how to find a case study online

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Finding case studies

On this page, introduction, finding cases, sample cases, developing and analysing cases.

"Case studies" can mean examples from organizations provided simply to illustrate a point or descriptions of organizational situations designed to be interpreted and analyzed by a learner. The resources below provide a mix of all types of case studies.

This guide also includes some resources that will be of more use to students (e.g., the tips on finding case studies in databases) and other resources that instructors will find useful (e.g., the links to case clearinghouses).

If you don't find what you need here, don't hesitate to ask for help .

  New!  We've recently added another 600+ new cases to our Sage Business Cases resource! 

Try searching the SFU Library catalogue  and include ( case study OR case studies OR cases ) as part of your search. Check out these sample searches:

("case study" OR "case studies" OR cases) AND "organizational behavior"

("case study" OR "case studies" OR cases) AND "strategic management"

("case study" OR "case studies" OR cases) AND "project management"

Also try an Advanced Search  in which you look for case studies in the Subject field, combined with your specific need (entrepreneurship? strategy?) as a Keyword. Add case* in the Title field as well to increase your chance of getting books that contain large numbers of cases. You can also start by  searching for books that have cases in the title AND " case studies" in the subject .

In the SFU Library catalogue, try searching for theses & graduating projects by SFU Business students. Such publications often involve specific case studies. Try searching the catalogue  again, but this time combine the word theses (plural) with your topic. See these sample searches for example theses AND "electronic commerce"  // theses AND "electronic arts" .  Also, try Dissertations and Theses Abstracts and Index  for theses completed elsewhere. See our guide to Finding University Theses and Projects from Simon Fraser and Other Universities for more suggestions.

• In Business Source Complete enter your search terms, then either check off the Document Type Case study or include the Subject Case studies as part of your search.
• CBCA Fulltext Business offers similar ways of finding case studies: either choose the Document Type (click on More Search Options) Case study or include the Subject Case studies as part of your search.
• See the Sample cases area below for some specific journals focusing on business cases.

Websites & databases

Most cases sold by places such as Harvard or the Richard Ivey School of Business are not available via the library. You usually need to pay directly for such cases unless you are an instructor seeking cases to consider for use in a class. If you are a student and a case has been assigned as a reading in your class, check with your instructor to see if the case might have been pre-purchased for all members of your class.

Sage Business Cases A global and diverse collection of case studies designed to help students see theoretical business concepts put into practice. This collection is available to all SFU students, instructors, and alumni. See this blog post for further details.

Harvard Business School Cases Harvard's cases are available for direct purchase from the HBR Store .  Qualified and registered instructors  can access Harvard's Educator site to preview cases and access Teaching Notes and other supporting materials. Also see below for a discussion on how to find a small number of HBS cases in the Harvard Business Review.

The Case Centre (formerly the European Case Clearing House) "[T]he largest single source . . . of management case studies in the world. We hold and distribute all cases produced by the world's best-known management teaching establishments, as well as case studies in many languages produced by individual authors from almost every corner of the globe." Search for a case, then click on the link for an "inspection copy" (if available) and follow the links to register as a faculty member.

Richard Ivey School of Business - Cases Faculty can register to preview cases. Note that we have several books in the Ivey Casebook Series .

Financial Times The FT contains a short series of Business School Teaching Cases (2022-present), as well as an older series of   Management Case Studies (2010-2014). In addition, many of the articles not listed in the "case study" sections of the FT site may work well as class discussion starters. See, for instance, Equinor: A case study on the trouble with greening oil and gas companies . Note that SFU's FT access is active to June 2025, with discussions about ongoing funding in progress. See this post for details on accessing FT articles.

Cases online via the Harvard Business Review 

Try searching for Harvard Business Review in the Publication Name field in Business Source Complete, then checking the box to limit your search to the Document Type " case study."  Add in other terms to focus your search. 

Note that only a very small subset of all Harvard Business School (HBS) cases are published in the HBR.  The majority of Harvard's business cases are sold only to individuals and classes, not to libraries for use by the entire institution.

Journals that feature case studies

• Journal of Information Technology Teaching Cases : provides "suitable, contemporary case materials for teaching topics in the organisation and management of information systems and on the social consequences of information technology." Note that this is a spin-off journal from the Journal of Information Technology which used to publish such cases. 
• International Journal of Case Studies in Management : Cases from 2003-2012 available via our CBCA database.
• International Journal of Management Cases : The IJMC is the official journal of the CIRCLE Research Centre. CIRCLE (Centre for International Research Consumers, Locations and their Environments) is a virtual research group in over 70 universities.
• Allied Academies International Conference: Proceedings of the International Academy for Case Studies (IACS)
• Journal of the International Academy for Case Studies : Presents classroom teaching cases, with instructor's notes, on any subject which might be taught in a Business School.
• Business Case Journal , Journal of Critical Incidents , and Journal of Case Studies : All from the Society for Case Research
• Asian Case Research Journal : Cases on Asian companies & MNCs operating in Asia-Pacific. No access to the most recent 12 months.
• Journal of Case Research in Business & Economics

Other online sources for cases

• CaseBase & CaseBase2: Case Studies in Global Business : Covers business case studies focused on issues in emerging markets and emerging industries across the globe.
• Business Ethics Case Studies : A few cases from Business Ethics Canada - St. Mary's University
• The Case Centre (formerly the European Case Clearinghouse) offers a selection of free cases .
• Business Gateway : Case studies from Scotland on starting and running a small business.
• The Times 100 : Free business case studies on real life companies. 
• Acadia Institute of Case Studies (Acadia University): Most studies are focused on small business and entrepreneurship and include teaching notes. Some of them even include short videos. Permission is granted for educational use. Note that the AICS site appears to be currently inaccessible, so we've linked to the Web Archive version of their site as of late 2019.
• Company-specific case studies: Intended as examples of how customers have used or could use their products: IBM , Intel , and LANSA .
• Advertising Educational Foundation: Case histories : "Case histories give you an inside look at the steps advertising agencies and advertisers take to create a campaign and how effective it can be. Case histories show the preceding issue/problem, the response and the outcome. Creative is included."
• MarketLine cases in Business Source : Mostly strategic analysis cases featuring large, global companies.
• Open Case Studies : An interdisciplinary collection of cases from UBC that are licensed to allow others to revise and reuse them. Very few of the cases are explicitly categorized as "business," but many of the cases on topics such as Conservation may be useful in a business context.

  An example of case analysis that might give you a sense of what's expected/possible: 

In 1989, the journal Interfaces published an HBS case and asked its readers to submit their analyses. Those analyses were then compiled into two subsequent articles, providing a useful example of the many ways business issues could be viewed and resolved.

Initial case : Porteus, E. L. (1989). The Case Analysis Section: National Cranberry Cooperative . Interfaces, 19 (6), 29–39. https://doi-org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1287/inte.19.6.29 (Note: this case has been revised multiple times. If it is assigned in your class, make sure you are using the most current revision, mostly likely only available via HBS.)

Analyses:  #1: Porteus, E. L. (1993). Case Analysis: Analyses of the National Cranberry Cooperative -- 1. Tactical Options . Interfaces, 23 (4), 21–39. https://doi-org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1287/inte.23.4.21

#2: Porteus, E. L. (1993). Case Analysis: Analyses of the National Cranberry Cooperative -- 2. Environmental Changes and Implementation . Interfaces, 23 (6), 81–92. https://doi-org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1287/inte.23.6.81

• Rotterdam School of Management: CDC Case Writing Training Material Valuable advice to aspiring case writers via a 4-part series in our Sage Business Cases database.
• Learning and researching with case studies : a student companion for business and management research (2024 ebook)
• Why teach with cases? : reflections on philosophy and practice (2022 ebook)
• The ultimate guide to compact cases : case research, writing, and teaching   (2022 ebook)
• Writing, Teaching, and Using Cases : A January 2014 presentation by Leyland Pitt and Michael Parent (both of SFU). Michael and Leyland led a full-day workshop with a focus on case teaching.
• The case writing workbook : a guide for faculty and students : "Designed as an individualized workshop to assist case authors to structure their writing..."
• Guide for Contributors: Tips for Writing Cases : From the publishers of our SAGE Business Cases (SBC) database. Also see the SBC's  Author Guidelines .
• Learning Effectively with Case Studies: A Conversation between a Professor and a Former MBA Student
• The case study companion : teaching, learning and writing business case studies : All angles in one recent (2021) ebook!
• The Case Writer's Toolkit :  "... to help writers visualise concepts, signpost ideas, break down complex information and apply techniques in a practical manner."
• A Brief Guide to Case Teaching : A free guide from The Case Centre
• Teaching with Cases : A Practical Guide : "... focuses on practical advice for instructors that can be easily implemented. It covers how to plan a course, how to teach it, and how to evaluate it."
• Teaching & Authoring Tools : Part of the Ivey Cases site, this page offers documents and videos to help you create your own cases, as well as lists of additional resources.
• Application of a Case Study Methodology by Winston Tellis: (The Qualitative Report, Volume 3, Number 3, September, 1997). This academic article covers the social science methodologies involved in designing, conducting and analysing a case study. It also features a detailed bibliography.
• The Art and Craft of Case Writing (3rd ed. 2012): "[A] practical, comprehensive, and multidisciplinary guide that blends an informal, workshop-style with solid theory and practice." Includes a section on video, multimedia, and Internet cases.
• Basics of Developing Case Studies : Part of the Free Management Library , this site has some basic information on how to develop a case study, as well as links to some sample cases.
• A Guide to Case Analysis : Focus is on how to analyse company cases when learning strategic management techniques. (Depending on your browser settings, you may need to right click this link and open it in a new tab or download it.)
• Case Studies: Overview  (from Cengage): Covers both analysing and writing a case study from the perspective of a business student. From the same publisher: A student's guide to analysing case studies .
• Case Analysis Guide : Developed by a publisher to support students using a Strategic Management text, but applicable in many other situations.
• Short videos on how to approach a case study by the author of the Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide
• Videos: What is the Case Method? : from The Case Centre

Also, try the subject heading " Case method " in the SFU Library catalogue for books on using the case method in your classes. Suggested sample case method books:

• Encyclopedia of case study research ( print )
• Case study research: design and methods (4th edition, 2009; print )
• Case study research: principles and practices ( online or  print )
• Case writing for executive education: a survival guide ( print )

You might also want to try checking an index of education articles such as ERIC : start with the subject heading (or Descriptor) Case Method (Teaching Technique) .  Alternatively, try our Education Source database using Case method (Teaching) as your subject search term. 

Business Case Studies

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• Case Analysis
• Finding Case Studies in the Library

Free Case Studies

• Buying Cases
• Writing Case Studies
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• Case Method (Teaching)

Many academic and business institutions develop and publish case studies. Some of these organizations provide free access to their case studies:

• Acadia Institute of Case Studies Focuses on entrepreneurship and small business operations.
• Business Case Studies by Company
• Business Ethics Case Analyses
• Canadian Centre for Occupational Health & Safety: Workplace Health Case Studies
• Case Centre Available for a fee.
• Daniels Fund Ethics Initiative Case Studies
• Give to Get Marketing. Marketing and Advertising Case Studies
• HR Open Source Case Studies
• MarketingSherpa Choose "Case Studies" as the content type in the filters.
• MaRS Search for "case study" in the top right search box.
• MERLOT Business Cases
• MIT LearningEdge Case Studies Free case studies by MIT Sloan School of Management.
• Penske. Logistics Case Studies
• Society of Human Resources Management.
• Open Case Studies Project by UBC The Open Case Studies project at UBC brings together faculty and students from different disciplines to write, edit, and learn with case studies that are free and open.
• World's Best Case Studies Short video case studies covering topics including consumer goods, services, and technology.
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Business Case Studies

Open access cases.

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A number of universities and organizations provide access to free business case studies.  Below are some of the best known sources.

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Case Studies: Finding Case Studies

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• MarketLine This link opens in a new window Country, industry and company profiles. Formerly known as Datamonitor.

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"Case studies are stories. They present realistic, complex, and contextually rich situations and often involve a dilemma, conflict, or problem that one or more of the characters in the case must negotiate." ( Read more from the Eberly Center at Carnegie Mellon University ) 

A good way to locate case studies is to do a keyword search in one or more of the library's databases or try searching using the Everything search in the library website.

Try adding case study or c ase studies to your search.  Examples:

• case study AND environmental remediation
• case  studies AND management
• "case studies" AND airlines
• "case studies" AND management

Not sure which database to search?  Click here for tips .

• To learn more about case study research, explore SAGE Research Methods.
• For help on organizing and writing, see :   Tips for writing the case study analysis
• Henry Stewart Business & Management Collection  

• How can I find case study articles about metaphors in organizations?
• Management research strategies guide | Business case studies: Helpful Databases
• Marketing research strategies guide | Case Studies : Resources
• Business Analytics research strategies guide | Business use cases
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Where Can I find Harvard Business School Case Studies?

How do i find articles with case studies, where can i find free case studies, subject specialists.

Harvard Business Publishing makes a great deal of money selling these for business school course packs and will not make them available to libraries. You can, however, order them directly from HBS, around $8.95 each How to find them:

• Harvard Business Review publishes one case study per issue. These generally deal with fictitious companies but are very good studies of current problems faced by companies.
• Harvard Business School Publishing Search by company name or topic. Abstracts are usually included. Harvard also sells cases from Babson College and Northwestern's Kellogg School of Management, among others.

Use keyword searches in article databases . For example: "case studies and airlines" or "case  studies and management". Full-text articles and abstracts are available, depending on the journal.

Tip: Use the subject heading "case studies" in ABI/INFORM and Business Source Complete

Article database that indexes academic journals, trade publications, newspapers and magazines in business and economics. Full text is often available. Use the FindIt links to locate full text of articles that are not included in the database.

• Business Source Premier This link opens in a new window & more less... Article database that includes trade publications, academic journals, industry profiles, country information and company profiles, which include SWOT analyses. Full text is often available. Use the FindIt links to locate full text of articles that are not included in the database.
• EconLit with Full Text This link opens in a new window & more less... EconLit indexes articles from economics journals, books, book chapters, dissertations and working papers. It is a very good source for empirical studies on economics and finance. Use the FindIt links to locate full text of articles that are not included in the database.

Most cases published for teaching in business schools are not free to use. These are a few resources that do offer free cases, but only LearningEdge offers their entire catalog for free.

• LearningEdge Cases developed at the MIT Sloan School of Management.
• Free cases from Stanford Graduate School of Business More are available for purchase through Harvard Business School Publishing
• Free cases from the Case Centre A selection of cases. Many more available for purchase
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Finding case studies from the Library

Finding case studies on the web.

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LibrarySearch

LibrarySearch is one place to start when looking for case studies.  You can find specialised case study journals, books that include case studies, and articles based on case studies.

Search tips

LibrarySearch does not include Case Study as a resource type. Try using the following search terms (including the inverted commas):  

• "case study"
• "case studies"
• "case stud*"
• "case report"

Within databases you can often find case studies in journals aimed at academic or professional audiences.

• Check the Advanced Search options to see if you can filter your search by Case Study or Case Studies.  This might be under Document Type or Subjects.
• In the search results list look for options to refine by Case Study.  This might be to the right or left of the results.
• Add  "case stud*"   or  "case report"  to your search term if you can't see the above two options.

YouTube videos include material from experts and non-experts on any subject you care to name.

• Add 'case study' to your search.
• To better filter video content use the main Google search options to search for Videos.  This will return video content hosted by YouTube and elsewhere.
• You can use Advanced Search via the quick settings in top right corner of search screen and the same Google search tips listed above when searching for videos.

A Google search will find case studies in a variety of formats such as government reports, academic articles and websites.  

Use Advanced Search (under Settings) to target your search.

• Use Region and/or Last Update to filter a specific country and/or time.
• Use Usage Rights to choose materials free to use, share or modify for teaching.
• Use Site or Domain to look for materials published by government, Non-government organisations (NGOs) or academic entities: 

.edu   will find materials published in Australia or the US by academic institutions.

.ac  will find materials published in the UK by academic institutions.

.gov  will find materials published by governments.

.org  will find materials published by Non-government organisations (NGOs).

Google Scholar

Find case studies published in academic journals, books and conference proceedings.

• Access Google Scholar from the  Library homepage  to link through to Library subscribed resources.
• Add "case study", "case studies" or "case report" to your search terms.

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Business Research

• Company Information
• Annual Reports
• Competitors
• Financial Information
• Financial Ratios
• Investment Reports
• Mission Statement
• Leadership Information
• Finding or Creating SWOT Analyses
• Using Hoovers to Create Lists
• Industry Overviews
• Trends and Projections
• Major Companies
• Market Research
• Marketing Plans
• Market Share
• Market Size
• Demographics/Psychographics
• Product Reviews
• Products/Brands
• Business Plans
• Case Studies

Finding Case Studies

Finding case studies in library databases, finding case studies in print books, finding case studies in ebooks, finding case studies on the free web.

• Country Information
• NAICS Codes

Business case studies are summaries of real or fictional business situations. Case studies are frequently used to analyze the events that led to a particular company's success or failure and may also be used to illustrate theories studied in business and management classes.

Case studies can be found in these different types of resources:

• UMGC Library Databases
• Print Books

ABI/INFORM Collection

You can find case studies in ABI/INFORM Collection  by following the directions shown in the screen shot below:

• Enter search term(s) in box(es).
• Use menu arrows beneath  Document type : to select  Case Study .

Business Source Ultimate

You can find case studies in  Business Source Ultimate  by following the directions shown in the screen shot below:

• Use menu arrows near  Document Type  to select  Case Study .

You may want to use the  Number Of Pages  option (listed under the  Document Type  option) to ensure that the case studies that your search retrieves are a certain length (e.g., greater than 4 [pages]).

BuildingGreen Suite

You can find case studies in BuildingGreen Suite by clicking on the Case Study Articles link on the database's home page. Case studies in the database focus on building projects that demonstrate sustainability principles.

Gale Business: Insights

You can find case studies in Gale Business: Insights  by clicking on the Advanced Search  link below the search box on the database's home page. On the advanced search page, enter a company or topic of interest in the search box and scroll down the page to select Case Studies in the "by content type" section.

SAGE Business Cases

You can find case studies in SAGE Business Cases by simply entering a company or topic of interest in the search box on the database's home page. Note that you can also browse cases by discipline, geographic region, or case collection.

Other databases

You may be able to find case studies in other UMGC Library databases by conducting a keyword search for your topic, along with a keyword search for  "case stud*"  (e.g.,  ford AND marketing AND "case stud*" ).

(The asterisk in the search statement above is a truncation symbol that tells a database to retrieve various endings of the term preceding the asterisk. So, for example, searching for  "case stud*"  will find articles containing  case study  (singular) as well as articles containing  case studies  (plural).)

You can find case studies in print books in the UMGC Library's catalog,  USMAI Book Search , by following the directions shown in the screen shot below:

• Use the drop-down menu to specify that you're searching for  subject  words. Then enter  case studies  and use the drop-down menu to specify that this is a  two word phrase .

UMGC Library Ebook Collections

You can find case studies or information about case studies in online books in  UMGC Library eBook Collections  by following the directions shown in the screen shot below:

• Enter  "case stud*"  and then add additional search term(s) if desired.

O'Reilly

You can find case studies in online books in  O'Reilly  by following the directions shown in the screen shot below:

• Enter  "case studies" AND  along with your search term(s).

Available for Free

There are a few noteworthy sites that provide  free  online access to case studies, including:

• MIT Sloan School of Management LearningEdge Case Studies
• The New York Times  Case Studies
• The Case Centre - Free Case Collections

Available for Purchase

Many publishers or clearinghouses of case studies charge a fee for access to their case studies. Although you may search their websites for case studies on particular topics, you will generally need to pay a small fee in order to access the entire case study. Some of the best-known commercial vendors of business-related case studies include:

• Harvard Business Review Case Studies
• University of Virginia's Darden Business Publishing
• Northwestern University's Kellogg Case Publishing
• Western University's Ivey Publishing
• The Case Centre
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• URL: https://libguides.umgc.edu/business-research

Business & Management

• Business and Management Research

Find Case Studies

• Find a Company's Competitors
• Find Company & Industry Ratios
• Find Company Reports/Profiles
• Find Industry Reports
• Find Target Market Data
• Research a Country
• SWOT and PESTLE Analyses
• Use NAICS Codes
• Accounting Resources
• APA Style for Business Resources

A case study is an in-depth look or detailed examination of a particular event, scenario, or group. Case studies are extremely popular teaching tools in the field of management, as they help students apply course topics to real-world scenarios. Case studies come in a variety of formats (articles, book chapters, videos, etc.). Learn how to find case studies in the library collection below. 

Note:   We have several collections with case studies (as seen below), but they can still be hard to find. Many companies pay experts to write case studies and, in turn, want payment for the cases. 

Databases with Business Cases

To search for case studies in the below databases: 

• Go to the  Advanced Search  
• Enter your search term(s) 
• Scroll down to the  Document Type  box and select  Case Study 
• Click Search 

Articles analyzing industries, countries, economies, and markets

Articles covering accounting, tax, and related business standards

Articles from 1,400+ business, law, and I.T. journals plus 27,000+ videos from industry leaders

To find cases in our Harvard Business School collection, simply search on your topic (no need to select document type).

2,000+ Harvard Business School case studies and commentary, plus 76 Core Curriculum Readings covering topics in business and management

Case Studies in Book Chapters

Some of the best case studies can be found in books on leadership and management. The best way to search for books that have case studies is to combine your search term(s) with the keyword “case study” and filter to Content Type > Book Chapter (on left-hand side of the search results screen). 

Here is an example search: "case study" AND organizational culture  

Select CityU Journals with Business Cases

• Business Case Journal
• International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior and Research
• IUP Journal of Business Strategy
• Journal of Business Case Studies
• Journal of Business Ethics
• Journal of Case Studies
• Journal of Global Business Issues
• Journal of Information Technology Teaching Cases
• Journal of the International Academy of Case Studies
• South Asian Journal of Business and Management Cases
• Thunderbird International Business Review

Other Business Case Resources

Individual publishers.

• ABLConnect Case Studies
• MIT Sloan Teach Resource Library
• UMN Open Textbook Library
• World Bank Group Doing Business Cases Important note: The World Bank Group discontinued their Doing Business reports in 2020 to review their methodologies. Their new reporting service, Business Ready (B-READY), is projected to launch September, 25, 2024.. In the meantime, archived reports can still be located through the World Bank Group. (Last updated: 5/14/2024)

Search for Cases by Country in Google

• Find the domain code of the country you want to search using the  Internet Assigned Numbers Authority  (For example, the domain code for the United Kingdom is “.UK”) 
• Go to Google’s  Advanced Search  page 
• Enter your search words the in the top section titled  Find web pages with… 
• Near the bottom, enter domain code in the box labeled  Search within a site or domain 
• Click the  Advanced Search  button to see the results 

Example search by country domain code:  “aerospace case study”  in the United Kingdom 

Open Educational Resources (OER) Case Studies

Find a listing of OER Business Case sources on the "Case Studies" tab

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• Next: Find a Company's Competitors >>
• Last Updated: Aug 20, 2024 10:29 AM

CityU Home - CityU Catalog

Free cases from The Case Centre

As a useful resource for case teachers, and to encourage the growth in case use, The Case Centre partnered with a group of leading business schools to provide this collection of ten free cases.

Search our full collection of diverse management cases, articles, book chapters and teaching materials from leading authors, schools and publishers worldwide.

Educators and trainers can also access free online preview copies and instructor materials.

Search the collection

Most popular.

• Preview copies

View all free case collections

Learning with cases can be a challenging experience.

Our interactive study guide takes students through the process, providing practical tips, tricks and tools.

Discover more

How to Write a Case Study: A Complete Guide with Templates

Writing compelling and insightful case studies is a marketer’s biggest job, yet most get frustrated with this content. The challenge? Figuring out how to write a case study that not only highlights the company’s strongest suit but engages new clients with strategic information. If you often struggle with making case studies as more than just dry facts and figures, you’re leading your efforts to missed opportunities.

How to Write a Case Study Step-by-Step 

• Craft a Compelling Headline: Highlight the main success with a clear, direct title.
• Start with a Strong Introduction: Provide a broad overview and hook the reader.
• Discuss Unique Client Challenges: Highlight specific industry-related challenges.
• Highlight the Solution: Showcase your strategies and key results.
• Present Quantifiable Results: Use data and visuals to demonstrate impact.
• Be Clear and Concise: Stick to the point and support claims with data.
• Treat Your Case Study Like a Story: Focus on the customer’s journey and success.
• Use Direct Quotes from the Client: Add authenticity with client testimonials.
• Make the Key Takeaway Clear: Reinforce your expertise and the solution’s value.
• Include a Call to Action (CTA): Guide the reader on what to do next.
• Make It Readable: Use simple language, short paragraphs, and bullet points.
• Finalize and Proofread: Review for errors and ensure a smooth flow.

In this blog, you’ll discover a step-by-step guide that simplifies the process, making it easier to create interesting case studies. From planning to writing, I’ve got you covered. So, let’s start with some basics. 

Table of Contents

What is the format of a case study.

• How to Plan a Case Study 

How to Write a Case Study

How to summarize a case study, how to cite a case study.

A well-structured case study isn’t just a collection of facts—it’s a powerful marketing tool that tells a compelling story. Using the right format for a case study ensures that your message is clear, engaging, and impactful. 

The proper format guides readers through the narrative with hierarchy and scannability, helping them connect with your brand on a deeper level. Most importantly, it empowers you as a marketer to set clear goals for presenting your case studies and ensures you deliver the correct information effectively!

Case studies format helps you to plan and write the case study for your clients. With this outline in mind, you can create steps to complete the process of writing and publishing your case study research. There are eight components of a case study that are essential for building a layout of information in the correct order that makes sense to the viewers. 

Start with a catchy “Title” that grabs attention and an “Overview” that sets the stage. Clearly define the “Problem” your client faced, and then showcase your “Solution” in detail. Highlight the success with “Results” that are measurable and impactful. Add authenticity with “Testimonials and Quotes” from satisfied clients. Wrap it up with a firm “Conclusion” and a compelling “Call to Action” in the “About Us” section that guides the reader on what to do next. 

By following this format, you create a case study design that resonates with your audience and effectively showcases your brand’s value.

Check out the marketing case study template I’ve included below—it has a clear outline that makes it easy to see how sticking to a format can help you plan and write the entire thing.

How to Plan a Case Study 

Now comes the big part! Understanding what to include in a case study outline is just the starting point for beginners. The real challenge lies in creating a step-by-step plan to craft that outline and filling it in with the right information!

1. Set Clear Goals for Your Case Study

Before diving into how to write a case study, defining your ultimate objective is essential. Think about it—what do you want your audience to take away from this case study? For example, your goal is to showcase how your SEO strategies boosted a client’s organic traffic by 150% in just six months. This clear goal will shape your entire narrative and ensure that your case study is laser-focused on demonstrating your expertise and the value you bring.

2. Select a Client that Highlights Your Strongest Suit

Choosing the right client or subject is vital while creating case studies. Imagine you’ve worked with a small e-commerce brand struggling to rank for competitive keywords. Your strategies helped them rank on the first page and increase conversions. This is the perfect client for your case study because their success story directly showcases your SEO prowess. 

By picking a client whose experience aligns with your goals, you’ll create a case study that resonates with your target audience.

3. Reach Out to Your Client for Collaboration

Now that you’ve identified the ideal client, it’s time to reach out. Let’s say you contact your client and explain how a case study can highlight their remarkable success story. It’s a great way to spotlight a mutual collaboration based on credibility. Their buy-in is crucial; their insights and data will authenticate your case study.

4. Gather Comprehensive Data and Insights

Data is the lifeblood of any compelling case study. For instance, in your SEO case study, you’ll need to gather data on key metrics like keyword rankings, organic traffic, and conversion rates before and after implementing your strategies. Let’s say your client saw a 50% increase in organic traffic within three months of optimizing their website. Collecting this data will help you build a robust, evidence-based narrative highlighting your impact.

It’s essential to monitor the before-and-after data to track the effectiveness of implementing your strategies. 

5. Prepare Insightful Questions and Conduct Interviews

It would be best to ask the right questions to get the most out of your client interviews. Imagine asking your client, “What specific challenges were you facing with your organic search rankings before we started working together?” or “How did our SEO strategies help you achieve your business goals?” These questions will lead to detailed responses that add depth to your case study, making it more than just numbers on a page.

Always ask questions that uncover the key challenges your clients face. This way, your prospects will know when to turn to you to navigate or overcome similar obstacles in their business.

Since I’m giving an example of an SEO case study in marketing, you can try these questions to interview your existing client. Obviously, you can modify the sentences according to your industry basics, but these types of questions are fundamental for collecting structured data from your clients. 

• What were your business’s main SEO challenges before we started working together?
• Can you describe your initial expectations for implementing our SEO strategies?
• What specific SEO tactics did we implement that you found most effective?
• How did you monitor and measure the impact of these strategies on your organic traffic?
• What were the key metrics or results that stood out to you after the first three months?

6. Ask Questions That Drive the Story Forward

Impactful questions are the backbone of a strong case study. They allow you to highlight the unique value you delivered to your clients. You can effortlessly showcase your USPs within the case study by asking the right questions. 

Focus on inquiring about the effectiveness of your services and strategies, their impact, and which aspects of the solution were most beneficial. This insight will be your key to demonstrating the tangible benefits you offer your clients. 

Consider asking questions like:

• Can you share a moment when you first noticed a significant improvement in your website’s organic traffic?
• How did the increase in organic traffic impact other business areas, such as lead generation or sales?
• What feedback did your team or customers receive regarding the changes in your site’s performance?
• Looking back, what do you believe was the most critical factor in achieving these results?
• How has this success with SEO influenced your overall marketing strategy moving forward?

These types of questions encourage clients to share their experiences in a way that paints a vivid picture for your readers, making the case study more relatable and engaging.

7. Draft a Clear and Organized Outline

With all the data and insights gathered, it’s time to create a well-structured case study outline. Let’s say you start with a brief overview of your client’s business and its challenges, followed by a detailed account of the SEO strategies you implemented. Then, you showcase the results with hard data and close with client testimonials and a solid call to action. 

As mentioned above, organizing your content in a logical, easy-to-follow format will help you write a case study that not only informs but also captivates your audience.

These steps are the cornerstones of designing a case study. Once you complete this checklist, you can proceed to the next step, which is writing a case study. Since I discussed planning an SEO case study extensively, here is a case study template that perfectly illustrates the process. 

You want to create an informative case study for your prospects. But how do you make sure it’s done right? Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to write a case study that drives results.

1. Craft a Compelling Headline  

Your headline is the first thing readers see, so make it count! It should grab attention and hint at the success story you’re about to share.

How to Write a Case Study Title:

1. Highlight the Result: Showcase the critical success, like “Increased Sales by 200%.”

2. Be Clear and Direct: Make sure the headline is straightforward to grasp.

3. Use Action Words: Start with strong verbs like “How We” or “Achieved.”

4. Mention Client or Industry: Include relevant details for specificity.

5. Keep It Short: Make it concise and attention-grabbing.

2. Start with a Strong Introduction  

Kick off your case study with a broad overview that sets the stage. Provide the big picture and construct a clear narrative that draws readers in, making them eager to learn more about how you solved a significant challenge.

Look at the consulting case study template , which includes a stunning overview description and precise instructions for writing a short and compelling introduction. You can add every little detail to hook the reader.

Get This Template and More

3. Discuss Specific Challenges of Your Client

This is where your prospect can truly connect. By highlighting unique yet specific challenges to their industry, you give them insight into issues they might not have encountered yet—or ones they’ve already faced. This way, they’ll know exactly who to turn to when similar challenges arise.

The following financial case study template provides a brief flow of the company’s common challenges in the financial analysis process. The template is almost ready to use with this domain-specific content, requiring minimal adjustments to design your case study.

4. Highlight the Solution  

Now, dive into the heart of the story. Highlight the solution you provided, and make sure to include a notable achievement or key result. This is your chance to shine!

Check out the format for presenting the implications of your service on your client’s business. The benefits should be well-written and data-driven to convince your upcoming clients. This graphic design case study format helps you understand the specific impacts a company seeks from a reputable graphic design firm.

5. Present Quantifiable Results  

When sharing the outcome, numbers speak louder than words. Present quantifiable results that clearly demonstrate the impact of your solution. Use graphs or charts to make the data easy to digest and visually appealing.

6. Be Clear and Concise  

Less is more. Stick to the point and offer just the right amount of detail to keep your readers engaged. Include data that supports your claims, but avoid overwhelming them with too much information.

Here’s a stunning sales consulting case study that uses a simple case study layout and details written in readable, plain language to gauge more utility. 

7. Treat Your Case Study Like a Story  

Focus on your customer’s journey. Think of your case study as a story in which your client is the hero, and your solution is the tool that helped them succeed. This approach will make your case study relatable and compelling.

8. Be as Specific as Possible  

Don’t be vague—details matter. Mention the specific company and its industry to let your audience know that the challenge and solution are relevant to them. The more precise you are, the more credible and trustworthy your case study will be.

Check out the sample case study below for payroll accounting. The details are clearly organized and grouped to emphasize the type of case study.

Also, the next case study template displays very specific problems that a company faces when it lacks digital marketing expertise. 

These templates make it a breeze to craft a case study that’s perfect for your niche.

9. Use Direct Quotes from the Client  

Quotes from your client add authenticity and credibility. They give readers insight into the client’s perspective and make your case study more relatable. Plus, a glowing testimonial is always a nice touch!

The following inbound marketing case study has a prominent client testimonial. With the brief instructions on this template, it’s easier for you to understand how to capture the golden words of your client and use them as a word-of-mouth strategy within the case study. 

10. Pick an Interesting Angle  

Find a unique angle that makes your case study stand out. Maybe it’s an unexpected challenge you overcame, or perhaps it’s a particularly innovative solution. Whatever it is, make it intriguing.

11. Make the Key Takeaway Crystal Clear  

Your readers should walk away with a clear understanding of the main point of your case study. This takeaway should reinforce your expertise and the value of your solution.

12. Include a Call to Action (CTA)  

Don’t leave your readers hanging—tell them what to do next! Include a compelling summary about your company, showcase your happy client base, and conclude the journey with a strong CTA, whether to contact you for a consultation, download a related resource, or learn more about your services on social media, like the following case study template design.

12. Format Professionally  

The design of the case study is just as important as the content. A well-formatted, visually appealing document makes a great impression and enhances readability. With ready-to-use niche-oriented templates, you can easily create a professional-looking case study that impresses and converts. Here is an eye-catching template for an AI assistant software case study that displays a sleek and well-navigated format.

13. Make It Readable  

Easy readability is key. Use simple language, short paragraphs, and bullet points where appropriate. Your case study should be easy to scan and digest. Follow the thirteen design principles to create a standout piece that enhances your marketing efforts.

To understand this, take a look at the following consulting case study template. 

14. Finalize and Proofread Your Case Study  

In order to excel in how to write case studies, give your case study a final review before you hit publish. Proofread carefully to catch any typos or errors, and make sure everything flows smoothly. A polished case study reflects your attention to detail and professionalism.

To effectively summarize a case study, start by completing all sections, including the introduction, challenges, solutions, and results. This approach helps marketers identify key points to highlight, making it easier to craft a succinct and engaging summary. 

One tricky thing is the length of the case study summary. So, how long should a case study summary be? 

The length of a case study summary can vary depending on the details you’re covering. Generally, it should be kept concise, usually spanning a couple of lines or up to a single page with several paragraphs. If you’re crafting a customer case study and want to flex your storytelling muscles, it’s perfectly fine for the summary to stretch to a full page.

If summarizing a case study seems daunting, try DocHipo’s advanced AI Writer tool, which effortlessly creates a crisp and concise summary.

Watch this short video to use it.

This is the last step in writing a case study analysis. Citation in a case study is the practice of giving proper credit to the sources you reference or use in your research. It helps validate your work, shows the depth of your research, and avoids plagiarism. Follow the below steps to cite a case study:

• Identify the Source: Gather details like the author, title, publication year, and where the case study was published.
• Choose a Citation Style: Follow the specific formatting style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) required for your work.
• Format the Citation: Arrange the details according to the chosen citation style.
• Include In-Text Citations: Place citations within the text or paragraphs for the case study.
• Create a References List: At the end of your case study, compile all your sources in a bibliography or reference list.

For case studies, citations in APA and MLA styles are very common. If you are just beginning, then you might be confused about these case study citation formats.

Hence, take a look at the picture below, which easily comprehends the APA vs MLA citation features. 

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Conclusion 

To summarize, if you want to write a case study, start with a proper case study format, plan the case study, and finally write it with all the information in hand. Then, write a summary to provide an overview of your case study, and finally, add citations for reference. 

Meanwhile, if you want to design a case study, Try DocHipo templates. Sign up to explore all the case study templates. 

What is the structure of a case study?

A case study typically includes the following sections: Title, Introduction, Background, Problem Statement, Solutions, Results, and Conclusion. Each section serves to tell a comprehensive story of the business, from the issue at hand to the resolution and outcomes.

What are the 5 essential elements of a great case study?

The 5 essential elements are: 1) Clear Objective, 2) Detailed Background, 3) Specific Challenges, 4) Effective Solutions, and 5) Measurable Results. These components provide a compelling narrative that highlights the value delivered.

How to begin a case study?

Start a case study by defining the purpose and scope of the study. Introduce the subject, outline the problem, and provide background information to give readers context. This sets the stage for the detailed analysis that follows.

How to make an introduction in case study?

To craft a compelling introduction, briefly describe the subject, outline the problem they faced, and explain why the study is relevant. This section should grab the reader’s attention and make them interested in the rest of the study.

How to make a business case study?

A business case study should begin with a clear objective and background information. Identify the problem, explain the solutions implemented, and conclude with the results achieved. Use real data and quotes from stakeholders to enhance credibility.

How to write a case study step by step?

To write a case study step by step, start by identifying the case you want to explore and gathering relevant data on the subject. Outline the structure of your case study, then craft an engaging Introduction to set the context. Next, detail the Background and Challenges faced, followed by the Solutions applied. Share the Results and Conclusion to highlight the impact. Finally, edit and proofread your case study to ensure clarity and accuracy.

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How to Make Case Study Videos in 10 Steps [Examples Included]

Confidence in your brand is important, but it’s only the beginning. To make a real impact, you need to back up your claims with solid proof. That’s where case study videos come in. Let your satisfied customers do the talking giving new leads an authentic view into your products and services. Let’s look at how to create case study videos easily.

Article Last Updated: August 23, 2024

What is a Case Study Video?

Types of case study videos, why are case study videos important, how and where to use your case study video, how to create an impactful case study video.

Who doesn’t enjoy a captivating story? That’s likely why case study videos have become so popular. They’re more than just stories as they offer a deep dive into real-world scenarios, featuring genuine people and authentic businesses. Through these videos, companies showcase the real impact of their products and services, whether it’s through documenting product development , cultural shifts, or community impact.

To bring these stories to life, tools like Zight can be incredibly useful. With Zight’s features like screen recording , GIF creation , and easy file sharing , you can capture every moment and detail seamlessly. Imagine using Zight to record a customer’s success journey or create engaging visuals to complement your narrative. It’s all about making your case study videos as compelling and impactful as possible.

The question is, what does a good case study video look like? Our guide below will cover every aspect of case study videos, from their purpose, creating compelling videos, exploring what makes them successful, and sharing practical case study video examples and tips to help you craft impactful case study videos that resonate and drive results. Let’s get into it.

A case study video is a type of video content that demonstrates how other people are successfully using and benefiting from a product. It focuses on real customer success stories to show the value of a company’s products or services. In a crowded market of claims and promises, these videos serve as credible proof that your business delivers on its promises.

The strength of a case study video comes from its relatability. When potential customers see themselves in your stories, it fosters a true connection. Seeing real people handle challenges makes your business appear more trustworthy and your solutions more appealing. After all, who could offer a more credible opinion to potential customers than someone who’s experienced your services firsthand?

How is a Video Case Study Different From a Written Case Study?

Both written and video case studies aim to convert customers, but video case studies have several specific advantages:

• More Persuasive : While written case studies require readers to interpret the message, video case studies present it directly from the customer, making the impact more immediate and convincing.
• More Engaging : Videos captivate with dynamic visuals, vibrant colors, and sound, making them far more engaging than dense blocks of text. Who wouldn’t prefer a lively video over a long read?
• Higher Conversion Rates : Video marketing campaigns are very effective. It’s not surprising, given how seamlessly videos can be optimized for mobile devices—something text-heavy content struggles with.

Like in any film or video genre, you’ll notice certain styles and tones that recur frequently. This is also true for case study videos, where you’ll come across several common types as you explore case study videos.

That said, there are different types of case study videos that your business can produce, with different levels of complexity. Each type of case study video has a specific customer problem and appeals to different aspects of your audience’s decision-making process. Depending on your objectives and the topic, choosing the right style of case study video can effectively communicate the message you want to share.

1. Customer Testimonials

This type of video is quite simple to make and is one of the easiest case study videos to make. In customer testimonial videos, you interview your happy customers about their experience with your business and its impact on their lives. Since it involves just a straightforward interview with the customer, you only need one filming location and minimal editing to create the video.

Product or service review case study videos provide a thorough look at your offering’s features, functionality, and benefits. They offer an objective assessment and serve as valuable resources for new customers.

Target Audience : These videos target potential customers who are researching your product or service and need detailed information to make an informed decision.

Testimonial Video Example:

This video is a standout example of customer testimonials. Instead of simply listing features, the interviews highlight the challenges the company faced and how Zoom provided effective solutions . The video’s concise length keeps viewers engaged while still delivering a complete and compelling story in one location.

2. Customer Reviews

Customer reviews are authentic insights that highlight a product’s real-world performance. Much like a customer testimonial video, a customer review video features a happy customer discussing your product or service. However, there’s a key difference: in a customer review video, the customer focuses more on the specific features of the product or service, rather than just the value it provided them.

Depending on your approach, such videos may include footage of the customer using your product on camera. Generally, most case study video testimonials follow a Q&A style of storytelling .

Creating a customer review video is straightforward. The interview portion requires just one shoot location and minimal editing. If you decide to add footage of the product in action, the shoot and editing process will be more complex.

Target Audience : These videos are aimed at potential customers who are actively researching your product or service. They provide detailed information to help them make an informed purchase decision.

Customer Reviews Case Study Video Example:

This customer review case study video features Lana Blakely who explains how Notion has transformed her personal and professional life. She breaks down specific features like databases, templates, and task management tools, showing real-life examples of how she uses the app to stay organized. The video includes screen recordings of how she navigates the Notion workspace, providing viewers with a visual understanding of how the platform functions. Any potential customer actively looking for Notion will find information about the tool and can be able to make an informed decision.

3. Case Study Narrative

This is the most complex type of case study video. A case study narrative video involves on-camera interviews with customers and B-roll visuals, such as footage of the customer using your product or your team engaging with the customer. Additionally, these videos often incorporate graphics and text overlays. Due to its complexity, creating this type of video content demands more shoot time, strategic planning, and extensive editing .

Narrative case study videos focus on storytelling , aiming to engage viewers emotionally by presenting a compelling narrative highlighting a customer’s journey from problem to solution, often emphasizing the transformative aspects.

Target Audience : Narrative case study videos are particularly effective for creating an emotional connection with viewers, engaging a wide range of audiences, including those in the awareness and consideration stages.

Case Study Narrative Video Example:

This video by LLLLITL is a case study of Dove’s “Turn Your Back” campaign, which was designed to raise awareness about the issue of body image. The video uses powerful storytelling to connect with viewers on an emotional level.

Case study videos can significantly enhance your video marketing strategy , particularly for B2B companies . They provide a rich, multi-faceted way to showcase a product or service and offer benefits beyond financial gains. Here is why they are important:

• Credibility and Trust : Case study videos provide authentic success stories that show how your products or services have made a real difference for customers. This helps build trust and credibility with potential clients.
• Engagement : Videos naturally draw people in more effectively than text or static images. With a case study video, you can tell a compelling story that keeps your audience engaged and interested.
• Demonstration of Expertise : These videos allow you to highlight your industry knowledge and position yourself as an expert. By showcasing real-world results, you establish your business as a reliable solution provider.
• Problem-Solution Narrative : Case study videos often follow a clear problem-solving structure, helping potential customers relate to the challenges and see how your product or service can address their needs.
• Personal Connection : Featuring customer interviews or testimonials adds a personal touch. Prospective clients can connect with real people who have benefited from your offerings, making your brand more relatable.
• Versatility : Case study videos are highly versatile and can be used across various platforms , including your website, social media channels, email marketing , and presentations . This ensures your success stories reach a broad audience.
• Measurable Impact : Including data and metrics in your videos demonstrates the tangible results achieved by your clients. This evidence of ROI can be very persuasive for potential customers.
• Lead Generation : Well-crafted case study videos can generate leads by addressing problems similar to those your potential customers face, making them valuable assets in your video marketing strategy.
• Storytelling : Effective visual storytelling in case study videos helps forge an emotional connection with your audience, making your brand memorable and engaging.

After perfecting your case study video, it’s time to share it with your target audience. But where should you promote it?

• Your Website – Embed the video prominently on your website’s homepag e or a dedicated landing page to make it easily accessible. Consider having a section just for case studies, giving prospects a convenient reference point.
• Social Media – Share the video on your company’s social media platforms like Facebook , Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram, and YouTube . Optimize it for each platform and actively engage with your audience through comments, likes, and shares to boost its visibility.
• Email Marketing – Include the video in your email marketing campaigns , especially targeting those interested in the topic. Adding the video to your email signature can also create a dynamic touchpoint.
• Sales and Marketing Presentations – Integrate the video into your sales pitches and marketing presentations . Real-world examples of success can be highly persuasive during client interactions.
• Content Marketing – Use the video in blog posts, articles, or other written content related to the case study’s topic. Create videos as teaser content from snippets to pique interest and direct viewers to the full video for more details.

Now that you have seen some examples of case study videos, you can now create your case study video. Case studies don’t always stick to a strict timeline or template, but some key steps are usually involved in creating a case study video. Follow these steps to create an engaging case study video that will resonate with your audience.

1. Identify the Right Story

The first step in crafting an attention-grabbing case study video is selecting the right story. You need a story that resonates with your target audience and showcases clear results.

For instance, if you run a software company like Zight, don’t just feature any client who used your software. Highlight businesses that experienced a boost in efficiency with your platform . Numbers like these provide concrete proof of your product’s effectiveness.

Your audience is looking for solutions, so your story should present a compelling example of how you’ve delivered just that. A thoughtfully chosen story sets the stage for a truly engaging case study video.

2. Ask Important Questions

The next key step is to craft the right questions. These will be the basis of your case study video.

• Start by setting the scene for your viewers : Ask about the customer’s initial problem. For example, “What issues were you dealing with before using our product?”
• Then, dive into the specifics : Analyze the customer’s decision-making process with questions like, “What pulled you to our product instead of others?”
• Finally, highlight the results : Ask questions such as, “How has our product made a difference in your operations?” or “Would you recommend our service to others?”

This thoughtful questioning will help create a well-rounded story, listing the problem, the solution, and the impact of your product or service.

3. Choose the Right Audience

You might have a great customer success story and perfectly crafted questions, but they won’t make an impact if they don’t resonate with your target audience’s needs and interests.

Imagine you’re showcasing Zight. Your audience could range from tech-savvy professionals to small business owners who aren’t as familiar with advanced tools. If your case study highlights a large corporation using Zight’s advanced features , it might not connect with a small business owner looking for simple and effective screen recording solutions .

Before diving in, do some audience research. What challenges are they facing? What solutions are they after? Tailor your case study video to address these, using language and examples that speak directly to their needs.

4. Plan Out the Storyline

To craft an engaging storyline for your case study video, you need to guide the viewer through a story that resonates. Start with a compelling introduction that highlights a common problem your audience faces, making it instantly relatable.

For instance, if you’re showcasing Zight, an issue could be the struggle businesses face with lengthy communication chains that slow down decision-making. Many teams feel this pain, making it an effective hook. Then, introduce Zight as the solution. This is where you spotlight its unique features—like screen recording and sharing capabilities—that streamline communication and boost productivity .

Support your claims with testimonials or expert opinions to add credibility. Hearing from satisfied users can make a significant impact.

Finally, wrap up by showcasing measurable results . Use statistics or before-and-after comparisons to emphasize how Zight made a difference. Conclude with a clear call-to-action, guiding the viewer on what steps to take next.

5. Conduct Background Interviews

Conducting background interviews is essential before you start filming. These pre-shoot conversations offer valuable insights that can enhance your storyline. They help you understand the full scope of the customer’s experience , adding richness and depth to your case study video.

These interviews also help you identify key talking points and decide who should be featured in the video. Whether it’s the CEO providing strategic insights or a front-line employee sharing day-to-day benefits, understanding this in advance ensures you capture the most relevant content, saving you time and effort during production.

6. Develop Your Script

The video script is the backbone to create engaging video content, pulling together visuals, dialogue, and pacing to create a cohesive story. Here’s how to craft one that leaves an impact:

• Start by outlining the key points you’ve gathered from background interviews and your storyline.
• Be clear and specific—rather than saying, “Our product is great,” highlight its strengths with something like, “Our software boosts productivity by 40%.”
• Keep the tone conversational yet professional to ensure your message resonates.
• Make sure the script flows smoothly, making complex ideas easy to understand.
• Consider using bullet points or numbered lists to emphasize key features or benefits.

Wrap up with a compelling call-to-action , guiding viewers on what to do next, whether that’s visiting your website or reaching out to your sales team.

7. Back it up with Data

Including data and statistics adds credibility to your case study video. While a compelling story captures attention, solid data reinforces your claims and makes your video campaigns more convincing.

Incorporate charts, graphs, or other visuals to present the data. Visual elements help make complex information more digestible and memorable. Ensure the data aligns with your storyline and addresses the needs or concerns of your audience.

8. Select the Right Location

The location you choose for your case study video adds depth and context to your story. Opt for a setting that complements the narrative and enhances its authenticity. For instance, if your case study involves educational software, filming in a classroom or school can make the story feel more genuine.

Your location should also resonate with your audience. Remember to consider practical aspects like lighting , sound, and permissions. The perfect location can fall flat if it has poor acoustics or requires difficult-to-obtain permits.

9. Create a Shot List

A carefully planned shot list is essential for a smooth filming experience. It details every shot you need, acting as a guide for your production team.

For example, if you’re capturing a customer testimonial, your shot list might include:

• Close-ups of the customer speaking
• Cutaways of the product in action
• Wide-angle shots to set the scene

Your shot list should specify the type of shots—wide, medium, or close-up—and any particular camera movements like pans or zooms. This ensures you capture all the crucial elements of your video marketing campaign from product details to emotional moments.

A shot list also helps you manage time and resources efficiently, allowing you to anticipate special equipment or lighting needs ahead of time, and preventing last-minute scrambling.

10. Shoot and Edit

This is where all your planning comes to life. Stick to your shot list and script during the shoot, but be open to capturing spontaneous moments that could enhance the story. High-quality equipment is necessary for clear audio and well-lit scenes —these technical details can elevate your final product.

Editing is where you shape the story , choosing the best shots to create a compelling narrative. Use cutaways, transitions, and background music to keep the pacing dynamic and the viewer engaged.

Pay attention to color grading, sound mixing, and special effects, ensuring they match the tone and message of your video. Avoid overdoing effects, as they can easily overshadow the content.

Now that you’ve seen how major brands craft their case study videos, let these examples spark ideas for your own. Use them to motivate your sales team , improve your video marketing strategy, and captivate your audience.

In addition, incorporating tools like Zight offers practical solutions such as screen recording and GIF creation, these videos not only tell a compelling story but also demonstrate how your product can deliver tangible results. What are you waiting for? Sign up and get started .

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Management Library

Some case studies can be found in article databases such as  EBSCO's Business Source Complete though most Harvard cases will not be available full-text. In addition, many schools sell cases for a small fee or provide some cases for free. You can either visit their individual websites (Darden, Harvard, INSEAD, Ivey, Kellogg, Sloan, and Stanford) or use an aggregator, such as  The Case Centre , to search and purchase a case study. At present, the library does not purchase cases used in Cornell classes as these are almost always part of the required class course pack.

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Here Is Your Case Study Analysis

If you want to quickly and effectively carry out case study analyses, you’ve come to the right place. Just for you, we’ve created a free AI-powered tool that can analyze case studies on any subject!

Our app will be the perfect solution for those who don’t want to spend a ton of time structuring their texts and looking for examples. Use it to save time and nerves!

• ️🎉 Benefits of Our Generator
• ️🤖 How to Use
• ️✨ Case Study Definition
• ️🔎 Structure of a Case Study
• ️✍️ Writing Steps
• ️🔝 Top 12 Topics & Examples
• ️🔗 References

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Keep in mind that the answers given by the tool are to be used for reference purposes only.

✨ Case Study Analysis Definition

A case study analysis aims to examine a problem and find a solution. It is traditionally used in business and other spheres, like education, healthcare, and social sciences. The main feature of such research is that it’s rooted in a real-world context.

Researchers use direct observations, interviews, tests, and samples to gather data for their case studies. This information is then applied to develop solutions and recommendations backed with evidence.

🔎 Structure of a Case Study Analysis

Usually, a case study analysis comprises 6 parts. Each one is dedicated to a certain aspect and serves its respective aim. Let’s go through them and see how they differ.

Introduction

An introduction defines the context of the examined topic and provides substantial background on the case study’s subject. When you write it, keep in mind the following questions:

• What is your case study about?
• What is the primary reason for your research?
• Why is it essential to conduct it?

Problem Statement

The next part introduces the central problem the study will be concentrating on. Typically, it’s concerned with a challenge faced by a person or organization in question. The problem statement provides a clear focus for the whole research.

Now, it’s time for the most gripping part—the analysis itself. When it comes to business problems, students can employ various approaches:

• SWOT analysis "> SWOT analysis  evaluates the firm’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
• Descriptive statistics recaps the main characteristics of the collected data using various measures.
• Identification of causes approach looks for the underlying reasons behind the issue.
• Stakeholder researches the perspectives of different stakeholders involved in the case.

This part proposes several ways to settle the issue in question. The solutions must be pragmatic and achievable. It’s also worth to mention their pros and cons and thus identify the most potent ones.

Recommendations

This part revolves around the best potential solution to the problem determined in the previous section. It explains how to execute it practically and how it will help eliminate the issue. It may also propose ways to deal with other minor dilemmas involved in the case.

Conclusions

Now, it’s time for the final section of the analysis: your  conclusions . Here is what to do:

• Restate the results of your case study analysis and elucidate how they relate to the research’s main problem.
• Be sure to underline how vital your study is and how it helps make the issue more controllable.
• Make further proposals based on your findings.

✍️ How to Write a Case Study

Now you know what to include in your case study. But how do you write one that is truly outstanding? Just follow our step-by-step guide:

1. Pick a Case to Explore

Choosing the right topic is essential. You need to do it early on to ensure that the research subject is sufficiently explored.

For example, suppose you want to examine how COVID-19 has affected the hospitality sector. In that case, you can choose either a representative case, such as a large hotel chain, or an outlier case, such as a small Bed and Breakfast that has managed to survive the pandemic. The latter case may sound more interesting, but if there’s not enough information available on it, it’s best to choose the former.

2. Formulate a Problem Statement

Now, you should clearly and concisely formulate the central problem you will be focusing on. To do it, answer the 5 Ws:

• What is the problem you’re researching?
• Who is affected by it?
• Where does it occur?
• When did the problem arise?
• Why is this issue significant?

If you need help with this part of your analysis, you can always use our research problem generator .

3. Gather Evidence & Collect Data

Data gathering can be done through both primary and secondary sources of information . You can use a range of research techniques, such as observations, surveys, and interviews. It is crucial to make sure the data you’ve collected is pertinent to the case study.

4. Describe Your Findings & Analyze Them

Next, you analyze trends and themes in your data. This analysis must be supported by facts and evidence. Use various analysis methods to make your study more in-depth.

5. Provide Solutions & Recommendations

Develop several possible solutions using the information you’ve gathered. Once you’ve done it, answer the following questions:

• What are the pros and cons of these solutions?
• Which one can be the most beneficial?
• How can the entity you’re analyzing implement it in practice?

The more detailed your recommendations are, the better. If possible, try to include aspects such as timeline, resource allocation, and KPIs for monitoring.

🔝 Top 12 Case Study Topics & Examples

Want inspiration for your analysis? Or maybe you need help picking a case to explore? Check out this list of topics with examples!

• Operations and Information Management: A Case Study of CC Music
• Netflix and Blockbuster: Case Study
• Strategic Planning Case Study: Process Management
• HRM Incident: Case Study Analysis
• Case Study Summary: Hiring a Sustainable Development Specialist
• Organizational Change: Qatargas Case Study
• Childhood Development Case Study
• Case Study of Engstrom Auto Mirror Plant and Workplace
• Strategic Marketing: Amazon Go Case Study
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Case Study
• Social Determinants of Health: Case Study
• Recovering Supply Chain Operations: A Case Study of Nissan

Now you know how to complete a case study! Remember that the tiring process of analyzing can be effectively streamlined if you use our free case study answer generator. Try it out—you won’t regret it!

We also recommend using our transition words maker and personal statement generator to enhance your writing.

❓ Case Study Analysis Generator: FAQ

❓ what questions to answer in a case study.

A case study must either prove or disprove an existing theory. It also aims to find a solution to the research’s central question. This question can vary depending on your topic and subject. You present the answer in your research findings and conclusions.

❓ How Do You Write a Case Study Analysis?

First, you introduce your case and provide its background. Then, you gather information and analyze it to develop several solutions. Finally, you propose the best solution and give recommendations on how to implement it. Also, remember to explain how your case study will deepen the existing knowledge.

❓ What Are the 4 Most Important Parts of Case Study?

Every case study begins with the introduction of a topic and its background. Then, you present an analysis of sources that can provide knowledge on the case. The third part is the analysis of collected data. Your case study ends with conclusions based on your findings.

❓ What Are Some Examples of Case Studies?

Case studies are frequently used in psychology to shed light on peculiar circumstances. Famous case study examples include Sigmund Freud’s Little Hans as well as John Martin Marlow’s study of Phineas Gage, the man who had a railroad spike driven through his brain.

Updated: Aug 21st, 2024

🔗 References

• Case Study: Definition, Examples, Types, and How to Write: Verywell Mind
• What Is a Case Study?: Evidence Based Nursing
• What the Case Study Method Really Teaches: Harvard Business Review
• Using Case Studies to Teach: Boston University
• What Is a Case Study? Definition, Elements and 15 Examples: Indeed
• Writing a Case Study: University of Southern California
• Writing a Case Study – Student Academic Success: Monash University

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• Open access
• Published: 28 August 2024

How does online postal self-sampling (OPSS) shape access to testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs)? A qualitative study of service users

• Tommer Spence 1 ,
• Alison Howarth 2 ,
• David Reid 2 ,
• Jessica Sheringham 1 ,
• Vanessa Apea 3 ,
• David Crundwell 4 ,
• Sara Day 5 ,
• Claire Dewsnap 6 ,
• Louise Jackson 7 ,
• Catherine H. Mercer 2 ,
• Hamish Mohammed 8 ,
• Jonathan D. C. Ross 9 ,
• Ann Sullivan 5 ,
• Andy Williams 3 ,
• Andrew Winter 10 ,
• Geoff Wong 11 ,
• Fiona Burns 2   na1 &
• Jo Gibbs 2   na1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  2339 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

7 Altmetric

Metrics details

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a serious public health issue in many countries. Online postal self-sampling (OPSS) is increasingly used to test for STIs, a trend accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic. There remains limited understanding of how service users experience OPSS and what leads them to access it over clinic-based services, or vice versa. This research seeks to address these gaps, by undertaking a large qualitative study which sits within the ASSIST study, a mixed-methods, realist evaluation of OPSS.

Participants were recruited via clinic-based and online sexual health services in three case study areas in England. Purposive sampling was used to over-represent populations disproportionately affected by poor sexual health: young people; people of colour; men who have sex with men; and trans and non-binary people. Semi-structured interviews were analysed using Levesque’s conceptual framework of access to healthcare.

We interviewed 100 service users. Participants typically became aware of OPSS from sexual health services, the internet or word of mouth. Acceptability of OPSS was facilitated by the perceived privacy it offered over clinic-based services, which some participants found embarrassing to access. OPSS also enabled participants to overcome barriers to reaching clinic-based services, such as a lack of appointment availability, although difficulty obtaining OPSS kits in some areas undermined this. As all services in our case study areas were free to use, affordability did not significantly shape access, although OPSS enabled some participants to avoid costs associated with travelling to clinic-based services. Participants were usually able to engage with OPSS, finding it easy to use and reliable, although blood self-sampling was challenging for most. Participants valued the support offered by clinic-based services beyond STI testing, including the opportunity to access contraception or ask staff questions, and felt this was more appropriate when they had specific concerns about their sexual health, such as STI symptoms.

Conclusions

Our findings constitute one of the largest qualitative studies to have explored OPSS and offer valuable insights to providers. OPSS shapes access to STI testing in a number of ways, including facilitating access in many circumstances, but users also want to retain access to clinic-based services, particularly for when they believe they need support beyond STI testing.

Peer Review reports

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a serious public health issue in many countries [ 1 ]. In England, diagnoses of chlamydia – the most common STI – are now stable, but syphilis and gonorrhoea diagnoses reached record levels in 2023 [ 2 ]. STIs in England are distributed inequitably across the population, with men who have sex with men (MSM), black ethnic minorities and young people aged 15–24 being disproportionately affected [ 2 ].

STI testing is crucial to enabling treatment and limiting onward infection [ 3 ]. Over the past decade, online postal self-sampling (OPSS) has emerged as an alternative to testing in sexual health clinics and other clinic-based settings. OPSS allows users to order a kit online, collect their own samples, post them to a laboratory for testing and receive results remotely [ 4 ]. Accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, when access to clinic-based services was restricted, usage of OPSS for chlamydia testing by young women aged 15–24 in England increased from 16% in 2018 to 43% in 2023 [ 2 , 5 ]. This transition has occurred in the context of a wider effort to digitise healthcare, which has included a national recommendation that sexual health services in England provide OPSS [ 6 ]. OPSS services have also been introduced, and demonstrated strong uptake, in other high-income countries [ 7 , 8 , 9 ].

Despite this increase in usage, there remains limited understanding of what leads service users to access OPSS over clinic-based services, or vice versa. Uptake of OPSS has been found to be significantly higher among some population groups – such as heterosexual women, white people, MSM and those living in less deprived areas – than others [ 4 ]. Populations with lower uptake include black ethnic minorities and teenagers, both of whom experience high incidence of STIs. If populations which have lower uptake of OPSS also face barriers to accessing clinic-based services, then this could be leading to widening of health inequalities and increasing unmet need. Poor return rates for OPSS kits are also a cause for concern, with 52% of kits ordered from some services not being returned [ 10 ]. This is socially patterned, with heterosexual men and those living in deprived areas the least likely to use kits they have received [ 11 ]. There is wider evidence of certain populations being excluded by the shift towards digital healthcare, including some people with disabilities and those with fewer socioeconomic resources [ 12 , 13 ].

Access to healthcare is viewed by Levesque et al. [ 14 ] as “the possibility to identify healthcare needs , to seek healthcare services , to reach the healthcare resources , to obtain or use health care services , and to actually be offered services appropriate to the needs for care” . As set out in Fig.  1 , they theorise that the ability of service users to progress through these stages of access is influenced by five dimensions of healthcare services: approachability; acceptability; availability; affordability; and appropriateness. Each of these dimensions corresponds with a parallel dimension of service user ability: ability to perceive; ability to seek; ability to reach; ability to pay; and ability to engage. This widely-used framework – which informed the design of our research – centres the perceptions and experiences of service users and allows facilitators and barriers to be explored, with a focus on socioeconomic determinants [ 15 ].

Conceptual framework of access to healthcare by Levesque et al. [ 14 ]

Existing research on access to STI testing within the context of OPSS is limited, with much of the literature exploring OPSS focusing exclusively on uptake [ 4 ]. Although several surveys have found high levels of acceptability of OPSS, these typically explore only the views of users who have successfully completed an OPSS pathway and are therefore affected by responder bias [ 7 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. They are also limited in how far they explore nuances in experiences. Qualitative research, which is well positioned to explore those nuances, has found that OPSS is acceptable to many people, in large part due to its perceived convenience and anonymity, but that many also have concerns around test accuracy, a lack of support when receiving results and inferior care compared to clinic-based testing [ 20 ]. Very few studies, however, have explored the experiences of users and those that have typically have small samples, or focus on a specific population or component of the OPSS pathway [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. It is therefore challenging to know the applicability of these findings to other contexts and to understand divergent views.

This study seeks to address this gap by qualitatively exploring experiences of OPSS, alongside other sexual health services, and how this influences service users’ decisions on how they access STI testing. Unlike previous research, it explores OPSS in three case study areas, with large samples in each, allowing comparison of perceptions and experiences in different contexts. It also explores users’ previous experiences of sexual health services in considerable depth, giving insight into their routes to different services, and their experiences of the entire OPSS pathway. This includes access to care in clinic-based services, when participants were directed to these following the completion of STI testing.

This research formed part of the ASSIST study, a mixed-methods, realist evaluation of the implementation and impact of OPSS [ 23 ]. One of the study’s objectives was to understand the impact of OPSS on access to care and the service user experience.

ASSIST evaluated OPSS in three case study areas, labelled CSA1, CSA2 and CSA3 for anonymity. Although distinct in many ways, all three areas are urban and were selected in part because of their highly diverse populations, in terms of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, age and LGBTQ + identity. Each has a unique delivery model for sexual health services, including OPSS, which was launched at different times in each area. CSA1 operates OPSS, alongside a number of clinics, as part of an integrated sexual health service, which in England describes services set up to address most sexual health needs, including contraception, HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and STI testing and treatment [ 6 ]. CSA2 operates OPSS as a standalone service, outsourced to a private sector partner. It is commissioned separately from, but works in partnership with, clinic-based integrated sexual health services across the city; two of these clinic-based services were selected as sites for this research, due to their high representation of populations of interest to this study. CSA3 delivers STI testing as part of a non-integrated sexual health service, with most contraceptive services in the area delivered separately and OPSS outsourced to a private sector partner. An overview of service provision in each area is provided in Table  1 . OPSS and other STI testing is available free at the point of use to residents in all three areas.

Sampling and recruitment

We aimed to recruit 30–45 participants per case study area and used a purposive sampling strategy to ensure participant demographics over-represented populations which disproportionately experience poor sexual health. Our quotas for each case study area were: 3–5 MSM; 7–10 people from ethnic minority backgrounds; 14–20 people under the age of 25; and 3–5 trans or non-binary people. We sought to include equal numbers of men and women, irrespective of whether they identified as trans. We also purposively sampled people who had used either one or both of OPSS and clinic-based services, as well as those who had received an STI diagnosis from OPSS, in order to gain insight into this aspect of the user journey. All participants were required to be 16 years or over, to speak English and to have accessed online or clinic-based sexual health services within the past 12 months, in the three case study areas.

Participants were recruited via OPSS or in sexual health clinics between December 2021 and February 2023. OPSS users saw a link on the landing page of the service website or at the end of the OPSS kit request form, which invited them to express interest in the research. Clinic users saw recruitment posters or were approached by clinic staff. Potential participants were screened according to their age; gender; ethnicity; sexual orientation; and previous use of sexual health services. Potential participants who fulfilled quota requirements were contacted by TS or DR, who explained the study and arranged a time for interview if they were interested in participating. Participants completed an online consent form ahead of the interview and consent was confirmed again verbally at the start.

Data collection

Data were collected via semi-structured interviews which explored participants’ use of the internet and online health services, their previous experiences of sexual health services (including, but not limited to, STI testing), their perceptions or experiences of the entire OPSS pathway (including ordering a kit, receiving and using it, returning it, receiving results and accessing treatment) and their perspectives on the appropriateness of different STI testing services in various contexts. The interview topic guide is provided as Supplementary Material 1. Participants had the choice of conducting their interview by phone, MS Teams or in person. They all received a £30 shopping voucher for participating. Interviews were conducted by TS, DR and AH, all of whom are professional researchers.

Data analysis

Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were reviewed for accuracy and to gain familiarity, before being pseudonymised, uploaded to NVivo software and coded using an inductive-deductive approach. This began with TS developing codes from the initial programme theory (IPT), developed by the research team as part of the wider realist evaluation, which hypothesised how service users would access and experience OPSS based on prior literature and clinician perspectives [ 23 ]. The IPT was developed from an initial logic model postulated by the research team before the study began (Supplementary Material 2), which set out to explain the introduction and impact of OPSS. It assumed that service users would perceive OPSS as: easy to find and access; convenient; easy to use and fitting in with 21st century life; providing privacy and minimising embarrassment or judgement by others; as ‘good’ a service as clinic-based services; and providing test results they could believe [ 23 ]. Additional codes were added inductively by TS from an initial sample of transcripts. Coding of the remaining transcripts was then undertaken by TS, DR and AH, who double-coded a selection of transcripts initially to check for consistency and codebook clarity. As analysis progressed, codes were continuously modified and added inductively. There were periodic meetings between TS, DR and AH to discuss new codes and their organisation into categories; meetings were also held with other members of the research team to discuss the analysis. The final code categories were organised into the dimensions of the Levesque et al. [ 14 ] conceptual framework of access, as it equipped us to understand the relationship between service users’ experiences of sexual health services and the determinants of using OPSS.

Participants

We interviewed 100 participants. All participants chose to be interviewed by phone, aside from one who interviewed in person. Full demographic information is set out in Table  2 .

Our findings are organised according to the Levesque et al. [ 14 ]. conceptual framework of access. The framework’s corresponding service and service user dimensions are presented together, giving five overarching determinants of access. For each, we have articulated a question that illustrates how we have applied the framework to OPSS.

Approachability and ability to perceive: Could service users identify clinic-based and online sexual health services and what prompted them to recognise a need to access them?

All participants were aware of clinic-based services, often viewing them as the default option for STI testing before becoming aware of OPSS. However, participants were also overwhelmingly aware of OPSS, in large part due to the efforts of services to promote it. They often discovered it while searching for STI testing services online, with OPSS often featuring prominently on search engine results, in social media adverts or on the websites of sexual health services:

“I went onto the [sexual health service] website trying to get an appointment and they told me I could order a home kit instead. So , I just went with that option […] I think that’s where the first time I saw it [was].” (Participant 17 , Black cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

Staff in services raised awareness of OPSS, for example by directing participants to use it instead of attending a clinic, particularly when access to clinics was restricted during COVID-19 lockdowns:

“I called the clinic up and thought I need to make an appointment , but the lady said oh , you can register for a self test online , and it will be out this week.” (Participant 62 , White cis lesbian woman , aged 20–24) .

Participants also reported being recommended OPSS as a test of cure, following treatment for an STI:

“I went in to get tested , it did come back positive , so they said to test again to make sure it has gone before you see other sexual partners […] which you can do through an online testing kit , so that’s what I did.” (Participant 45 , White cis gay man , aged under 20) .

Alongside proactive efforts by services to increase awareness of OPSS, many participants reported learning about it via word of mouth, often from friends or new sexual partners:

“I was talking to a best friend about it really because he’d done it before and he recommended how easier it was and stuff like that.” (Participant 53 , White cis heterosexual man , aged 20–24) .

The corresponding demand-side dimension of Levesque’s et al. [ 12 ] framework addresses service users’ ability to perceive services, which is shaped by factors such as health literacy and beliefs. Participants expressed a range of reasons that motivated them to access STI testing, many of which indicated a high level of sexual health literacy. New sexual partners were a trigger for many participants to get tested, usually because they had had a condomless sexual encounter – and were concerned about having contracted an STI – or because they wanted to transition to having regular sex without condoms. Some participants had tested due to a sexual partner notifying them that they had been diagnosed with an STI. Many also attempted to test regularly if they were sexually active, regardless of the status of their relationships:

“I’ve had multiple friends in relationships that their partner has cheated on them and they’ve had chlamydia without knowing for a really long time. So , I’m a little bit of a hypochondriac where I’m like- I want kids eventually. […] So , if I get tested every three months , if I’ve had chlamydia for three months , it’s less likely to have a long term effect.” (Participant 28 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 20–24) .

Participants were also aware that genitourinary symptoms were a reason to access testing and many had done so for this reason, either in their most recent testing experience or in an earlier one. However, they often believed that symptoms would mean it was more appropriate to get tested in sexual health clinics:

“I think if I knew I had symptoms I would go to the clinic […] but I think if I just , if I’d just had a new partner , or just had unprotected sex or whatever , I’d probably get the self-testing kit. Particularly as you can still get the blood test for the HIV in the self-testing kit as well , so I feel like unless I was experiencing at the minute , symptoms , or there was […] another thing that was going on , I probably would get the self-test kit.” (Participant 48 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

There were also participants who had less awareness of when or where to get tested, however, which was sometimes shaped by their cultural background. One participant, for example, only considered testing after her GP recommended that she do so:

“I’m not really from the UK , I live in [country] and I’ve moved here recently and STI is not really a test people do unless you have to , like it’s not very common to do STI tests so I didn’t think about it.” (Participant 33 , Asian cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

Acceptability and ability to seek: Did service users feel able to access clinic-based or online services within wider cultural and social norms?

OPSS appealed to many due to the privacy they felt it offered over clinic-based services, and there were specific elements of the OPSS pathway which participants focused on as underpinning the privacy of the service, such as the discreet packaging kits were delivered in:

“I thought it was very well packaged. So it comes in a brown box , it’s quite discreet. So I think if anyone was worried about , if they are living with friends or whatever their circumstances , as to oh someone is going to see that I am getting STD tested , it’s quite a discreet box.” (Participant 4 , Asian cis gay man , aged 25–34) .

Similarly, the opportunity to self-sample rather than have samples collected by a clinician appealed to many participants:

“I’m quite a squeamish kind of person and I don’t like to be prodded and poked as everybody doesn’t. So , for me I was like oh yes , that sounds really good because you do it in privacy , do it myself and just send it off.” (Participant 73 , Asian cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

The option in some case study areas to collect OPSS kits, rather than having them posted, enhanced the perceived privacy of the service to some participants whose living situations meant that they felt they could not have a kit posted to their home:

“My dad’s a bit nosy at times. So a box probably comes through the letterbox he’d probably most likely open it to see what it is. And then if he does do that , that will be difficult for me explaining to him what it is.” (Participant 76 , Asian cis bisexual man , aged 35–44) .

The perceived privacy of OPSS contrasted strongly with many participants’ perceptions of sexual health clinics, which they often felt required uncomfortable waits among other service users, or awkward interactions with staff. Concerns about stigma were raised by a number of participants, even some who had had positive, non-stigmatising interactions with staff in clinics:

“I have got to say , the staff that I’ve come across at the NHS for sexual health specifically , have been absolutely wonderful. But I think with STI testing there is still societally such a stigma against it that I think when you are going for testing it’s invariable to have some of these […] anxieties.” (Participant 5 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged under 20) .

These concerns were also held about other clinic-based services, such as general practitioners (GPs). Although a number of participants had accessed STI testing opportunistically via their GP – and they did not feel the same concern about being seen in a GP practice, as no one in the waiting room would know their reason for being there – some still felt uncomfortable discussing sexual health with their GP:

“There are times when I’ve been to the GP for stuff like that , you almost get the talk of like what you should be doing and what you shouldn’t be doing and that sort of thing. And whereas like they don’t do that at the sexual health clinics , which I think is , is what you’d want , like […] you are there for a reason , you don’t want to be like told off at the same time.” (Participant 48 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

There were also concerns from some younger users that a GP they shared with their family may be less confidential, for example if test results were routinely sent to a parent’s mobile phone. There were participants, however, who felt a GP was the most familiar and confidential option, at least in circumstances when they felt they need to be examined by a clinician:

“I go to the doctor’s for my contraception and […] smear tests and all of those things. So for some people if the clinic is somewhere where they already go to do all those other things , they might not have so much of a problem with going to the clinic whereas I don’t. I go to my doctor’s for those things. If I had symptoms , I would go to my doctor.” (Participant 52 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 45–54) .

The communication of results was a component of STI testing which some participants felt compromised the acceptability of the service, particularly in the case study area which used SMS for this. Although participants were typically satisfied with results delivery, some had concerns that an SMS containing test results could be seen by others – a scenario which one participant had experienced:

“I was sitting at dinner with friends and my phone was face up on the table. Everyone at the table had known that I was waiting on results so it wasn’t a big deal but had I been with others who weren’t , then they would have seen the results of my sexual health screening.” (Participant 10 , Mixed ethnicity cis man , aged 20–24) .

This concern was not expressed in relation to the two OPSS services which required users to log into an online portal in order to see their results.

The corresponding service user dimension of Levesque’s et al. [ 14 ] framework focuses on the ability to seek healthcare, within the context of societal norms and rights. As all of our participants had successfully accessed STI testing, this was not a strong feature of our data and there were contrasting views between participants about the role their identities played in access. There were many who felt their identities had no impact on which services they might use:

“I’ve never felt like me being the skin colour I am or whatever is going to affect me wanting to go to a sex clinic or anything really. No , I’ve never felt that way.” (Participant 9 , Black cis heterosexual man , aged 35–44) .

There were a number of MSM, however, who felt that they were more easily able to access all STI testing services with less risk of stigmatisation due to cultural norms within their community and efforts by services to ensure they were inclusive:

“Being Indian not really , I don’t think that has impacted anything. I think the one thing about being gay is that I think you are just more aware of the importance of sexual health and regular testing. I think it’s drilled into you quite early in your sexual experience , when you come out.” (Participant 4 , Asian cis gay man , aged 25–34) .

Trans and non-binary participants also often felt that sexual health services – whether OPSS or clinics – were more inclusive than more generic services offering STI testing, such as pharmacies:

“Doing it through a pharmacy did mean that even though I was , my partner was a woman at the time , I was still being pushed contraceptives , which was not a pleasant experience […] I do think that if I was someone who was more sensitive to those issues it might have caused me distress. So, but like I have mentioned , I did really appreciate that [sexual health service] seems to be quite mindful about the gendered language that they are using.” (Participant 90 , White bisexual non-binary , aged 25–34) .

Although many appreciated that sexual health clinics were more trans-inclusive than other health services, trans and non-binary participants tended to prefer to test using OPSS, in part because it removed the risk of being misgendered or the burden of having to explain their gender identity.

Younger participants often felt they faced barriers accessing STI testing, although this led to different preferences in terms of service usage. There were some who were concerned about OPSS usage being identified, due to it arriving to their family home in the post, while others were more reluctant to use clinic-based services:

“At that age , because it’s your first time approaching the topic of contraception […] it was a bit daunting. You go on your own , because you are a little bit shy , so it’s a bit daunting , going in person.” (Participant 85 , Black cis woman , aged 25–34) .

Availability and ability to reach: How did the design , location and opening hours of sexual health services influence whether participants were able to access them?

This was another clear and strong influence for our participants. Almost all perceived OPSS as relatively convenient, particularly in terms of time saved and reduction in travel compared to attending clinic-based testing services, such as sexual health clinics:

“I am usually very , very limited for time , so […] I’ve missed maybe once or twice some appointments. So just the convenience of having a test kit come to your house , and you being able to test yourself , that’s […] very , very convenient. And then having to send it back , that’s pretty convenient.” (Participant 21 , Black cis heterosexual man , aged 25–34) .

Convenience also shaped how some participants chose to use OPSS, for example by posting their kit back for testing rather than dropping it off at a designated location:

“[Posting is] the easiest way I think. I think anything else would require me to get in the car and drive somewhere or interact with someone or , you know , to a post office and have to queue up or whatever. Whereas that’s just straight there , dropped off , straight back.” (Participant 51 , White cis heterosexual man , aged 25–34) .

The perceived convenience of OPSS stands in stark contrast to most participants’ perceptions of sexual health clinics. There was a widely-held view, often based on personal experience, that getting an appointment at a sexual health clinic was extremely challenging or time-consuming:

“I’ve not tried for a while but trying to get an appointment with [the sexual health clinic] was a little bit like trying to buy Glastonbury tickets. You have to be online at the exact right moment and you have to get lucky on top of that.” (Participant 26 , White bisexual non-binary , aged 35–44) .

Similarly, many participants spoke about the long waits which they expected or had experienced in clinics, even in circumstances where they had managed to get an appointment:

“The wait was a lot longer than I thought it was going to be […] I had to wait for like three hours which was really kind of , inconvenient. And annoying.” (Participant 49 , White non-binary , aged 20–24) .

The time and costs associated with travelling to attend clinics were another inconvenience for some participants:

“I was working and I’d have to take time out of work. I’d have to travel to the hospital. I’d have to have paid for parking. I’d have had to get there […] If I’d gone to a clinic , it would have easily took me maybe three , four hours to travel there and back , wait there.” (Participant 57 , Mixed ethnicity cis gay man , aged 25–34) .

There were participants who had experiences in clinics they felt were quick, however, for example in clinics which implemented effective processes to minimise waiting times:

“After the first visit I seen [sic] one particular nurse and then he gave me a number , it might have even been a direct number to book into upstairs and the real good thing about that was there was no waiting times at all. So , if your appointment was at four you would get seen at four , so that I really , really liked.” (Participant 11 , White cis gay man , aged 35–44) .

There were also issues around the availability of OPSS in some circumstances, which presented a barrier to access. For example, one case study area saw delivery and processing times increase considerably during the COVID-19 pandemic:

“I think the first time I got it , it did take a little while to get to my house. So , I was a bit annoyed , I wish I’d got it sooner in the post than I did […] I could have been seen to quicker if I’d just made an appointment.” (Participant 17 , Black cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) . “I’ve ordered the kit online and I think it took three months for the kit to arrive and it’s been three or four weeks since I’ve done the test and I’ve still not had the results.” (Participant 78 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

Another case study area introduced a cap on daily OPSS orders during our data collection, which made it challenging for some participants to access this option:

“The only issue I have is this time it said all the packs had been ordered but it came up like that for five times a day for three days on a roll , so I think they’d maxed out.” (Participant 54 , White bisexual non-binary , aged 25–34) .

Similarly, some OPSS services restricted how often users could order a kit. This was frustrating for some participants, who felt they were doing the right thing for their sexual – and for public – health but being impeded by the service provider:

“The only bad thing about it is the fact that they don’t let you have more than a certain amount. Like the quota. And it makes you feel bad about yourself. It’s like , why won’t you just let me have a test? […] Because you’re trying to be responsible and get checked out.” (Participant 58 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

Affordability and ability to pay: What was the cost of accessing sexual health services and can users afford this?

As all of the services included in this research were free to access, these dimensions were not strongly present in our data. However, many participants explicitly praised the fact that STI testing was available for free to them, particularly OPSS. This view was expressed particularly strongly by a number of people who were migrants to the UK when comparing sexual health services here to their countries of origin:

“I was a bit shocked that they were free and they would pay for delivery then pay for the delivery back and also do all this stuff and it’s all like written out and it’s just a lot of effort. I was pleasantly surprised because we definitely don’t have those in [my country of origin].” (Participant 92 , White cis heterosexual man , aged under 20) .

There were also a number of participants who had used, or considered using, private OPSS services and valued that this was available to them for free:

I did click on the [high street pharmacy] one first and I did look at all the different tests and the test for everything was like £120 […] If those tests had been cheaper and they’ve been like £15 , I might have only got to that point and just gone , oh , well , for £15 I don’t have to go to a clinic. I don’t have to take time off work. I’ll just pay for that and just do it because that would feel like not that much money. (Participant 52 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–54)

As noted earlier, some participants chose to access OPSS due in part to costs associated with attending clinic-based services, such as parking.

Although it did not necessarily shape their own access, some participants expressed a perception of limited NHS resources. This led a number to accept service standards which were below their desired levels:

“Okay so I’d say that the walk-in clinics […] it’s a good and a bad. Like you’d wait for hours sometimes […] which obviously is not ideal. But at the end of the day I see it as , it’s a free service. And if there was more medical like staff to do it then yes , that would be the ideal world but we all know that we’re short staffed.” (Participant 14 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 20–24) .

Some participants also expressed this view when discussing the wait for OPSS kits to be delivered in the case study area which experienced service disruption during the COVID-19 pandemic, although others were more critical of the delays.

There were also participants who chose OPSS over attending a clinic to preserve NHS resources for others they felt had greater need than them:

“It frees up appointments for people that need them , because I know they only do a certain amount a day, which I completely respect , because you can only do so much in one day , and there’s people that will need in-person appointments a lot more than just me.” (Participant 80 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged under 20) .

Appropriateness and ability to engage: Did services meet users’ health needs and did users have the capacity to do what services require of them?

Participants typically felt that OPSS was appropriate to meet their needs, with many sharing that they felt it was able to provide results quickly and accurately:

“I usually get those back within a week , week and a half , so it’s quicker to find out the results online which is [why] I use them […] I tested positive before so I know they’re obviously picking stuff up.” (Participant 55 , White cis gay man , 25–34) .

However, there was also a strong consensus among most participants that they should be seen in clinic-based in circumstances where they deemed themselves to be at higher likelihood of having an STI, such as when they were presenting with symptoms. This appealed to some participants as they felt it would enable them to be examined by a medical professional, to discuss their concerns with a clinician, receive quicker results and treatment, particularly in the case study area which experience delays in processing OPSS kits following the COVID-19 pandemic. Another appeal was the opportunity clinics offered to be tested for a wider range of STIs:

“Postal testing is very limited […] if you go somewhere like [sexual health clinic] […] they search for a range of things. So trichomoniasis you can get tested for , BV because they have the laboratory , they test for thrush if it may be thrush.” (Participant 7 , Black cis heterosexual woman , 25–34) .

There were a number of participants who valued these qualities of clinic-based testing, irrespective of whether they were concerned they had an STI, although for many the convenience of OPSS superseded these positive aspects. There were also participants who felt that clinics enabled better access to further care, such as contraception, PrEP or vaccines for conditions like hepatitis B:

“They talked about PrEP and were like , ‘Do you want to get on that? Go online and we can set up an appointment for you next week.’ So I’m actually going in next week to have my first PrEP appointment which is great. They were telling me about all the tests that they were doing and how I would get results back via text and that was great. I think the thing that surprised me the most was that I was able to get the vaccinations done right there and then.” (Participant 10 , Mixed ethnicity cis man , aged 20–24) .

Participants who had received a positive result via OPSS, however, often stated that they saw little difference in the pathway they subsequently followed. There were also some who had accessed additional care as a result of using OPSS:

“I got the testing kit […] and it was great that it actually showed that I’m not hep B immune , which actually prompted me to get my vaccination this year.” (Participant 2 , White cis gay man , aged 35–44) .

There were also a small number of participants who shared that they had deliberately given false responses to order an OPSS kit, in order to avoid attending a clinic, even when they thought that it might be more appropriate for their health needs:

“If you do have symptoms which ordinarily would require you to go to a [clinic] but […] there are no slots of , you know , convenient , in terms of time , you are more likely to say ‘Right well okay then , I will answer the questions in such a way that it does enable me to get this kit.’” (Participant 9 , Mixed ethnicity cis gay man , aged 55–64) .

The corresponding demand-side dimension of the framework addresses whether users have the ability to engage with a service. Most participants found OPSS easy to use, particularly in terms of ordering kits and – thanks to clear instructions – collecting urine, vaginal, oropharyngeal and rectal samples:

“So for me [self-swabbing has] always been fine , really easy. Like no problems , like the instructions are there , it tells you what to do.” (Participant 58 , White cis heterosexual woman , aged 25–34) .

Participants were typically confident with their self-swabs and urine samples, although some said they would be more confident if they had been obtained by a clinician.

There was a widespread view, however, that blood self-sampling was prohibitively difficult and unpleasant. Lots of participants had difficulty obtaining enough blood, despite following the instructions in the kit closely. This meant some received invalid HIV and syphilis test results, leading them to attend a clinic for repeat testing:

“It was very hard to get the blood out of. So I just ended up binning it because it was a nightmare […] It was painful […] I would have needed to literally slice my finger open and have the blood dripping in it for it to fill up.” (Participant 19 , White cis gay man , aged 35–44) .

There were a small number of participants who refused to use OPSS again following difficulties self-sampling blood, although others stated that it got easier with repeat usage and some had no difficulty at all. There were also a number of participants who accessed OPSS with a friend or partner, in some cases to get support with blood self-sampling:

“One person I’ve helped do them quite a lot. We would find that her blood taking is really difficult. It takes ages. Whereas , for me it was really quick , my blood just came out straightaway. But for her it takes so long.” (Participant 35 , Asian cis heterosexual woman , aged under 20) .

Other participants spoke about previously attending sexual health clinics with friends, to overcome barriers such as embarrassment and anxiety, with one saying that OPSS enabled them to get tested when a companion was not available to attend a clinic:

Interviewer: Okay. But previously , you’d always gone into the clinic. I guess , why did you choose to look for online services then? Participant: Just because- I didn’t really go into the clinic all that often because I didn’t get tested previously. But […] I have anxiety , so I don’t really like going places on my own , and that. And obviously , I couldn’t always have someone with me. (Participant 60 , Mixed ethnicity cis heterosexual woman , aged 20–24)

We found that service users’ experiences of OPSS and other sexual health services shaped their future access to STI testing in a number of ways, as identified by the Levesque et al. [ 14 ] conceptual framework of access. Service users usually had a longstanding awareness of clinic-based services, while their awareness of OPSS typically came from being directed towards it by sexual health services, discovering it online or receiving an informal recommendation from a friend or partner. The acceptability of, and ability to seek, OPSS was facilitated by the perceived privacy it offers over clinic-based services, with many participants reporting that they felt embarrassed or uncomfortable when attending a sexual health clinic. However, MSM and trans participants often felt that specialist sexual health services – including OPSS – were inclusive towards them. The availability and ability to reach OPSS was predominantly influenced by its perceived convenience, as it enabled participants to avoid travel to clinics and waiting for an appointment, although difficulty obtaining OPSS kits in some areas undermined this. Affordability and ability to pay did not demonstrably shape access, as OPSS and clinic-based services were all free at the point of use, although some associated costs were a barrier to clinic-based testing, such as parking. In respect to appropriateness and ability to engage, participants generally found OPSS easy to use, aside from blood self-sampling, and were confident in its reliability, but felt that the holistic support offered by clinic-based services would be more appropriate in situations where they were particularly concerned about having an STI or another sexual or reproductive health issue.

Our findings are consistent with previous qualitative studies on OPSS, which have also identified convenience and privacy as strong facilitators to access [ 16 , 18 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. As most previous studies had explored OPSS as a hypothetical scenario and did not include the perspectives of people who had experienced using OPSS, our findings add significant weight to the evidence indicating that these qualities facilitate access in practice. However, we also found that the ways in which OPSS is delivered can affect the impact of convenience and privacy as facilitators. Services which heavily restricted the availability of OPSS, for example, or which had long processing times for kits, were more likely to have users who felt clinic-based testing was a more convenient option.

Existing research has also identified concerns among some prospective users about self-sampling, such as worries about discomfort or samples being inaccurate. However, these were partially refuted by our data, highlighting the value of exploring the views of people who have used services [ 28 , 31 ]. We found that participants overwhelmingly consider OPSS easy to use, including the vaginal, oropharyngeal and rectal swabs, and have confidence that these samples are sufficiently accurate. However, most participants struggled considerably with blood self-sampling, which offers insight to studies which have identified poor return rates for the blood component of OPSS kits [ 32 ]. Studies of prospective users have also found mixed views on the acceptability of blood self-sampling [ 27 , 28 , 30 ]. This research also identified facilitators to blood self-sampling, such as repeat usage, having access to multiple lancets and taking a sample with the support of another person. Our findings on participant satisfaction with self-swabbing and/or urine sampling highlight a limitation of our study: our sample’s relatively high health literacy. Research by Middleton et al. [ 21 ]. found that people with a mild intellectual disability saw the prospect of self-swabbing as overwhelming and challenging, something which we did not identify frequently in our data. However, to date there have been no studies exploring the experiences of people with mild intellectual disabilities who have accessed, or attempted to access, OPSS.

Our findings offer insight into how people enter and leave the OPSS pathway, a topic which has not previously been explored. As with previous research, exploring access to clinic-based sexual health services, we found that new sexual partners and symptoms were common prompts for participants to access testing [ 33 ]. However, we also found that sexual health services and social networks both played a significant role in enabling many of our participants to access OPSS, with some even doing so with friends or partners. This contrasts with some previous research which found that people often attempt to keep their use of sexual health services secret, even from friends, although some studies have also found social networks to be a route into accessing other sexual health services, such as PrEP [ 34 , 35 ].

Access to further or more comprehensive care was part of the reason many participants valued the care on offer at clinics, at least in cases of high need, and there is some existing evidence supporting this perception. Bosó Pérez et al. [ 36 ]. found that people using remote sexual health services during the COVID-19 pandemic were less satisfied during more sensitive and emotional consultations, even though many recognised its value in other circumstances. Day et al. [ 37 ]. also reported challenges in identifying OPSS users who had experienced sexual assault, and providing them with adequate support. However, another study by the same research team found that OPSS operating procedures are effective at identifying and actioning safeguarding concerns with teenage users [ 38 ]. It is noteworthy that many of our participants who had tested positive for chlamydia or gonorrhoea using OPSS did not feel their treatment and care beyond this point was compromised or differed from what they would have experienced if they had tested at a sexual health clinic.

The communication of results is a key component of any STI testing pathway and there have been inconsistent findings from previous studies about service user preferences for how results are delivered. Research exploring the views of prospective users of OPSS had identified a range of preferred media for results communication, including SMS, email and phone, although with concerns among some about confidentiality and the lack of support from a healthcare professional [ 16 , 24 , 26 , 30 ]. Studies which have explored users’ experiences of OPSS results have found high satisfaction with both online portals and SMS [ 22 , 39 ]. Our findings corroborate this, with users of both methods typically expressing satisfaction. Although some users did have privacy concerns about SMS, it was not clear that this played a significant role in access.

Strengths and limitations

This study is, to our knowledge, the largest qualitative exploration of OPSS, as well as the first to include users of different OPSS services. This allowed us to capture a wide range of perceptions and experiences, while also comparing and contrasting between different methods of delivering OPSS, in different contexts. The use of the Levesque et al. [ 14 ] conceptual framework of access enabled us to explore a wide range of facilitators and barriers to accessing both OPSS and clinic-based STI testing, including a number – such as participants’ awareness of, and ability to seek, OPSS alongside other testing options – which have received limited attention in prior research. The study sample was also highly diverse, as a result of our efforts to include populations of interest, such as young people, people of colour, MSM and trans people.

The study was limited by the fact that we found it difficult to recruit participants who had no experience of OPSS, despite this population being a key demographic in our sampling strategy. This was partially a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic and its after-effects, which were ongoing during our data collection and had restricted access to clinic-based services. Staff in clinics also had limited capacity to support recruitment of service users who may not have accessed OPSS. We also found it challenging to recruit service users with low digital literacy, and did not analyse the impact of participants’ socioeconomic status, meaning we could not draw conclusions on these as barriers to access. As previously discussed, our sample typically had reasonably high sexual health literacy, as having tested for STIs was one of our inclusion criteria, and all participants were inherently comfortable discussing sexual health, having volunteered for the research. This made it challenging to explore these factors as barriers.

Access to STI testing in the context of OPSS was shaped by a range of factors, including privacy, convenience, self-perceived risk, ability to self-sample and the opportunities users have to learn about OPSS. Commissioners and service providers seeking to improve access to STI testing should consider how the way services are delivered can reinforce facilitators to access, for example by minimising OPSS processing times and enabling kits to be collected as an alternative to home delivery, while also maintaining access to clinic-based testing for those who face barriers accessing OPSS. There would be value in further, targeted research exploring very marginalised populations whose perspectives have been insufficiently explored in the literature to date, such as those who are digitally excluded or who have never accessed OPSS, alongside populations which demonstrate persistently lower uptake of OPSS, including black ethnic groups, heterosexual men and people living in deprived areas.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available, as participants did not consent to this. Questions about the data can be directed to JG, Co-Chief Investigator, on [email protected].

Abbreviations

General practitioner

Initial programme theory

Men who have sex with men

Online postal self-sampling

Sexually transmitted infection(s)

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Acknowledgements

We thank the participants for sharing their time and experiences with us. We also thank the staff in our research sites who supported participant recruitment. We dedicate this paper to the memories of Prof Elizabeth Murray and Dr Naomi Fisher, who were co-applicants on ASSIST and made invaluable contributions to the study design.

This study is funded by the NIHR Health and Social Care Delivery Research Programme (NIHR129157). The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care.

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Fiona Burns and Jo Gibbs are joint senior authors.

Authors and Affiliations

Institute of Epidemiology and Health Care, University College London, London, UK

Tommer Spence & Jessica Sheringham

Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK

Alison Howarth, David Reid, Catherine H. Mercer, Fiona Burns & Jo Gibbs

Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK

Vanessa Apea & Andy Williams

Lay representative, London, UK

David Crundwell

Chelsea and Westminster Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

Sara Day & Ann Sullivan

Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK

Claire Dewsnap

Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Louise Jackson

STIs and HIV Division, Blood Safety, Health Security Agency, Hepatitis, London, UK

Hamish Mohammed

University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK

Jonathan D. C. Ross

NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde, Glasgow, UK

Andrew Winter

Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

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Contributions

The study was conceived by FB and JG and designed by FB, JG, JS, LJ, GW and AH. Data were collected by TS, DR and AH. Data were analysed by TS, DR and AH, with input from JG, FB and JS. The manuscript was drafted by TS and revised by JG, FB, JS, AH and DR. VA, DC, SD, CD, LJ, CHM, HM, JDCR, AS, AW, AW and GW contributed to the interpretation of findings and critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version.

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Correspondence to Tommer Spence .

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This study was approved by the NHS South Central – Berkshire B Research Ethics Committee (21/SC/0223). All participants provided written informed consent.

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VA is a Medical Director of Preventx; FB has received speaker fees and an institutional grant from Gilead Sciences Ltd. The authors declare no other competing interests.

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Spence, T., Howarth, A., Reid, D. et al. How does online postal self-sampling (OPSS) shape access to testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs)? A qualitative study of service users. BMC Public Health 24 , 2339 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19741-x

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Here are all the details you’ll need to know for the utes matchup vs. the thunderbirds on thursday night..

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The Utes enter 2024 as the preseason favorites to win the Big 12 after leaving the Pac-12 this summer. Their contest vs. the Thunderbirds is the first of six home games to occur at Rice-Eccles in 2024.

A new era begins on Thursday 👊 🎟️: https://t.co/3bcL8PReol #GoUtes https://t.co/RHgwUZMnNH — Utah Football (@Utah_Football) August 24, 2024

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