself or another character in the play, goes into forming the story’s plot. The story unfolds through a series of incidents that share a cause-and-effect relationship. Generally, a story begins with exposing the past or background of the main and other characters, and the point of conflict, then proceeds to giving the central theme or climax. Then come the consequences of the climax and the play ends with a conclusion.

The characters that form a part of the story are interwoven with the plot of the drama. Each character in a play has a personality of its own and a set of principles and beliefs. Actors in the play have the responsibility of bringing the characters to life. The main character in the play who the audience identifies with, is the protagonist. He/she represents the theme of the play. The character that the protagonist conflicts with, is the antagonist or villain. While some characters play an active role throughout the story, some are only meant to take the story forward and some others appear only in certain parts of the story and may or may not have a significant role in it. Sometimes, these characters are of help in making the audiences focus on the play’s theme or main characters. The way in which the characters are portrayed and developed is known as characterization. Here is a list of characters in Romeo and Juliet .

The story of a play is taken forward by means of dialogs. The story is narrated to the audiences through the interaction between the play’s characters, which is in the form of dialogs. The contents of the dialogs and the quality of their delivery have a major role to play in the impact that the play has on the audiences. It is through the dialogs between characters that the story can be understood. They are important in revealing the personalities of the characters. The words used, the accent, tone, pattern of speech, and even the pauses in speech, say a lot about the character and help reveal not just his personality, but also his social status, past, and family background as given by the play. Monologues and soliloquies that are speeches given to oneself or to other characters help put forward points that would have been difficult to express through dialogs. “What’s in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet” from Romeo and Juliet in which Juliet tells Romeo of the insignificance of names or “To be, or not to be”, a soliloquy from Hamlet are some of the greatest lines in literature.

The time and place where a story is set is one of its important parts. The era or time in which the incidents in the play take place, influence the characters in their appearance and personalities. The time setting may affect the central theme of the play, the issues raised (if any), the conflict, and the interactions between the characters. The historical and social context of the play is also defined by the time and place where it is set. The time period and the location in which the story is set, affect the play’s staging. Costumes and makeup, the backgrounds and the furniture used, the visuals (colors and kind of lighting), and the sound are among the important elements of a play that dictate how the story is translated into a stage performance. The Merchant of Venice has been set in the 16th century Venice. Romeo and Juliet has been set in the era between 1300 and 1600, perhaps the Renaissance period which is the 14th and 15th centuries.

Performance

It is another important element of drama, as the impact that a story has on the audiences is largely affected by the performances of the actors. When a written play is transformed into a stage performance, the actors cast for different roles, the way they portray the characters assigned to them, and the way their performances are directed are some important factors that determine the play’s impact. Whether an actor’s appearance (includes what he wears and how he carries himself on stage) suits the role he is playing, and how well he portrays the character’s personality are determinants of how well the play would be taken by the audiences. Different actors may play the same roles in different renditions of a play. A particular actor/actress in a certain role may be more or less accepted and appreciated than another actor in the same role. As different actors are cast for different roles, their roles are more or less appreciated depending on their performances. The stage performances of a play’s characters, especially those in lead roles, directly affect the success and popularity of a play.

Although considered as a part of the staging, factors such as music and visuals can be discussed separately as the elements of drama.

This element includes the use of sounds and rhythm in dialogs as well as music compositions that are used in the plays. The background score, the songs, and the sound effects used should complement the situation and the characters in it. The right kind of sound effects or music, if placed at the right points in the story, act as a great supplement to the high and low points in the play. The music and the lyrics should go well with the play’s theme. If the scenes are accompanied by pieces of music, they become more effective on the audiences.

Visual Element

While the dialog and music are the audible aspects of drama, the visual element deals with the scenes, costumes, and special effects used in it. The visual element of drama, also known as the spectacle, renders a visual appeal to the stage setup. The costumes and makeup must suit the characters. Besides, it is important for the scenes to be dramatic enough to hold the audiences to their seats. The special effects used in a play should accentuate the portion or character of the story that is being highlighted.

Apart from these elements, the structure of the story, a clever use of symbolism and contrast, and the overall stagecraft are some of the other important elements of drama.

The structure of the story comprises the way in which it is dramatized. How well the actors play their roles and the story’s framework constitute the structure of drama. Direction is an essential constituent of a play. A well-directed story is more effective. Stagecraft defines how the play is presented to the audiences. The use and organization of stage properties and the overall setting of a play are a part of stagecraft, which is a key element of drama.

Symbols are often used to give hints of the future events in the story. They complement the other elements of a scene and make it more effective. The use of contrasts adds to the dramatic element of a play. It could be in the form of contrasting colors, contrasting backdrops, an interval of silence followed by that of activity and noise, or a change in the pace of the story.

The dramatization of a story cannot be called successful unless the audiences receive it well. It may improve through constructive criticism or due to improvisations introduced by the actors. And a generous appreciation from the audiences encourages everyone involved in the making of a play, to continue doing good work.

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A handy glossary of drama terms.

Drama has its own terminology. Understanding it helps to understand the plays and their meanings more fully. Here is a handy glossary of some terms used when discussing Drama.

Accent - particular sound made in pronouncing words which suggests the place or background of the speaker.

Allegory - a story or picture in which the meaning is represented through symbols or where different characters are personifications of qualities or of other people.

Annotation - hand-written notes or sketches around a script or other text.

Black comedy - comedy which gets its humour from the macabre and gruesome. This is usually related closely to Irony (see How Stories Really Work )

Blocking (1) - organisation of movements on the stage, including where actors stand at what points in the play and how they move (2) - a barrier/something in the way which ‘blocks’ the view of the audience.

Character - part being played in a drama, a role created by an actor or writer as part of a presentation, which will be exemplified by external physical features and internal motivation. Per How Stories Really Work , a character is conventionally defined by such things as his or her status, class, beliefs, personality, history, job, attitude and so on - but more accurately is defined by the lack of these things to one degree or another.

Comedy of manners - a ‘comedy of manners’ gets its humour from close observation of the way characters behave, and is usually set in a historical period when there may have been strict rules of social behaviour. Some of Jane Austen’s work falls into this category.

Commentary - thoughts by a director or others about a performance or other work.

Context - the historical, cultural or social situation or circumstances in which a piece of drama is set or devised.

Contrast - difference or opposite. Contrast works by creating absences, as we can read more about in How Stories Really Work .

Convention - the agreed, accepted or ‘normal’ way of doing things.

Designer - the person who creates how a piece of drama appears to the audience on the stage, including the set, costume, lighting, make-up, sound, props and furniture.

Dialogue - any speech on stage.

Director - the person with overall control over a piece of drama in performance.

Dramatic irony - refers to the audience knowing something that the characters do not. In Tragedies, the audience can see into characters more deeply than the character himself or herself, through soliloquy which reveal psychological flaws; in Comedies, we see into characters too, in the same way, except that we are more distanced from the character by various conventions.

Dynamic - relationship between two or more things or people.

Empathy - the sense of being able to share another’s experience vicariously.

Emphasis - added strength given to a word, sound or action. Emphasis can be strengthened by absences or silences around it.

Entrance - the point or place where the actor comes onto the stage and is visible by the audience.

Evaluation - reflection by audiences or critics about the success of a piece of work.

Exit - point or place where an actor leaves the stage and becomes invisible to the audience.

Form - the overall shape or pattern of the drama.

Fourth wall - the name given to the ‘invisible wall’ between the stage and the audience. The audience can see what is happening on the stage but the actors do not take any notice of the audience and do not acknowledge their presence in any way. This is occasionally broken down by soliloquy and other devices, usually to powerful effect.

Framing - an overall image created by the whole view of the stage or a group of actors.

Genre - a particular style of the drama. The four basic genres are Epic, Tragic, Ironic and Comic.

High comedy - sophisticated comedy which is usually set in high social class situations, where the comedy comes from detail of characterisation, the cleverness of the language and use of wit.

History plays - plays which tell a tale about or from a historical period.

Improvisation - the action of developing a piece of drama from an initial stimulus, usually without script.

Interplay - the way two or more characters act and speak together

Interpretation - the particular beliefs or decisions about the way a text should be performed, usually determined by the director.

Irony - a genre of fiction, including drana. Also, using language that reflects the opposite of what is actually happening - a form of sarcasm. Irony depends upon the conventions and expectations of Epic or ‘common’ story-telling for its full power.

Low comedy - comedy in which there is a reliance on the vulgar and the coarse, rather than through clever wit or detailed characterisation.

Melodrama - highly-stylised and sentimental drama or comedy in which the actors over-act, emotions are clear and unsubtle, and no-one really takes it seriously.

Metaphor - using the imagination to describe something by comparing it to something else or saying it is something else. It comes from the Greek word metapherein ‘to transfer’.

Minimalist - a piece of drama with few props and little scenery.

Monologue - a single speech by one character.

Montage - a series or collection of stage pictures, often used when showing a series of events where the spectacle is as important as the characters, or as the plot.

Narrative - the story or plot. In Drama, this is driven by the same mechanisms outlined in How Stories Really Work .

Naturalistic - a drama which strives to imitate real-life.

Performer - the person who "does" the drama / communicates the drama to the audience through role, character and sometimes symbol.

Pace - speed

Plot - similar to the story or narrative, a plot is more closely defined as a sequence of events displayed on stage.

Prop - an object used on stage.

Prose - from Latin prosa (oratio ) ‘straightforward discourse’, from prorsus ‘direct’, a continuous text, not verse. Prose differs from poetry in that it makes different use of the elements described in How Stories Really Work .

Proscenium/arch - the traditional stage form in which audience view action through an ‘arch’ made in the stage wall.

Rhythm - the beat and regular pattern of sounds or of other things, like movement. Rhythm, importantly, makes as much use of the absence of certain elements as it does of their presence. See ‘emphasis’ above.

Romantic comedy - a sub-genre of comedy which focuses on a romantic relationship, where the subject is love and things usually end happily.

Satire - the use of ridicule, irony or sarcasm to expose foolishness or wrong-doing in society or characters, often used to make fun of politicians.

Sight lines - the view of the audience from various angles of the stage or the actors.

Soliloquy - a single speech by one character, usually revealing a psychological void which forms the main motivation of such a character.

Stage directions - the notes for actors or directors regarding where and when the cast enter, leave and so forth.

Stance - position taken by an actor on stage.

Stream of consciousness - a technique which utilises a ‘flow’ or a series of ideas and almost random episodes, often used in improvisation work when wanting to explore an idea or situation.

Stress - emphasis on sounds or words. See ‘emphasis’ above.

Style - type or form. A playwright’s style is defined by how he or she uses the elements described in How Stories Really Work in a particular way.

Symbol - an object which suggests or represents an idea or set of ideas. Symbols draw their power from connotations and these are both held in common and peculiar to individuals. For example, a white feather was a specific symbol of cowardice used in the time of the First World War, but could also mean spiritual grace or innocence in another interpretation.

Tableau - a group of performers creating a frozen picture.

Theatre in the Round - a method of staging where the performance space is in the centre of the audience and is surrounded by them on all sides.

Tragedy - drama that has a serious subject, with a sad, unhappy or disastrous ending/classically a story in which a great person is brought down by a fault in their character. For much more about Tragedies and how they work, see How Stories Really Work .

Verse - lines laid out as poetry; as opposed to prose. Verse uses rhythm and other elements in a different way to prose.

Vignette - a short episode, which may focus on a particular character or event.

Warm-up - a preparatory exercise used before main work.

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Log in to the playwrights' center, decoding the 6 aristotelean elements of drama.

Most of us encounter the 6 Aristotelean elements of Drama in an English course in high school in concert with a handful of creative writing standards we are taught like Gustav Freytag’s Pyramid of Dramatic Structure , or Northrop Frye’s U-shaped patterns of dramatic structure , etc.

These were essentially the tools utilized to assess our ability to comprehend the stories we read in high school, and ultimately to measure the efficacy of our ability to imitate these structures through creative writing exercises like writing prompts and short stories.

But like many lessons in secondary education, these tools are absorbed, assessed, and rarely revisited explicitly unless the student pursues higher education in a field that demands continued exploration of the subject. Since the recent academicization of playwriting, more and more dramatic writing scholars are met with Poetics by Aristotle, and certain aspects of its content are reviewed, referenced, and reinforced to both comprehend and measure the efficacy of our plays. We are met with questions like, “Could you identify the plot?” and “Who is the main character?” Some of these questions cause anxiety and lead to creative roadblocks because the process of creative writing can become intimate and such interrogation quite often appears intrusive. While it is a skill we must develop in our field, not everyone is comfortable discussing their intimate life in public. In this essay, I intend to provide a brief elemental breakdown of the 6 Aristotelean elements of Drama to hopefully eliminate some of the anxiety around its use in academia and other writing workshops we frequent in our respective playwriting careers.

The 6 Aristotelean elements are plot, character, thought, diction, spectacle, and song. Below are the definitions I utilize to better understand the way in which each element helps me build a play. It is important to note that these elements are already at work in our playwriting, but the more we can identify them, the better we can employ each element, or not.

1) PLOT = What , the main action , which can be described through the character’s objectives. For example, in Lorraine Hansberry’s definitive play, A Raisin in the Sun , the patriarch is dead and his financially fraught family awaits his life insurance check. The eldest son Walter Lee wants to utilize the check to open a liquor store, while his sister Beneatha wants to use the money to pay her college tuition, and their mother Lena Younger, the lawful beneficiary of the coveted insurance check, and therefore has the authority to make the ultimate decision about how to invest it and why. The major dramatic question that is explored through the action in the play is: What to do with dad’s life insurance check?

2) CHARACTER (COMMUNITY) = Who , the protagonist and their relationship to the other characters and to the world they inhabit. I tend to substitute the Aristotelean term character for community to describe more ensemble driven plays. In a rare interview, Hansberry discusses how a traditional protagonist never fully emerges in A Raisin in the Sun ; ( https://youtu.be/ZkFR_6DGJ3o ). While Walter Lee talks the most, his sister Beneatha is certainly an ambitious runner up, and similar arguments are made for their mother Lena. I suppose it depends on the production.

At any rate, this is an example of an ensemble driven play where the stakes are high for all, and the playwright has created space for each character we meet to articulate and defend their ambitions respectively. Such plays are often created by historically marginalized playwrights (e.g. August Wilson, Pearl Cleage) who are more interested in equity than centering one voice. There is something inherently political about it, but I digress.

3) THOUGHT = Why , the psychology behind the character’s action. Why does a character want what he wants? In A Raisin in The Sun , both Walter Lee and Beneatha want to secure upward mobility. Which (sidebar) is a masterclass in creating conflict, because both characters want to utilize a shared inheritance to mobilize their respective career objectives, in order to meet the same psychological need, financial security.

4) DICTION = How , the dialogue , which in addition to action, is a tactic characters utilize to achieve their, often opposing, objectives. Think of the debates between Walter Lee and Beneatha. The dialogue is used to delineate their psychology and defend their plans for the money.

5) SPECTACLE = Where , that which we can see on stage, also known as setting. A Raisin in the Sun is set in a crowded 1950’s tenement apartment on the South Side of Chicago. All of which informs the narrative that will unfold.

6) SONG = Rhythm of speech or the use of literal music. Both of which are utilized to drive a narrative forward, or delineate character and emotion. Or all of that! The rhythm of speech quite often reveals, urgency, mood, culture, etc. Hansberry’s realism is partly driven by declarative speeches (e.g. Walter Lee), and lectures and lessons from Beneatha and Lena Younger.

Thus the 6 elements we utilize to build drama are what , who , why , how , where , and rhythm of speech. This is in part a journalistic approach to playwriting in which we can begin to ask ourselves questions about a play before entering a workshop.

Lastly, there are of course differing genres which inform a plot like tragedy, comedy, procedurals, etc. But I maintain that a plot also inherently unfolds in the relationships we establish in our plays. For example, in A Raisin in The Sun we meet a set of ambitious siblings who need all or part of their collective inheritance to achieve their respective goals. A plot is already made evident in their relationship.

In conclusion, it is important for playwrights to remember that the poets taught Aristotle. He did not teach the poets. He analyzed their work and wrote critically about it. Essentially, he is an ancient critic we are taught to revere. Again, it is important to note that these elements are already at work in our playwriting, but the more we can identify them the better we can describe a play to collaborators who utilize the 6 Aristotelean elements of drama as a frame of reference to interpret modern drama. []

About the author

Tylie Shider  is a  Jerome Fellow at the Playwrights’ Center  and a 2019 - 2021  I Am Soul Playwright in Residence at the National Black Theatre . He holds a BA in Journalism from Delaware State University and an MFA in dramatic writing from NYU.

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The Nature of Drama — A Brief Introduction

Drama is a visual form of literature; it uses all of the important elements of storytelling, drawing together plot, setting, and characters with a problem to solve. Dialogue is the dominant technique used by the author whose voice, unlike in novels or poetry, is unheard except in stage directions or script notes, something the audience will not experience directly. Dating to the time of the early Greeks, some 2500 years ago, drama has evolved from choral readings on barren platforms to full theatrical productions involving elaborate sets and fantastic costumes worn by casts of perhaps dozens of actors.

In drama, the written word is separate from the spectacle of performance that an audience sees; the written word is the drama, whereas the presentation is the event called theatre. The written word is the source of expression of all genres of literature. In drama, however, this word is expressed aloud, it is enacted, and as such the art form transcends the words on the page and becomes something more.

Although drama is often divided into tragedies, comedies and histories, these distinctions do not apply as rigorously as once required back when Aristotle analyzed drama as an art form or when Shakespeare created the world’s most highly valued plays. What we can expect, however, is that all plays contain thought and seek to elucidate life experience. The mood or tone of a play will let the viewer know if the experiences are tragic or comic or even a combination of the two, often referred to as tragi-comedy. Ordinarily, in comedy, the characters progress from adversity to prosperity and in tragedy this movement is reversed; the characters move from prosperity to adversity.

Whatever becomes of a character in drama, the audience is witnessing internal mental or psychological events that play out in a social setting and create external conflict. Contemporary issues are always significant. The suspense in the play comes from the interaction between the internal and external forces and plot is the vehicle used to bring these interactions forward.

Exposition, Complication, Crisis and Resolution

Plot in drama is no different than in any other narrative form. Plot consists of a sequence of events that begins with an expository phase in which the audience is introduced to the characters, setting, and any relevant background information which may contribute to the conflict. Tone or mood is established in this phase, letting the viewer in on the seriousness of the situation.

Complications occur as the drama’s action progresses; it causes the rising action. Potentially, complication can shift what is expected or somehow change the direction in which it appears that the characters are heading. New characters can complicate the story as can events outside of the control of the characters.

Crisis occurs when the various complications culminate in what seems to be a turning point in the story. Crisis leads to change which either improves or worsens the fortunes of the protagonist and is a function of the unity, the connectedness, of all other events.

Resolution follows crisis and offers a commentary on the way the protagonist has dealt with his or her circumstances. Resolution advances the theme that transcends the specifics of the drama and can be applied to life in general. We see ourselves in the character’s struggles and learn our own lessons.

Centuries ago, plays were written in an almost mathematical formula: the first act provided exposition, the second advanced complication, the third brought crisis, and the fourth and fifth contained the resolution. Playwrights no longer adhere to a preconceived formula and often write with a reader, as well as an audience, in mind. Drama as literature allows the reader to serve, in a sense, as the director of the play. The reader casts the parts and creates tone by interpretation of the linguistic elements of the writing. Possibly the most interesting experience of drama is reading the play either before or after seeing it performed in a theatre; the experience is enriched by participation.

Click here for a copy of this article in a form suitable to be printed and handed out to students.

Written by Mary RedClay for TeachWithMovies.org

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theatrical production

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• Academia - The Realities of Theatrical Production: Practical considerations for realization on onstage
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theatrical production , the planning, rehearsal, and presentation of a work. Such a work is presented to an audience at a particular time and place by live performers, who use either themselves or inanimate figures, such as puppets, as the medium of presentation. A theatrical production can be either dramatic or nondramatic, depending upon the activity presented.

While dramatic productions frequently conform to a written text, it is not the use of such a text but rather the fictional mimetic (from Greek mimēsis , “imitation,” “representation”) nature of the performer’s behaviour that makes a work dramatic. For example, a person walking a tightrope is performing an acrobatic act, whereas a person who pretends to be an acrobat walking a tightrope is performing a dramatic act. Both performers are engaged in theatrical presentation, but only the latter is involved in the creation of dramatic illusion . Though a dramatic performance may include dancing, singing, juggling, acrobatics , or other nondramatic elements, it is concerned mainly with the representation of actual or imagined life.

In nondramatic theatrical productions there is no imitation of “another existence” but simply the entertainment or excitation of the audience by the performer. Whether acrobatic or musical, gestural or vocal, such activity is theatrical because it is presented by a live performer to an audience, but it remains nondramatic so long as it has a purely presentational quality rather than a representational one.

In any single theatrical production, one or another type of activity may so prevail that there is little difficulty in determining the aesthetic nature of the final work. A play by the 19th-century Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen , with its depiction of middle-class behaviour, minimizes nondramatic activity; the recital of a song by the 19th-century Romantic composer Franz Schubert, by contrast, with its emphasis upon musical values, may ignore dramatic elements and, to a considerable extent, even the act of presentation itself. Between these two extremes, however, there are many types of theatrical production in which the aesthetic nature of the form is less simple. Opera, for example, employs both drama and music in shifting patterns of emphasis.

In Europe and the United States several forms arose in the 20th century that combine dramatic and nondramatic material. Vaudeville, or music hall, for instance, employs a succession of various acts, such as fictional sketches, musical and dance numbers, and feats of dexterity , of which some are representational and others are not. In the musical theatre , song and dance serve both to further the narrative and to provide a break from purely dramatic presentation. This variety also characterizes much Asian theatre, in which dramatic moments are elaborated in dance exhibitions. In light of these examples, the definition of what constitutes theatrical production must remain elastic.

For a general discussion of theatre as an art form, as well as a specific treatment of the crafts of acting and directing, see theatre , directing , and acting . The aesthetic dimension of a dramatic production is discussed under stage design . Drama as a literary genre is treated under dramatic literature . Drama or dramatic literature is also treated in numerous other articles, including those on the literature or theatre of a specific country or region, of which the following are examples: Western theatre ; African literature ; American literature ; English literature ; French literature ; German literature ; Greek literature ; Japanese literature ; and Oceanic literature . Other articles that pertain to theatrical production include circus and puppetry .

Elements of theatrical production

According to the British director Peter Brook , theatre occurs whenever someone crosses neutral space and is watched by another person. This definition of theatre raises some problems, such as the difficulty of determining neutral space, but it is useful in its firm commitment to demystifying theatrical production. In former times the idea of the actor as motivated by a desire to create astonishment and wonder was sometimes seen as the basis of all theatre. Certainly there are types of theatrical performance that entail ritual and magic , but theatre is far more frequently rooted in attempts to structure emotion and experience.

Generally speaking, all theatrical productions have certain elements in common: the performer or performers, their acting in space (usually some sort of stage) and time (some limited duration of performance), and a producing process and organization. These elements are treated in separate sections below.

The performer

The work of the actor falls into five main areas: (1) the exhibition of particular physical, including vocal, skills; (2) the exhibition of mimetic skills, in which physical states and activities are simulated; (3) the imaginative exploration of fictitious situations; (4) the exhibition of patterns of human behaviour that are not natural to the actor; and (5) interaction, while engaging in these activities, with other actor-characters and with members of the audience.

At certain times in the history of Western theatre, the highest degree of physical skill has been associated with nondramatic performance. In Asian theatre, however, such distinctions do not apply. Chinese opera and Japanese drama require an actor to play one type of role for his entire professional life. The actor must play this role in a manner strictly determined by tradition, reproducing specific patterns of movement and speech that can be mastered only by first gaining control of complex physical skills. Later, if especially gifted, an actor may bring to a role certain refinements of the tradition, which may be handed down to a succeeding generation.

Western drama, however, does not usually provide the actor with quite so defined a repertoire of movements and utterances. It is true that actors in the Italian commedia dell’arte of the 16th to the 18th centuries specialized in one role and transmitted to their successors a body of situations, speeches, and lazzi (stage sketches, or routines). Nevertheless, they seem to have had more leeway than their Asian counterparts in exercising invention and personal expression. Great rhetorical skill has been demanded of the Western actor, for the intricate metrical patterns of Greek, Latin, French, English, and Spanish drama have been part of the glory of their respective theatres.

Naturalistic theatre, which flowered in the late 19th century, made rhetoric obsolete, requiring the actor to hide virtuoso performing skills by creating the illusion of everyday behaviour. This meant that more weight was given to the actor’s depictions of psychological attributes. The magnetism of a performance derived no longer from stylized behaviour but from intense personal revelation. This requires a marked ability to focus energies, to concentrate intently either upon the audience directly or upon a fellow actor and, thereby, indirectly upon the audience. All good actors can project a concentrated force, or “presence,” which has become increasingly important to the actor as set patterns of playing have disappeared. Presence is not a fixed, definable quality but rather a process of continuous growth and change that takes place before the eyes of the audience .

Understanding Drama: Definition & Practical Guide

What is drama, types of drama, elements of drama, how to analyze a drama, drama as a literary genre, practical guide to enjoying drama, famous dramatists you should know.

Ever sat down to watch a play and felt your heart race with anticipation? That's the magic of drama, a form of art that brings stories to life right before your eyes. It's a genre that takes us on emotional roller-coaster rides, leaving us thrilled, moved, and deeply touched. But what exactly is drama? Let's peel back the curtain and find out. This blog will provide you with a clear definition of drama and guide you through its various types, elements, and the ways to analyze it. We'll also explore drama as a literary genre and provide practical tips to enjoy it. So, let's get started!

At its core, the definition of drama is a work of art, which is performed in front of an audience. Traditionally, these performances take place on a stage, but they can also be for radio or television. Drama is a Greek word that means "action," which perfectly encapsulates what this genre is all about: performing actions, not just narrating them.

Here's a simple breakdown of what drama is:

• It's a performance: Unlike a novel that you read or a painting that you observe, drama is enacted. It involves actors who take on roles and perform actions.
• It tells a story: Every drama, whether it's a tragedy, comedy, or historical play, has a narrative. It's not just random actions, but a series of events that make up a plot.
• It's meant to engage the audience: Drama isn't a passive experience. It's designed to draw you in, to make you feel emotions, think about ideas, or even challenge your beliefs.

So, when you next watch a play or a dramatic series, remember, you're not just being entertained. You're participating in an ancient art form that seeks to tell human stories in the most engaging way possible. That's the beauty of drama!

Now that we've nailed down the definition of drama, let's dive into the different types of drama. Just like ice cream comes in various flavors, drama comes in various types, each with its unique characteristics and appeal.

• Tragedy: Ever watched a play that left you teary-eyed or filled with a sense of profound sadness? You probably experienced a tragedy. This type of drama revolves around a heroic figure who faces a downfall due to a tragic flaw or circumstance.
• Comedy: If a play leaves you laughing and feeling light-hearted, it's likely a comedy. Comedies are designed to amuse the audience, often featuring humorous situations, witty dialogues, and happy endings.
• Melodrama: Melodrama amplifies emotions to the extreme. If you're watching a play where the love, sorrow, or anger feels larger than life, you're watching a melodrama.
• Farce: Farce takes comedy to the next level with exaggerated characters, absurd situations, and physical humor. Think of it as the slapstick cousin of comedy.
• Historical Drama: These plays take you back in time, portraying events and figures from history. If a play makes you feel like you've stepped into a time machine, it's probably a historical drama.

So, next time you watch a play, see if you can identify what type of drama it is. Understanding the type will deepen your appreciation of the work and enhance your viewing experience.

Have you ever wondered what makes a drama tick? Just like a watch, a drama consists of several elements working together to tell a story. Let's take a look at these elements that form the backbone of any drama.

• Plot: The plot is the storyline. It's the sequence of events that unfold, leading the characters from the beginning to the end of the drama.
• Characters: Characters are the individuals in the story. They can be people, animals, or even inanimate objects. It's through their actions and interactions that the plot develops.
• Setting: The setting is where and when the drama takes place. It could be anything from a small town in the 19th century to a spaceship in the future.
• Theme: The theme is the main idea or message of the drama. It's what the drama is trying to say about life, society, or human nature.
• Dialogue: Dialogue is the conversation between characters. It's through dialogue that we learn about the characters, their relationships, and their thoughts and feelings.
• Conflict: Conflict is the struggle or problem that drives the plot. It's what the characters must face and overcome to reach the end of the drama.

Each of these elements plays a key role in defining the drama and shaping the audience's experience. So the next time you watch a play or read a script, pay attention to these elements. You'll find that understanding them not only enhances your enjoyment but also deepens your understanding of the definition of drama.

So, you've watched a play or read a script. You've seen the plot unfold, met the characters, and felt the tension of the conflict. But how do you go about analyzing it? Here's a simple step-by-step guide:

• Start with the Plot: What is the story about? How does it start and end? How does the conflict come about, and how is it resolved? Identifying the main events will help you understand the structure of the drama.
• Identify the Characters: Who are the main characters? What are their personalities, motivations, and relationships? Understanding the characters will help you understand their actions and the choices they make.
• Examine the Setting: Where and when does the drama take place? How does the setting influence the characters and the plot? Looking at the setting can provide insights into the mood and atmosphere of the drama.
• Look for Themes: What ideas or messages is the drama trying to convey? Are there any recurring symbols or motifs? Identifying the themes can help you understand the deeper meaning of the drama.
• Analyze the Dialogue: What do the characters say to each other? How do they say it? Analyzing the dialogue can help you understand the characters' thoughts and feelings, as well as the dynamics between them.
• Consider the Conflict: What problems do the characters face? How do they deal with them? Understanding the conflict can help you understand the plot and the characters' motivations.

Remember, analyzing a drama isn't just about dissecting it into its parts. It's also about putting it back together to see how those parts interact and create a whole. It's like solving a puzzle — each piece adds to the overall picture. And when you finally see that picture, you'll have a deeper understanding of the definition of drama.

Drama, you might be surprised to know, isn't just something you experience when your favorite TV show leaves you on a cliffhanger. No, drama is actually a rich, historic genre in literature. But what exactly does the term mean? Let's explore the definition of drama as a literary genre.

At its core, the definition of drama in literature is a work of fiction that is meant to be performed in front of an audience. It's not just about the words on the page, but the way those words come alive through the performers and the production. The beauty of drama is that it's an immersive experience. It's not just something you read or watch — it's something you feel.

There are many different types of drama, from tragedy to comedy, farce to melodrama. Each type has its own features and conventions, but they all share a common purpose: to tell a story through characters in conflict. This conflict can be internal (a character struggling with their own feelings or desires) or external (a character clashing with others or their environment).

But what makes drama unique as a literary genre? Unlike novels or short stories, where the author's voice and description guide us, in drama, it's all about the dialogue and action. The characters' words and deeds reveal who they are and what they want, creating a sense of immediacy and intimacy. It's like we're right there, living the story with them.

So the next time you watch a play or a movie, remember: you're not just being entertained. You're participating in a rich tradition of storytelling that stretches back thousands of years. And who knows? Maybe you'll be inspired to write your own drama one day. After all, we all have stories to tell, and drama is one of the most powerful ways to tell them.

Alright, now that we have the definition of drama down pat, how can you truly enjoy it? Well, it's not as hard as it might seem. Here are some practical tips for getting the most out of any drama you encounter.

Firstly, remember that drama is about more than just the words on a page. It's about the performance, the emotion, the atmosphere. When you watch a play or a movie, pay attention to everything – the actors’ expressions, the staging, the music, even the lighting. All of these elements work together to create the overall mood of the drama.

Next, try to understand the characters. What are their motivations? What problems are they facing? Why do they act the way they do? Looking beyond their actions to understand their inner lives can make the drama much more engaging and meaningful.

Don’t forget about the historical and cultural context. Many dramas reflect the time and place in which they were written. Understanding this context can give you a deeper appreciation of the themes and issues the drama explores.

Lastly, don't be afraid to engage with the drama. Discuss it with others. Write about it. Even try acting it out! The more you engage with the drama, the more you'll understand it, and the more you'll enjoy it.

Remember, drama is a living, breathing art form. It's meant to be experienced, not just observed. So don't just sit back and watch – dive in and let the drama sweep you away!

Now, let's put faces to the definition of drama by looking at some of the world's most famous dramatists. These are the folks who've shaped drama's history and continue to influence it today.

First off, we have William Shakespeare, a name synonymous with drama. This 16th century English playwright has given us classics such as "Romeo and Juliet," "Hamlet," and "Macbeth," all filled with timeless themes and unforgettable characters.

Moving forward in time, Henrik Ibsen, the Norwegian playwright, is another must-know. Often referred to as "the father of realism," Ibsen's dramas like "A Doll's House" and "Hedda Gabler" focused on everyday people and their struggles, breaking away from the grandeur and romanticism of earlier plays.

Then we have Tennessee Williams, an American playwright famous for his poetic style and powerful dramas about troubled families. His works, such as "A Streetcar Named Desire" and "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof," remain some of the most performed plays worldwide.

Lastly, but definitely not least, we have August Wilson, known for his profound explorations of the African-American experience in his 10-play series, The Pittsburgh Cycle. Each play represents a different decade of the 20th century, providing a unique and insightful look into American history.

These are just some of the many dramatists who've made significant contributions to the world of drama. By exploring their works, you can gain a richer understanding of what drama truly is and how it has evolved over time.

If you're captivated by the world of drama and want to explore more about storytelling and filmmaking, check out the ' Documentary Treatment: The Last Act ' workshop by Reshelshah. Although focused on documentary filmmaking, this workshop will provide you with valuable insights and techniques that can be applied to various forms of storytelling, including drama. Don't miss this opportunity to enhance your understanding of the creative process and bring your stories to life.

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Dramaturgy 101

• June 3, 2020
• Theatre Education
• dramaturgy , screenwriting

Illuminating the world of the play

By Amy Steele

I vividly remember when I first learned about dramaturgy. A friend of mine who is primarily a lighting designer was dramaturging a production of Dancing at Lughnasa. As she described her process, I was completely absorbed. She studied the play from a literary and performance standpoint, but she also went beyond that and investigated the social, political, cultural, and historical contexts of the play’s world. Through her multidimensional understanding of the dramatic material, she was able to help me appreciate how truly rich the play was.

Inspired by this experience, I began my own investigation of dramaturgy, quickly recognizing it was an ideal match for my personality. In addition to reading and writing, I revel in the scavenger-hunt quality of research and applying newfound connections to a project. Above all, I love to share what I learn with others (I was a high school theatre and English teacher at the time), which is one of the dramaturg’s main duties. I soon decided to return to graduate school to study dramaturgy in more depth and am now a professional dramaturg. I’ve since worked with many high school and college student-dramaturgs and have been delighted by their enthusiasm. Once young theatre artists are exposed to this work, they soon realize just how appealing and indispensable it can be.

What exactly is a dramaturg?

Summarizing what a dramaturg does in one tidy sentence is challenging. Some dramaturgs say they are literary and historical consultants who work with directors, designers, and actors to make an artistic vision a reality. Others reply that they are scholars who apply their research to make the world of a play come alive. Then there are dramaturgs who collaborate with playwrights to help shape new scripts and stories as well as advocate for playwrights’ intentions during the rehearsal process. Dramaturg and professor Geoffrey Proehl uses the phrases “historical, critical, literary, and philosophical consciousness,” “watchdog,” “audience’s surrogate,” “designated readers,” “keeper of the text,” “word person,” and “diplomat or mediator” to describe dramaturgs.

Despite the multiplicity of the dramaturg’s duties, many tasks—particularly of production research—are relatively consistent. Each time I prepare materials for a production, I follow a specific procedure, or research and play analysis guide, that my mentor passed down to me. Since then, I’ve made my own additions to the outline, and I’m sure some students with whom I’ve worked have made their own adjustments. Having a specific series of steps is a useful and flexible framework for beginning dramaturgs, particularly for high school students, because it helps to make production dramaturgy a tangible, definable set of actions. In this article, I’m going to focus on production dramaturgy, or dramaturgy that is specific to a production of a play that has already been produced and is usually published. In new play dramaturgy, a dramaturg helps a playwright develop a new work, which often follows a different process.

Meet with the director

Before I begin the actual dramaturgy process, which is outlined below, I always meet with the play’s director to discuss my ideas, thoughts, and questions about the play and a research game plan. As with other members of the production team, the dramaturg answers to the director and works the closest with her. Because the director may have a particular take on the play and its world, it is important for the dramaturg to support and illuminate this vision through his research and other participation in the rehearsal process. Meeting with the director prior to the research process helps guide the dramaturg’s pre-production preparation.

What follows are the tasks I complete for pre-rehearsal work. Please note that these steps are in no specific order. Also, keep in mind that a dramaturg does not have to complete every task each time he works on a play. The play will dictate which areas he needs to study and which he does not. In regard to your students, encourage them to find their own hook into the play—something that really interests or speaks to them—and begin research with that subject.

Do initial readings

Script analysis is an ongoing process for a dramaturg, and finding a method that best suits an individual’s style and the play’s needs is key. I’ve found it helpful to break down my initial analysis into three phases: after the first reading, I jot down my gut reaction to the play; following the second and subsequent close readings, I note the play’s structure and style, its prevailing mood and tone, and the story’s ambiguities and complexities. Finally, I make a list of topics to research (these usually deal with setting details and other world-of-the-play issues). If a student dramaturg needs an introduction to formal script analysis, Backwards and Forwards: A Technical Manual for Reading Plays by David Ball is a popular resource that provides a succinct and effective text analysis method.

Create a text glossary

I compile the following into a glossary: words or foreign phrases that require definition and/or pronunciation clarification; references and allusions that need to be explained (such as mythological, literary, historical, biblical, music, and pop culture references); unique social customs that require elaboration; and titles and character names that need to be analyzed. This is frequently one of the first tasks I complete because it’s often a springboard into other areas of research.

Research the playwright’s background

Although a playwright’s life does not necessarily inform her work, it’s important to know pertinent autobiographical information that does shape or influence the play. For instance, I’m in the process of conducting research for The Crucible and After the Fall by Arthur Miller, which were both influenced by Miller’s reaction to and experience with the House Un-American Activities Committee’s (HUAC) search for communists in America. Knowing how HUAC personally affected Miller is integral to understanding both plays. Playwright biographies, autobiographies, journals, letters, documentaries, and interviews are useful sources for such material and often provide dramaturgs with interesting tidbits and anecdotes about a play’s inspiration, formation, and production history.

Being familiar with the playwright’s body of work can come in handy as well. Sometimes a play may have been inspired or influenced by another of the playwright’s works. Understanding the connections, or possibly lack of connections, among a playwright’s writing reveals much about her work.

Research the background of the play

A dramaturg should determine three basic things about a script: its source material; what adaptations have been done of the original play; and as much as possible about the play’s setting and historical period.

If a play evolved from a particular source, it’s usually enlightening to read that material. For example, A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum was inspired by three comedies by the ancient Roman playwright Plautus. Reading these plays reveals just how much Larry Gelbart and Burt Shevelove, the book’s authors, are paying homage to Plautus in their musical comedy. And it’s interesting to learn that the roots of low comedy date back to ancient Rome.

Often more than one version of a play exists. If that’s the case, the dramaturg should become familiar with the various adaptations, learn why the differences came to be, and decide which edition is the most effective. Particularly if a play is in the public domain, studying script versions allows the dramaturg to suggest which text a production team should use or what revisions should be made. This comparison process also applies to translations and adaptations since the quality among these may vary.

Describing the historical period in which a play is set and communicating the pertinent societal concerns of people living in that era and location are also among the dramaturg’s responsibilities. This information provides the actors and others on the production team with a context for the world of the play. (More on this later.)

Study the play’s production history

Knowing when and where a play was first produced and the critical and popular reception it received is informative. Then repeat the process for other major productions or revivals. Critics’ reviews may also include interesting play analyses and point to some possible difficulties in the script. During this time, it is enlightening to read noteworthy academic essays, books, and articles that have been written about the play or playwright as well, keeping an eye out for what sheds light on the text and world of the play and provides interpretation possibilities. I’ve found that collecting production photos and design sketches from previous productions is also helpful to see how other artists have interpreted the play.

Review other materials that reflect the world of the play

Other resources that can help to convey information about the play’s context include:

• Art, music, and popular culture of the play’s time period. For example, while working on Black Coffee by Agatha Christie, it was useful to investigate the popular music and dances the younger generation of the 1930s enjoyed because the character Barbara, a young independent woman, continually surprises her old-school Aunt Caroline with her bright lipstick and “vulgar songs.” Knowing what dances and music were popular during that period helped the actor playing Barbara develop her character.
• Timelines. These are a compact way to share historical information. The work of a playwright’s contemporaries. Who else was writing when the playwright wrote the play, and what were they writing, creating, and composing?
• Other artists that influenced the playwright. When I was preparing dramaturgy for an Alley Theatre production of Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, I learned that Albee was inspired by the James Thurber short story “The Breaking Up of the Winships” and Thurber’s cartoons. I included the short story and some cartoons that reminded me of George and Martha’s relationship in my research materials.
• Music and visual images that evoke the play’s mood, tone, or theme (see the “world-of-the-play presentations” section for an example).
• Video references. Documentaries, cinematic adaptations of the play, and other films that suggest the play’s world are beneficial.
• Maps and photographs of the play’s geographic setting. While working on the Alley’s Stones in His Pockets by Marie Jones, I gathered numerous photos of County Kerry, Ireland, the setting for the play. Although County Kerry’s lush landscape was important to the story, the play was set on bare stage, encouraging the actors to conjure up their green surroundings. The photographs aided the actors’ imaginations, and they were in turn able to communicate the beauty to the audience.
• Magazines and newspapers from the time period in which the play is set. Frame 312 by Keith Reddin is set in the present day and the time of President Kennedy’s death. The protagonist is personally affected by the tragedy and the Zapruder film that recorded the assassination, so I brought the issue of Life that published stills of the Zapruder film to rehearsal. I also shared other primary magazine and newspaper sources to illustrate the country’s reaction to the event. A DVD recording of the Zapruder film was useful, too. And while working on a production of Hart and Kaufman’s You Can’t Take It With You, a play focusing on one family during the Depression, I shared New York Times and other news and magazine photos and stories from that period with the director and cast to show the contrast of the joy in the Sycamores’ home to the general mood in the country. That the Sycamores were able to enjoy their lives during such economic hardship reveals a great deal about their family relationship and individual spirits.
• Children’s books. These often convey background information in a well-researched, concise, and attractive manner. While investigating resources for The General from America by Richard Nelson, a play in which Benedict Arnold is the main character, I found many well-written books that succinctly summarized the events of the American Revolution and described daily life in colonial America. I’ve also found children’s books about Shakespeare’s world and plays to be constructive while dramaturging the bard’s work.

Organize your research for presentation

So what does a dramaturg do with all of this information? First, it must be organized in an easy-to-access manner. I like to compile my materials into a production notebook that divides up the steps of the research that’s been done. I store information that can’t fit into the notebook into a box or crate that is clearly labeled with the production’s title. Once that’s done, the dramaturg chooses the most significant and useful material to share with the director, cast, and others who might find it informative, such as designers and, in the professional theatre, education and community outreach staff to help them develop study guides.

It’s important to remember that although a dramaturg may find all of the material interesting, the rest of the production team may not be able to use it all. Don’t overwhelm them with too much stuff; instead, distill the research into a concise, readable format and then compile it into packets to distribute either prior to or during the first rehearsal. Before assembling the packets or giving any materials to the actors, however, it’s a good idea to ask the director if he approves of the information it will contain. Sometimes directors are selective about the research presented to actors and therefore prefer things to be filtered through them first.

While distilling materials, remember that directors will most likely want research that details the play’s text and context, provides information about its production history, and communicates the playwright’s intentions; actors look for material to aid them in better understanding their characters and the world in which they live; and designers may request additional references to supplement their own research. I also find it helpful to post visual images in the rehearsal hall (see the “bulletin board” activity below) and to build some sort of reference library for the cast.

Attend rehearsals

A question I’m frequently asked is how often the dramaturg has to be in rehearsal. Although the time commitment should be negotiated with the director, it’s wise to attend all table work sessions and to be present while the director and actors are investigating textual issues. In professional productions, often the dramaturg will present her research packet at the first rehearsal and then participate in script discussion for the next few days. I take copious notes during this period to not only remind me what ideas, thoughts, and questions the cast and director have, but also to archive the process in case any of the information is needed for future projects or productions.

Once the director begins to block the play, it’s usually not necessary for the dramaturg to be at each rehearsal. Coming in two to three times a week at that point to observe the production’s progress and to see if any questions or issues have arisen is appropriate. During this time, I ask questions. For example: Is the production keeping in line with the vision that the director and I discussed during our first meeting? If not, why and how has it changed? Is the production staying true to the playwright’s intentions? Is the story clear? If I have notes to give about any of these issues, I discreetly take them during rehearsal and then share them with the director once rehearsal is over. Again, it’s important to discuss with the director prior to the rehearsal period if she would like such notes and how she would like the dramaturg to share them with her. I’ve worked with directors who like to have one-on-one discussions with me after rehearsal, whereas others have preferred me to e-mail my notes.

At the end of the rehearsal process, dramaturgs attend run-throughs, dress rehearsals, and previews to see how the whole production is coming together—technical cues and costumes will have been added at this point—and to ensure that everything will make sense to the audience. In this regard, the dramaturg is acting as an “in-house critic,” getting a feel for how the public will respond to the production. If anything might be unclear to the audience, dramaturgs should notify the director of these concerns and offer possible solutions.

Dramaturgy activities for the classroom

Most of what I’ve discussed are steps that occur in a professional theatre setting, but they’re as just applicable in an educational theatre environment. In a moment I’ll touch on some things you and your students can do during the production process. First, let’s consider some things you can do in the classroom.

Dramaturgy teams

Assign the entire class a play to read, and then break them into dramaturgy teams. Each team is responsible for completing one assignment in the dramturgy process. Once the team has completed its work, the members should compile their information into a packet that can be shared with the entire class. Encourage students to summarize and paraphrase written material in their own words rather than simply copying information from books or printing it off the internet. It’s important for dramaturgs to have solid writing skills and to present their research in an attractive and professional manner. Teams should then share their packets with the entire class in an oral presentation. They can get as creative with this as they’d like, but the goal of this part of the activity is to work on verbally communicating what they’ve learned. Dramaturgs spend a lot of time talking about their knowledge and ideas; therefore, good communication skills are a must.

After each group has presented its materials, organize them into one final production notebook that may be used for other class projects or as a resource for the play if it is ever produced at the school. Indeed, doing this project for a play that is going to be presented during the school year would be especially meaningful.

An advanced version of this activity would be to assign each team to read separate plays that vary in style and period and then require individual team members to complete one step of the research needed. Each team, therefore, would create an entire packet of the research needed for its assigned play. Once the teams finish their project, the class would have multiple completed play packets to review, allowing students to see how each team interpreted the tasks and how their processes differed depending on what type of play was researched.

Dramaturgy bulletin boards

This activity can be done as an extension of the dramaturgy teams activity, on its own, or as part of a play rehearsal. Assign individuals or teams a play to read and research according to the dramaturgy procedure I’ve outlined. Instead of gathering information into a production notebook, however, students will present their research in a visual manner, either through decorating a bulletin board in the classroom or rehearsal hall, developing a power-point presentation, creating a website, or utilizing some other visual medium. To finish the project, students have to present their bulletin boards to the class, explaining how the elements reflect the world of the play. This activity encourages students to see their plays and research visually, helping them understand how painting, photography, sculpture, maps, book illustrations, cartoons, advertisements, magazine and newspaper spreads, production photos, design sketches, film and dance clips, etc. can convey the play’s world.

Miscellaneous classroom dramaturgy activities

Dramaturgical skills are applicable to all areas of theatre, and can also be used in script analysis, playwriting, scene work, and design assignments. Because dramaturgy is so multifaceted, I would advise doing a dramaturgy unit early in the school year to help students learn how to effectively read, respond to, and investigate plays.

Rehearsal dramaturgy

Although the above classroom activities are certainly applicable to the rehearsal process, here are some dramaturgy activities specific to preparing a play for production.

World-of-the-play presentation

A dramaturgy project I’ve found particularly effective for an educational theatre production is a world-of-the-play presentation during the first rehearsal. The presentation provides the dramaturg with the opportunity to immerse the cast in the play’s context. An element of the presentation may include bringing in food from the play’s time period and/or setting that somehow symbolically represents characters or issues in the play. Playing music and displaying artwork and other pictorial materials that evoke the play’s mood and style is also fun. Once the actors have a had a chance to soak up the aural and visual imagery and snack on the food, the dramaturg should explain why she chose each component, and then review the research packet she’s compiled. This presentation is an instructive and creative way to prepare for the first play reading, and it generates enlightened discussion.

I did this type of presentation when I dramaturged Goodnight Desdemona (Good Morning Juliet) by Ann-Marie MacDonald in graduate school. The play is a postmodern romp through the subconscious of Constance, a nerdy, lovesick doctoral student who is writing her dissertation about how Othello and Romeo and Juliet are actually comedies but that the fools in each story, which would turn these popular tragedies into comedies, have somehow gotten lost. Constance ends up getting sucked into the worlds of Othello and Romeo and Juliet to search for the fools. Her journey through these worlds not only helps her dissertation, but it also encourages her to discover her own inner strength, attractiveness, and confidence.

As the cast entered the rehearsal hall for the first Desdemona rehearsal, I had a Moby CD playing that included songs that melded music from different genres and time periods together to create a new, unique sound. Since the play’s style used the same blending technique, I thought Moby’s music was an apt connection. I had also set out photos of Louise Nevelson sculptures, artwork that was an inspiration not only for me, but for the set designer and director as well. Nevelson’s work is a mix of organization and chaos that reminded me of Constance’s personality and life. Finally, I provided the cast with food that would have been eaten in the worlds of Romeo and Juliet and Othello (fruits, cheeses, and breads), the candy Smarties and Nerds since Constance is a tightly wound academic at the beginning of her journey, and Wheaties “Breakfast of Champions” to show that Constance is strengthened by the end of her experience. As the cast and director snacked on the food, I explained the elements of my presentation and then shared the research packet I compiled. It was a wonderful way to begin the rehearsal process.

Audience study guides

Program notes, pre-performance discussions, and lobby displays Educating the playgoing community beyond providing study guides is another valuable dramaturgical duty. Student dramaturgs can write notes for the program to give audiences pertinent background knowledge about the play and/or organize pre-performance discussions with audience members to verbally present them with information that will help them better understand the play they are about to see (we call these “Informances” at the Alley). If they’re adventurous, student dramaturgs may even organize and moderate a post-show talkback during which audience members may ask the cast, director, and dramaturg questions about the production. Lobby displays that include attractive and educational materials for the audience to peruse before the show and during intermission may also be created by the dramaturg (materials from the bulletin board project could be used for this).

Although not an exhaustive list of dramaturgical duties, the process and activities I’ve outlined are a good introduction to the work involved prior to mounting a production. Once they’ve been exposed to these assorted skills and recognize just how integral dramaturgy is in making the world of a play come to life, students will be ready to flex their knowledge and imagination for the next project.

Dramaturgy resources

Here’s a list of websites, books, and organizations that are useful to dramaturgs.

• Arts Journal. This online digest offers a comprehensive reference for current events in all art areas; updates can be sent via a daily e-mail. (www.artsjournal.com)
• Arts Lynx International Theatre Resources. An online resource that includes an array of timelines, dictionaries, miscellaneous theatre links, and other research tools. (www.artslynx.org/theatre/drama.htm)
• Dramaturgy Bibliography. Compiled for a university theatre course, this site has a comprehensive annotated bibliography with sources useful to the dramaturg.
• Dramaturgy in American Theater: A Source Book, edited by Susan Jonas, Geoffrey S. Proehl, and Michael Lupu (first edition), Wadworth Publishing, 1996. A thorough collection of essays about the art of dramaturgy, this book is a must-read for serious dramaturgs.
• History of the Theatre by Oscar G. Brockett with Franklin J. Hildy (ninth edition), Allyn and Bacon, 2003. A significant overview of theatre history.
• Lexis/Nexis Academic. This database found in research libraries contains an extensive newspaper and legal archive.
• Literary Managers and Dramaturgs of the Americas. This dedicated group provides a supportive network for dramaturgs. An LMDA student membership is also very affordable. The website includes many resources and links to other reliable dramaturgy websites.
• MLA Bibliography. A thorough bibliographic database found in most libraries. Theatre Communications Group. TCG is an advocacy group for the professional not-for-profit American theatre that publishes American Theatre magazine, among other useful resources.

Amy Steele is the resident dramaturg at the Alley Theatre in Houston, and a member of the Literary Managers and Dramaturgs of the Americas.

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What is Drama? What is Drama in Literature? Features, Types & Details Students Must Know

Life is a drama… written by God (some say) and realised by us (we all know). However, when it comes to understanding drama as a concept – in literary terms or otherwise – it is a drama of mess and absurdity, at times, if you are new to the world of drama as a subject matter of study. Otherwise, we all may love to watch a nice drama being enacted by our favourite stage actors. Who would not?

Now, coming to the point, I have tried to Drama as a literary concept as simple as possible. As a genre and an artistic expression, and also from the point of view of the audience, there are many things about Drama one must know as a student of literature. In this article, you will learn what is Drama. Also, with its definition, you will know different types of drama, vital components of drama and a few other essential features of it. So, without any delay, let’s get straight into the subject at hand. Let us begin right with the definition of drama.

What is Drama?

Drama, both as a standalone concept and within the realm of literature, holds significant importance as artistic expression. It is a genre that presents a narrative through the enactment of characters on a stage, often involving dialogue , actions, and conflicts that unfold in front of an audience. In the domain of literature, drama often refers to written works intended for performance, encompassing plays and theatrical scripts that are designed to be enacted by actors on a stage.

It is remarkable to note that in literature, drama differs from other forms of storytelling in its focus on dialogue and the interaction between characters to convey the narrative, themes, and emotions. The structure of a dramatic work typically includes acts and scenes , which guide the progression of the storyline and offer distinct moments of tension, climax, and resolution . Through dialogue and actions, characters reveal their motivations, conflicts, and growth, making drama a dynamic medium for exploring the human experience.

Great dramatic works (or plays) in literature often reflect the societal, cultural, and psychological aspects of the time in which they were written. Playwrights utilise their creations to delve into complex themes, highlight moral dilemmas, challenge social norms, and provoke thought and emotional engagement among their audiences. The power of drama lies not only in its ability to entertain but also in its capacity to engage with issues that resonate deeply with the human condition.

Hint for Literature Students: before you start studying drama:

Students of English literature (or literature in any other language) should mark that understanding the nuances of drama in literature is crucial for analysing plays. They must take efforts to make themselves dexterous in identifying literary devices such as dramatic irony, soliloquies, and monologues, and uncovering the layers of meaning beneath the surface of characters’ interactions. By delving into the structure, themes, and character development of dramatic works, they can have a richer understanding of the complexities and artistry within this genre.

What are the Components of a Drama?

Below, you will find a list of components of a drama. I have tried to keep the sequence open, as open as I could, and it does not necessarily mean any order. You can understand the importance of each component and use your intellect to identify which ones are indispensable and which ones may be left alone when the need arises.

1. Characters: Characters are the heart of any dramatic work. They drive the plot, convey themes, and engage the audience emotionally. Characters can be protagonists, antagonists, foils, or supporting roles. Each character has distinct traits, motivations, and relationships that shape their interactions and influence the story’s development.

Example: In William Shakespeare’s tragedy “Hamlet,” the titular character Hamlet, driven by his quest for revenge and internal conflicts, interacts with other characters like Ophelia, Polonius, and Claudius, each contributing to the unfolding drama.

2. Plot: The plot is the sequence of events that constitute the storyline. It includes the introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. The plot structure creates tension and intrigue, guiding the audience through the narrative journey.

Example: The plot of Arthur Miller’s play “The Crucible” follows the escalation of accusations and trials during the Salem witch trials, building tension until the climactic courtroom scene.

3. Conflict: Conflict is the driving force behind the drama. It can be internal (within a character’s mind) or external (between characters or circumstances). Conflict propels the story forward and illuminates the characters’ struggles and growth. Conflict makes a drama engaging, reflective and consuming. A drama without conflict may seldom exist.

Example: In Sophocles’ tragedy “Oedipus Rex,” the protagonist’s quest to uncover the truth about his past and his role in his father’s murder leads to a profound internal conflict as well as clashes with other characters.

4. Dialogue: Dialogue is the spoken communication between characters. It reveals their personalities, intentions, emotions, and relationships. Effective dialogue captures the essence of the characters and advances the plot.

Example: The witty and engaging dialogue between Beatrice and Benedick in Shakespeare’s comedy “Much Ado About Nothing” not only entertains but also showcases their evolving romantic relationship.

5. Setting: The setting establishes the time, place, and environment in which the drama unfolds. It influences the mood, atmosphere, and context of the story.

Example: Tennessee Williams’ “A Streetcar Named Desire” is set in the bustling city of New Orleans, with its distinct ambience and cultural backdrop contributing to the characters’ experiences.

6. Theme: Themes are the underlying ideas or messages conveyed through the drama. They address universal truths, societal issues, and philosophical concepts. Themes enrich the narrative and provoke thought.

Example: In Henrik Ibsen’s “A Doll’s House,” the theme of women’s societal roles and the pursuit of self-identity is explored through the character of Nora Helmer.

7. Stage Directions: Stage directions provide guidance for actors, directors, and designers. They describe actions, gestures, emotions, and technical elements that enhance the performance and visualization of the drama.

Example: In Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot,” the sparse stage directions contribute to the existential atmosphere and emphasize the characters’ sense of aimlessness.

8. Symbolism: Symbolism involves the use of objects, actions, or characters to represent abstract ideas or concepts. Symbolic elements add depth and layers of meaning to the drama.

Example: In Lorraine Hansberry’s “A Raisin in the Sun,” the plant that Mama nurtures symbolizes her dreams of a better future for her family.

What are the types of Drama? 

There are several major types of drama, each with its own distinctive characteristics and purposes. Here is a list of some of the major types, along with examples and detailed descriptions:

1. Tragedy: Tragedy is a genre that explores the downfall of a protagonist due to tragic flaws, external circumstances, or a combination of both. Tragedies evoke emotions such as pity and fear and often end in catastrophe or death for the central character.

Example: William Shakespeare’s “Macbeth” follows the tragic journey of Macbeth’s ambition leading to his ultimate downfall and demise.

2. Comedy: Comedy is characterised by humour, wit, and lightheartedness. It often involves misunderstandings, mistaken identities, and humorous situations. Comedies aim to entertain and uplift the audience.

Example: Oscar Wilde’s “The Importance of Being Earnest” is a classic comedy that employs wit and satire to explore themes of social conventions and identity.

3. Tragicomedy (Dramedy): Tragicomedy combines elements of tragedy and comedy, often blending serious themes with humorous moments. These plays explore the complexities of life, encompassing both light and dark aspects.

Example: Tom Stoppard’s “Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead” reimagines the story of “Hamlet” from the perspective of two minor characters, balancing existential reflections with comedic exchanges.

4. Historical Drama: Historical dramas are set in a specific historical period and often involve real historical figures and events. They provide insight into the past while addressing universal themes.

Example: Friedrich Schiller’s “Mary Stuart” dramatizes the conflict between Mary, Queen of Scots, and Queen Elizabeth I, exploring power dynamics and personal struggles.

5. Musical Drama: Musical dramas combine theatrical performance with music, including songs and often dance routines. They can cover a wide range of themes and emotions, utilizing music to enhance storytelling.

Example: “Les Misérables” by Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil adapts Victor Hugo’s novel into a musical drama that portrays the struggles of various characters against the backdrop of 19th-century France.

6. Absurdist Drama: Absurdist dramas challenge traditional narrative structures and explore the absurdity of human existence. They often feature illogical situations, disjointed dialogue, and existential themes.

Example: Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot” is a quintessential absurdist play where two characters engage in nonsensical conversations while waiting for someone named Godot.

7. Political Drama: Political dramas centre around political conflicts, ideologies, and power struggles. They can focus on individuals, groups, or entire societies dealing with political issues.

Example: George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” uses allegory to portray the rise of totalitarianism and the corruption of political ideals through the actions of farm animals.

8. Melodrama: Melodramas emphasize heightened emotions and moral contrasts. They often feature clearly defined heroes and villains, and their plots revolve around intense emotional situations.

Example: Henrik Ibsen’s “Ghosts” is a melodrama that tackles taboo subjects like venereal disease and societal expectations within a family.

How to Study a Drama the Best Way?

Studying a drama effectively requires a systematic approach that delves into its various components and layers. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you navigate the process:

1. Preliminary Reading: Begin by reading the drama thoroughly. Read it once to grasp the overall plot and storyline. Take note of initial impressions, emotions, and questions that arise as you read.

2. Contextual Research: Research the playwright’s background, the historical period, and cultural influences at the time the drama was written. Understanding the context enhances your interpretation of the work.

3. Character Analysis: Analyse the characters’ personalities, motivations, and relationships. Take note of how they evolve throughout the drama. Pay attention to their roles in advancing the plot and conveying themes.

4. Plot Structure: Break down the drama’s plot into acts and scenes. Identify the introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Map out the progression of conflicts and events.

5. Theme Exploration: Identify the central themes and underlying messages of the drama. Consider how characters, dialogue, and events contribute to the exploration of these themes.

6. Dialogue Examination: Analyse the dialogue between characters. Identify key speeches, monologues, and dialogues that reveal character traits, emotions, and thematic elements. Look for literary devices such as metaphors, similes, and symbolism.

7. Stage Directions and Setting: Study the stage directions and setting descriptions. Visualise how the playwright intended the scenes to be staged and how the environment contributes to the mood and themes.

8. Conflict Identification: Identify the primary conflicts within the drama. Distinguish between internal conflicts (within characters) and external conflicts (between characters or external forces).

9. Symbolism and Imagery: Identify symbolic elements and recurring imagery throughout the drama. Consider how these symbols enhance the meaning and depth of the story.

10. Comparative Analysis: Compare the drama with other works by the same playwright or within the same genre. Identify similarities and differences in themes, characters, and techniques.

11. Cultural and Societal Analysis: Consider how the drama reflects the cultural and societal values of its time. Explore how it addresses relevant issues and challenges norms.

12. Critical Interpretation: Read critical analyses, reviews, and scholarly articles about the drama. Engaging with different perspectives can enrich your understanding and help you form your own interpretation.

13. Personal Response: Reflect on your emotional and intellectual responses to the drama. What aspects resonated with you? How did the drama affect your thoughts and emotions?

14. Discussion and Interaction: Engage in discussions with peers, classmates, or online communities. Sharing insights and perspectives can lead to deeper understanding.

15. Writing and Presentation: Summarise your analysis in a well-structured essay, presentation, or discussion. Support your points with evidence from the text and external research.

16. Revisiting and Reflecting: After completing your analysis, revisit the drama with fresh insights. Reflect on how your understanding has evolved and consider new interpretations.

By following this comprehensive guide, you’ll be able to delve deeply into the layers of the drama, uncovering its nuances and appreciating the artistry and messages woven into the narrative. This methodical approach will enable you to attempt a comprehensive and insightful analysis of the drama you’re studying.

Conclusion: 

So, in this article, we have understood the definition of Drama, the major types of Drama with examples and also the chief components that form a good drama. Moreover, we also tried to form a list of actions or activities that we can execute to study and understand a play better and comprehensively. I am sure if you go through this study guide carefully, you will have a better approach to studying drama. All the best! Do well and keep learning!

By Alok Mishra for the English Literature Education Platform

Read related articles from this category:

Bildungsroman – literary term definition, examples, notes & help you need

List of important literary terms associated with studying drama or play – Literature Guides

Anticlimax – meaning of literary term: definition in context of literature and beyond

Have something to say? Add your comments:

14 Comments . Leave new

It helped a lot

Thank guys. I what appreciate you. Keep up the good work. God bless you guys.

It helps me a lot

Its very very very helpful. Thank you for taking time to write and post.

What are the feature of drama

Thanks for all the information and details it’s useful and clear

Thank you very much. I have learnt a lot from this

This is a very helpful article. I am a BA first semester student. Totally confused where to begin. This one helped me understand many things about drama. I also explored other articles on the site helpful for beginners in English literature. Please keep posting more. Thanks so much

Very good article. It really helped me understand the features of drama. Thank you

Great article I give most benefits This is easier way for learning, reading, understanding

Very helpful with thanks.

Sir, You should also bring an article on Indian classical literature. Above article is fantastic about drama.

Thanks for reading, and this comment, Sanjana! I will write that article soon. I intend to keep writing articles about whatever I have to teach first-semester students of the new CBCS course, with an English major.

Keep exploring! All the best!

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What is Drama? Definition, Examples of Drama as a Literary Term

Home » The Writer’s Dictionary » What is Drama? Definition, Examples of Drama as a Literary Term

Drama definition in literature: A drama is defined as a piece of literature of which the intended purpose is to be performed in front of an audience.

What is Drama in Literature?

Drama meaning: A drama is a type of literature that is written for the purpose of being performed in front of an audience. This type of writing is written in the form of a script, and the story is told through the lines of the characters played by actors.

Example of Drama

The television show Grey’s Anatomy is considered to be a genre. This show is written with the intended purpose of actors performing the lines for their viewing audience.

Types of Drama in Literature

Comedy : A comedy is a type of drama that is written to be entertaining or amusing for the audience.

• The television show Seinfeld is considered a comedy. This sitcom follows the lives of four friends and the humorous situations they encounter together.

Tragedy : A tragedy is a type of drama that can be described as serious in nature and often includes a catastrophic ending.

• William Shakespeare’s famous play Romeo and Juliet is an example of a tragedy. In this play, two young children fall in love and feel the need to hide this from their parents due to their feuding families. However, their rash thinking leads them to their ultimate deaths.

Farce : A farce is a subcategory of comedy. Theses low comedies include ridiculous and slapstick comedic situations in order to create humor for the audience.

• The movie Dumb and Dumber is an example of a farce. This movie follows the story of two caricatures on a mission to return a briefcase to a beautiful lady. Throughout the film the two encounter several ridiculous and crude situations.

Melodrama : While it originally referred to dramas that included accompanying music, melodramas now refer to plays that include highly emotional situations in order to play on the feelings of the audience.

• The play Les parents terribles by Jean Cocteau is an example of a melodrama that involves several layers of over dramatic situations including cheating and suicide.

Musical Drama : Musical dramas refer to plays in which characters engage in dialogue but also include scenes in which the passion of the character is so great he expresses himself in song.

• Andrew Lloyd Weber’s The Phantom of the Opera is a well-known example of a musical drama that tells the story of obsession.

The Function of Drama

Dramas serve the function of entertainment for the audience. While reading a story is powerful, watching the story be performed by actors adds a level of realism to the work. In the age of binge watching, many people enjoy spending leisure time watching dramas specifically in the forms of movies or television.

Summary: What is a Drama in Literature?

Define drama in literature: In summation, a drama is a work of literature written for the intended purpose of being performed for an audience. Dramas are written in the form of a script and actors perform interpretations of the characters involved in order to tell the story the viewers versus reading a story in novel form.

Final Example:

The hit Grease by Jim Jacobs and Warren Casey, is an example of a musical drama. In this popular play and movie, viewers are taken through the story of high school love between two teens who are completely opposite outside the love they share for each other.

What this handout is about

This handout identifies common questions about drama, describes the elements of drama that are most often discussed in theater classes, provides a few strategies for planning and writing an effective drama paper, and identifies various resources for research in theater history and dramatic criticism. We’ll give special attention to writing about productions and performances of plays.

What is drama? And how do you write about it?

When we describe a situation or a person’s behavior as “dramatic,” we usually mean that it is intense, exciting (or excited), striking, or vivid. The works of drama that we study in a classroom share those elements. For example, if you are watching a play in a theatre, feelings of tension and anticipation often arise because you are wondering what will happen between the characters on stage. Will they shoot each other? Will they finally confess their undying love for one another? When you are reading a play, you may have similar questions. Will Oedipus figure out that he was the one who caused the plague by killing his father and sleeping with his mother? Will Hamlet successfully avenge his father’s murder?

For instructors in academic departments—whether their classes are about theatrical literature, theater history, performance studies, acting, or the technical aspects of a production—writing about drama often means explaining what makes the plays we watch or read so exciting. Of course, one particular production of a play may not be as exciting as it’s supposed to be. In fact, it may not be exciting at all. Writing about drama can also involve figuring out why and how a production went wrong.

What’s the difference between plays, productions, and performances?

Talking about plays, productions, and performances can be difficult, especially since there’s so much overlap in the uses of these terms. Although there are some exceptions, usually plays are what’s on the written page. A production of a play is a series of performances, each of which may have its own idiosyncratic features. For example, one production of Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night might set the play in 1940’s Manhattan, and another might set the play on an Alpaca farm in New Zealand. Furthermore, in a particular performance (say, Tuesday night) of that production, the actor playing Malvolio might get fed up with playing the role as an Alpaca herder, shout about the indignity of the whole thing, curse Shakespeare for ever writing the play, and stomp off the stage. See how that works?

Be aware that the above terms are sometimes used interchangeably—but the overlapping elements of each are often the most exciting things to talk about. For example, a series of particularly bad performances might distract from excellent production values: If the actor playing Falstaff repeatedly trips over a lance and falls off the stage, the audience may not notice the spectacular set design behind him. In the same way, a particularly dynamic and inventive script (play) may so bedazzle an audience that they never notice the inept lighting scheme.

A few analyzable elements of plays

Plays have many different elements or aspects, which means that you should have lots of different options for focusing your analysis. Playwrights—writers of plays—are called “wrights” because this word means “builder.” Just as shipwrights build ships, playwrights build plays. A playwright’s raw materials are words, but to create a successful play, they must also think about the performance—about what will be happening on stage with sets, sounds, actors, etc. To put it another way: the words of a play have their meanings within a larger context—the context of the production. When you watch or read a play, think about how all of the parts work (or could work) together.

For the play itself, some important contexts to consider are:

• The time period in which the play was written
• The playwright’s biography and their other writing
• Contemporaneous works of theater (plays written or produced by other artists at roughly the same time)
• The language of the play

Depending on your assignment, you may want to focus on one of these elements exclusively or compare and contrast two or more of them. Keep in mind that any one of these elements may be more than enough for a dissertation, let alone a short reaction paper. Also remember that in most cases, your assignment will ask you to provide some kind of analysis, not simply a plot summary—so don’t think that you can write a paper about A Doll’s House that simply describes the events leading up to Nora’s fateful decision.

Since a number of academic assignments ask you to pay attention to the language of the play and since it might be the most complicated thing to work with, it’s worth looking at a few of the ways you might be asked to deal with it in more detail.

There are countless ways that you can talk about how language works in a play, a production, or a particular performance. Given a choice, you should probably focus on words, phrases, lines, or scenes that really struck you, things that you still remember weeks after reading the play or seeing the performance. You’ll have a much easier time writing about a bit of language that you feel strongly about (love it or hate it).

That said, here are two common ways to talk about how language works in a play:

How characters are constructed by their language

If you have a strong impression of a character, especially if you haven’t seen that character depicted on stage, you probably remember one line or bit of dialogue that really captures who that character is. Playwrights often distinguish their characters with idiosyncratic or at least individualized manners of speaking. Take this example from Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest :

ALGERNON: Did you hear what I was playing, Lane? LANE: I didn’t think it polite to listen, sir. ALGERNON: I’m sorry for that, for your sake. I don’t play accurately—anyone can play accurately—but I play with wonderful expression. As far as the piano is concerned, sentiment is my forte. I keep science for Life. LANE: Yes, sir. ALGERNON: And, speaking of the science of Life, have you got the cucumber sandwiches cut for Lady Bracknell?

This early moment in the play contributes enormously to what the audience thinks about the aristocratic Algernon and his servant, Lane. If you were to talk about language in this scene, you could discuss Lane’s reserved replies: Are they funny? Do they indicate familiarity or sarcasm? How do you react to a servant who replies in that way? Or you could focus on Algernon’s witty responses. Does Algernon really care what Lane thinks? Is he talking more to hear himself? What does that say about how the audience is supposed to see Algernon? Algernon’s manner of speech is part of who his character is. If you are analyzing a particular performance, you might want to comment on the actor’s delivery of these lines: Was his vocal inflection appropriate? Did it show something about the character?

How language contributes to scene and mood

Ancient, medieval, and Renaissance plays often use verbal tricks and nuances to convey the setting and time of the play because performers during these periods didn’t have elaborate special-effects technology to create theatrical illusions. For example, most scenes from Shakespeare’s Macbeth take place at night. The play was originally performed in an open-air theatre in the bright and sunny afternoon. How did Shakespeare communicate the fact that it was night-time in the play? Mainly by starting scenes like this:

BANQUO: How goes the night, boy? FLEANCE: The moon is down; I have not heard the clock. BANQUO: And she goes down at twelve. FLEANCE: I take’t, ’tis later, sir. BANQUO: Hold, take my sword. There’s husbandry in heaven; Their candles are all out. Take thee that too. A heavy summons lies like lead upon me, And yet I would not sleep: merciful powers, Restrain in me the cursed thoughts that nature Gives way to in repose!

Enter MACBETH, and a Servant with a torch

Give me my sword. Who’s there?

Characters entering with torches is a pretty big clue, as is having a character say, “It’s night.” Later in the play, the question, “Who’s there?” recurs a number of times, establishing the illusion that the characters can’t see each other. The sense of encroaching darkness and the general mysteriousness of night contributes to a number of other themes and motifs in the play.

Productions and performances

Productions.

For productions as a whole, some important elements to consider are:

• Venue: How big is the theatre? Is this a professional or amateur acting company? What kind of resources do they have? How does this affect the show?
• Costumes: What is everyone wearing? Is it appropriate to the historical period? Modern? Trendy? Old-fashioned? Does it fit the character? What does their costume make you think about each character? How does this affect the show?
• Set design: What does the set look like? Does it try to create a sense of “realism”? Does it set the play in a particular historical period? What impressions does the set create? Does the set change, and if so, when and why? How does this affect the show?
• Lighting design: Are characters ever in the dark? Are there spotlights? Does light come through windows? From above? From below? Is any tinted or colored light projected? How does this affect the show?
• “Idea” or “concept”: Do the set and lighting designs seem to work together to produce a certain interpretation? Do costumes and other elements seem coordinated? How does this affect the show?

You’ve probably noticed that each of these ends with the question, “How does this affect the show?” That’s because you should be connecting every detail that you analyze back to this question. If a particularly weird costume (like King Henry in scuba gear) suggests something about the character (King Henry has gone off the deep end, literally and figuratively), then you can ask yourself, “Does this add or detract from the show?” (King Henry having an interest in aquatic mammals may not have been what Shakespeare had in mind.)

Performances

For individual performances, you can analyze all the items considered above in light of how they might have been different the night before. For example, some important elements to consider are:

• Individual acting performances: What did the actor playing the part bring to the performance? Was there anything particularly moving about the performance that night that surprised you, that you didn’t imagine from reading the play beforehand (if you did so)?
• Mishaps, flubs, and fire alarms: Did the actors mess up? Did the performance grind to a halt or did it continue?
• Audience reactions: Was there applause? At inappropriate points? Did someone fall asleep and snore loudly in the second act? Did anyone cry? Did anyone walk out in utter outrage?

Response papers

Instructors in drama classes often want to know what you really think. Sometimes they’ll give you very open-ended assignments, allowing you to choose your own topic; this freedom can have its advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, you may find it easier to express yourself without the pressure of specific guidelines or restrictions. On the other hand, it can be challenging to decide what to write about. The elements and topics listed above may provide you with a jumping-off point for more open-ended assignments. Once you’ve identified a possible area of interest, you can ask yourself questions to further develop your ideas about it and decide whether it might make for a good paper topic. For example, if you were especially interested in the lighting, how did the lighting make you feel? Nervous? Bored? Distracted? It’s usually a good idea to be as specific as possible. You’ll have a much more difficult time if you start out writing about “imagery” or “language” in a play than if you start by writing about that ridiculous face Helena made when she found out Lysander didn’t love her anymore.

If you’re really having trouble getting started, here’s a three point plan for responding to a piece of theater—say, a performance you recently observed:

• Make a list of five or six specific words, images, or moments that caught your attention while you were sitting in your seat.
• Answer one of the following questions: Did any of the words, images, or moments you listed contribute to your enjoyment or loathing of the play? Did any of them seem to add to or detract from any overall theme that the play may have had? Did any of them make you think of something completely different and wholly irrelevant to the play? If so, what connection might there be?
• Write a few sentences about how each of the items you picked out for the second question affected you and/or the play.

This list of ideas can help you begin to develop an analysis of the performance and your own reactions to it.

If you need to do research in the specialized field of performance studies (a branch of communication studies) or want to focus especially closely on poetic or powerful language in a play, see our handout on communication studies and handout on poetry explications . For additional tips on writing about plays as a form of literature, see our handout on writing about fiction .

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Carter, Paul. 1994. The Backstage Handbook: An Illustrated Almanac of Technical Information , 3rd ed. Shelter Island, NY: Broadway Press.

Vandermeer, Philip. 2021. “A to Z Databases: Dramatic Art.” Subject Research Guides, University of North Carolina. Last updated March 3, 2021. https://guides.lib.unc.edu/az.php?a=d&s=1113 .

Worthen, William B. 2010. The Wadsworth Anthology of Drama , 6th ed. Boston: Cengage.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Elements of Drama: Tension

Part 3 in a series exploring the use of various dramatic elements.

My definition of tension:

Tension can sometimes be used as an interchangeable term with conflict.  But where it differs, lies in the development of suspense in a performance.  As the audience anticipates certain outcomes in the plot, the tension builds.  An obvious example of rising tension is in a mystery or whodunit.  The development of tension usually parallels the advancement of the plot, leading to a crisis or climax. Tension is closely linked with timing.

After a bit of workshopiing and analytical discussion, my Drama students concluded:

• tension should preferably have the opportunity to build in the drama
• if tension builds too slowly, it will die in the middle of a scene
• if tension builds too quickly, it may appear ineffective or artificial
• pace now becomes a key factor in the development of tension
• tension can occur when performers raise their voice > shouting
• the opposite is also true, as tension can also occur with stillness and silence in the drama
• tension can be created by the unknown
• tension can be created simply by the audience following where characters look on (or off) stage
• tension can be created via heavy use of emotion/s with and between characters
• blocking (positioning of actors) can also create tension

Hi could this be good for a 10 point list of ways actors can create dramatic tension on stage if not what could be a good website for it

yes very true its disturbing

hi can anyone tell me what tension is i am writing an assesment based on it?

what is same time, same place ?

Great post! Have nice day ! 🙂

i couldnt read this without glancing at that photo more than a few times. Slightly disturbing

Please who can explain the structure and movement of drama. Thank you

Paul, how about the use of the ASIDE in Melodrama highlighting the upcoming TENSION in the relationship between characters on stage?

Justin Cash- What information would I use to support that though??

Paul, tension is a well-known element of pretty much all theatrical performance and the aside is a recognised convention of melodrama . I think you’re pretty safe combining these two.

Can you give me some pointers about this question? How could you use ONE convention of Melodrama and ONE element of Drama to highlight the relationship between characters?

I am not familiar with a particular term for this, Emma.

I have to do a drama review on a play, and I was wondering if there was a specific term to be used when each scene in the play has the same amount of tension, so the tension doesn’t build. In the play I watched, the tension started high and remained high until the conclusion. If you could help, I would really apreciate it.

The death knell of rising conflict

I need to know place, The relative status of the characters Dramatic tension – both tension of task and tension of relationship Resolution of the tensions by the end of the scene.

I am namo Genesis, I think I am beginning to b addicted to this site,but pls,kip updating the site

what is tension

Esther, look at this post on tension in drama for your answer.

good afternoon today my drama teacher gave assignment we have this word in my assignment Situation and i don’t what dose it mean

I have an essay on this regarding Romeo and Juliet. Im scared.

What is the word that means, the spacing between charaters that relates to class, wealth or general domination of that scene? Like when a scared character moves back or a character moves closer because they are intrigued.

How did the integration of this element enhance your performance?

This question is for my homework which is due tomorrow.

This question for my homework which is due tomorrow.

What is the dramatic elements of tension?

Many people divide tension into four separate types that can be created for a novel, stage play, film etc: – tension of MYSTERY (the unknown) – tension of SURPRISE (plot twist, shock) – tension of the TASK (objectives need to be achieved, obstacles get in the way) – tension of RELATIONSHIPS (between characters)

In theatre, tension of relationships is concerned with character relationships in the play. Obvious relationships are those that are bound by love or marriage (husband/wife), but also think of the tension in relationships in some of Shakespeare’s plays between siblings with differing motives or ambitions (brother/sister) and also parents and their children (King Lear and his three daughters, for example). Status is often a factor in character relationships, defining which characters are more important. Tension is integral to all character relationships. If you think of everyday life, a single relationship between any two people is often defined by factors such as circumstance, environment, wealth etc. Relationships can be casual, romantic, family, professional. Relationships can also be open or closed (secrets withheld from each other). All of these types of relationships occur in plays for the theatre, as playwrights to some extent are attempting to mirror familiar aspects of real life on stage for their audience. Tension in character relationships can be achieved by plot, dialogue, movement, gesture, body language etc.

Hope this helps you a bit with your drama assignment, Pondering Student 🙂

Hi, I am wondering what context and what does it mean in my drama assignment when it says Tension of Relationship ?? :/

Thank you! I need help for my drama project and y ou got my lots of helpful hint to help me act out 🙂

Tension can be a key contributor to the creation of mood in a drama and vice-versa, where a particular mood can also contribute to tension between characters in a scene. Tension and mood sometimes (but not always) work hand in hand. Often tension and mood do not work together because they are different elements in a dramatic piece. A mood can be light and fluffy and have no relation at all to tension. More serious or dramatic moods, however, are closely linked to tension and this is where tension and conflict become similar elements, and furthermore where tension and timing work together. I often say to my students its like MasterChef, where all the elements of drama are the ingredients that work together to create an effective theatre piece, but certain elements are not always related in particular circumstances.

Can anyone please tell me how tension and mood are both similar.

I woud also like to know how tension is different from mood.

I really need this for a drama assignment at school…can anyone please answer?

hi there are only 12 right 🙂 😉

If you’re doing VCE Drama, yes. If you’re studying drama or theatre elsewhere, the list may be different.

Can anyone define relationship

estoryaheee. it is not the one .

l think thats cool

hiii how can we use tension focus in sentence??

please reply 🙂

please i need a brief explanation on the people involed in drama

My list of dramatic elements are as follows:

Role Character Situation Focus Tension Place Time Dramatic Structure Language Sound Movement Moment Space Rythym Symbol Atmosphere Dramatic Meaning Audience engagement

this is wrong one

can you tell me 13 drama elements

Bob, try here + read people’s comments at bottom of post.

I think Tension can best be described as the anticipation of what is to come. That is the how I teach it and it seems to be the best way of communicating this to the students!

just a question, from a teacher’s perspective, what do you think of this website and what age group fo students do you teach? how long have you been teaching and what kind of experiences have you had working with your students? sorry if you think im prying im just alittle curious

thanks you Renee,

The Student

A question for Wanda.

Just wondering where you got a copy of Dark of the Moon as it sounds interesting and I need to find 4 class plays this year?

My theatre class just finished a production of Dark of The Moon. Tension is the most important element. Watching the performance, I can now say that tension is very simply two people sharing the same space with different needs or even the same needs. The problem is one is matter, the other anti-matter. As long as they don’t make contact the “tension” between them can be measured by the physical distance, the psychological/emotional distance……tension can be created by two people standing at the farthest end of the stage from each other, or two people only arms length apart….tension is a psychological war…tension is fighting for one’s existence …tension can be those same two people struggling to come together…when all forces are against the union…tension is very simply internal struggle physicalized and bouncing off a resistant force. I think it is really that simple. Tempo-rhythm plays a significant role in sending that message to the audience. The playwright is directly responsible for building “tension.” The structure of the play will either build to the most electric moment, or if mistimed by superfluous writing, the tension can be lost. I’ve discovered my students find it organically if the text is well-written.

I need to explain how I used tension in my group performance how do I do that please help it due so soon. – please help

Contrast, Climax, Conflict, Mood, Rhythm, Sound, Symbol, Space, Timing, Tension, Language, Focus

there the ones we sorta focus on

Role, Relationship, Situation, Tension, Focus, Mood, Symbol, Language, Movement, Space, Ti

Hey, I need some one to please tell me what the other elements of drama are?

Tension, Mystery, Relationship etc. i cant remeber the others, and i REALLY need them for my drama assignement,

thankyou, X

Dramatic Irony.

Tension, Timing, Focus, Space

Hello, can anyone tell me the name of the positioning of actors that can create tension?

Thank you, also it’s homework due tomoz Hehe

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