technology revolution essay

Industrial Revolution and Technology

Whether it was mechanical inventions or new ways of doing old things, innovations powered the Industrial Revolution.

Social Studies, World History

Steam Engine Queens Mill

The use of steam-powered machines in cotton production pushed Britain’s economic development from 1750 to 1850. Built more than 100 years ago, this steam engine still powers the Queens Mill textile factory in Burnley, England, United Kingdom.

Photograph by Ashley Cooper

It has been said that the Industrial Revolution was the most profound revolution in human history, because of its sweeping impact on people’s daily lives. The term “industrial revolution” is a succinct catchphrase to describe a historical period, starting in 18th-century Great Britain, where the pace of change appeared to speed up. This acceleration in the processes of technical innovation brought about an array of new tools and machines. It also involved more subtle practical improvements in various fields affecting labor, production, and resource use. The word “technology” (which derives from the Greek word techne , meaning art or craft) encompasses both of these dimensions of innovation. The technological revolution, and that sense of ever-quickening change, began much earlier than the 18th century and has continued all the way to the present day. Perhaps what was most unique about the Industrial Revolution was its merger of technology with industry. Key inventions and innovations served to shape virtually every existing sector of human activity along industrial lines, while also creating many new industries. The following are some key examples of the forces driving change. Agriculture Western European farming methods had been improving gradually over the centuries. Several factors came together in 18th-century Britain to bring about a substantial increase in agricultural productivity. These included new types of equipment, such as the seed drill developed by Jethro Tull around 1701. Progress was also made in crop rotation and land use, soil health, development of new crop varieties, and animal husbandry . The result was a sustained increase in yields, capable of feeding a rapidly growing population with improved nutrition. The combination of factors also brought about a shift toward large-scale commercial farming, a trend that continued into the 19th century and later. Poorer peasants had a harder time making ends meet through traditional subsistence farming. The enclosure movement, which converted common-use pasture land into private property, contributed to this trend toward market-oriented agriculture. A great many rural workers and families were forced by circumstance to migrate to the cities to become industrial laborers. Energy Deforestation in England had led to a shortage of wood for lumber and fuel starting in the 16th century. The country’s transition to coal as a principal energy source was more or less complete by the end of the 17th century. The mining and distribution of coal set in motion some of the dynamics that led to Britain’s industrialization. The coal-fired steam engine was in many respects the decisive technology of the Industrial Revolution. Steam power was first applied to pump water out of coal mines. For centuries, windmills had been employed in the Netherlands for the roughly similar operation of draining low-lying flood plains. Wind was, and is, a readily available and renewable energy source, but its irregularity was considered a drawback. Water power was a more popular energy source for grinding grain and other types of mill work in most of preindustrial Europe. By the last quarter of the 18th century, however, thanks to the work of the Scottish engineer James Watt and his business partner Matthew Boulton, steam engines achieved a high level of efficiency and versatility in their design. They swiftly became the standard power supply for British, and, later, European industry. The steam engine turned the wheels of mechanized factory production. Its emergence freed manufacturers from the need to locate their factories on or near sources of water power. Large enterprises began to concentrate in rapidly growing industrial cities. Metallurgy In this time-honored craft, Britain’s wood shortage necessitated a switch from wood charcoal to coke, a coal product, in the smelting process. The substitute fuel eventually proved highly beneficial for iron production. Experimentation led to some other advances in metallurgical methods during the 18th century. For example, a certain type of furnace that separated the coal and kept it from contaminating the metal, and a process of “puddling” or stirring the molten iron, both made it possible to produce larger amounts of wrought iron. Wrought iron is more malleable than cast iron and therefore more suitable for fabricating machinery and other heavy industrial applications. Textiles The production of fabrics, especially cotton, was fundamental to Britain’s economic development between 1750 and 1850. Those are the years historians commonly use to bracket the Industrial Revolution. In this period, the organization of cotton production shifted from a small-scale cottage industry, in which rural families performed spinning and weaving tasks in their homes, to a large, mechanized, factory-based industry. The boom in productivity began with a few technical devices, including the spinning jenny, spinning mule, and power loom. First human, then water, and finally steam power were applied to operate power looms, carding machines, and other specialized equipment. Another well-known innovation was the cotton gin, invented in the United States in 1793. This device spurred an increase in cotton cultivation and export from U.S. slave states, a key British supplier. Chemicals This industry arose partly in response to the demand for improved bleaching solutions for cotton and other manufactured textiles. Other chemical research was motivated by the quest for artificial dyes, explosives, solvents , fertilizers, and medicines, including pharmaceuticals. In the second half of the 19th century, Germany became the world’s leader in industrial chemistry. Transportation Concurrent with the increased output of agricultural produce and manufactured goods arose the need for more efficient means of delivering these products to market. The first efforts toward this end in Europe involved constructing improved overland roads. Canals were dug in both Europe and North America to create maritime corridors between existing waterways. Steam engines were recognized as useful in locomotion, resulting in the emergence of the steamboat in the early 19th century. High-pressure steam engines also powered railroad locomotives, which operated in Britain after 1825. Railways spread rapidly across Europe and North America, extending to Asia in the latter half of the 19th century. Railroads became one of the world’s leading industries as they expanded the frontiers of industrial society.

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Related Resources

Technology over the long run: zoom out to see how dramatically the world can change within a lifetime

It is easy to underestimate how much the world can change within a lifetime. considering how dramatically the world has changed can help us see how different the world could be in a few years or decades..

Technology can change the world in ways that are unimaginable until they happen. Switching on an electric light would have been unimaginable for our medieval ancestors. In their childhood, our grandparents would have struggled to imagine a world connected by smartphones and the Internet.

Similarly, it is hard for us to imagine the arrival of all those technologies that will fundamentally change the world we are used to.

We can remind ourselves that our own future might look very different from the world today by looking back at how rapidly technology has changed our world in the past. That’s what this article is about.

One insight I take away from this long-term perspective is how unusual our time is. Technological change was extremely slow in the past – the technologies that our ancestors got used to in their childhood were still central to their lives in their old age. In stark contrast to those days, we live in a time of extraordinarily fast technological change. For recent generations, it was common for technologies that were unimaginable in their youth to become common later in life.

The long-run perspective on technological change

The big visualization offers a long-term perspective on the history of technology. 1

The timeline begins at the center of the spiral. The first use of stone tools, 3.4 million years ago, marks the beginning of this history of technology. 2 Each turn of the spiral represents 200,000 years of history. It took 2.4 million years – 12 turns of the spiral – for our ancestors to control fire and use it for cooking. 3

To be able to visualize the inventions in the more recent past – the last 12,000 years – I had to unroll the spiral. I needed more space to be able to show when agriculture, writing, and the wheel were invented. During this period, technological change was faster, but it was still relatively slow: several thousand years passed between each of these three inventions.

From 1800 onwards, I stretched out the timeline even further to show the many major inventions that rapidly followed one after the other.

The long-term perspective that this chart provides makes it clear just how unusually fast technological change is in our time.

You can use this visualization to see how technology developed in particular domains. Follow, for example, the history of communication: from writing to paper, to the printing press, to the telegraph, the telephone, the radio, all the way to the Internet and smartphones.

Or follow the rapid development of human flight. In 1903, the Wright brothers took the first flight in human history (they were in the air for less than a minute), and just 66 years later, we landed on the moon. Many people saw both within their lifetimes: the first plane and the moon landing.

This large visualization also highlights the wide range of technology’s impact on our lives. It includes extraordinarily beneficial innovations, such as the vaccine that allowed humanity to eradicate smallpox , and it includes terrible innovations, like the nuclear bombs that endanger the lives of all of us .

What will the next decades bring?

The red timeline reaches up to the present and then continues in green into the future. Many children born today, even without further increases in life expectancy, will live well into the 22nd century.

New vaccines, progress in clean, low-carbon energy, better cancer treatments – a range of future innovations could very much improve our living conditions and the environment around us. But, as I argue in a series of articles , there is one technology that could even more profoundly change our world: artificial intelligence (AI).

One reason why artificial intelligence is such an important innovation is that intelligence is the main driver of innovation itself. This fast-paced technological change could speed up even more if it’s driven not only by humanity’s intelligence but also by artificial intelligence. If this happens, the change currently stretched out over decades might happen within a very brief time span of just a year. Possibly even faster. 4

I think AI technology could have a fundamentally transformative impact on our world. In many ways, it is already changing our world, as I documented in this companion article . As this technology becomes more capable in the years and decades to come, it can give immense power to those who control it (and it poses the risk that it could escape our control entirely).

Such systems might seem hard to imagine today, but AI technology is advancing quickly. Many AI experts believe there is a real chance that human-level artificial intelligence will be developed within the next decades, as I documented in this article .

Technology will continue to change the world – we should all make sure that it changes it for the better

What is familiar to us today – photography, the radio, antibiotics, the Internet, or the International Space Station circling our planet – was unimaginable to our ancestors just a few generations ago. If your great-great-great grandparents could spend a week with you, they would be blown away by your everyday life.

What I take away from this history is that I will likely see technologies in my lifetime that appear unimaginable to me today.

In addition to this trend towards increasingly rapid innovation, there is a second long-run trend. Technology has become increasingly powerful. While our ancestors wielded stone tools, we are building globe-spanning AI systems and technologies that can edit our genes.

Because of the immense power that technology gives those who control it, there is little that is as important as the question of which technologies get developed during our lifetimes. Therefore, I think it is a mistake to leave the question about the future of technology to the technologists. Which technologies are controlled by whom is one of the most important political questions of our time because of the enormous power these technologies convey to those who control them.

We all should strive to gain the knowledge we need to contribute to an intelligent debate about the world we want to live in. To a large part, this means gaining knowledge and wisdom on the question of which technologies we want.

Acknowledgments: I would like to thank my colleagues Hannah Ritchie, Bastian Herre, Natasha Ahuja, Edouard Mathieu, Daniel Bachler, Charlie Giattino, and Pablo Rosado for their helpful comments on drafts of this essay and the visualization. Thanks also to Lizka Vaintrob and Ben Clifford for the conversation that initiated this visualization.

Appendix: About the choice of visualization in this article

The recent speed of technological change makes it difficult to picture the history of technology in one visualization. When you visualize this development on a linear timeline, then most of the timeline is almost empty, while all the action is crammed into the right corner:

In my large visualization here, I tried to avoid this problem and instead show the long history of technology in a way that lets you see when each technological breakthrough happened and how, within the last millennia, there was a continuous acceleration of technological change.

The recent speed of technological change makes it difficult to picture the history of technology in one visualization. In the appendix, I show how this would look if it were linear.

It is, of course, difficult to assess when exactly the first stone tools were used.

The research by McPherron et al. (2010) suggested that it was at least 3.39 million years ago. This is based on two fossilized bones found in Dikika in Ethiopia, which showed “stone-tool cut marks for flesh removal and percussion marks for marrow access”. These marks were interpreted as being caused by meat consumption and provide the first evidence that one of our ancestors, Australopithecus afarensis, used stone tools.

The research by Harmand et al. (2015) provided evidence for stone tool use in today’s Kenya 3.3 million years ago.

References:

McPherron et al. (2010) – Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia . Published in Nature.

Harmand et al. (2015) – 3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya . Published in Nature.

Evidence for controlled fire use approximately 1 million years ago is provided by Berna et al. (2012) Microstratigraphic evidence of in situ fire in the Acheulean strata of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa , published in PNAS.

The authors write: “The ability to control fire was a crucial turning point in human evolution, but the question of when hominins first developed this ability still remains. Here we show that micromorphological and Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy (mFTIR) analyses of intact sediments at the site of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa, provide unambiguous evidence—in the form of burned bone and ashed plant remains—that burning took place in the cave during the early Acheulean occupation, approximately 1.0 Ma. To the best of our knowledge, this is the earliest secure evidence for burning in an archaeological context.”

This is what authors like Holden Karnofsky called ‘Process for Automating Scientific and Technological Advancement’ or PASTA. Some recent developments go in this direction: DeepMind’s AlphaFold helped to make progress on one of the large problems in biology, and they have also developed an AI system that finds new algorithms that are relevant to building a more powerful AI.

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Globalization of Technology: International Perspectives (1988)

Chapter: the technology revolution and the restructuring of the global economy, the technology revolution and the restructuring of the global economy.

UMBERTO COLOMBO

T HE WORLD IS IN THE THROES OF A TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION that differs from the periodic waves of technical change that have marked the progress of industrial society since its origins 200 years ago. A shift is occurring in the sociotechnological paradigm that underlies our current sophisticated industrial structure. This old paradigm consists of the mass production of essentially standardized goods in ever-larger units; an emphasis on quantitative goals for production, requiring ever higher inputs of capital, energy, and raw materials to produce more and more; and little attention to environmental impact, resource use, and conservation issues. In contrast, the new paradigm taking shape is identified with an emphasis on quality and diversification of products and processes, diffusion of small but highly productive units that rely on new technologies and are linked to a process of decentralization of production, adoption of process and product choices requiring far less energy and materials input per unit of output, and a greater awareness of the need to preserve the quality of local and global environments.

Thus, we are in a period of transition between two epochs, a time comparable to the industrial revolution, when the steam engine was introduced and coal was the emerging energy source. Then, as now, there was widespread fear of the future, a fear derived from the difficulty of even imagining the range of opportunities that an ongoing revolution brings in terms of new activities and related jobs.

During a transition of this magnitude, past equilibria are disrupted and conditions of mismatch occur in labor markets. The demand for new jobs and skills increases, and old activities disappear or lose their importance in the marketplace. These changes are visible; their impact is almost immediate. It is now clear that the paper-free office is going to be widespread in a few

decades, and in fact, we can see its beginnings with increased office automation, the spread of word processors, and the adoption of integrated workstations. The human-free factory is also in sight. With increasing automation and robotization, it is not only blue-collar jobs that will be eliminated. The change is more profound. We are witnessing the sharpened decline of the factory as the primary function and chief labor-absorber in industry. Research and development (R&D), marketing, finance, corporate strategy, legal affairs—functions that previously were to a certain extent ancillary to production—are assuming the center of the stage. Now manufacturing itself becomes ancillary and often even a candidate for contracting out.

This does not mean, however, that manufacturing technologies are becoming secondary in importance. The contrary is true, and here, too, history offers a parallel. Today’s situation presents an analogy with the position of agriculture after the industrial revolution. All through the history of industrial society, agriculture improved its output and productivity enormously, although it no longer dominated the economy and was not the main source of jobs as it once had been. Industry will repeat this pattern, as the transition to a postindustrial, service-oriented society is completed.

The present era of change is being brought about by a whole cluster of technologies, some of which have an exceptional capacity for horizontal diffusion in all sectors of the economy and society and an equally exceptional capacity for cross-fertilization. Key technologies in this category include the microelectronics-information technologies complex, the biotechnologies, and the new materials science.

This process of technological change spurs structural changes in the economy and society. Mature sectors (such as machine tools and textiles) can be rejuvenated by grafting new technologies onto their processes and products. When this rejuvenation occurs in industrialized countries, these traditional sectors take the lead in international competition. Italy is a case in point, since Italian prosperity is in no small measure due to the restored competitiveness of such sectors. These sectors demonstrate a highly flexible approach to production, making possible less standardized products specifically designed to satisfy the tastes and needs of customers. They also demonstrate considerable creativity through attention to design factors and closer links to the market and its fluctuations, attentiveness to moods and fashions with highly imaginative marketing, and a capacity to absorb new technology and indeed to interact with it to generate improvements and adaptations.

The fact that in Italy these sectors tend to consist of dynamic, small- to medium-size firms organized in industrial districts is extremely important. Such districts operate as coalitions of competitors, interdependent yet united by a common goal. This pattern encourages the diffusion of technology through all firms in the district. This is in marked contrast to experience elsewhere when competing firms tend to keep technological advances closely

to themselves in the hope of retaining competitive advantage. Ideally, rejuvenation of mature sectors is a “bottom up” process, though in Italy, for example, the European Nuclear Energy Agency offers a significant “top down” contribution in terms of information, expertise, support research and development, and project management.

Mature sectors that undergo such technological renewal and then strive continually to keep abreast of technological developments and market trends can retain competitiveness even in the face of increasing international competition. This pattern is one of the elements suggesting that long-established concepts of comparative advantage and ensuing international division of labor must be challenged. In today’s new economic environment, the availability of abundant, low-cost raw materials and a pool of cheap labor is no longer enough to ensure market advantage to developing countries. But the emerging technologies are not the exclusive domain of advanced countries, and their intelligent application in developing countries may speed up their economic growth and open possibilities for decentralized patterns of development.

Until recently in the advanced countries, the main technological innovations in production have involved mass production and standardization. The emerging technologies make it possible to give an effective answer to the demand for diversification, product customization, and personalization. Thus, the structure of supply is becoming more flexible and innovative. In other words, it is now possible to combine small-scale production units with high productivity and high quality efficiently at increasingly accessible prices. We may therefore say that small becomes beautiful again, although not in the sense that E.F.Schumacher used this phrase in the early 1970s.

The pace of innovation is extremely rapid. No individual firm or country can hope to gain or retain technological and market superiority in any given area for long. The pressure of competition and the rapid spread of production capabilities, innovative ideas, and new patterns of demand compel companies to measure themselves against rival firms at home and abroad early in the production cycle, and then rapidly exploit, in the widest possible market, any competitive advantages that arise from a lead in innovation.

We are witnessing a compression of the time scale by which new technology is introduced, with ever-shorter intervals between discovery and application. This compression is especially apparent in microelectronics and the information technologies, sectors in which international competition and academic and industrial research activities are intense. This phenomenon is widely visible though not universal. In some sectors (specifically, though not exclusively, those involving the life sciences) longer periods are imposed by the need for testing to satisfy regulatory criteria. Examples here come from the pharmaceutical and agrochemical industries.

Simultaneously, firms acquire more strategic space in which to operate. In the past, the smaller the firm, the narrower its natural geographic horizon.

Today it is possible for both large and small firms to think in global terms. This new perspective implies the need for all interests, large and small, to seek arrangements such as transnational mergers, joint venture agreements, consortia, and shared production and licensing agreements with other companies. The partners often bring complementary assets: investment capital, market shares in different geographic areas, technological capabilities in adjacent domains, and different strategic approaches to advance innovation. In this way returns in different countries can be maximized rapidly. This worldwide change is being spearheaded by the industrial democracies—the countries that possess major resources in science and technology, innovative capability, and investment capital.

Today’s technology is becoming more and more scientific. Not only is it created and developed on scientific bases, but it also generates fundamental scientific knowledge. The discovery of new superconducting materials, for example, is simultaneously a great scientific achievement that implies fundamental advances in our understanding of the behavior of matter in the solid state and a technological invention that is immediately open to extraordinary applications in many fields, from energy transmission to computers and from high-field magnets to nuclear fusion. The development of artificial intelligence is another example of the increasingly scientific nature of technology; this effort requires the cooperation of the most disparate disciplines and in turn holds the potential for application in a wide variety of fields. These examples illustrate how the narrow, specialized, compartmentalized ways in which problems typically were approached in the past are giving way to a more global approach that breaks down the barriers of single disciplines to obtain a unified, cross-disciplinary vision.

Another unique aspect of the present technological revolution is that it brings about a dematerialization of society. In a sense, dematerialization is the logical outcome of an advanced economy in which material needs are substantially saturated. Throughout history there has been a direct correlation between increases in gross domestic product and consumption of raw materials and energy. This is no longer automatically the case. In today’s advanced and affluent societies, each successive increment in per capita income is linked to an ever-smaller rise in quantities of raw materials and energy used. According to estimates by the International Monetary Fund, the amount of industrial raw materials needed for one unit of industrial production is now no more than two-fifths of what it was in 1900, and this decline is accelerating. Thus, Japan, for example, in 1984 consumed only 60 percent of the raw materials required for the same volume of industrial output in 1973.

The reason for this phenomenon is basically twofold. Increases in consumption tend to be concentrated on goods that have a high degree of value added, goods that contain a great deal of technology and design rather than

raw materials, and nonmaterial goods such as tourism, leisure activities, and financial services. In addition, today’s technology is developing products whose performance in fulfilling desired functions is reaching unprecedented levels. For example, it is now possible to invent new energy sources that have energy densities far exceeding those of raw materials. One kilogram of uranium can produce the same amount of energy as 13 U.S. tons of oil or 19 U.S. tons of coal, and in telecommunications 1 ton of copper wire can now be replaced by a mere 25 or so kilograms of fiberglass cable, which can be produced with only 5 percent of the energy needed to produce the copper wire it replaces. Decoupling of the amount of raw material needed for a given unit of economic output, income generation, and consumption of raw materials and energy is an essential element in the dematerialization process.

But present trends go beyond this. Dematerialization also includes the emergence of what has been called an “information society.” The speed of information flow and its impact on the rate of innovation and diffusion and the capacity to overcome barriers have enormous implications.

World society is becoming more open; interdependence is increasing. World trade in goods and services has reached $3 trillion. This is certainly a high figure, but surprisingly, it is more than an order of magnitude lower than the volume of foreign currency transactions ($35 trillion) and of the estimated annual turnover of the London financial market alone ($75 trillion, or 25 times greater than the entire world’s visible trade). This is part of what is increasingly being termed the globalization of business and finance.

The comparison between the various forms of trade and transactions is, however, a matter of concern. It might be an indication that conditions for profit increasingly are more favorable in financial speculation than in capital investment in a world that still greatly needs economic growth and opportunities for employment. The alarming indebtedness of developing countries and the massive transfer of resources to advanced economies in interest payments are another facet of this problem.

But globalization affects all sectors of the economy. As noted earlier, the present wave of innovation, technological and otherwise, is spearheaded by the industrial democracies: the countries of North America, Western Europe, and Japan. Kenichi Ohmae (1985) refers to this as the emergence of the “triad,” and advocates a strategy of cross-cultural alliances in the industrial and business communities that will allow innovative companies from the three corners of the triad to become real powers, thus shaping a new pattern of global competition.

In this context, protectionism and defensive attitudes are losing bets. It is not by chance that even a superpower—the USSR—that had built barriers around itself and was striving to compete and advance by planning its economy in isolation is now being forced to come to terms with this new reality

and open up to the opportunities afforded by technological change. The implications of Gorbachev’s new course for the organization of Soviet society are immense, and the bureaucratic resistance to change is likely to be tough. In the largest developing country—the People’s Republic of China—a similar process is taking place, demonstrating that the new advances present immediate opportunities not only for already industrialized countries but for all nations.

In considering the triad, it is important to note that each of its three cornerstones faces problems. The United States retains its lead in the creation and development of the more important emergent technologies, and signs are that it will continue to do so for some time. But the size of the federal budget deficit and the size of the trade deficit, as well as the process of deindustrialization in many traditional sectors that were once the powerhouse of the U.S. economy, are surely causes for concern.

Japan is exceptionally good at exploiting the new technologies and creating large-scale applications for diverse markets. Yet the Japanese, too, are seriously worried, as can be deduced from Japanese reports calling for improved economic and scientific strategies. There are several reasons for their apprehension. Their economic success has been built on an excessive dependence on exports. Profits have been reinvested in industry at home, and the resulting overcapacity has spurred in a vicious circle the need for an even better performance abroad. Given the Japanese people’s high propensity to save, the domestic economy is finding it increasingly difficult to consume the income they generate. Meanwhile, the Japanese government’s inability to redress the country’s chronic balance of payments surplus leads to recurrent threats of retaliation from exasperated, less competitive trading partners.

The yen/dollar exchange rate implies that Japan has the highest per capita income in the world, yet few would deny that the living standards of ordinary people do not reflect this fact. Part of the production capacity devoted to promotion of exports needs to be switched to expansion of social infrastructures and improvement in the quality of life. The housing stock, the environment, and infrastructures in the less favored regions are all in need of upgrading.

With an economy long oriented toward “creative copying” and finding applications for advances achieved elsewhere, Japan admits a lack of individual creativity among its people, especially in the basic sciences. This is a by-product of a culture and an education system that instill virtues of obedience and teamwork rather than initiative and individualism. The future of Japanese technology must be based on independent effort in fundamental research and not on the import of technology from more advanced countries, as during the century-long process of catching up that began with the Meiji Restoration. Savings and consumption patterns will have to alter. All this is likely to mean major changes in the education system, a new role for the

young in what has been a traditionally hierarchical society, and wider opportunities for women (still a significantly smaller part of the labor force in Japan than in any other industrialized country).

Western Europe, on the other hand, appears less oriented toward the future. On the whole, the economies of Western European countries are less concentrated on advanced sectors and are more balanced in their strengths. High-tech sectors are not the most aggressive elements in their economies, even though some of these sectors constitute areas of strength—nuclear energy, aerospace, and robotics. Overall, Europe is too weak in certain critical areas of microelectronics and information technology—for example, in basic electronic components, very-large-scale integration technology, and supercomputers. The most negative aspects of the situation in Europe are a lack of cohesion in many emergent sectors, inadequate infrastructures, and a dispersed and fragmented market.

Europe’s cultural heritage, its deep-rooted traditions in the arts and craftsmanship, and the availability of welfare provisions—care and assistance for the individual citizen, typical of the “welfare state”—are equally distinctive characteristics. They give European nations an edge over the United States and Japan in applying new technologies to traditional industrial and services sectors and in creating diversified, personalized products in response to market needs. Productivity of labor has risen in Europe, although to the detriment of full employment, and so has product and process flexibility. Europe’s reputation for quality products is being maintained increasingly through the adoption and adaptation of new technologies in their production.

Globalization is moving faster than the long-heralded political and economic unification of Europe. Global competition came about suddenly, and it caught Europe off guard. These two unifying processes—on the one hand, the European Economic Community (EEC) and, on the other, the global economy—are now developing side by side; in some areas they are competing. Where the European firm is an acknowledged leader in an advanced sector, these processes run in tandem; where the reverse is true, European considerations tend to take second place.

Many European firms are seriously at risk of being left behind in this competition by becoming the weak link in the triad, a link that provides ideas, labor, services, and markets but essentially leaves strategic initiatives to their U.S. and Japanese partners. Europe is a divided continent and, considering only the EEC, an uneasy mix of old, established, industrialized countries and others in which rural cultures and outlooks still prevail. Policies to pump subsidies into ailing agriculture, declining industrial sectors, and overstretched nonmarket services such as public sector health care, road and rail networks, postal services, and primary and secondary education—Europe’s first response to the economic crises of the 1970s—are proving difficult to remove.

Basic scientific research is still in good shape in Europe, and individual scientists and relatively small, high-level research groups produce excellent results. The few large, cohesive research teams that were created in Europe in certain areas of scientific research, such as the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in high-energy physics, are highly competitive. Europe even occupies a leading position in some important industrial sectors: precision machine tools, electronic instrumentation, pharmaceuticals, and fine chemicals. In general, however, European industry still tends to think in terms of closed markets with the survival, wherever possible, of producer cartels. Public procurement policies remain largely at the level of single nations; this is a serious obstacle to a more active, relevant role in the world economy. There are, however, heartening signs that Europe is becoming more aware of its weaknesses in this area. Initiatives in science and technology are being undertaken at the EEC level and, separately, in the ambit of the so-called EUREKA program of coordinated, transnational research and development in advanced sectors.

An interdependent and more open world society will lend itself best to the challenge of innovation. The world needs much more material growth; the world population has reached 5 billion and will increase to 8 billion in 2050 before it stabilizes at something under 10 billion. The increase will take place almost entirely in the Third World. A quarter of the world’s population now inhabits today’s industrialized countries, but this proportion will fall to less than 20 percent in 50 years. The inhabitants of industrialized countries already consume three-quarters of the world’s energy and mineral resources. It is difficult to imagine that disparity on this scale can continue far into the next century.

It is essential for world society that the existing gap between North and South be narrowed. This narrowing should be seen not only as a moral obligation for prosperous nations but also as in their own long-term interest. Development in the Third World will create areas of complementary production that will expand and broaden the international economy. This will, in turn, generate new markets for tradable goods and services, thus replacing today’s frenetic paper market in financial instruments. If present trends continue, this market is bound to increase the disparity between the rich and the poor in the world and hamper investment in industry and other productive activities.

Patterns of development for the Third World need not follow those set by today’s industrial economies. Available new technologies (for example, in agriculture, rural industrialization, and education and for the delivery of services) make it possible to achieve a more balanced growth without the exaggerated and disorderly urbanization and subsequent unemployment and other social ills now occurring in much of the Third World.

In this optimistic vision of the future, multinational enterprises are very

important, but not in the traditional sense. Globalization will be increasingly linked to innovation. Furthermore, many small and medium-sized multinational corporations will emerge, relying on alliances that draw on the experience and information available to partners in each market in which the alliances operate. The role of government will not diminish. This role will not necessarily be antagonistic but will provide overall strategic direction, infrastructure, monitoring of conditions for fair competition, and preservation of cultural heritage and environmental quality.

Thus, the availability of abundant raw materials and cheap labor are no longer key factors for success in the world market. New technologies restore vitality to certain sectors in industrialized countries, sectors that were hitherto viewed as almost certain candidates for relocation to the Third World. At the same time, developing countries now have available to them a whole set of new technologies that lend themselves to blending with traditional technologies and thereby make faster development possible across the board.

Those developing countries endowed with raw materials and energy may convert them into more valuable commodities, but unless they are able to master the technology needed to upgrade such commodities, they will derive little benefit from this primary transformation. Emphasis must therefore be placed on research and development and enhanced international cooperation, because it is not in the interest of advanced countries to keep the developing countries’ margins so low as to hamper their advancement and preclude their becoming healthy producers and active market forces. Whether this happens depends largely on the wealthier societies of North America, Western Europe, and Japan. Responsibility therefore lies with them.

Ohmae, K. 1985. Triad Power: The Coming Shape of Global Competition. New York: Free Press.

The technological revolution has reached around the world, with important consequences for business, government, and the labor market. Computer-aided design, telecommunications, and other developments are allowing small players to compete with traditional giants in manufacturing and other fields. In this volume, 16 engineering and industrial experts representing eight countries discuss the growth of technological advances and their impact on specific industries and regions of the world. From various perspectives, these distinguished commentators describe the practical aspects of technology's reach into business and trade.

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1 What is a Technological Revolution?

• Published: October 2020
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Almost daily we are told how some new technology will revolutionize in our lives. The truth of the matter is most technologies do not. However, occasionally a new technology does appear which provides the grounding for gradual changes that eventually transform our systems of production and the way we live our lives. Historically, we speak of these developments as technological revolutions. By focusing on how such technologies change the nature of work, occupational structures, and systems of production, this chapter attempts to answer two questions: “What is a technological revolution?” and, more importantly, “How do current technologies associated with artificial intelligence fit into the history of technological change?”

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Home — Essay Samples — Information Science and Technology — Impact of Technology — How Technology Has Changed Our Lives

How Technology Has Changed Our Lives

• Categories: Impact of Technology

About this sample

Words: 1130 |

Updated: 9 November, 2023

Words: 1130 | Pages: 2 | 6 min read

Table of contents

Hook examples for technology essay, technology essay example.

• A Digital Revolution: Enter the era of smartphones, AI, and the Internet of Things, where technology is the driving force. Join me as we explore how technology has transformed our lives and the profound impact it has on society.
• An Intriguing Quote: Arthur C. Clarke once said, "Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic." Let's delve into the magical world of modern technology and how it shapes our daily existence.
• The Paradox of Connectivity: Technology promises to connect us, yet it can also lead to isolation. Explore with me the paradox of our hyperconnected world and how it affects our relationships, both online and offline.
• The Impact on Work and Leisure: Discover how technology has revolutionized our work environments, blurring the lines between office and home. Together, we'll examine the changing landscape of leisure and entertainment in the digital age.
• Looking Ahead: As technology continues to advance, what lies on the horizon? Join me in discussing the future implications of emerging technologies and how they will further reshape our world in the years to come.

The Dark Side of Technological Advancement

• Increased Bullying
• Lack of Privacy
• Constant Distraction

Balancing Technology in Our Lives

Works cited.

• Anderson, M. (2018). The Effects of Technology on Teenagers. Verywell Family.
• Brown, B. W., & Bobkowski, P. S. (2011). Older and newer media: Patterns of use and effects on adolescents’ health and well-being. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 95-113.
• Calvillo, D. P., & Downey, R. G. (2010). Mobile phones and interruption in college classrooms: Instructors’ attitudes, beliefs, and practices. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(2), 223-231.
• Clarke-Pearson, K., & O'Keeffe, G. (2011). The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics, 127(4), 800-804.
• Livingstone, S., & Smith, P. K. (2014). Annual research review: Harms experienced by child users of online and mobile technologies: The nature, prevalence and management of sexual and aggressive risks in the digital age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(6), 635-654.
• Oulasvirta, A., Rattenbury, T., Ma, L., & Raita, E. (2012). Habits make smartphone use more pervasive. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 16(1), 105-114.
• Przybylski, A. K., & Weinstein, N. (2017). A large-scale test of the goldilocks hypothesis: Quantifying the relations between digital-screen use and the mental well-being of adolescents. Psychological Science, 28(2), 204-215.
• Rosen, L. D., Lim, A. F., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2011). An empirical examination of the educational impact of text message-induced task switching in the classroom: Educational implications and strategies to enhance learning. Psicologia Educativa, 17(2), 163-177.
• Schulte, B. (2018). The human costs of bringing smartphones to every student. The Atlantic.
• Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among US adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3-17.

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Technology Revolution in Learning Essay

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Introduction

Technology for learning content, technology in instructional strategy and planning, technological equipment for education.

With the immense growth in technology and its application in various fields, it has become indispensable in the delivery of educational content, educational strategies, and equipment. Technology now plays a big role in increasing educational productivity as an enabling platform for educational planning, content delivery, and equipment (Desai, Hart, & Richards, 2004). With the Internet age, content delivery has been facilitated via e-learning, simulation, video conferencing, and virtual classes. Proper utilization of technology in learning does not replace conventional education but provides students with significant tools to be successful.

As technological growth advances, institutions step forward in their adoption of asynchronous and synchronous methodologies of delivering learning content (Desai, Hart, & Richards, 2004). This is through various available media like the Internet, virtual classes, video conferencing, educational blogs and social media. Here, educational content is posted on the institution’s website, communication devices, customized educational software and simulations (Bullen & Janes, 2007). Digitizing of educational content saves student-teacher time and the costs associated with print materials.

Technology is widely applied in various aspects of instructional strategy and planning (Aldridge, & Goldman, 2007). This is through administrative purposes for efficiency and effective communication, optimal decision making, accountability and operational efficiency. Technology facilitates a cycle of professional development, innovation, resource allocation and forecasting of future trends and resource needs. It is further applied in technical support, educational assessment and quality assurance (Dewey, 1938). Technology enriches the curriculum by providing an interactive and hands-on level platform that allows students to work for their success.

Technology offers numerous versatile platforms for delivery of educational and learning materials. This includes computing and mobile devices and the use of the Internet. With the world wide web, the available intellectual resources are increased by providing a dynamic learning environment (Desai, Hart, & Richards, 2004). There is the use of mobile web-enabled devices, notebooks, I-pads, laptops, smartphones and tablets with educational content. These devices have revolutionized communication, evaluation, education and management. With easy access to the Internet via the devices, students can easily access flexible e-learning (Bullen & Janes, 2007). This saves training costs in terms of time, hiring instructors, convenience and the costs involved in travelling for training. Companies further develop their own m-learning platforms for employee training to enhance their skills and productivity.

Advantages of technology use in education

• Technology helps enhance understanding through simulations and elaborate diagrams (Marzano, Pickering & Pollock, 2001).
• Technology helps students improve in areas of vocabulary, reading comprehension, conceptual facts and creativity.
• Use of technology improves student attitudes and interest. Visual and audio aids are vital for students with special needs (Johnson, Dupuis, Gollnick, Hall, & Musial, 2008).
• Technology enhances academic skills through communication and collaboration. Students are able to communicate across the globe and exchange ideas in social forums, blogs, at video conference and through social media (Pérez-Prado, & Thirunarayanan, 2005).
• Joint learning by students on computers facilitates understanding, self-esteem and attitude towards the process of learning.
• Web-multimedia content promotes interactive learning that surmounts the provisions of traditional static content hence distance learning is easier (Desai, Hart, & Richards, 2004).

The full adoption of technology by educational institutions has a significant impact on performance and grades. There are gains in the reduction of financial costs and operational efficiency in the educational system (Gutek, 2004). Technology presents a personalized platform that assists students to address their unique learning requirements. E-learning provides for equal and flexible access to higher education (Pérez-Prado, & Thirunarayanan, 2005). The use of technology in learning is extensive and influences or is influenced by the various educational stakeholders who should have consensus for technology change implementation.

Aldridge, J., & Goldman, R. (2007). Current issues and trends in education (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Web.

Bullen, M., & Janes, D. P. (2007). Making the transition to e-learning: Strategies and issues . Hershey, Pa. [u.a.: Information Science Pub. Web.

Desai, M. S., Hart, J., & Richards, T. C., (2004), E-learning Paradigm Shift in Education, Education 129 (2): 327-334. Web.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education . New York, NY: Touchstone Books. Web.

Gutek, G. L. (2004). Philosophical and ideological voices in education . Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Web.

Johnson, J. A., Dupuis, V. L., Gollnick, D. M., Hall, G. E., & Musial, D. (2008). Foundations of American education: Perspectives on education in a changing world (14th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Web.

Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement . Alexandria, Va: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Web.

Pérez-Prado, A., & Thirunarayanan, M. O. (2005). Integrating technology in higher education . Lanham, Md. [u.a.: University Press of America. Web.

• Public Policy for Career Development
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• College Teaching Method: Paulo Freire's and James Loewen's Ideas
• The Banking Concept of Education by Paulo Freire
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The 20th and 21st centuries

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Technology from 1900 to 1945

Recent history is notoriously difficult to write, because of the mass of material and the problem of distinguishing the significant from the insignificant among events that have virtually the power of contemporary experience. In respect to the recent history of technology , however, one fact stands out clearly: despite the immense achievements of technology by 1900, the following decades witnessed more advance over a wide range of activities than the whole of previously recorded history. The airplane, the rocket and interplanetary probes, electronics, atomic power , antibiotics, insecticides, and a host of new materials have all been invented and developed to create an unparalleled social situation, full of possibilities and dangers, which would have been virtually unimaginable before the present century.

In venturing to interpret the events of the 20th century, it will be convenient to separate the years before 1945 from those that followed. The years 1900 to 1945 were dominated by the two World Wars, while those since 1945 were preoccupied by the need to avoid another major war. The dividing point is one of outstanding social and technological significance: the detonation of the first atomic bomb at Alamogordo, New Mexico , in July 1945.

There were profound political changes in the 20th century related to technological capacity and leadership. It may be an exaggeration to regard the 20th century as “the American century,” but the rise of the United States as a superstate was sufficiently rapid and dramatic to excuse the hyperbole . It was a rise based upon tremendous natural resources exploited to secure increased productivity through widespread industrialization, and the success of the United States in achieving this objective was tested and demonstrated in the two World Wars. Technological leadership passed from Britain and the European nations to the United States in the course of these wars. This is not to say that the springs of innovation went dry in Europe. Many important inventions of the 20th century originated there. But it was the United States that had the capacity to assimilate innovations and take full advantage from them at times when other countries were deficient in one or other of the vital social resources without which a brilliant invention cannot be converted into a commercial success. As with Britain in the Industrial Revolution , the technological vitality of the United States in the 20th century was demonstrated less by any particular innovations than by its ability to adopt new ideas from whatever source they come.

The two World Wars were themselves the most important instruments of technological as well as political change in the 20th century. The rapid evolution of the airplane is a striking illustration of this process, while the appearance of the tank in the first conflict and of the atomic bomb in the second show the same signs of response to an urgent military stimulus. It has been said that World War I was a chemists’ war, on the basis of the immense importance of high explosives and poison gas. In other respects the two wars hastened the development of technology by extending the institutional apparatus for the encouragement of innovation by both the state and private industry . This process went further in some countries than in others, but no major belligerent nation could resist entirely the need to support and coordinate its scientific-technological effort. The wars were thus responsible for speeding the transformation from “little science,” with research still largely restricted to small-scale efforts by a few isolated scientists, to “big science,” with the emphasis on large research teams sponsored by governments and corporations, working collectively on the development and application of new techniques. While the extent of this transformation must not be overstated, and recent research has tended to stress the continuing need for the independent inventor at least in the stimulation of innovation, there can be little doubt that the change in the scale of technological enterprises had far-reaching consequences . It was one of the most momentous transformations of the 20th century, for it altered the quality of industrial and social organization. In the process it assured technology, for the first time in its long history, a position of importance and even honour in social esteem.

Fuel and power

There were no fundamental innovations in fuel and power before the breakthrough of 1945, but there were several significant developments in techniques that had originated in the previous century. An outstanding development of this type was the internal-combustion engine , which was continuously improved to meet the needs of road vehicles and airplanes. The high-compression engine burning heavy-oil fuels, invented by Rudolf Diesel in the 1890s, was developed to serve as a submarine power unit in World War I and was subsequently adapted to heavy road haulage duties and to agricultural tractors. Moreover, the sort of development that had transformed the reciprocating steam engine into the steam turbine occurred with the internal-combustion engine, the gas turbine replacing the reciprocating engine for specialized purposes such as aero-engines, in which a high power-to-weight ratio is important. Admittedly, this adaptation had not proceeded very far by 1945, although the first jet-powered aircraft were in service by the end of the war. The theory of the gas turbine, however, had been understood since the 1920s at least, and in 1929 Sir Frank Whittle , then taking a flying instructor’s course with the Royal Air Force , combined it with the principle of jet propulsion in the engine for which he took out a patent in the following year. But the construction of a satisfactory gas-turbine engine was delayed for a decade by the lack of resources, and particularly by the need to develop new metal alloys that could withstand the high temperatures generated in the engine. This problem was solved by the development of a nickel-chromium alloy, and, with the gradual solution of the other problems, work went on in both Germany and Britain to seize a military advantage by applying the jet engine to combat aircraft.

The principle of the gas turbine is that of compressing and burning air and fuel in a combustion chamber and using the exhaust jet from this process to provide the reaction that propels the engine forward. In its turbopropeller form, which developed only after World War II , the exhaust drives a shaft carrying a normal airscrew (propeller). Compression is achieved in a gas-turbine engine by admitting air through a turbine rotor. In the so-called ramjet engine, intended to operate at high speeds, the momentum of the engine through the air achieves adequate compression. The gas turbine has been the subject of experiments in road, rail, and marine transport, but for all purposes except that of air transport its advantages have not so far been such as to make it a viable rival to traditional reciprocating engines.

As far as fuel is concerned, the gas turbine burns mainly the middle fractions (kerosene, or paraffin) of refined oil, but the general tendency of its widespread application was to increase still further the dependence of the industrialized nations on the producers of crude oil , which became a raw material of immense economic value and international political significance. The refining of this material itself underwent important technological development. Until the 20th century it consisted of a fairly simple batch process whereby oil was heated until it vaporized, when the various fractions were distilled separately. Apart from improvements in the design of the stills and the introduction of continuous-flow production, the first big advance came in 1913 with the introduction of thermal cracking . This process took the less volatile fractions after distillation and subjected them to heat under pressure, thus cracking the heavy molecules into lighter molecules and so increasing the yield of the most valuable fuel, petrol or gasoline. The discovery of this ability to tailor the products of crude oil to suit the market marks the true beginning of the petrochemical industry. It received a further boost in 1936, with the introduction of catalytic cracking. By the use of various catalysts in the process, means were devised for still further manipulating the molecules of the hydrocarbon raw material. The development of modern plastics followed directly on this ( see below Plastics ). So efficient had the processes of utilization become that by the end of World War II the petrochemical industry had virtually eliminated all waste materials.

All the principles of generating electricity had been worked out in the 19th century, but by its end these had only just begun to produce electricity on a large scale. The 20th century witnessed a colossal expansion of electrical power generation and distribution. The general pattern has been toward ever-larger units of production, using steam from coal- or oil-fired boilers. Economies of scale and the greater physical efficiency achieved as higher steam temperatures and pressures were attained both reinforced this tendency. Experience in the United States indicates the trend: in the first decade of the 20th century, a generating unit with a capacity of 25,000 kilowatts with pressures up to 200–300 pounds per square inch at 400–500 °F (about 200–265 °C) was considered large, but by 1930 the largest unit was 208,000 kilowatts with pressures of 1,200 pounds per square inch at a temperature of 725 °F, while the amount of fuel necessary to produce a kilowatt-hour of electricity and the price to the consumer had fallen dramatically. As the market for electricity increased, so did the distance over which it was transmitted, and the efficiency of transmission required higher and higher voltages. The small direct-current generators of early urban power systems were abandoned in favour of alternating-current systems, which could be adapted more readily to high voltages. Transmission over a line of 155 miles (250 km) was established in California in 1908 at 110,000 volts, and Hoover Dam in the 1930s used a line of 300 miles (480 km) at 287,000 volts. The latter case may serve as a reminder that hydroelectric power , using a fall of water to drive water turbines, was developed to generate electricity where the climate and topography make it possible to combine production with convenient transmission to a market. Remarkable levels of efficiency were achieved in modern plants. One important consequence of the ever-expanding consumption of electricity in the industrialized countries has been the linking of local systems to provide vast power grids, or pools, within which power can be shifted easily to meet changing local needs for current.

Essay on Rise of Technology

Students are often asked to write an essay on Rise of Technology in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Rise of Technology

The advent of technology.

Technology has been evolving since mankind’s early days. From simple tools to advanced computers, the rise of technology has been remarkable.

Technology and Daily Life

Today, technology is an integral part of our daily life. It has made tasks easier, saving us time and effort.

Technology in Education

In education, technology has revolutionized learning. It made information accessible to everyone, promoting a more inclusive learning environment.

Future of Technology

The future of technology holds immense possibilities. It continues to evolve, promising to make our lives even more convenient.

250 Words Essay on Rise of Technology

The advent of the technological era, accelerating pace of innovation.

The technological revolution has been a gradual process, but the pace has significantly accelerated over the past few decades. The advent of the Internet, artificial intelligence, and blockchain technology are testament to this. These innovations have disrupted various sectors, from commerce and communication to healthcare and education, altering our interaction with the world.

Implications of Technological Advancements

The implications of the rise of technology are profound. It has democratized information, bridging the gap between different societal strata. However, it also presents challenges such as data privacy concerns and the digital divide. The key lies in harnessing technology responsibly and ethically.

The Future of Technology

The future of technology looks promising, with advancements like quantum computing and nanotechnology on the horizon. These developments will further revolutionize our lives, paving the way for a future that is as exciting as it is unpredictable.

In conclusion, the rise of technology is a testament to human ingenuity and the quest for progress. It is a double-edged sword that presents both opportunities and challenges. As we stand on the brink of a new era, it is imperative to navigate this technological landscape with a balanced and informed approach.

500 Words Essay on Rise of Technology

The dawn of the digital age.

The rise of technology has been a defining characteristic of the 21st century. It is an era marked by rapid technological advancements, which have transformed every aspect of our lives, from communication to transportation, education, healthcare, and entertainment.

The Evolution of Technology

Technology and communication.

One of the most significant changes has been in the realm of communication. The rise of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram has revolutionized the way we interact with each other. These platforms have made it possible to communicate with anyone, anywhere in the world, at any time. They have also given rise to a new form of communication, where the written word is supplemented with images, videos, and even emojis.

Technology and Education

Technology has also had a profound impact on education. The advent of online learning platforms has made education more accessible and flexible. It has democratized education, making it possible for anyone with an internet connection to access high-quality educational resources. This has also changed the traditional classroom setting, with more emphasis on interactive and collaborative learning.

Technology and Healthcare

The flip side of technology.

Despite its numerous benefits, the rise of technology has also raised several concerns. Privacy and data security issues have become more prevalent with the increase in digital data. The digital divide, the gap between those who have access to technology and those who do not, has become more pronounced. Moreover, the increased reliance on technology has raised questions about its impact on our mental and physical health.

The rise of technology has undoubtedly been transformative, impacting every facet of our lives. While it has brought numerous benefits, it has also raised several challenges. As we continue to embrace technology, it is crucial to address these challenges and ensure that technology serves as a tool for progress and prosperity, rather than a source of disparity and discontent. The future of technology is promising, and its potential is immense. However, it is up to us to harness this potential responsibly and sustainably.

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The 1990s: When Technology Upended Our World

By: Tiffanie Darke

Updated: October 3, 2023 | Original: June 22, 2018

If you were to pick the one, singular, culture-defining moment from the ’90s—a decade that gave us so many—you’d be hard pressed to beat Bill Clinton – Monica Lewinsky affair. Even now, in our current climate of oversharing and punch-drunk numbness to the spewing of digital media, the Lewinsky affair still seems incredible in the excruciating level of its detail. That that detail should eventually bring down a president was an unprecedented moment in American politics. There has been endless analysis of how it all happened, but essentially, you can blame it on technology.

The ’90s was a decade of enormous disruption, the axis on which the old world ended and a new one began. Often a vehicle for affectionate nostalgia among Generation Xers, this is a gross underestimation of the decade. The ’90s was not just a decade that gave us Kurt Cobain and “The Simpsons.” Its political events were deeply transformative, and the thread that ran through them all was technology.

Speaking to those who lived through some of its most compelling moments, “The Untold Story of the 90s” makes a compelling case for a decade that saw the changing of the Western order. As Sen. Marco Rubio of Florida tells it, “That period of the ’90s from the fall of the Berlin wall to 9/11 was one of extraordinary transformation societally, economically and in our politics. A lot of the roots of the things we are facing today came from that period.”

The growing power of the Internet , the scrutiny of an ever more powerful press, the rise of entertainment culture in politics and the advance of technology in collecting DNA evidence all came together in 1998. Clinton’s affair struck at just the moment when technology, science, the press and popular culture met. Rumors of the Lewinsky affair first surfaced on the Drudge Report, at that time an insignificant politics blog.

“Bloggers used to be ridiculed as guys working in their pajamas out their basements, but what really changed that perception was the Drudge Report,” says Dana Perino, who served as White House press secretary between 2007 and 2009. “It had an edginess to it, and a little bit of opinion. The Drudge Report absolutely changed things for news coverage and politics in particular.”

Traditional media relied on phalanxes of editors and lawyers, but bloggers—they could just post and be damned. Once the information was out, it was out, and there was—and still is—no comeback. Thinking he could face this one down, Clinton uttered those memorable words that would ultimately bring him down. The Internet hummed with rumor and speculation, the newly born cable channels were competing for ratings and coverage was 24/7.

By now even “Saturday Night Live” was running an investigation. The presidency was reduced to a conversation around blowjobs and cigar dildos.

And then investigators found DNA evidence on a blue dress . An independent investigator was appointed to ascertain whether the president had lied. Eleven months and acres of media coverage later, both parties were left shamed and broken.

To illustrate the series of events that signaled the power shift, the film begins with the fall of the Berlin Wall .

The manner of its disintegration was an accident of human judgement , as Mary Sarotte, Kravis Distinguished Professor of Historical Studies at Johns Hopkins University, explains.

Events were spurred to unravel when a policy wonk droning on in a press conference misspeaks. Journalists reported the story on their cable channels within minutes, and by the time the hour was up, East and West Berliners were hammering on the gates—thanks to new media, the flow of information crossed borders, and both sides now understood the wall was open, even while the policy wonk was still droning on.

Next up came the world’s first televised war—one that was broadcast in real time, on a 24-hour news cycle. CNN reporters embedded in Baghdad and on the Kuwaiti border were providing the White House with more information than it was getting from its own generals.

Back in the U.S., the beating of Rodney King by white police officers, filmed on a video camera by a bystander, showed the world the reality of the treatment black people endured at the hands of a white police force. “The Rodney King tape was the beginning of what we see today—now that everyone has a cell phone,” says Julián Castro, former secretary of Housing and Urban Development.

That tape, replayed on news media, triggered a social crisis where policing and justice no longer had legitimacy. When the fires of Los Angeles stopped burning, a new generation of voters needed change. They wanted a different kind of authority, a different kind of president. One who spoke their language and understood their culture.

Bill Clinton, who had run an unpromising campaign up to this point, changed tack, and met the people where the people were: on late-night TV. He appeared on “The Arsenio Hall Show,” and instead of speaking policy, he played his saxophone. Everything changed. Yeah, he smoked (but he didn’t inhale). MTV became a legitimate media outlet for his messages and Generation X and the Baby Boomers got it. The World War 2 generation didn’t—but they no longer mattered. The generation whose world view had been defined by the Cold War, an us-and-them protectionism and a conservative pride had had their day. President George Bush was out, Clinton was in and the ’90s were on their way.

The technological revolution—so far powered by satellite TV and 24-hour news reporting—was about to take a major injection from the Internet. Yes, it was to wreak havoc, but it was also to deliver real beneficial change. Netscape, the Mosaic consumer-facing Internet browser, opened up the web to the entire world. Everyone could access each other now, they could share information and collapse time and distance.

Communities and causes had a channel. When a young gay man named Matthew Shepard was brutally beaten , burned and strung up on a fence left for dead, the Internet surfaced the story. The gay community finally had a way to talk.

As Jon Barrett, former editor-in-chief of The Advocate says, “Up until the internet we often didn’t hear what was going on in the gay community. You had a sense that there were people out there like you, but you may not be able to find them. I didn’t come out until I had access to AOL.” Gay hate crimes were at peak levels back then—in 1998, 1000 were reported, and many more went unreported.

“In times of struggle there are often defining moments that help the broader community see how wrong their actions have been,” says Sen. Chris Coons of Delaware. Matthew Shepard’s death was one of those moments. John Aravosis, a journalist, activist and politician, posted news of the murder on his blog at the time.

“It was amazing how much the crime touched people, but also the sense of community this website gave people,” he says. “People found other people they could commune with. We came up with these ideas of candlelit vigils, 77 happened simultaneously. Having these vigils in each town created local news too. It raised awareness to a new level that empowered and encouraged people to come out and fight.”

The great social liberalization of the ’90s is no better expressed than in the change that was wrought around gay rights. As Matthew’s mother, Judy Shepard, says: “A whole generation of advocates and activists were born in that moment.” The emergence of gay marriage and gay rights as a mainstream idea was one of the ’90s finest moments. “And it happened with lightning speed,” says professor of history Gil Troy of McGill University. “It was about culture and much more about technology.”

“You felt in the ’90s you were in the midst of this tech explosion. There was a lot that was good about that, but we also lost something,” says Castro.

Few felt this more painfully—or still feels this—as much as business. Shawn Fanning, the college student who founded Napster, set it in motion. Fanning’s breakthrough idea signaled the end of the analog world. Inventing a way for users to download music files for free, Napster was responsible for the greatest transfer of intellectual property in history. It was the beginning of free. The music industry didn’t like it one little bit, but once the genie was out, it could not be returned.

“Napster felt like this magical amazing thing—like why doesn’t music work like this? It was like the Internet should enable things like this,” says Jonah Peretti, the digital founder behind HuffPost and BuzzFeed.

Not realizing this was a terminal situation, the industry fought back—namely in the shape of the band Metallica, which filed a lawsuit and triggered a Senate Judiciary Committee hearing. The testimony of a young Gene Kan, an anonymous developer at Gnutella (a platform offering a similar service to Napster), proved very prescient that day in June 2001. “The benefits of digital downloadable media are infinite,” he told the committee. “20m Napster users can’t be wrong. 20m today—100m tomorrow. Technology moves forward and leaves the stragglers behind. The adopters always win, and the stalwarts always lose. Mechanized farming is a good example. You don’t see anyone out there with a horse and plow these days. The Internet touches everyone and everything. Everyone must adapt, business and intellectual property owners are not excluded.”

In the end Napster was ahead of its time, and the Senate ruled that it be shut down . But Napster was the canary in the coal mine for all media, and a new paradigm had been set.

“It was incredible how many years it took after Napster was shut down to get back to something that was even half as good as Napster,” says Peretti. “We’ve got closer to it now with paid models like Spotify. Napster pointed to the way the world could work, the Internet could work.”

Politics was also experiencing its own disruption: The Florida recount in the 2000 Bush–Gore presidential deadlock defined how divided a nation America had become. But it also had an even more pernicious effect. Days of uncertainty revolving around the unlikely “hanging chads” stalled a resolution. The election mechanisms—yet another institution—had failed.

The Supreme Court was called in to decide, divisively overruling the recount. This threw into doubt any idea that the system was one of fairness and justice, forcing both sides to entrench themselves further.

The fallout of that is a matter of deep discussion today, but this was the moment it all began.

“In the 1990s, with all the cynicism in the media, with all the individuation in the Internet, [something happens],” says Troy, the history professor. “When I go to the Internet I go deeper and deeper into my right-wing rabbit hole, I go deeper and deeper in my left-wing rabbit hole. And so the Internet—which becomes the world’s greatest organizing tool, and the world’s greatest community-building tool—could also be the world’s, and America’s, most polarizing tool.”

Technology had one more killer blow to deliver. The Internet also helped usher in the unseen ascent of a global terror network that was to scorch itself onto the world’s conscience on the morning of September 11, 2001 . The ’90s were over and a new decade—with a new set of problems—was beginning.

Hear from the people quoted in this story by watching “The Untold Story of the 90s.”

Tiffanie Darke is author of Now we Are 40, Whatever Happened to Generation X?   (HarperCollins ). Follow her on Twitter @tiffaniedarke.

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Technological Revolutions and Societal Transitions

• January 2018
• SSRN Electronic Journal

• Université Catholique de Louvain - UCLouvain

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