law essay referencing

Law: Referencing

• European Law Databases
• Foreign Law Databases
• International Law Databases

Study Skills

Legal research.

• Referencing

Research Support

Law - referencing.

Referencing is the academic practice of acknowledging the sources you have used in your work. Sources may be other people's words and ideas, or legal authorities such as legislation and case law.

Referencing demonstrates your ethical use of information, the range of your research and reading, provides authority to your arguments, enables others to find materials cited, and avoids accusations of plagiarism.

Plagiarism is the use of another person's work without proper acknowledgment. Most plagiarism is unintentional and the result of poor academic practice. It's is important to reference when directly quoting or paraphrasing another person's work. 

Referencing styles are sets of rules governing referencing practice. They prescribe the type, order and format of information in a reference. There are 3 main types of referencing style: in-text, footnote and endnote. Always check what referencing style is required by your department or assessment, as there may be local interpretations.

Cite Them Right Online

Cite Them Right Online is the University of Warwick Library's new interactive referencing tool. It has rules and tutorials for referencing all major resource types across 8 major referencing styles including APA, Chicago, Harvard, IEEE, MHRA, MLR, OSCOLA and Vancouver.

Watch the short video to find out how Cite Them Right Online can help you.

To access Cite Them Right Online , click on Login > Login via your Institution > University of Warwick.

Research & Academic Support Librarian

Appointments

Your Research & Academic Support Librarian is available for 1-2-1 appointments, both on-campus and online, and can advise on all library, research and referencing matters.

Referencing Software

Referencing software allows you to manage references, insert citations and create a bibliography, in your referencing style.

EndNote is referencing software from Clarivate. EndNote Desktop supports the OSCOLA referencing style. EndNote is available from Warwick IT Services, and is supported by Warwick Library. Please see the EndNote LibGuide for further information. 

OSCOLA Referencing Style

The  Oxford University Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities (OSCOLA)  is the referencing style used by the Warwick Law School and by law schools and legal publishers across the UK. It was developed by the University of Oxford and is free to download from the official OSCOLA website :

Referencing in Law Exams

Introduction.

• Law School Guidance

Question:   "Do I need to do OSCOLA referencing in exams?"  Answer:   No

OSCOLA referencing is required for essays and dissertations but not for examinations. In examinations, you need to acknowledge your source, but this should be done in-text (in brackets) and does not require footnotes or a bibliography.

• If citing any authorities, include the name/title in the main body of your text (not in footnotes/references)
• If citing secondary sources, include the author, an abbreviated source title and the year (in brackets in main body of your text)
• If using a direct quotation, you must use "quotation marks" and acknowledge the source in your text

Examples of how to reference in law examinations:

• Cases   Name of Case  (Year) e.g.  Manchester Building Society v Grant Thornton  (2021)
• Legislation   Title of Legislation Year e.g. Human Rights Act 1998
• Books  (Author,  Short Title of Book  Year) e.g. (Bradney,  How to Study Law  2021)
• Articles  (Author, 'Short Title of Article' Year) e.g. (Carr, 'Women in Commercial Law' 2020)

The Law School's current  guidance on examinations states:

• The word limit applies to the aggregate number of words used to answer all questions, and reflects the specified time set for the exam within the 24-hour period. It excludes footnotes/references, but footnotes/references will not be marked, and you will not be given credit for them. The limit is an upper bound on your wordcount and not a target. In answering all required questions, you may write less if you wish. As with any normal exam, you should put citations of authorities and names of authors in the main body of your answer text if you wish to gain credit for them. You are allowed to access module materials, notes, resources, references and the Internet.
• You are not required to use footnotes or include a bibliography. You should include a treaty/ statutory provision or case name for any legal proposition you reference. You do not need to provide the full case citation If you are using a direct quote from a source, you must use quotation marks (see Academic Integrity). It is sufficient to merely state the author of the quote, an abbreviated source and a date. All references should be made in brackets in the body of the essay.

OSCOLA - An Introduction

Bibliography, subsequent citations, secondary referencing.

OSCOLA is a guide to referencing key United Kingdom legal materials including primary sources (legislation and case law), and secondary sources (books and articles). OSCOLA is not a guide to academic or legal writing, nor is it a guide to writing law essays or dissertations.   

OSCOLA provide some guidance to referencing European Union and International primary sources, but no guidance to referencing primary sources from foreign jurisdictions. If referencing foreign legal materials, writers should follow referencing guidance from the home jurisdiction. 

OSCOLA provides referencing rules and examples for the main types of legal information; but it is not comprehensive, and it does not provide referencing rules of all types of information, especially non-legal information. If you are referencing materials not mentioned in OSCOLA, follow the general principles and be consistent. 

OSCOLA is a footnote referencing style . With footnote referencing, numbered footnote markers (superscript numbers) are inserted into your text, normally at the end of your sentence, immediately after the full-stop.¹ You can position footnote markers within your sentence if it improves clarity, e.g. after a semi-colon;² or comma,³ or after a  Case Name.  The reference is written in a corresponding numbered footnote at the bottom of the page. The footnote is closed with a full-stop. 

Insert footnotes

Most word processing software includes footnote referencing functionality. In Microsoft Word, click on the 'References' menu, and then 'Insert Footnote'. Refer to your word processing software’s help pages for further information.

How to Insert Footnotes and Endnotes in Microsoft Word.

Multiple references

• A single footnote may include more than one reference. All references should be separated with a semi-colon (;).
• List primary sources (legislation and case law) before secondary sources (books and articles), and legislation before case law.
• If you have more than one reference of the same type, list them chronologically, with the oldest one first. 

When not to footnote

If you state the full title and year (and section where appropriate) of legislation in the main body of your text, you do not need to repeat the information in a footnote. Omit the footnote entirely but include the full reference in the Table of Authorities.

If you state the full name of the case in the main body of your text, you only need to include the case citations in the footnote. Omit the case name from the footnote, but include the citations only. Include the full reference in the Table of Authorities.

A bibliography is a list of sources or references cited in the work. OSCOLA requires a bibliography only for longer works i.e. monographs and dissertations/theses, not shorter works i.e. journal articles or essays. At law school, it is common practice to include a bibliography at the end of an essay. Please check your assessment guidance for further information.

With OSCOLA, the bibliography is split into two section:  Table of Authorities  (for primary sources) and  Bibliography  (for secondary sources). Generally, references are copied and pasted from the footnotes to the bibliography, although some minor formatting may also be required.

Table of Authorities

A Table of Authorities   is a  list of primary sources  (legislation and case law) cited in the work. Normally there is a Table of Cases and a Table of Legislation . There may be additional tables depending on the length of work, and volume and types of sources cited.

In the  Table of Cases , cases are listed in A-Z order by party name. Copy and paste the reference (case name and citations) from the footnote to the table. Remove any italics from the case name, any pinpoints for quoted pages/paragraphs, and the full-stop at the end of the reference.

In the  Table of Legislation , list all Acts/Statutes in A-Z order by title, and then all Statutory Instruments in A-Z order by title. Copy and paste the references from the footnote to the table. Remove any italics from the legislation name, any pinpoints for quoted section numbers, and the full-stop at the end of the reference.

If you have cited legislation or case law from other jurisdictions, you should separate references by jurisdiction, and list international materials first, followed by regional materials i.e. European Union, and then by each national jurisdiction i.e. United Kingdom. If you have a large number of references, you may wish to have a separate table for each jurisdiction.

The bibliography is a  list of secondary sources  (books, journals and other commentary) cited in the work. There is only one bibliography, and references are listed in A-Z order by author's surname. You do not need to organise the bibliography into sections by material type unless otherwise instructed in your assessment guidance.

In the bibliography, copy and paste the references from the footnote to the bibliography. Invert the authors' name: from first name last name format, to last name initial format. Remove any pinpoints for quoted pages/paragraphs, and the full-stop at the end of the reference. Keep the italic font in the book or journal titles.

Personal authors (a person) should be presented as First Name Surname in the footnote e.g. Jackie Hanes, and Surname, Initials in the bibliography e.g. Hanes, J  OSCOLA uses little punctuation and there are no periods after or between initials.

Corporate authors (an organisation) should be presented as the full name of the organisation, in both footnotes and the bibliography e.g. University of Warwick.

Titles and postnominals

Give the author's name as it appears in the publication, including for judges, but omit titles e.g. Lord/Lady or Sir/Dame and postnominals e.g. QC/KC.

Multiple authors

If citing between 1 and 3 authors, you should list all authors names, in the order listed on the source, in both the footnotes and the bibliography.

• One author: Smith (2022)
• Two authors: Smith and Jones (2022)
• Three authors: Smith, Jones and Patel (2022)

If citing 4 or more authors names, you should list only the first author's name, followed by words 'and others'. Do not use et al .

• Four authors +: Patel and others (2022)

Some sources have an editor instead of, or as well as, an author. If citing an editor, include the abbreviation ed (for a single editor) or eds (for multiple editors) in round brackets, after the editor(s) name(s) e.g. Jackie Hanes (ed) or Hanes, J (ed).

• Short quotations, up to 3 lines of text, should be incorporated into your text, within 'single quotation marks'. 
• Longer quotations, over 3 lines of text, should be presented in an indented paragraph, without quotation marks.

Page numbers

All direct quotations and paraphrasing should be referenced by a footnote, including the page, paragraph or section number(s) of the original source at the end of the footnote. OSCOLA uses limited page number signals: if citing a book, book chapter or report, the page number(s) stand alone at the end of the footnote (do not use p. or pp. or at). If citing a journal article or law report, where the reference ends with the first page number, you should separate the numbers with a comma i.e. first page, quoted page.

The first time a source is cited, it should be referenced in full, normally in a footnote. If the source is cited again, the subsequent references can be abbreviated, using either ibid or a short form and cross-reference. You are advised to leave ibids and short forms until your work is finished, as the numbering of footnotes may change during editing, and may lead to incorrect cross-references.

Ibid is an abbreviation of the Latin ibidem, meaning 'in the same place'. In referencing it is used to refer to the immediately preceding footnote. If you cite a source, and then cite the same source in the very next footnote, you can use 'ibid' in place of the full reference. If you are citing the same source, but at a different page number, simply add a comma after ibid and then the new page number.

Short forms and cross-references are used to reference to other previous footnotes, where they are not immediately preceding. If you cite a source, and then cite the same source later in your work, you can use a short form and cross reference to the original footnote.

For books and articles, the short form is normally the author's surname. For case law, the short form is normally the first party name, in italics. The short form is followed by the letter 'n' and a number in (round brackets) e.g. Smith (n 5). N is an abbreviation for footnote number, and the number is the number of the footnote containing the original full reference. If you are citing the same source, but at a different page number, simply add the new page number to the end of the reference.

Full reference of Secondary Source (as cited in Full reference of Primary Source, Page)

• Benjamin Bowing,  Violent Racism: Victimization, Policing, and Social Context . (OUP 1998) (as cited in Steve Case and others (eds), The Oxford Textbook on Criminology (2nd edn, OUP 2012) 212).

If you are reading a source, and it mentions another source, you may wish to cite the other source in your work.

The best academic practice is to find and read the original source and then cite it directly. If you are unable to find the original source, you can cite it indirectly, 'as cited in', another source. This practice of  indirect citation  is known as  secondary referencing .

The primary source is the one you have read; the secondary source is the one you have read about. You should cite the full reference of both sources in your footnote, but only the primary source in your bibliography. Be careful, as this practice will create very long footnotes, which take words from your word count.

OSCOLA - Primary Sources

• UK Legislation
• EU Legislation
• ECtHR Cases
• International Legislation

International Cases

Act or statute.

Short Title | Year

• Human Rights Act 1998.

Footnote with section number:

• Human Rights Act 1998, s 12.

Footnote if subsequently referring to Act with abbreviation:

• Human Rights Act 1998, s 12 (HRA 1998).

Table of Authorities:

• Human Rights Act 1998

Statutory Instrument

Title | Year, | SI | Year/Number

• Working Time Regulations 1999, SI 1999/3372.

Footnote with regulation number:

• Working Time Regulations 1999, SI 1999/3372, reg 3.
• Working Time Regulations 1999, SI 1999/3372

Case with a neutral citation

Case Name | Neutral Citation, | Law Report Citation

Case Name | [Year] Court-Abbreviation Case-Number, | [(Year)] Volume Law-Report-Abbreviation First-Page

After 2001, cases were assigned a neutral citation, in addition to their law report citation, which identifies the case by year, court and case number.

• Manchester Building Society v Grant Thornton UK LLP [2021] UKSC 20, [2022] AC 783.

Footnote with page [paragraph] number (and judge):

• Manchester Building Society v Grant Thornton UK LLP [2021] UKSC 20, [2022] AC 783, 790.
• Manchester Building Society v Grant Thornton UK LLP [2021] UKSC 20, [2022] AC 783 [4].
• Manchester Building Society v Grant Thornton UK LLP [2021] UKSC 20, [2022] AC 783 [177] (Burrows JSC).

Footnote if full case name stated in main body of text:

• [2021] UKSC 20, [2022] AC 783.
• Manchester Building Society v Grant Thornton UK LLP [2021] UKSC 20, [2022] AC 783

Case without a neutral citation

Case Name  | Law Report Citation (Court-Abbreviation)

Case Name  | [(Year)] Volume Law-Report-Abbreviation First-Page (Court-Abbreviation)

Before 2001, cases were identified by the law report citation and an abbreviation for the court.

• Kelly v Corston [1998] QB 686 (CA).

Footnote with page number (and judge):

• Kelly v Corston [1998] QB 686 (CA) 708.
• Kelly v Corston [1998] QB 686 (CA) 714 (Butler-Sloss LJ).
• [1998] QB 686 (CA).
• Kelly v Corston [1998] QB 686 (CA)

EU Treaties

Legislation Title | [Year] OJ | Issue/First-Page

• Agreement between the Governments of the States of the Benelux Economic Union, the Federal Republic of Germany and the French Republic on the gradual abolition of checks at their common borders [2000] OJ L239/13.

Footnote with article number:

• Agreement between the Governments of the States of the Benelux Economic Union, the Federal Republic of Germany and the French Republic on the gradual abolition of checks at their common borders [2000] OJ L239/13, art 19.
• Agreement between the Governments of the States of the Benelux Economic Union, the Federal Republic of Germany and the French Republic on the gradual abolition of checks at their common borders [2000] OJ L239/13, art 19 (Schengen Agreement 2000).
• Agreement between the Governments of the States of the Benelux Economic Union, the Federal Republic of Germany and the French Republic on the gradual abolition of checks at their common borders [2000] OJ L239/13

EU Regulations, Directives etc

Legislation Type | Number | Legislation Title | [Year] | OJ | Issue/First-Page

• Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) [2016] OJ L119/1.
• Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) [2016] OJ L119/1, art 5.

Footnote if subsequently referring to legislation with abbreviation:

• Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) [2016] OJ L119/1, art 5 (GDPR 2016).
• Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) [2016] OJ L119/1

Case Number | Case Name  | ECLI Citation, | Law Report Citation

Case Number | Case Name  | Jurisdiction:Court:Year:Case-Number, | [(Year)] Volume Law-Report-Abbreviation First-Page

After 2011, EU cases were assigned a uniform citation ( European Case Law Identifier or ECLI ), in addition to their law report citation, which identifies the case by jurisdiction/country, court, year, and case number. ECLI citations are not covered in the OSCOLA 4th edition, but are included in the OSCOLA Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs), and are expected to feature in the next edition of OSCOLA.

• Case C-311/18) Data Protection Commissioner v Facebook Ireland Ltd and Maximillian Schrems  EU:C:2020:559, [2021] 1 CMLR 14.

Footnote with page [paragraph] number:

• Case C-311/18) Data Protection Commissioner v Facebook Ireland Ltd and Maximillian Schrems  EU:C:2020:559, [2021] 1 CMLR 14, 502.
• Case C-311/18) Data Protection Commissioner v Facebook Ireland Ltd and Maximillian Schrems  EU:C:2020:559, [2021] 1 CMLR 14, para 55.
• EU:C:2020:559, [2021] 1 CMLR 14.

Case Name | (Number) | ECLI Citation, | Law Report Citation

• Data Protection Commissioner v Facebook Ireland Ltd and Maximillian Schrems (C-311/18) EU:C:2020:559, [2021] 1 CMLR 14

In the Table of Authorities, the order of case name and case number are reversed, to aid alphabetical ordering of the list of cases.

Case Name  | Law Report Citation

Case Name  | [(Year)] Volume Law-Report-Abbreviation First-Page

• Lopez Ribalda v Spain (2020) 71 EHRR 7.
• Lopez Ribalda v Spain (2020) 71 EHRR 7, 319.
• Lopez Ribalda v Spain (2020) 71 EHRR 7 [109].
• (2020) 71 EHRR 7.
• Lopez Ribalda v Spain (2020) 71 EHRR 7

Unreported cases

Case Name | App no Number/Year | (ECtHR, Judgment Date)

• Lopez Ribalda v Spain App no 1874/13 (ECtHR, 19 October 2019).
• Lopez Ribalda v Spain App no 1874/13 (ECtHR, 19 October 2019)

If a case is unreported in an official series of law reports, you can cite the judgment using the application number, court and judgment date.

International Treaties

The referencing rules for international law materials are covered in a separate OSCOLA: Citing International Law   guide.

Where possible, cite from the official international treaty series in preference to others i.e. UNTS (United National Treaty Series) CTS (Consolidated Treaty Series) or LNTS (League of Nations Treaty Series). Otherwise cite from national official treaty series e.g. UKTS (United Kingdom Treaty Series) or other international treaty series. 

Multilateral treaties

Treaty Title | (adopted Date | entered into force Date) | Volume | Treaty Series | First-Page (Abbreviation)

• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (adopted 19 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13 (CEDAW).
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (adopted 19 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13 (CEDAW) art 15.
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (adopted 19 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13 (CEDAW)

For multi-lateral treaties, state the adopted (signature) date, and the entered into force date. This information is commonly available from the UNTC Online website, and the FLARE Index to Treaties .

Bilateral treaties

Treaty Title | (Parties-To-Treaty) (adopted Date, entered into force Date) | Volume | Treaty Series | First-Page (Abbreviation)

• Security Treaty Between Australia and New Zealand and the United States (adopted 1 September 1951, entered into force 29 April 1952) 1952 ATS 2 (ANZUS).
• Free Trade Agreement Between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Australia (16-17 December 2021) CP 689.

If the parties to bilateral treaties are not given in the treaty title, then state them in (round brackets) after the title. Adopted and in-force dates should be given where available. Bilateral treaties may be published in national treaty series, in the above examples in the Australian Treaty Series (ATS) and as a Command Paper (CP) for the UK treaty.

The referencing rules for international law materials are covered in a separate  OSCOLA: Citing International Law  guide.

Cite International Court of Justice cases from the official International Court of Justice Reports (ICJ Rep) series. For other international courts, cite from an authoritative law reports series such as the International Law Reports (ILR).

International Court of Justice

Case Name  | ICJ Law Report Citation

Case Name  | [Year] ICJ Rep First-Page

• Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v Japan, New Zealand intervening) [2014) ICJ Rep 226.

Footnote with page number:

• Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v Japan, New Zealand intervening) [2014) ICJ Rep 226, 236.

Footnote if full case name stated in main body of text:

• [2014) ICJ Rep 226.
• Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v Japan, New Zealand intervening) [2014) ICJ Rep 226

Other International Courts

Case Name  | [(Year)] | Volume | Law-Report-Abbreviation | First-Page

• Law Society of South Africa and Others v President of the Republic of South Africa and Others (2020) 185 ILR 313.

OSCOLA - Secondary Sources

Encyclopaedias.

• Conferences

Author,  Title of Book  (Edition edn, Publisher Year)  

• Lisa Webley,  Legal Writing  (4th edn, Routledge 2016). 
• Anthony Bradney and others,  How to Study Law  (9th edn, Sweet & Maxwell 2021). 

The edition statement is only required for second or later editions. For first editions, or books without an edition statement, do not include '1st edn' in the reference.

The place of publication is not required. It is also permissible to abbreviate the publisher e.g. Oxford University Press = OUP.

For ebooks, follow the general rules for referencing print books. It is not necessary to include the ebook platform or web address. 

Book chapters

Author, ‘Title of Chapter’, in Editor ed,  Title of Book  (Edition edn, Publisher Year)  

• Fiona Cownie and Anthony Bradney, ‘Socio-Legal Studies: A Challenge to the Doctrinal Approach’, in Dawn Watkins and Mandy Burton (eds),  Research Methods in Law  (2nd edn, Routledge 2017). 

Title of Encyclopaedia  (Edition edn, Year) vol Volume, para Paragraph

• Halsbury's Laws of England  (5th edn, 2014) vol 20, para 32.

Author, 'Title of Article',  Title of Encyclopaedia  (Date) <web address> accessed Accessed-Date

• Tom Brett Young, 'British Citizenship',  Westlaw Edge UK Overview  (7 March 2018) <https://uk.westlaw.com/> accessed 1 September 2022.

Encyclopaedias are commonly referenced by title, volume and paragraph number. If the author and article title are known, you can include them at the start of the reference, and it will more closely follow the referencing rules for book chapters. 

If the encyclopaedia is published online only, and the article does not have volume and paragraph numbers, then include the web address and accessed date at the end of the reference.

Journal articles

Author, ‘Article Title’ Citation

The  journal article citation  is expressed as:  ([Year]) Volume Journal-Abbreviation First-Page 

• Sue Carr, ‘Women in Commercial Law’ [2020] JBL 91. 
• Christopher McCrudden, ‘Legal Research and the Social Sciences’ (2006) 122 LQR 632. 

Legal abbreviations are normally stated in the journal, but if unknown, please refer to the  Cardiff Index of Legal Abbreviations .

If the journal does not have a legal abbreviation, use the full title of the journal instead.

The year is normally in (round brackets), but where journals do not have volume numbers, the year should be in [square brackets].

Online journal articles

For most ejournals, follow the general rules for referencing print journal articles. Some journals are published online only, and articles do not have page numbers. For online only journals, include the web address and accessed date at the end of the reference.

Author, ‘Title of Article’ Citation <web-address> accessed Accessed-Date 

• India Thusi, 'Blue Lives and the Permanence of Racism' (2020) 105 Cornell L Rev <https://www.cornelllawreview.org/2020/03/03/blue-lives-the-permanence-of-racism/> accessed 1 September 2022.

Newspaper articles

Author, ‘Title of Article’,  Title of Newspaper  (Place, Publication-Date) First-Page 

• Matt Datham, 'Human Rights Overhaul Set to Limit Power of European Judges',  The Times  (London, 22 June 2022) 1.

Online newspaper articles

Author, ‘Title of Article’,  Title of Newspaper  (Place, Publication-Date) <web-address> accessed Accessed-Date 

• Haroon Siddique, 'What Would a British Bill of Rights Look Like?',  The Guardian  (London, 21 June 2022) <https://www.theguardian.com/law/2022/jun/21/what-would-a-british-bill-of-rights-look-like> accessed 1 September 2022.

Author,  Title of Website  (Publication-Date) <web-address> accessed Accessed-Date 

• Equality and Human Rights Commission,  University Periodic Review of Great Britain  (27 April 2022) <https://equalityhumanrights.com/en/publication-download/universal-periodic-review-great-britain> accessed 1 September 2022.

The referencing rules for websites can be adapted for other types of media including government publications, official reports and statistics, and audio-visual materials like films, documentaries, and YouTube videos.

There are specific referencing rules for parliamentary papers including Bills, Command Papers and Hansard Debates. Please refer to the full OSCOLA referencing guide for further information.

Blogs posts

Author, ‘Title of Blog Post’ ( Title of Blog , Publication-Date) <web-address> accessed Accessed-Date 

• David Allen Green, 'A First Glance at the Bill of Rights Bill' ( The Law and Policy Blog , 22 June 2022) <https://davidallengreen.com/2022/06/a-first-glance-at-the-bill-of-rights-bill/> accessed 1 September 2022.

The referencing rules for blog posts can be adapted for other types of serialised media including episodes of television and radio programmes, and  podcasts .

Author, 'Title of Thesis' (Award, Awarding Body Year)

• Martha Gayoye, 'The Role of the Judiciary in Constitution Making: The Two-Thirds Gender Principle in Kenya' (DPhil thesis, University of Warwick 2020).

Conference papers

Author, 'Title of Paper' (Title of Conference, Place, Date)

• Stephanie Hare, 'Digital Ethics' (British and Irish Association of Law Librarians, Wyboston Lakes, 7 July 2022).

Lecture materials

The referencing rules for conference papers can be adapted for other types of public lecture. They can also be adapted for lectures delivered as part of taught modules, although you should generally avoid citing your lecturers or teaching materials.

• Alex Sharpe, 'Flirting with Fascism: The Thin White Duke, Art and Ethical Limits' (University of Warwick, 4 February 2021) <https://youtu.be/dndz5K3-caQ> accessed 1 September 2022.
• Serena Natile, 'Gender, Sexuality and Human Rights' (LA346: Gender and the Law, University of Warwick 2021).

Referencing Tutorials

Online tutorials providing an introduction to the general principles of plagiarism and referencing , and to the OSCOLA legal referencing style. If you would like to complete a  How to do OSCOLA Referencing course, the online tutorials from Cardiff and IALS are recommended:

Academic and Legal Research Skills

Discover a range of library and study skills guides including how to study law, how to think critically, and how to write law essays and prepare for examinations.

Discover how to find legislation, case law, and journal articles using law databases, including Doing Legal Research  online course and Lexis+ UK and Westlaw UK  law database training and certification courses.

Discover how to avoid plagiarism, how to use the OSCOLA legal referencing style , and how to manage references with EndNote referencing software.

Discover the library's support for researchers including literature searching, reference management, research data management, open access and publishing, and research metrics. 

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It is important to cite and reference your sources in any work you produce for your assignments. Referencing is a way of acknowledging that you have used the ideas and written material belonging to another author. It demonstrates that you have undertaken an appropriate literature search and that you have carried out appropriate reading. It enables anyone reading your work to look up your citations and read them for themselves.

Please refer to your 'Student Handbook' or contact your lecturer to determine which reference style you need to use. Remember any piece of written work submitted will be marked for correct reference and citation.

When to Cite?

If the facts are common knowledge, then there is no need to provide a citation. However, if you are in any doubt it is better to cite the source . Here are a few examples:

“The capital of Colombia is Bogota.”  This is a common fact and does not need to be cited.

“Bogota is the best city in Colombia.”  This is an opinion. Who says so? What context? This needs to be cited properly to explain your statement.

“In my personal opinion Bogota is the best city in Colombia.”  This is an opinion but you are clearly stating it is your personal view and you are not actually citing another source. However, you would be expected to illustrate and justify this view in your essay by comparing opinions and illustrating with appropriate evidence. These facts and pieces of evidence would need to be cited.

OSCOLA (the Oxford University Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities) is a way of citing and referencing legal materials.

Full guidance on the OSCOLA rules can be found in the comprehensive OSCOLA guide (PDF) , however here are some quick pointers to get you started:

What does OSCOLA look like?

OSCOLA is a footnote referencing style. That means that you have small superscript numbers in your text (e.g.  1, 2, 3, etc.) and these link to footnotes at the bottom of each page.

For longer documents, you may be asked* to include a list of abbreviations and tables of cases, legislation and other primary sources at the start, and a bibliography of secondary sources at the end. This is in addition to your footnotes. The items in your bibliography will take a slightly citation format to those in your footnotes, so read the guidance at pages 10-12 carefully before preparing a list of abbreviations, tables and a bibliography.

*Note: Please check your programme handbook or ask your supervisor whether you are expected to produce abbreviations, tables of cases and legislation and a bibliography, and - if so - if these should be in any particular order/format.

How do I present a quotation within my document?

You will probably want to include quotes from cases, books, etc. in your work. Pages 8-10 provide comprehensive advice on this, but as a rough guide:

• If the quotation is short (up to 3 lines), you should put it into single quotation marks and incorporate it within your text. 
• If the quotation is longer, it should be presented in an indented paragraph.

RefWorks is a bibliographic software tool which allows you to manage your research material by importing and adding your references to an online database. You can then manage your references and use their details to create bibliographies. RefWorks offers an OSCOLA style, but please note that you should always carefully check the references and bibliographies created by RefWorks to make sure that they comply with the rules in the OSCOLA guide.

If you are new to RefWorks and would like to try using it, go to the RefWorks website and  click the “Create account” link. Fill in your information making sure you use your City email address . You will receive an email to your City email address with a link to complete the registration process. Once you activate your account you’ll get access to RefWorks immediately.

City Libraries have created a really useful Refworks guide for new users.

As mentioned above, although bibliographic software tools like RefWorks can be a handy way to manage references, you need to manually check all of the references and bibliographies that they produce, as errors can occur.

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Law: Citing & Referencing

• Introduction
• Journals & Databases
• Finding Information & Keeping Current
• Writing your paper
• Citing & Referencing
• Academic Integrity, Writing and Citing Law @ UL
• EU and International Law
• Innovations in Legal scholarship and practice
• legal references

Cite It Right 4th Edition

The Glucksman Library wrote a guide called Cite it Right: Guide to Harvard Referencing Style . To access the 4th edition of  Cite It Right go to  https://libguides.ul.ie/citeitright . A PDF version of the 4th edition can be accessed below:

• Cite It Right 4th Edition - Print optimised version This version of the Cite It Right 4th edition has been optimised for printing. For best results and to only use 13 sheets of paper: Print 2 pages per sheet; Print page border; Print on both sides of paper (i.e. double-sided); Flip on short edge.

Referencing Guides

In addition to Cite It Right there are several other referencing guides available in the Library and these can be found at shelfmark 808+. Some examples are shown below:

Referencing: An Introduction

Referencing acknowledges the books, articles, websites, and any other material used in the writing of a paper, essay or thesis.

1. Essential Elements of Referencing

• Citing:  referring to sources you quote within your document. This brief citation refers the reader to the exact place in your reference list or bibliography where you will provide the extended details of the source.
• Reference list:  the detailed list of sources that have been cited within the text. Every reference must have enough information for the reader to find the source again.
• Bibliography:  a list of all references consulted in preparing the document, whether cited or not.

This is an example of in-text citing  (citations are in bold for demonstration only) :

The early 21st century has seen the development of a global epidemic of obesity, as emphasised by a growing body of articles, popular books, and most recently the movie Supersize Me  (Spurlock 2004) . To prevent obesity, habits need to be changed and dietary education as part of the school curriculum is key  (MacDonald 1997, p.78) . It is clear that to decrease obesity levels in populations, significant sociological changes will need to take place.

This is how the entries would look in your reference list:

Macdonald, G. (1997) ‘Innovation diffusion and health education in schools’, in Sidell, M., Jones, L., Katz, J. and Peberdy, A., eds.,  Debates and dilemmas in promoting health , London: Open University, 55-83.

Spurlock, M. (2004)  Supersize me: a film of epic proportions  [film], Beverly Hills: Roadside Attractions.

2. Plagiarism

Passing off another scholar’s work as your own is plagiarism and is considered a major disciplinary offence. Read more about plagiarism in Chapter 6 and Appendix 3 of the  UL Student Handbook .

Turnitin.com is used at the University of Limerick to check for instances of plagiarism in students’ work. Check with your department with any questions about the use of Turnitin.

3. Harvard (Name-Date) referencing style

Many departments in the University of Limerick recommend a style based on the Harvard (Name-Date) referencing style. There are variations and interpretations within the Harvard referencing style. This guide gives you a version of Harvard based on ISO 690:2010 and BS 5605:1990 approved by UL, hereafter called Harvard UL. However, you should check which style or variation your department or thesis supervisor recommends. Whatever referencing style you are required to follow you must ensure:

• Consistent application of the rules of whatever variation you are following;
• Acknowledgement of all sources;
• Sufficient bibliographic detail to enable your reader to locate the item to which you are referring.

4. Referencing styles by discipline or subject

In addition to the Harvard UL style, there are several other styles used in the University of Limerick as other styles are more appropriate to specific disciplines or subjects such as:

• History – The  Irish Historical Society  (IHS). See the  Rules for Contributors  on  http://irishhistoricalstudies.ie/ .
• Law –  OSCOLA Ireland  based on the OSCOLA (Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities) standard. See  http://www.legalcitation.ie/  for more information.
• Culture and communication –  MLA Style   (Modern Language Association)
• Psychology –  APA Style   (American Psychological Association)

There are thousands of other referencing styles including:

• ASME Citation Style   (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
• Chicago Manual of Style   / Turabian Citation Style
• IEEE Citation Style   (Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers)
• Vancouver Citation Style

If submitting a paper to a publisher, you should check with them to see if there is a particular style that they would like you to use.

The Glucksman Library’s Referencing & EndNote LibGuide provides more information on the different referencing styles and EndNote bibliographic management software at  https://libguides.ul.ie/referencing-endnote .

You can direct referencing queries or comments to the Information Desk, your Faculty Librarian or via  Ask Us – Tell Us  on the library website:  www.ul.ie/library .

For further information on how to cite and sample references see Cite It Right .

Stíl Tí an Ghúim / An Gúm Irish Language Style Guide

Stíl Tí an Ghúim / An Gúm Irish Language Style Guide

This style guide to the Irish language draws from New Hart’s Rules and the MHRA Style Guide.

Reference Management Software

Reference management software can help you:

• Gather references automatically from databases;
• Format  documents & citations instantly in a variety of styles;
• Generate bibliographies;
• Create a personal database of references & PDFs.

• BibTex Bibliographic management software used in combination with the typesetting system LaTeX. It is possible to include BibTeX bibliographies in Word documents using third-party tools such as Bibshare.

Harvard UL EndNote Style

• Harvard UL_2016 2016 update on the Harvard UL EndNote style based on Cite It Right 4th Edition (2016)
• Notes on using the Harvard UL_2016 style Notes on how to use Harvard UL_2016 EndNote style in order for different reference types to match the item types included in the 4th edition of Cite It Right

The Harvard UL EndNote style has been updated to reflect the changes made to the Harvard style that UL uses as laid out in the  2016 edition of Cite It Right 4th Edition .

• To install Harvard UL_2016, download  Harvard UL_201 6  style  above.
• Browse to the location on your computer where you downloaded the style.
• Double-click on the style file to open it.
• The style should open in EndNote.
• In EndNote, go to the File menu and select Save as.
• Click on the Save button.
• You should then be able to select your style by going back to Word and using the drop-down Style menu to Select another style. You should now be able to see your style in the list and to select it.

The PDF document above details some additional instructions on how to use the different reference types in EndNote Harvard UL_2016 style in order to match exactly the item types included in the Cite It Right 4th Edition.

In EndNote Online ,  Harvard UL_2016 should be available as a style in the drop-down list in Word (or by choosing "Select Another Style"). If it is not listed then go to EndNote Online and  select Format > Bibliography and click on "Select Favorites". Then select Harvard UL_2016 and copy to "My Favorites". Harvard UL_2016 will now be available in the drop-down list in Word.

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Law: referencing guide.

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Referencing management software

Click on the logos to access usage guides:

To find out more about the University of Cambridge's view on plagiarism and good academic practice, as well as further advice on how and when to reference, visit these guidance pages .

Other useful LibGuides

• Good academic practice and avoiding plagiarism by LibGuides Admin Last Updated Sep 12, 2023 8818 views this year

Referencing style

Undergraduate and research students at the Faculty of Law are drawn to three different referencing styles. More details and guidance are below:

OSCOLA -  Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities 

The Bluebook: a Uniform System of Citation (password required - please contact the Squire enquiry desk)

The Maroonbook - The University of Chicago Manual of Legal Citation

Cite them right

FAQ: Citation of ebooks

A frequently asked question is how to cite ebooks.

There is extensive information on the ebooks@Cambridge LibGuide  including how to cite electronic Legal Deposit texts.

There is also an  OSCOLA FAQs  webpage.

Referencing and citation

For more information about copyright, consult our new Copyright LibGuide.

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Footnotes, endnotes, and citations

What citations should I use in my essay?

Regular essays and timed exams

Most instructors at the undergraduate level (including instructors on law conversion courses) do not require students to do more than indicate the names of cases or statutes in the text of their essays and examinations, particularly in timed examinations. While it's preferable to give the full case name (such as Jones v Smith), in a timed examination you can get by with one name or the other. Usually people pick the first party's name, unless it's a very common name or a criminal case. Sometimes, though, you will notice that your textbook or lecturer uses the second party's name regularly. If you know that the case is commonly short-cited to the second party's name, go ahead and use that.

If you can't remember the name of a particular case or statute, simply describe it. For example, 'the snail in the bottle case' sufficiently evokes Donoghue v. Stevenson . 'The first Occupiers' Liability Act' gets you past worries about the particular year it was enacted. Of course, if you are working on a weekly essay or a long-term research project you must take the trouble of finding and putting in the proper title or citation.

Once you have used the full name once, feel free to use a short citation, such as ' Donoghue' or 'the 1984 Act.' There's no need to keep repeating the full name.

If you are writing your essay by hand, there is no need to use different coloured ink for a case or statutory citation. It often helps if you underline case names, but you won't lose points if you don't. If you are typing your essay, you can underline or italicise case names, but there's no need for elaborate type faces. Make your writing stand out rather than your design skills. Sometimes it seems that students spend more time formatting the essay than they do writing it. Don't be one of those students.

Typically, citations in a regular essay or timed examination are placed in the text next to the proposition they support. See the sample student essays in chapter 10 of the book for models.

These suggestions are only guidelines to use if you do not receive more specific instructions from your tutor or lecturer. If your university or instructors have particular rules that they wish you to follow, do so.

Long-term research essays and theses

If you are doing a long-term research project, you should use the full and proper citation, either in a footnote, an endnote or in the text. Again, once you have given the citation in full, you may use the appropriate short citation.

Very often, instructors will give formatting advice for long-term research essays. Certainly students doing masters theses will be given detailed information on the citation convention they are to use. If you have not been given any guidance, ask for it. Also, don't wait until the last minute to investigate your citation requirements. There's nothing worse than having to go back through all your research to add in specific page numbers or dates because you forgot to do it the first time. With a long-term project, you can and should plan ahead.

When should I quote and when should I paraphrase?

As mentioned in the book, quotes are good in the law. The words of Lord Justice Whozits are much more persuasive than a mere lawyer's. Use quotations freely, as long as you:

• use the exact words and punctuation found in the original source;
• use square brackets [ ] to indicate changes in capitalization, punctuation and language; and
• provide the source of the quotation.

Remember also that extensive quotations from statutes – particularly if you are permitted to use the statute book in an otherwise closed examination – are not particularly impressive. What is more important in those situations is your interpretation and use of the statute.

Never include the precise language of a source – or language that is virtually identical – without a proper attribution. Not only does that constitute plagiarism, it is counter to the use of source material in law. The law depends on published precedent for its authority. A legal principle is only as good as its source. Therefore, you want to demonstrate where your various propositions come from, since they will be more valuable if they come from an outside source.

However, there are times when you should paraphrase rather than provide a direct quotation. If the pertinent section is very long or discusses issues that are not relevant to the point you are making, then go ahead and paraphrase. Similarly, if the point you are making is only tangential to your larger argument, a paraphrase may be appropriate. Sometimes it's wise to save your ammunition for the big issues.

If you are paraphrasing someone, it is still helpful to identify the source so that your reader knows that you are not making the proposition up out of whole cloth. Again, lawyers and judges evaluate the strength of your argument based on the strength of your sources. Show your reader how well-read you are and earn every point you possibly can.

When should I use footnotes, when should I use endnotes and when should I put the citation in the text?

For the most part, undergraduates can put their citations in the text of their essays. The citation can be set off mid-sentence through parenthesis ( Hansel v Gretel ) or can follow the sentence. Hansel v Gretel . The one exception for undergraduates is on long-term research projects, where the instructors might ask for footnotes or endnotes.

There is no formal convention on when you should use footnotes rather than endnotes. For the most part, it's a matter of style and personal choice, although the choice may not be yours to make. If you are writing a postgraduate thesis or dissertation, your faculty or your supervisor may have very strict ideas on how the work is to be presented. Follow those rules to the letter. Similarly, if you are hoping to have your work published in a periodical or legal journal, ask to see the editorial guidelines. An editor is much more likely to accept your work if it conforms to the house style.

If the issue is left entirely up to you, then you simply need to decide which form of notes you find more helpful. Footnotes can be seen to break the flow of the text, but they also help the reader follow the argument, particularly if the text is comparing and contrasting different sources. Footnotes are also more useful than endnotes if the footnotes contain substantive information rather than simply providing source material. For the most part, British and European writers do not include anything in their foot- or endnotes other than the citations themselves, possibly with a “see also” reference to additional material. American authors, on the other hand, fill their footnotes with additional substantive information. Often the best information in an American law review article can be found in the footnotes.

American legal texts are also known for dropping a footnote at the end of almost every sentence, whereas texts from other countries do so much less, usually only following a direct quote. The reason why American journals use as many footnotes as they do is because most American law journals are edited by law students. British and European journals are peer-reviewed, meaning that an article is only accepted if it passes muster with other academics and/or practitioners. Therefore, the text of the article is verified before it is accepted for publication. American students are not experts in their fields, so they must – and do – check the substance of each and every footnote by hand to make sure that it supports the proposition stated. Therefore, American law journals contain excellent source material for researchers, since the footnotes point the reader to a wide variety of verified information and additional resources. Because American footnotes contain so much information, it makes sense to place them on the same page as the text they support rather than at the end of the article or book.

If you are writing for a non-American audience, you should strongly consider putting citations only into your notes. Once you have made that decision, it matters less whether you put the note on the page or at the end of the piece. If you have a multi-chaptered work (such as a book or doctoral dissertation), then you might consider putting the notes at the end of each chapter rather than at the end of the work as a whole. However, it is highly unlikely that the decision to use footnotes or endnotes will be left to your discretion if you are writing a book or dissertation. Again, conform your text to the guidelines of your institution.

Do remember your punctuation, however. Footnotes and endnotes should both end with a full stop.

What is 'proper' citation form?

If you are an undergraduate writing a weekly essay or timed examination, a case name or the short title of a statute should be sufficient, unless you are told otherwise. If you are writing a more elaborate work, you should follow proper citation guidelines.

There are entire books written on how to cite legal authorities. If you are writing a detailed research paper such as a thesis or dissertation, you should consult one of those books so that you cite your sources properly. Your law librarian can help you find those resources. Also, you should know that each jurisdiction has its own conventions on how to cite legal authorities, so the style of case citation, for example, may not appear consistent if you are citing materials from different countries, even if the individual citations are correct.

In the U.K., authors generally do not give parallel (i.e., multiple) citations except when citing both a neutral reporter and an official reporter, though they must follow strict rules regarding punctuation (or the lack thereof), the type of brackets, typeface, etc. Examples of common British case citations are as follows.

Walker v Sitter [2004] EWHC 1000 (Ch) [5]-[7] (neutral citation, pinpointing paragraphs 5 to 7)

Yin v Yang [2004] QB 123 (QB) at 125 (Schmidt, J) (pinpointing page, noting author)

Tweedledee v Tweedledum [2003] 2 All ER 456 (HL)

Re Luftborough Airport [2002] 1 WLR 89 (Com Ct)

Barking Mad Ltd v Crazy Horse Int'l Inc (2005) Times, 15 April (QB)

The neutral citation system was introduced in the U.K. in January 2001. All cases since then have a neutral citation as well as numbered paragraphs instead of page numbers. The abbreviations indicate which court heard the case. For example, the jurisdictions include:

UK United Kingdom (used only with House of Lords decisions)

EW England and Wales

Scot Scotland

NI Northern Ireland

The court abbreviations which follow the jurisdictional abbreviation in a neutral citation are:

HL House of Lords

CA Civ Court of Appeal (Civil Division)

CA Crim Court of Appeal (Criminal Division)

HC (Ch) High Court (Chancery Division)

HC (QB) High Court (Queen's Bench)

HC (Admin) High Court (Administrative Court Division)

HC (Fam) High Court (Family Division)

HC (Pat) Patents Court

HC (Comm) Commercial Court

HC (Admlty) Admiralty Court

HC (TCC) Technology & Construction Court

European jurisprudence follows its own conventions. You might see citations along the following lines:

Case 26/97 Commission v. Ireland [1999] ECR 321

Case 177/75 Belgium v. Spain [1976] ECR 722, para. 3

Case C-123/92P Y v Commission [1994] ECR I-4321

American legal citations follow a different format, using the style known as the 'Bluebook', which is a citation guide put out by the Harvard Law Review. You'll usually see citations similar to the following:

Darth Vader v Skywalker , 103 F.3d 1049 (2d Cir. 2005)

In re Ballyhoo , 998 F.Supp. 22 (D. D.C. 1999)

Grasshopper v The Ant , 37 App. 2d 24 (Ill. App. Div. 2003)

Cowboy v Cow , 42 S.W.3d 444 (Tex. 2004)

Many common words (railway, limited, public limited company) can be abbreviated in a case name. Those abbreviations can be found in citation guides such as OSCOLA, which is described below. Similarly, many reporting series are known by their abbreviations. Some of the more common British reporters follow, with their short titles. Be aware that some of these series may also have numbers appearing before the volume name (for example, 2 QB).

Official Law Reports AC, QB, Ch, Fam, P

Weekly Law Reports WLR

European Court Reports ECR

All England Law Reports All ER, All ER Com

Common Market Law Reports CMLR

Criminal Appeal Reports Cr App R

Family Law Reports FLR

Lloyd's Law Reports Lloyd's Rep

Official Journal of the EC OJ

Scots Law Times CLT

The Times The Times

Citation of statutes in the U.K. is a straightforward affair. Typically a student needs only cite the name of the legislation and the year, along with the appropriate section, chapter or paragraph number. For example:

Companies Act 1985, sch. 1, para. 3

Arbitration Act 1996, s. 69

European legislation is equally simple, though the titles are often longer and appear in lower case.

Council Regulation (EC) 2693/94 addressing the need to conform widget size in automobiles [1994] OJ L123

Directive 77/331 applying competition rules to the dairy industry [1977] OJ L78/41

When citing American federal legislation and rules, do not include the name of the enactment.

28 U.S.C. § 1391

Fed. R. Civ. P. 4

Students should be aware that two well-known U.S. treatise series – the Restatement (of Tort, of Contract, of Foreign Relations, etc.) and A.L.R. (American Law Reports) do not constitute binding authority in the U.S. Instead, these works simply generalise about the laws of the various U.S. states and should not be considered as authoritative in any particular jurisdiction. While some courts may adopt the Restatement position on a particular issue, the Restatement does not constitute the law in that jurisdiction until a court has so stated. In all instances, the authority comes from the court, not the Restatement.

Which reporting series should I use?

Since the introduction of the neutral citation system in 2001, it is always proper to cite to that series, using paragraph numbers instead of page numbers. If a case is reported in the official Law Reports (AC, QB, etc.), then you should use that report in addition to the neutral citation (at least for decisions after 2001). If the case is not reported in the official Law Reports, you should use to the Weekly Law Reports and All England Law Reports, in that order. After that, you may turn to any other published source, including specialist series such as Lloyd's or the Times.

What is OSCOLA and how does it relate to the Harvard citation style?

'OSCOLA' refers to the Oxford Standard Citation of Legal Authorities, which is available free of charge on the University of Oxford Faculty of Law website ( www.law.ox.ac.uk ). The faculty releases two publications: 'Big OSCOLA', which is over 300 pages in length, and 'Little OSCOLA', which is about 30 pages long. Both documents give you detailed instructions on how to cite cases, statutes, books, journals and other legal materials. Most people should start with Little OSCOLA unless they are doing a postgraduate degree at Oxford or are directed to use Big OSCOLA. The OSCOLA system reflects a common understanding of how British legal authorities should be cited and is a good place to learn how British and European cases should be referenced. Notably, the OSCOLA system proposes a citation methodology that conflicts with American usage, and those whose work includes a large number of American cases may prefer to consult the latest edition of the Bluebook, which is available in many university law libraries, for U.S. sources.

You may also hear about the Harvard style of citation, particularly if you conduct socio-legal or other multi-disciplinary research. The Harvard style is not the same as the Bluebook, even though that guide is also put out by Harvard. The Harvard style of citation focuses primarily on non-legal sources such as books and journal articles, and, as such, is not as useful for those taking a strict law course as OSCOLA is. Under the Harvard style of citation, cases are cited in the text, rather than in the footnotes.

Citation signals

Older sources make wide use of Latin phrases such as infra, supra, ante, id, op cit, loc cit and contra . American sources continue to use many of these phrases in addition to a number of signals ( see, see also, but see, cf., accord ) at the beginning of a cite and descriptors ( cert. denied , aff'd by, rev'd by, superseded by , etc.) following a cite. Current British usage avoids all Latin phrases except for ibid , which means 'in the place of' and refers to the preceding citation only. You may only use ibid if the subsequent citation is to the same page; otherwise, use ibid 345 (if, for example, the new citation is to page number 345) or ibid art. 3 (if, for example, the new citation is to article 3). You may also use cf (compare) as a signal, but avoid the American use of see, see also, but see , etc.

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Essays, dissertations and coursework guidance

Some simple steps you can take to help you prepare for writing essays:

• Read around: we have many subject related e-Books, journals and materials online too
• Research skills training: learn about the content and functionality of online legal resources
• General legal skills: refer to books on writing law essays and conducting legal research, and books and online tools to help with critical thinking and note making
• Writing up: present work well by becoming an accomplished user of Office 365 by following training courses on LinkedIn Learning. 
• Referencing: read books, guidance and view online tools that can all help with understanding plagiarism, and when and how to reference properly - view our Study Support pages for more information
• Presentation skills: refer to books on mooting and advocacy, as well as the online tools that can help with presenting coursework, legal research or research proposals online or face-to-face.
• Please also refer to the general but detailed help on the Study Support pages.

Law conversion and foundation courses: Law Essays

• Please use the BPP University Referencing Guidance for professional communications.
• Students writing academic essays or dissertations may be asked to use other referencing systems such as OSCOLA. Always check the information given by your programme and module.
• Find useful tips for Coursework Essays under Useful Resources on this page. This includes a video 'Researching an area of law that is new to you'. This guidance is from the Library, please always consult guidance given to you by Faculty staff.
• General help for writing skills, academic skills, referencing and so on can be found on the Study Support page.

Useful Resources

Video Guides

• Checking whether cases and legislation are good law
• Introduction to Cases
• Introduction to Legislation
• Introduction to Referencing with OSCOLA
• Quick Guide: How to access and use Law Reports
• Quick Guide: How to be sure you're using Practitioner Textbooks for online research (and not academic textbooks)
• Researching an area of law that is new to you
• Searching for Commentary in Lexis+
• Searching for Commentary in Westlaw
• Short guides to the new Lexis+
• Using Zotero to manage your OSCOLA references

Written Guides

• Finding law journal articles
• Forms & Precedents
• Legal Research Guidance

BTC/LPC: Legal research Assessments

• Students are advised to attend a Legal Research training session delivered by a Librarian
• Students should try to attend workshops for any of the online resources
• Legal Research Guidance on the use of primary and secondary sources can be found above
• Suggested practitioner texts arranged by subject area are available here
• This guidance is from the library, please always refer to any guidance from Faculty staff too
• Please read briefing sheets for advice on layout and style and consider Microsoft Word training

LLM/MA: Dissertations

• Librarians are available to discuss a review of available literature and online resources
• Students working on a dissertation may be eligible for inter-library loans
• Please refer to Faculty briefing sheets for advice on layout and style
• Last Updated: Sep 9, 2024 10:27 AM
• URL: https://bpp.libguides.com/law

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New Zealand Law Style Guide

The New Zealand Law Style Guide (3rd ed) is the “house style” of the University of Canterbury School of Law.

• New Zealand Law Style Guide (online) https://www.lawfoundation.org.nz/style-guide2019/index.html OR IF LIVE LAW FOUNDATION SITE NO LONGER AVAILABLE USE: Wayback machine link if normal website is down: https://web.archive.org/web/20200125004844/https://www.lawfoundation.org.nz/style-guide2019/index.html -->
• New Zealand Law Style Guide (print)
• Quick guide for commonly cited materials
• Citing material a second time using rule 2.3 updated 27 May 2020
• NZLSG Bibliography

Guides to other citation styles

• Australian Guide to Legal Citation (4th ed) (online)
• Australian Guide to Legal Citation (4th ed) (print)
• Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation Print copy shelved in the Central Library; Table 2 Foreign Jurisdictions available online .
• Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation
• Canadian Open Access Legal Citation Guide
• Oxford Standard of Citation for Legal Authorities (OSCOLA)

Other resources and tips

• Legal Citations of Aotearoa New Zealand
• Cardiff Index to Abbreviations
• Adding cross references in MS Word
• EndNote for NZLSG referencing
• Zotero Guide (for AGLC, etc., but not for NZLSG)

If you cannot find what you need, please contact the Law Subject Librarians – Theresa Buller and John Arnold.

• ​email us at [email protected]
• phone us at 3693852 or
• chat with us on AskLIVE . 

Cross References in MS Word

As you are writing your paper, rather than having to update numbering manually in subsequent footnote citations such as 35  Spiller, above n 31 , at 93 the cross reference function of MS Word can be used to update the numbering throughout the document.

• Instead of typing the number x for "above n x ", type " above n "
• Click the References tab and then click Cross-reference (a little over halfway along the ribbon)
• Choose Footnote on the "Reference Type" dropdown
• Click on the footnote referred to from the bottom of the dialogue box, and then click Insert
• Click into the footnote area of any page
• Select all footnotes: Ctrl+a is the keyboard shortcut

If you need to do endnotes (rather than footnotes):

• Keyboard shortcut is Ctrl+Alt+d
• Cross-referencing for endnotes is the same as for footnotes, except choose Endnote on the "Reference Type" dropdown step

Answers and suggestions for

• materials frequently referenced but not specifically given in the Style Sheet or NZLSG book – a link to the the relevant section of NZLSG is given; and
• situations in which NZLSG provides no direct guidance. These are signalled by “ cf NZLSG”, and being our suggestions only it may be desirable to check with your lecturer or supervisor.

Book chapter with individual author, but book has personal authors not editors – see NZLSG 6.2.4 , eg

Richard Boast “Maori Land and the Treaty of Waitangi” in Richard Boast and others Maori Land Law (2nd ed, LexisNexis, Wellington, 2004) 1.

Briefing paper to a Government Minister – see NZLSG 5.4(c)

Ministry of Justice Review of the ‘Claim of Right’ Defence – Initial Briefing  (9 June 2010).

Cases and documents associated with cases

• Cases in law reports published in New Zealand : search Legal Citations of Aotearoa New Zealand for type of brackets round the year and the report’s abbreviation; see  NZLSG 3.2  for the general form.
• Minutes and rulings given during trial : see NZLSG 3.4.7 .
• Transcripts of oral arguments in the Supreme Court : see NZLSG 3.8 .

Re Ellis v R SC 49/2019, 30 January 2020 (Statement of Tikanga).

• Cf   NZLSG 3.4.7 .

Output from ChatGPT (artificial intelligence chatbot by OpenAI) to User’s Name in response to the prompt “prompt text” (Date Month Year). Eg Output from ChatGPT (artificial intelligence chatbot by OpenAI) to John Arnold in response to the prompt “Why did the chicken cross the road?” (14 June 2023).

• Cf   NZLSG 7.6 and AGLC interim guidance .

Child Law online commentary ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Clare Barrett (ed) Child Law (online ed, Thomson Reuters).

Company Law online commentary ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Kath Clark (ed) Company Law (online ed, Thomson Reuters).

Company Law A-Z online commentary ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Susan Watson and others Company Law – A to Z of New Zealand Law (online ed, Thomson Reuters).

Constitutional Law A-Z online commentary ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Philip A Joseph Constitutional Law – A to Z of New Zealand Law (online ed, Thomson Reuters).

Deeds of settlement (NZLSG does not specify how to cite, but we recommend use of NZLSG 5.4 )

Deed of Settlement of Historical Claims between Tūhoe and the Crown (4 June 2013).

Ngāti Rangitihi and Te Mana o Ngāti Rangitihi Trust Deed of Settlement of Historical Claims (5 December 2020).

The Queen and Waikato-Tainui: Deed of Settlement in Relation to the Waikato River (17 December 2009).

• If the title of a deed of settlement is lengthy and complex, simplify the title in a similar way to how international decisions are cited in NZLSG at ch 10.

Dictionaries available electronically only ( NZLSG 6.1.9(b) )

Michael Proffitt (ed) Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed, eBook ed, Oxford University Press, 2000–). Peter Spiller Dictionary of New Zealand Law (eBook ed, LexisNexis, 2019–).  – NZLSG rule 6.1.7 for a publication still in progress. The footnote with a pinpoint reference to a specific entry: Michael Proffitt (ed) Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed, eBook ed, Oxford University Press, 2000–) ‘entry title’ (definition #). Peter Spiller Dictionary of New Zealand Law (eBook ed, LexisNexis, 2019–) ‘entry title’. Eg Michael Proffitt (ed) Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed, eBook ed, Oxford University Press, 2000–) ‘tyranny, noun’ (definition 3a). Peter Spiller Dictionary of New Zealand Law (eBook ed, LexisNexis, 2019–) ‘ratio decidendi’.  – Adapts rule 7.6 in AGLC 4th ed.

Dictionaries available in hardcopy or in an identical electronic version ( NZLSG 6.1 )

Peter Spiller Dictionary of New Zealand Law (10th ed, LexisNexis, Wellington, 2022). The footnote with a pinpoint reference to a specific entry is indicated with the page number: Peter Spiller Dictionary of New Zealand Law (10th ed, LexisNexis, Wellington, 2022) at 123.

Encyclopedias available electronically :

Laws of New Zealand , see NZLSG  6.6.2 For other legal encyclopedias, cite in the same way as for print encyclopedias , but add “online ed” after the year of publication – see NZLSG 6.5.2 , eg Halsbury’s Laws of Australia Insurance: General Principles (online ed) at [235]–[270]. The Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Law and the Max Planck Encyclopedia of Comparative Constitutional Law , however, are structured more like an edited book ( cf NZLSG 6.2 ), so applying that rule along with NZLSG 6.5.2 about online editions of encyclopedias, our suggested format would be, eg Stephan Hobe “Non-Governmental Organizations” in Anne Peters (ed) Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (online ed). Andreas Kulick “Representative Democracy” in Rainer Grote, Frauke Lachenmann and Rüdiger Wolfrum (eds) Max Planck Encyclopedia of Comparative Constitutional Law (online ed).

For non-legal encyclopedias only available electronically, if – as is typical – they are structured like an edited book ( cf NZLSG 6.2 ), apply that rule 6.2 and also NZLSG 6.1.9(b) to include “eBook ed”, eg W. David McIntyre “Story: Self-government and independence” in Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand  (eBook ed, Manatū Taonga–Ministry for Culture and Heritage, 2012).

Environmental and Resource Management Law Online   (Lexis Advance) ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Derek Nolan (ed) Environmental and Resource Management Law Online (online ed, LexisNexis).

Family Law Service online commentary ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Bill Atkin and others Family Law Service (online ed, LexisNexis).

• Although not on the publication itself, the authorship is listed at https://www.lexisnexis.co.nz/en-nz/products/family-law-service.page

Family Property   online version ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Nicola Peart (ed) Family Property (online ed, Thomson Reuters).

Gault on Commercial Law   online version ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Roger Thornton (ed) Gault on Commercial Law (online ed, Thomson Reuters).

Heath and Whale online commentary ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Heath and Whale on Insolvency  (online ed, LexisNexis).

Immigration New Zealand’s operational manual ( NZLSG 7.1 ; use the most recent ‘manual updated on’ date from the website)

Immigration New Zealand “Operational Manual” (20 August 2020) <https://www.immigration.govt.nz/opsmanual/#35439.htm>.

International materials: Documents of other international bodies without direct guidance in NZLSG (adapt NZLSG 10.4.3 ; cf. AGLC4 14.5)

Declaration on the Continuity of Statehood and the Protection of Persons in the Face of Climate Change-Related Sea-level Rise 52nd Pacific Islands Forum (6 August 2023).

Journal articles in journals published in New Zealand : search Legal Citations of Aotearoa New Zealand  for type of brackets round the year and the journal’s abbreviation; see NZLSG 6.4  for the general form.

Land Law   online version (Westlaw NZ) ( NZLSG 6.3 )

John Burrows (ed) Land Law (online ed, Thomson Reuters).

Māori Land Court and Māori Appellate Court Decisions ( NZLSG 3.5 ) Treat decisions in these courts as neutral citations when reported in another report series, eg

Pomare – Peter Here Pomare (2015) 103 Taitokerau MB 95 (103 TTK 95), (2015) 30 FRNZ 626.

Mazengarb’s Employment Law online commentary ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Mo Al Obaidi and others (eds) Mazengarb’s Employment Law (NZ) (online ed, LexisNexis).

Morison’s Company Law online commentary ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Nicola Buchegger and others Morison’s Company Law (NZ) (online ed, LexisNexis).

NZ Company Law and Practice Commentary (CCH) ( NZLSG 6.3 )

NZ Company Law and Practice Commentary (online ed, CCH).

New Zealand Forms and Precedents online commentary ( NZLSG 6.3 )

New Zealand Forms and Precedents (online ed, LexisNexis).

New Zealand Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) : the entry in the Bibliography is just: NZPD. For footnotes, see NZLSG 5.1.1 .

Resource Management  online commentary (Westlaw NZ) ( NZLSG 6.3 )

Stephen Blakeley (ed) Resource Management (online ed, Thomson Reuters).

• Also called Brookers Resource Management in pages ‘What’s New’ and ‘Product Scope Information’ (i button on the Product Title drop-down list)
• Preambles: Pinpoint the preamble of an Act in a similar way to the example for pinpointing a long title at NZLSG 4.1.1(d) , Eg Te Uri o Hau Claims Settlement Act 2002, preamble.
• Repealed statutes are not tagged with “Repealed” ( NZLSG 4.1 ).

Transcript of Oral Arguments in the Supreme Court , see  NZLSG 3.8 .

Treaties ( NZLSG 10.1 )

Convention on Rights and Duties of States 165 LNTS 19 (signed 26 December 1933, entered into force 23 December 1936).

Convention on the Rights of the Child 1577 UNTS 3 (opened for signature 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990).

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 55 UNTS 194 (opened for signature 30 October 1947, entered into force 1 January 1948).

Paris Agreement on Climate Change [2016] ATS 24 (opened for signature 22 April 2016, entered into force 4 November 2016).

Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community (13 December 2007, entered into force 1 December 2009).

TRIPS Agreement – see NZLSG 10.6.1

United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 2225 UNTS 209 (opened for signature 15 November 2000, entered into force 29 September 2003).

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1833 UNTS 3 (opened for signature 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994).

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1155 UNTS 331 (opened for signature 23 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980).

• The Convention on Rights and Duties of States is commonly referred to as the Montevideo Convention on Rights and Duties of States.
• The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade is commonly referred to as GATT.
• The Paris Agreement on Climate Change is not in the UNTS or NZTS, so the ATS citation is used in accordance with rule 10.1.1(c).
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is commonly referred to as UNCLOS.

Treaty of Waitangi , see NZLSG 4.1.1(e)

• << Previous: International Law
• Last Updated: Sep 6, 2024 4:06 PM
• URL: https://canterbury.libguides.com/laws

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Evaluating sources

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Citing sources

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