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The Ultimate Guide to Using Metaphors in Presentations and Speeches

Metaphors are one of the often-forgotten tricks among presenters. Along with other figures of speech such as similes, analogies personification, and alliteration, they make your texts more engaging, memorable and eloquent. As well, metaphors serve as a great tool for breaking down complex concepts into more digestible statements.

In this guide, we’ll show you how to artfully use metaphors in your presentations and speeches. And you can scroll down to the bottom part for 25+ metaphor examples. Let’s dive in!

Defining the Metaphor

Finance Growth Metaphor PowerPoint Template by SlideModel

A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two things, people, ideas, etc.by stating that one is the other. The two are not similar, of course, and the purpose of the comparison is for emphasis, symbolism, or adding humor/color to an author’s language.

A few famous metaphor examples are as follows:

• “All the world’s a stage” – William Shakespeare
• “Conscience is a man’s compass” – Vincent Van Gogh
• “You ain’t nothing but a hound dog, been snoopin’ round my door, you can wag your tail, but I ain’t gonna’ feed you no more” – Elvis Presley, “Hound Dog” Song.

The Simile vs. the Metaphor

As mentioned earlier, metaphor is just one of the many speech figures you can use to create comparisons.

A simile is the second most used tool for that. Both the simile and the metaphor compare two, unlike things. A simile, though, compares these two by using the words “like” or “as.” Thus, “He was like a pressure cooker, ready to explode.”

As a metaphor, this statement would be, “He was a pressure cooker, ready to explode.”

The Analogy vs. the Metaphor

An analogy is a lengthier comparison, a short narrative that explains the relationship between two different things. A metaphor makes a comparison using a short phrase, to provide emphasis but not a full explanation. The metaphor is left for the listener or reader to form in his own mind.

So, an analogy might read, “A captain is to his ship as a coach is to his team.”

The metaphor might read, “A coach is the captain of his ship.”

Why Use Metaphors in Your Presentations and Speeches

Message in a Bottle Metaphor PowerPoint Design by SlideModel

Speeches and presentations, particularly those that have a lot of information, data, and perhaps some tough concepts, can turn an audience off. They may suffer from overload, confusion, and, probably most often, plain boredom.

Metaphors can help you cope with all of the above in the following way:

Metaphors can help an audience visualize something intangible in a tangible way

What, for example, does “reliable” really mean? You can use synonyms like “trustworthy,” but they are intangible too. Gerald Zaltman, the author of Marketing Metaphoria , uses the example of insurance companies and the metaphors they use to convey reliability – Traveler’s umbrella, Allstate’s hands, and Prudential’s rock.

Here are a few more metaphors that tangibly allow visualization of the intangible.

• Love is : a garden, a nutrient, an experiment, a thrill ride, a battlefield, a fine wine
• Truth and Justice : Truth is solid; Justice is a liquid
• Freedom : Freedom is a gust of wind letting you spread your wings.

Source: Gear & Puzzle Metaphor illustration by SlideModel

Many companies use what are called “deep metaphors” as they market their products. Deep metaphors are more complex and lengthy metaphors based upon some intangible such as peace, relaxation, and even joy and freedom. Harley-Davidson is a great example pointed by Zaltman in his book . The metaphor is that riding a Harley is the same as those intangibles, and they provide great visuals people can access in their minds.

Organic food companies use metaphors in their marketing all the time. Thus, processed foods with lots of additives are pollution to the body. Organic foods, on the other hand, are the cleansers of the body.

They engage an audience by giving them something they can relate to

People have many situations in common to which they can all relate – procrastination, lack of focus, not enough time to get everything done, lack of sleep, accidents, etc. Each of these can be the subjects of metaphoric comparisons.

Lack of focus can be compared to a cluttered closet, for example . That cluttered closet is disorganized, things are strewn about in no order, and finding important items can be very tough.

Procrastination is a thief of time. Time metaphors, in fact, are some of the most common metaphors used in speeches and presentations on many topics. And they are also often used in literature:

• “Time is an equal opportunity employer…” The Joy of Working by Denis Waitley
• “Time is but the stream I go fishing in.” Walden Pond by Henry David Thoreau
• “Time is a gift, given to you…” “The Phantom Tollbooth” by Norton Juster

Metaphors are persuasive

Politicians often use metaphors to provide a persuasive context for the points they want to make and to get listeners to “buy-in” to their beliefs, opinions, and proposals.

Martin Luther King was a master of metaphors in both his speeches and writings. And those metaphors made his works so much more compelling. Consider just a few from his famous speech, “I Have a Dream.”

• “Seared in the flames of injustice,” referring to the seeking of justice but being denied due to racism
• He also refers to the “vast ocean of prosperity” and the “lonely island of poverty”
• He speaks to the inequality of justice as the “storms of persecution”

Presidents have used metaphors in speeches to garner support for what they want to do.

• In his 1933 inaugural address, Franklin Roosevelt compared the people, fighting together to beat the Depression as an army. “I assume unhesitatingly the leadership of the great army of our people dedicated to a disciplined attack upon our common problems.”
• President John Kennedy needs support for the cost of his space program. At a dedication of the Aerospace Medical Center in Texas, he stated, “America has tossed its cap over the wall of space,” indicating that the U.S. would enter the space race and win.
• Bill Clinton, in his inaugural address of 1993, announced a major shift in the policies and goals. “And you have changed the face of Congress, the Presidency, and the political process itself. Yes, you, my fellow Americans, have forced the spring. Now we must do the work the season demands.” Spring has always been a metaphor for new beginnings and hope, especially in poetry.

Finally, they can move the common up to new levels

For instance, instead of merely stating the expected and boring “our new software is a great sales tool”, you can reinforce your idea and pack in additional context by saying that: “Our new sales software is a rocket ship that will catapult your business to the stratosphere of productivity”.

Source: Metaphor illustration by SlideModel

How to Start Using Metaphors in Your Speeches and Presentations

Effective metaphors should simplify the concept, not leave the audience wondering what exactly you were trying to say. Thus, it takes a bit of practice and some creative thought to come up with great metaphors. Below are several quick tips to help you with that.

Use a Metaphoric Theme

Instead of coming up with a series of scattered metaphors, stick with one theme. Doing so will help you maintain interest and avoid confusion.

For example, if you are saying that your app has “Zeus-like powers”, continue with the Greek mythology theme within the rest of your presentation. You can further state that dealing with some industry problems is similar to battling a Medusa and sometimes to find the right solution and get out of the labyrinth, one will need an Ariadne thread.

This trick of using themed metaphors is also called “extended metaphor”.

Custom Metaphors Should Always Be Relevant

It may be tempting to come up with truly out-of-the-box metaphors. But don’t rush to do so. After all, the audience will best relate to metaphors that are relevant and within their experience. Otherwise, they’ll fail to fully grasp the concept you are pitching and feel disengaged.

Use Metaphors to Add Some Spice to Data

Audiences may hear the figure $1 trillion but almost ignore that figure because it is hard to visualize in their heads. So, how about using a time metaphor? “One dollar is one second in time. One trillion dollars is 32,000 years in seconds. Our National Debt is over $23 trillion, so that is 23 times 32,000. Who has the answer for how many years that is?”

Add a Metaphor to The Opening Slide to Set a Scene

When you can use a great, engaging metaphor for your opening slide in a presentation, you will grab attention right away. If you can pique curiosity and interest upfront, your audience is far more willing to “tune in.”

Close with a Metaphor for Additional Emphasis

If you began with the metaphor, “Turn Your Work into a Box of Chocolates,” and you have used that extended metaphor throughout your presentation, then that metaphor should carry through to your closing. If you have compared each type of candy in that box to a type of task (hard nut, creamy centers, medium-soft caramels, etc.), then speak to the order in which they might be prioritized or varied to achieve maximum productivity.

A Big List of Metaphor Examples For All Types of Topics

Free Business Growth Metaphor Template for PowerPoint by SlideModel

Business Metaphors

• Products are solutions . This is a relatively new type of business metaphor and is often used in marketing collateral. The concept is that people buy products to solve a problem they have – they want nicer skin, a reliable car, a better phone, etc. Marketers offer solutions to these needs and problems.
• Business growth is horticulture . This metaphor is somewhat common but spot-on when entrepreneurs think about the step-by-step process that occurs. Seeds are sown and require water and sunlight (investment). Growth cannot be rushed, and if nourished properly and sequentially, the harvest (success) will be great.
• Companies are ships with a captain and designated roles and responsibilities for everyone on that ship. Again, this is common but quite neat.

Metaphors for Success

• “She’s the kind of girl who climbed the ladder of success wrong by wrong.”, Mae West.
• “The sweet smell of success.” – a novelette by Ernest Lehman and musical based upon the novelette.
• “Failure is the condiment that gives success its flavor.” – Truman Capote

Metaphors for Freedom

• “I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice” Martin Luther King’s ‘I Have a Dream Speech’ in 1963
• “I can taste the aroma of liberation” – Poem “Of Surrealism and Reality” by Millard Lowe.
• Freedom is a bonfire that began as just a few sparks from twigs. It grows as you do and your idea of freedom matures over time.

Metaphors for Ideas

• An idea can be a wall. It stops you dead in your tracks and forces you in a new direction.
• “A library, to modify the famous metaphor of Socrates, should be the delivery room for the birth of ideas…” – Norman Cousins
• “Bobby Holloway says my imagination is a three-hundred-ring circus.” Seize the Night by Dean Koontz

Metaphors for Leadership

• “You are pioneers. Nobody has been where you’re going. So, it’s your job to go there and leave a trail. It’s everyone else’s job to follow.”   Delaine Hampton, speaking to her team charged with a new research initiative at Proctor and Gamble.
• Fear of any challenge is a giant, and until that giant is whittled down to a smaller and manageable size, a team can succumb to that fear. It is the leader’s job to whittle down that giant to a manageable and conquerable size. – Metaphor adapted from a story told by Paul Smith, keynote speaker and author of the book, Lead With a Story.
• A leader is a conductor of a symphony. – Martha Denton, consultant and presenter, and founder/CEO of The Presentation School.

Metaphors for Hard Work

• Hard work is rowing upstream. It may seem like you are making little progress, but, step by step, you do reach your destination.
• Those who work hard are lasers. They are focused beams of light that stay on target.
• “Life for me ain’t been no crystal stair” – from “Mother to Son” by Langston Hughes

Metaphors for Time

• Time is a parade. It marches forward, no matter how big the crowd, no matter how many or few cheers there are, and no matter what the weather. Using time wisely means ignoring all of these distractions.
• Time is an enemy for those who waste it.
• “Time’s a trap, I’m caught in it.” from “The Handmaid’s Tale” by Margaret Atwood

Metaphors for Knowledge

• Knowledge is light. It eliminates the darkness of ignorance and lack of understanding.
• “Knowledge as Love” Keynote Address by Daniel Andriessen at the 8th European Conference on Knowledge Management, 2007
• “Knowledge is power” attributed to Sir Francis Bacon from his “Meditationes Sacrae.”

Metaphors for Growth

• Business Growth: “Small microelectronic companies suddenly sprouted all over the valley.: – Ian Mackenzie, Professor of Financial English, Heinle Cengage Learning.
• Personal growth is a bamboo tree. No one can see that growth for four years. But in the fifth year, it comes forth and grows exponentially. – Tom Speaks, Impact Group Leadership Academy.
• “We grow like one note becoming a tune” Tyler Stenson, songwriter.

The topic list of metaphors is almost in-exhaustible. Your speech or presentation might use metaphors for strength, metaphors for change, or metaphors for productivity or teamwork. The overall point is that, if you can use a metaphor to make something more relevant or engaging, then do so. Just don’t overdo. An entire speech or presentation filled with metaphors will turn your audience off too. And avoid mixed metaphors. People cannot be eagles soaring in the sky and flowers that blossom at the same time – this is just confusing.

Figurative language has stood the test of time. It is used by authors, famous philosophers, inventors, scientists, politicians, songwriters, TV personalities, and, yes, far less famous people who write and make speeches. Metaphors are one of the most popular because they can provide visual, relevant, and unique comparisons of two very unlike things. Consider incorporating their use in your next speech or presentation – you may find your audience response quite positive.

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Using Visual Metaphors to Enhance Your Storytelling in Presentations

What is a visual metaphor.

Why use visual metaphors in presentations?

There are several benefits to using visual metaphors in presentations. First, visual metaphors can help make complex ideas or concepts more relatable and understandable to your audience. By using an image or representation that your audience can easily understand, you can help them better grasp the concept you are trying to convey.

Second, visual metaphors can help make your presentation more memorable. People tend to remember visual information more easily than verbal information, so using visual metaphors can help your audience remember your message more effectively.

Third, visual metaphors can help engage your audience and make your presentation more interactive. By encouraging your audience to interact with the visual metaphor, you can make your presentation more interactive and engaging.

How to combine visual metaphors with verbal storytelling in presentations

• The first step in using visual metaphors in your presentation is to choose a relevant and meaningful image or representation. Your visual metaphor should be related to the story you are telling and should help your audience understand the concept you are trying to convey.
• Incorporate the visual metaphor into your presentation in a way that helps illustrate and reinforce your message. You can use the visual metaphor to introduce your story, emphasize key points, or create a sense of continuity throughout your presentation.
• Another effective way to use visual metaphors in your presentation is to create a visual representation of your story, such as a timeline or a flowchart. This can help your audience better understand the progression of events in your story.
• Use your visual metaphor to engage your audience and make your presentation more interactive. You can do this by asking questions or having your audience participate in activities related to the metaphor.
• Make sure you understand how to effectively use the visual metaphor in your presentation, how exactly it will work, and have a clear plan for how you will incorporate it into your storytelling.

Some examples of visual metaphors that support storytelling

Imagine you are giving a presentation on the process of creating a successful marketing campaign. You could use a visual metaphor of a gardening process to represent the stages of creating a successful marketing campaign. You could use the various steps of gardening, such as preparing the soil, planting seeds, watering and fertilizing, and harvesting the crops, to represent the different stages of a marketing campaign, such as researching and planning, creating and implementing the campaign, and measuring and analyzing the results. By using this visual metaphor, you can help your audience understand the process of creating a successful marketing campaign in a more relatable and visual way.

Or how about this one: Imagine you are giving a presentation on the importance of effective communication in the workplace. You could use a visual metaphor of a bridge to represent the concept of effective communication. You could use the various parts of the bridge, such as the foundation, pillars, and roadway, to represent the different components of effective communication, such as establishing trust, setting clear expectations, and actively listening. By using this visual metaphor, you can help your audience understand the importance of effective communication and how it can help facilitate productive and successful relationships in the workplace.

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35 Metaphors for Powerful Communication

Hrideep barot.

• Communication

Metaphor in communication is more than just a literary device; it’s a dynamic force that transforms language into a tapestry of vivid imagery, emotion, and understanding. As we embark on an exploration of the significance of metaphors, we unravel a world where words transcend their literal meanings, offering a profound impact on how we perceive, connect, and convey ideas. 

What Are Metaphors?

Why use metaphors in communication, what is a metaphorical way of speaking, how do metaphors impact a speech and its message.

• 25 Most Powerful Metaphors You Can Use In Your Speech
• 10 Persuasive Metaphor Examples

Metaphors are figures of speech that involve describing one thing in terms of another, suggesting a resemblance or analogy between them. They are a form of symbolic language that helps convey complex ideas, emotions, or concepts by drawing parallels between familiar and unfamiliar elements. Metaphors are prevalent in everyday language, literature, and various forms of communication.

Here are a few examples of metaphors:

Time is money – This metaphor suggests that time, like money, should be spent wisely and invested in valuable activities.

The world is a stage – This metaphor implies that life is like a theatrical performance, with individuals playing different roles.

He has a heart of stone – In this metaphor, the person is not literally made of stone, but it suggests that the person is emotionally cold or insensitive.

People use metaphors in communication for various reasons, and the use of metaphors serves several important functions:

1. Clarity and Understanding:

Metaphors are often used to make complex or abstract concepts more accessible. By drawing parallels with familiar experiences or objects, metaphors help clarify and simplify ideas, making them easier for others to understand.

2. Vivid Imagery:

Metaphors create vivid mental images that can enhance the overall impact of communication. Instead of relying on plain, literal language, metaphors paint a more vibrant picture, capturing the audience’s attention and imagination.

3. Emotional Expression:

Metaphors are powerful tools for conveying emotions . They allow individuals to express feelings and experiences in a way that goes beyond straightforward language, evoking a deeper emotional response from the audience. In psychotherapy, metaphors can be powerful tools for helping individuals express and understand their emotions. Therapists often use metaphors to create a shared language with their clients, making it easier to explore and communicate complex feelings and experiences.

4. Persuasion and Influence:

Metaphors are frequently employed in persuasive communication . By framing ideas or arguments in a metaphorical context, communicators can appeal to emotions, making their message more compelling and memorable.

5. Memorability:

Metaphors make information more memorable. The use of figurative language can create lasting impressions, aiding in the retention and recall of information.

6. Creativity and Innovation:

Metaphors encourage creative thinking and innovative approaches. They help break down mental barriers by associating known concepts with new or unfamiliar ideas, fostering a more imaginative and open-minded mindset.

7. Cultural and Contextual Connection:

Metaphors often rely on shared cultural or contextual knowledge. By using metaphors that resonate with a specific audience, communicators can establish a deeper connection and enhance understanding.

8. Simplification of Complex Ideas:

Metaphors simplify intricate concepts by providing a bridge between the known and the unknown. They serve as cognitive shortcuts, enabling communicators to convey complex information in a more digestible form.

9. Enhanced Communication Impact:

Metaphors add depth and impact to communication . They can transform mundane or routine messages into more engaging and thought-provoking interactions.

10. Aesthetic Appeal:

Metaphors contribute to the beauty and aesthetics of language. They make communication more interesting and enjoyable, appealing to the sensory and imaginative aspects of language use.

11. Cultural Identity and Tradition:

Metaphors are often deeply rooted in cultural identity and tradition. They can be used to preserve and transmit cultural values, beliefs, and wisdom from one generation to another.

While metaphors offer numerous benefits, it’s crucial to consider the context and audience when using them. Different cultures and individuals may interpret metaphors differently, and overusing or misusing metaphors can lead to confusion or miscommunication. Effective communication involves a balance between creativity and clarity, ensuring that metaphors enhance rather than hinder understanding.

Metaphors are present not only in literature, poetry, music, and writing but also in everyday speech. When someone adds the phrase “metaphorically speaking” to their statement, it’s a signal that the words should be interpreted more as a creative expression or idea rather than a literal truth. This phrase suggests a figurative or symbolic meaning, encouraging listeners to consider the deeper, non-literal implications of what was said.

A metaphorical way of speaking involves using metaphors to convey ideas, emotions, or concepts. Metaphors are figures of speech that compare one thing to another, suggesting a similarity or analogy between them. Instead of expressing ideas directly, metaphorical language relies on the power of imagery and association to create a deeper understanding or evoke a particular response from the audience. This use of figurative language adds depth, vividness, and often emotional resonance to communication.

Psychology recognizes the significance of metaphors in various aspects of cognition, communication, and understanding.  The Conceptual Metaphor Theory developed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson posits that metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon but a fundamental part of human thought. It suggests that we understand and structure abstract concepts in terms of more concrete experiences. For instance, the metaphor “Time is money” reflects the conceptualization of time as a valuable resource.

Metaphors play a significant role in shaping the impact of a speech and influencing how the message is perceived by the audience. Here are several ways in which metaphors can affect a speech and its message:

1. Influence on Perception:

Metaphors act as cognitive filters, shaping how the audience perceives and interprets information. They provide a lens through which concepts are understood, emphasizing specific aspects and downplaying others. For instance, describing a business setback as a “temporary storm” implies that it will pass, influencing the audience to view challenges as transient rather than insurmountable. Describing a challenge as a “mountain to climb” emphasizes the difficulties but also implies the potential for triumph, shaping how the audience perceives and approaches the obstacle. This framing can significantly impact how individuals approach and respond to difficulties.

2. Persuasion and Emotional Resonance:

Metaphors are potent tools for persuasion because they engage emotions. When a speaker uses metaphors to create vivid, emotionally charged imagery, it resonates with the audience on a deeper level. This emotional connection enhances the persuasive impact of the message. Consider the metaphorical power in John F. Kennedy’s famous line, “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” By framing civic duty as a reciprocal relationship, Kennedy stirred a sense of responsibility and loyalty among the American people. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous metaphor, “I have a dream,” vividly painted a picture of a harmonious future, inspiring and persuading millions by appealing to their shared aspirations.

3. Power of Evocative Examples:

Metaphors derive much of their power from the use of evocative examples that draw on shared cultural or historical knowledge. These examples serve as anchors, grounding the metaphor in a context that the audience can readily understand. Winston Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” metaphor, delivered in his famous speech in Fulton, Missouri in 1946, vividly depicted the ideological divide between the democratic West and the communist East after World War II. The use of this metaphorical imagery helped simplify a complex geopolitical situation for a wide audience, making it more accessible and impactful. These examples create lasting images that resonate and linger in the minds of listeners, influencing their perspectives long after the speech concludes.

In summary, metaphors wield influence by shaping perception, leveraging emotional resonance, and drawing on evocative examples. By understanding the cognitive, emotional, and cultural dimensions of metaphors, speakers can craft messages that not only capture attention but also leave a lasting impression on the audience’s perception and understanding.

25 Most Powerful Metaphors You Can Use In Your Speech:

Metaphors can be powerful tools in communication, and their effectiveness often depends on the context and audience. Here are ten strong and impactful metaphors that can enhance your speech:

1. “The Tipping Point”

Usage: The sudden surge in public interest and support for renewable energy reached a tipping point , catalyzing a widespread shift towards sustainable practices.

This metaphor, popularized by Malcolm Gladwell, refers to the critical moment when a situation undergoes a significant and irreversible change. It’s effective for conveying the idea that small actions or events can lead to major consequences.

2. “The Ripple Effect”

Usage: The implementation of eco-friendly initiatives by the leading tech giant caused a ripple effect, inspiring other companies to adopt sustainable practices.”

This metaphor illustrates how a single action or event can set off a series of consequences, spreading outward like ripples on the surface of water. It’s often used to emphasize the far-reaching impact of individual choices or decisions.

3. “The Elephant in the Room”

Usage: During the team meeting, everyone avoided discussing the elephant in the room—the declining morale and dissatisfaction among employees.

This metaphor is used to describe an obvious problem or issue that everyone is aware of but chooses to ignore. It’s powerful for addressing uncomfortable truths or unresolved issues within a group or organization.

4. “Burning Bridges”

Usage: In an unfortunate turn of events, the outspoken critique by the executive ended up burning bridges with key stakeholders, jeopardizing crucial partnerships for the company.

Describing a decision as “burning bridges” implies a deliberate and irreversible action that severs ties or closes off future opportunities. It’s a strong metaphor for emphasizing the finality and consequences of a particular choice.

5. “Climbing the Ladder of Success”

Usage: With each successful project, she was steadily climbing the ladder of success, earning recognition and promotions within the company

This metaphor is often used to convey the idea of progressing through different levels of achievement or improvement. It’s effective for illustrating the step-by-step journey toward a goal.

6. “The Butterfly Effect”

Usage: The small decision to invest in a startup had a butterfly effect, influencing the entire industry and reshaping the landscape of technology innovation.

This metaphor suggests that a small, seemingly insignificant event can have far-reaching and unpredictable consequences. It’s useful for emphasizing the interconnectedness of events and actions.

7. “Turning Over a New Leaf”

Usage: After facing numerous challenges, he decided to turn over a new leaf and embrace a healthier lifestyle, leading to positive changes in both his personal and professional life.

Describing a personal transformation or change in behavior as “turning over a new leaf” signifies a fresh start or a commitment to positive change. It’s a powerful metaphor for personal growth and renewal.

8. “Weathering the Storm”

Usage: Despite the economic downturn, the resilient company focused on innovation and adaptability, weathering the storm and emerging stronger in the face of adversity.

This metaphor is often used to describe enduring and overcoming challenges or difficulties. It conveys the idea that challenges are temporary and can be weathered with resilience and perseverance.

9. “The Glass Ceiling”

Usage: Despite her talent and qualifications, she felt the weight of the glass ceiling as she struggled to advance in the male-dominated corporate hierarchy.

Describing an invisible barrier that limits advancement or progress, the metaphor of “the glass ceiling” is often used in discussions about overcoming societal or professional barriers.

10. “Planting Seeds of Change”

Usage: The passionate activist spent years planting seeds of change in the community, fostering a movement for social justice and equality.

This metaphor implies the intentional and strategic effort to initiate positive transformation. It’s effective for conveying the idea that small actions, like planting seeds, can lead to significant long-term change.

11. “The Writing is on the Wall”

Usage: With declining profits and increased competition, the writing is on the wall for the struggling business, signaling the need for a strategic overhaul.

This metaphor suggests that clear signs or indications point to a particular outcome or conclusion.

12. “Burn the Midnight Oil”

Usage: In order to meet the project deadline, the dedicated team had to burn the midnight oil, working late into the night to ensure success.

Describing someone as “burning the midnight oil” means they are working late into the night, often to meet a deadline.

13. “All That Glitters is Not Gold”

Usage: While the glamorous lifestyle seemed appealing, she soon realized that all that glitters is not gold, and true happiness lies in meaningful connections and experiences.

This metaphor advises caution, suggesting that not everything attractive or appealing is necessarily valuable or genuine.

14. “Caught Between a Rock and a Hard Place”

Usage: Caught between a rock and a hard place, the decision to either cut costs or risk losing valuable employees posed a difficult dilemma for the company.

This metaphor illustrates being in a difficult situation with no easy solution, emphasizing the feeling of being trapped.

15. “The Ball is in Your Court”

Usage: After presenting the proposal, the ball is in your court, and the success of the project now depends on your ability to secure support and resources.

This metaphor, derived from sports, signifies that it is now someone else’s turn to take action or make a decision.

16. “The Apple of My Eye”

Usage: Ever since I met her, she’s been the apple of my eye, bringing joy and warmth into my life

Describing someone as “the apple of my eye” expresses deep affection or love for that person.

17. “All Roads Lead to Rome”

Usage: In the world of ancient history, all roads lead to Rome, highlighting the city’s central importance in the Roman Empire.

This metaphor suggests that there are many different paths or methods to achieve the same goal. It’s often used to emphasize the flexibility and variety of approaches available.

18. “A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words””

Usage: The powerful photograph captured the devastation of the natural disaster, proving that a picture is worth a thousand words

This metaphor highlights the idea that visuals or images can convey complex ideas more effectively than a large amount of text. It’s often used to underscore the power of visual communication.

19. “In the Same Boat”

Usage: Facing a common challenge, we realized we were all in the same boat, navigating through the complexities of the project together.

This metaphor signifies that individuals or groups are facing similar challenges or circumstances. It emphasizes a sense of shared experience and commonality.

20. “Throw in the Towel”

Usage: After numerous failed attempts, he decided to throw in the towel and explore other opportunities.

This metaphor means giving up or surrendering in the face of challenges. It’s often used to convey the idea of accepting defeat or relinquishing a pursuit.

21. “Bite the Bullet”

Usage: Despite the pain, she chose to bite the bullet and confront the difficult conversation head-on.

This metaphor encourages facing a difficult or unpleasant situation with courage and resilience, suggesting that one should endure hardship without hesitation.

22. “Back to the Drawing Board”

Usage: The initial plan didn’t yield the expected results, so it was back to the drawing board to reassess and redesign the strategy.

When plans or ideas need to be reconsidered or redesigned, this metaphor is commonly used to convey the need to start over or rethink a strategy.

23. “The Tip of the Iceberg”

Usage: The controversy surrounding the public figure was just the tip of the iceberg, revealing deeper issues that needed to be addressed.

This metaphor refers to a small, visible part of a much larger issue or problem. It’s often used to emphasize that there is more complexity or depth beneath the surface.

24. Walking on Eggshells”

Usage: With delicate negotiations underway, everyone was walking on eggshells to avoid escalating tensions.

Describing a situation as “walking on eggshells” signifies a delicate or sensitive environment where caution is necessary to avoid causing problems.

25. “A Breath of Fresh Air”

Usage: The promotion of sustainable practices in the company was like a breath of fresh air, bringing positive change and a renewed focus on environmental responsibility.

This metaphor expresses the feeling of relief or renewal, often associated with a positive change or a new perspective.

Remember that the impact of a metaphor depends on how well it aligns with the context of your speech and resonates with your audience. Tailor your metaphorical language to suit the specific message you want to convey and the emotions you want to evoke.

10 Persuasive Metaphor Examples:

Here are ten persuasive metaphors, each with a unique focus:

1. “A Beacon in the Storm”

Usage: Amidst the chaos and uncertainty, her leadership served as a beacon in the storm, guiding the team with unwavering strength and optimism.

This metaphor emphasizes the persuasive power of being a guiding force during challenging times, offering a sense of stability and direction.

2. “Seeds of Change”

Usage: The community garden, where neighbors came together to plant seeds of change, blossomed into a symbol of unity and transformation.

Describing innovative ideas or initiatives as “seeds of change” implies the potential for positive transformation and growth, appealing to the idea of sowing the groundwork for a better future.

3. “Opening Pandora’s Box”

Usage: The decision to investigate the company’s financial practices was akin to opening Pandora’s box, revealing a complex web of corruption and deceit that had far-reaching consequences.

This metaphor suggests that taking a certain action will lead to a cascade of consequences, whether positive or negative. It can be used to underscore the potential impact of decisions.

4. “A Bridge to the Future”

Usage: The investment in cutting-edge technology serves as a bridge to the future, connecting the present to a realm of innovation and limitless possibilities.

Describing a plan or initiative as “a bridge to the future” emphasizes the persuasive notion that the current actions will pave the way for positive developments and long-term success.

5. “The Domino Effect”

Usage: The policy change in one country had a domino effect across the global economy, impacting trade, markets, and international relations in unforeseen ways.

This metaphor illustrates how a single event or action can set off a chain reaction. It’s effective for conveying the persuasive idea that a small change can lead to significant, widespread consequences.

6. “Harvesting Success”

Usage: After years of hard work, strategic planning, and dedication, the company is now harvesting success, reaping the benefits of its relentless pursuit of excellence.

Describing the culmination of hard work and effort as “harvesting success” can be persuasive by portraying success as a tangible and rewarding outcome of dedication.

7. “Turning the Pages of Progress”

Usage: As we embrace technological advancements and innovation, we find ourselves turning the pages of progress, each chapter revealing new opportunities and possibilities for the future.

This metaphor suggests that making strides in a particular area is akin to turning the pages of a book, with each step representing a new chapter of progress and achievement.

8. “A Tapestry of Collaboration”

Usage: The successful completion of the project was not the result of individual efforts but rather a tapestry of collaboration, where diverse skills and perspectives were woven together to achieve a common goal.

Describing teamwork or cooperation as “a tapestry of collaboration” underscores the persuasive idea that diverse contributions come together to create a harmonious and impactful whole.

9. “The North Star of Purpose”

Usage: Amid challenges and uncertainties, the organization’s commitment to its mission serves as the North Star of purpose, guiding decisions and actions with a steadfast focus on making a positive impact.

This metaphor invokes the idea of a constant, guiding purpose that directs actions and decisions. It’s persuasive by emphasizing the importance of a clear and unwavering objective.

10. “A Symphony of Solutions”

Usage: In addressing the complex issue, the collaborative efforts of various experts and stakeholders created a symphony of solutions, harmonizing diverse perspectives to effectively tackle the challenges at hand.

Describing the process of problem-solving as “a symphony of solutions” implies that each element contributes to a harmonious resolution. It’s persuasive in conveying the effectiveness of a well-coordinated and comprehensive approach.

In conclusion, the use of metaphors in communication is not merely a linguistic flourish but a powerful tool that can significantly enhance the impact and resonance of your message. Metaphors have the unique ability to bridge the gap between the abstract and the concrete, making complex ideas more accessible and memorable. As we’ve explored, metaphors influence perception, evoke emotions, and offer a creative lens through which audiences can engage with and understand information.

To harness the persuasive potential of metaphors, consider incorporating them into your speeches, presentations, or everyday conversations. Their ability to create vivid imagery, appeal to emotions, and simplify complex concepts makes them invaluable in various communication contexts. By leveraging metaphors, you not only enhance the clarity and memorability of your message but also foster a deeper connection with your audience.

As American cognitive linguist George Lakoff aptly stated, “Metaphors can kill, and metaphors can create. Our language, the way we talk and think, can be a matter of life and death.” This underscores the profound impact metaphors can have on shaping perceptions and influencing decisions. So, embrace the power of metaphors in your communication, and in the words of poet Sylvia Plath, “I talk to God but the sky is empty,” discover the richness and depth that metaphors can bring to your expression. Start weaving these linguistic gems into your discourse and unlock a world of nuance and creativity in your communication.

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Figures of Speech: Essential Guide for Effective Communication

Figures of speech are essential components of language that add an extra layer of depth and nuance to communication, enhancing written and spoken content. These devices are used in various forms of literature, including novels, poems, essays, and plays, as well as in everyday conversations. By intentionally deviating from the literal meanings of words or phrases, figures of speech grant writers and speakers the ability to emphasize, clarify, and enrich their message.

There are numerous types of figures of speech, each with its unique characteristics and stylistic effects. Some common examples include metaphors, similes, hyperboles, and personification. These instruments of figurative language allow individuals to create vivid images, comparisons, and expressions, capturing the reader or listener’s imagination and conveying ideas more effectively.

Incorporating figures of speech into one’s writing or speech can make a significant impact; it can make the text more engaging, help the audience connect with the content on a deeper level, and provide an element of creativity. The skillful use of these literary devices can also set one apart as an exceptional writer or speaker, leaving a lasting impression on readers and listeners alike.

Types of Figures of Speech

A metaphor is a figure of speech where a word or phrase is used to represent something else, usually by suggesting a common quality or characteristic between the two. For example, “Time is a thief” is a metaphor that implies time steals moments from us, just like a thief would.

A simile is a type of metaphor that uses “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two unlike things. An example of a simile is, “Her smile is as warm as the sun.”

Hyperbole is a figure of speech that uses extreme exaggeration to emphasize a point or evoke humor. For example, “I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.”

Irony is a figure of speech in which the intended meaning of a word or expression is opposite to its usual or literal meaning. For instance, saying “How nice!” when something unpleasant happens.

An oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two contradictory terms are used together, such as “deafening silence” or “jumbo shrimp.”

A paradox is a statement that seems contradictory or absurd but may express a deeper truth. An example is, “The more you learn, the more you realize how little you know.”

• Personification

Personification is a figure of speech in which human qualities are attributed to non-human things or abstract concepts. For example, “The wind whispered through the trees.”

A pun is a play on words that exploits the multiple meanings or similar sounds of words, often to create a humorous effect. An example is, “I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t make enough dough.”

• Alliteration

Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words or syllables in close proximity. For example, “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.”

Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with it, such as “the White House” to mean the US president’s administration.

Antithesis is a figure of speech in which contrasting ideas are expressed by the use of parallel structures. For instance, “To err is human; to forgive, divine.”

• Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which words mimic the sound they represent, like “buzz” or “drip.”

Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part represents the whole or vice versa. For example, “all hands on deck” means all crew members should help.

Understatement

Understatement is a figure of speech in which something is expressed with less strength or emphasis than it deserves, often for ironic effect. For instance, “It’s just a scratch” when referring to a deep wound.

Apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses an absent person, an abstract idea, or a thing as if it were present. For example, “O death, where is thy sting?”

Litotes is a figure of speech that uses understatement by negating the opposite, often to emphasize a point. An example is, “He’s not the friendliest person” to mean the person is quite unfriendly.

A euphemism is a figure of speech that uses a mild or indirect expression in place of a harsher or more offensive one. For instance, “passed away” instead of “died.”

Anaphora is a figure of speech in which the same word or phrase is repeated at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences for emphasis. For example, “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets.”

Circumlocution

Circumlocution is a figure of speech in which a word or idea is expressed indirectly or in a roundabout way. For instance, “the thing you use to write with that has ink” instead of “pen.”

Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds within words in close proximity, often to create a sense of harmony or rhythm. An example is, “The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.”

An epigram is a concise and witty statement or verse that often contains a paradox or an ironic twist. For example, “I can resist everything except temptation” by Oscar Wilde.

Pleonasm is a figure of speech in which redundant or unnecessary words are used for emphasis, such as “burning fire” or “free gift.”

Functions and Effects

Rhetorical effect.

Figures of speech serve various functions in language, including producing a rhetorical effect. By using devices such as rhetorical questions, antimetabole, and ellipsis, speakers and writers can clarify, emphasize, or embellish their message in order to create a persuasive argument or profound observation. Rhetorical questions, for instance, are a technique where questions are posed without the expectation of an answer, serving to make an implied point. Antimetabole uses repetition with a reversal of a word order to create a powerful effect, while ellipsis omits words for a purposeful, concise impact.

Emphasis and Balance

Another function of figures of speech is to create emphasis and balance within a text. This can be achieved through devices like antithesis, which places opposite ideas or things next to each other to draw out their contrast. Similarly, the use of antanaclasis can also provide balance by repeating a word with a different meaning in one sentence, adding emphasis and creating intrigue.

Wordplay and Humor

Figures of speech can bring a sense of wordplay and humor to a text, making it more engaging and memorable. Devices like puns, anthimeria, and periphrasis help create a playful and lighthearted tone while still maintaining the writer’s intended message. Puns use similar or identical words with different meanings to create humor, whereas anthimeria involves using a word from one part of speech as another for a witty effect. Periphrasis, on the other hand, is a figurative device that uses more words than necessary to describe something, often for humorous or exaggerated effect.

Emotional and Imaginative Impact

Lastly, figures of speech can also evoke emotional and imaginative responses from audiences. By using vivid language, metaphors, similes, and other figurative techniques, writers and speakers can form mental pictures that enhance a reader or listener’s understanding of a concept or idea. This capacity to create powerful imagery and elicit strong emotions makes figures of speech essential tools in the art of communication.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are common examples of figures of speech?

Some common examples of figures of speech include similes, metaphors, alliteration, personification, and hyperbole. These figures are often used in literature, poetry, and everyday language to create vivid and memorable expressions.

How many types of figures of speech exist?

There are numerous types of figures of speech, with some sources suggesting over 100 different types. However, it’s essential to be familiar with a handful of commonly used figures of speech to improve one’s reading and writing skills.

What are the four most frequently used figures?

The four most frequently used figures of speech are similes, metaphors, alliteration, and personification. Similes compare two things using “like” or “as,” metaphors make direct comparisons between different objects, alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds, and personification attributes human qualities to non-human entities.

Can you provide examples of 10 different figures of speech?

• Simile : Her smile was as bright as the sun.
• Metaphor : Time is a thief.
• Alliteration : Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
• Personification : The wind whispered through the trees.
• Hyperbole : He’s as strong as an ox.
• Onomatopoeia : The bees buzzed in the flowers.
• Oxymoron : The silence was deafening.
• Pun : Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.
• Anaphora : We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets.
• Irony : The fire station burned down.

What are the 8 main types of figures?

The 8 main types of figures of speech are similes, metaphors, alliteration, personification, hyperbole, onomatopoeia, oxymorons, and puns. These figures of speech each serve different purposes and are used in various contexts to convey vivid imagery and meaning.

Which figures of speech are found in a top 20 list?

In a top 20 list of figures of speech, one might find:

• Anadiplosis
• Anachronism

These figures of speech are frequently used in literature, speeches, and everyday language to enhance the meaning and impact of language.

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Figurative Language – Definition and Examples

• 3-minute read
• 13th April 2023

In this article, you’ll learn about figurative language: what it is, how to use it, and lots of examples to inspire your everyday speech and descriptive writing .

What is Figurative Language?

Figurative language is language that uses words or expressions with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation. It is often used to create imagery, evoke emotion, or emphasize a point in a way that literal language cannot. Think of it as painting a picture with words in the minds of your audience – for example, “She was as light as a feather while dancing.”

5 Types of Figurative Language

Below, we’ll look at five types of figurative language – metaphor, idiom, simile, hyperbole, and personification – that you can use in an essay, poem , speech, or conversation.

A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two things by stating that one thing is another, without using “like” or “as.” Metaphors are used to create imagery, evoke emotions, and help readers or listeners to understand an idea or concept in a new and interesting way.

Here are some examples of metaphors:

An idiom is a phrase or expression that has a figurative meaning that is different from the literal meaning of the words. Idioms are often used in informal or conversational language to add color or humor.

Here are some examples of idioms:

If you want to include idioms in your everyday speech or writing, make sure you fully understand the figurative meaning before using them. If used incorrectly, they can cause confusion for your audience.

A simile is a figure of speech that compares two things using “like” or “as.” They are a great writing technique to create vivid imagery and a memorable comparison.

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Here are some examples of similes:

Hyperbole is a figure of speech that involves exaggeration for emphasis or effect. It is mostly used to emphasize a point in a funny or memorable way. Hyperbole is great to use in everyday language or writing, but it’s important to use it in moderation – otherwise, it can come across as insincere or unbelievable.

Here are some examples of hyperbole:

Personification

Personification is a figure of speech in which an inanimate object or animal is given human-like qualities or characteristics. This technique is mostly used in poetry or descriptive writing to create vivid imagery.

Here are some examples of personification:

Figurative language is a great addition to your everyday speech and is frequently used in literature and poetry. It can add depth and richness to language, making it more interesting and expressive. However, it can also be confusing if the reader or listener does not understand the intended meaning of the figurative language. Therefore, it is important to have a basic understanding of figurative language in order to fully appreciate and understand written and spoken communication.

Interested in learning more about how use descriptive language and vivid imagery? Check out our Writing Tips blog to learn more.

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1.2 The Communication Process

Learning objectives.

• Identify and define the components of the transmission model of communication.
• Identify and define the components of the interaction model of communication.
• Identify and define the components of the transaction model of communication.
• Compare and contrast the three models of communication.
• Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter.

Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with whom a communication encounter starts and ends. Models of communication simplify the process by providing a visual representation of the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex model still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication because they allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of communication, define communication, and apply communication concepts. When you become aware of how communication functions, you can think more deliberately through your communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future communication and learn from your previous communication. The three models of communication we will discuss are the transmission, interaction, and transaction models.

Although these models of communication differ, they contain some common elements. The first two models we will discuss, the transmission model and the interaction model, include the following parts: participants, messages, encoding, decoding, and channels. In communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed from sender to receiver. For example, when you say “Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a message of greeting that will be received by your friend.

Although models of communication provide a useful blueprint to see how the communication process works, they are not complex enough to capture what communication is like as it is experienced.

Chris Searle – Blueprint – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and understand messages is the encoding and decoding process. Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication. As we will learn later, the level of conscious thought that goes into encoding messages varies. Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, he decodes your communication and turns it back into thoughts in order to make meaning out of it. Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various options, or channels for communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel , or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If your roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you may need to get his attention by waving your hands before you can ask him about dinner.

Transmission Model of Communication

The transmission model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process. We are left to presume that the receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does not. The scholars who designed this model extended on a linear model proposed by Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and spread of new communication technologies of the time such as telegraphy and radio, and you can probably see these technical influences within the model (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in order to be decoded. The radio announcer doesn’t really know if you receive his or her message or not, but if the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance that the message was successfully received.

Figure 1.1 The Transmission Model of Communication

Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility is put on the sender to help ensure the message is successfully conveyed. This model emphasizes clarity and effectiveness, but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to effective communication. Noise is anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a communication encounter. Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may interfere with a message being accurately received and decoded. The transmission model of communication accounts for environmental and semantic noise. Environmental noise is any physical noise present in a communication encounter. Other people talking in a crowded diner could interfere with your ability to transmit a message and have it successfully decoded. While environmental noise interferes with the transmission of the message, semantic noise refers to noise that occurs in the encoding and decoding process when participants do not understand a symbol. To use a technical example, FM antennae can’t decode AM radio signals and vice versa. Likewise, most French speakers can’t decode Swedish and vice versa. Semantic noise can also interfere in communication between people speaking the same language because many words have multiple or unfamiliar meanings.

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new ways, which eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication that we will discuss more later. This model is not quite rich enough to capture dynamic face-to-face interactions, but there are instances in which communication is one-way and linear, especially computer-mediated communication (CMC). As the following “Getting Plugged In” box explains, CMC is integrated into many aspects of our lives now and has opened up new ways of communicating and brought some new challenges. Think of text messaging for example. The transmission model of communication is well suited for describing the act of text messaging since the sender isn’t sure that the meaning was effectively conveyed or that the message was received at all. Noise can also interfere with the transmission of a text. If you use an abbreviation the receiver doesn’t know or the phone autocorrects to something completely different than you meant, then semantic noise has interfered with the message transmission. I enjoy bargain hunting at thrift stores, so I just recently sent a text to a friend asking if she wanted to go thrifting over the weekend. After she replied with “What?!?” I reviewed my text and saw that my “smart” phone had autocorrected thrifting to thrusting ! You have likely experienced similar problems with text messaging, and a quick Google search for examples of text messages made funny or embarrassing by the autocorrect feature proves that many others do, too.

“Getting Plugged In”

Computer-Mediated Communication

When the first computers were created around World War II and the first e-mails exchanged in the early 1960s, we took the first steps toward a future filled with computer-mediated communication (CMC) (Thurlow, Lengel, & Tomic, 2004). Those early steps turned into huge strides in the late 1980s and early 1990s when personal computers started becoming regular features in offices, classrooms, and homes. I remember getting our first home computer, a Tandy from Radio Shack, in the early 1990s and then getting our first Internet connection at home in about 1995. I set up my first e-mail account in 1996 and remember how novel and exciting it was to send and receive e-mails. I wasn’t imagining a time when I would get dozens of e-mails a day, much less be able to check them on my cell phone! Many of you reading this book probably can’t remember a time without CMC. If that’s the case, then you’re what some scholars have called “digital natives.” When you take a moment to think about how, over the past twenty years, CMC has changed the way we teach and learn, communicate at work, stay in touch with friends, initiate romantic relationships, search for jobs, manage our money, get our news, and participate in our democracy, it really is amazing to think that all that used to take place without computers. But the increasing use of CMC has also raised some questions and concerns, even among those of you who are digital natives. Almost half of the students in my latest communication research class wanted to do their final research projects on something related to social media. Many of them were interested in studying the effects of CMC on our personal lives and relationships. This desire to study and question CMC may stem from an anxiety that people have about the seeming loss or devaluing of face-to-face (FtF) communication. Aside from concerns about the digital cocoons that many of us find ourselves in, CMC has also raised concerns about privacy, cyberbullying, and lack of civility in online interactions. We will continue to explore many of these issues in the “Getting Plugged In” feature box included in each chapter, but the following questions will help you begin to see the influence that CMC has in your daily communication.

• In a typical day, what types of CMC do you use?
• What are some ways that CMC reduces stress in your life? What are some ways that CMC increases stress in your life? Overall, do you think CMC adds to or reduces your stress more?
• Do you think we, as a society, have less value for FtF communication than we used to? Why or why not?

Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process. Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may point to the sofa when your roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. Although this seems like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate between the roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.

The interaction model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the transmission model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was received, the interaction model is more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in this model based on whether or not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.

Figure 1.2 The Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your communication. I have had job interviews on a sofa in a comfortable office, sitting around a large conference table, and even once in an auditorium where I was positioned on the stage facing about twenty potential colleagues seated in the audience. I’ve also been walked around campus to interview with various people in temperatures below zero degrees. Although I was a little chilly when I got to each separate interview, it wasn’t too difficult to warm up and go on with the interview. During a job interview in Puerto Rico, however, walking around outside wearing a suit in near 90 degree temperatures created a sweating situation that wasn’t pleasant to try to communicate through. Whether it’s the size of the room, the temperature, or other environmental factors, it’s important to consider the role that physical context plays in our communication.

Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. I recently found out some troubling news a few hours before a big public presentation. It was challenging to try to communicate because the psychological noise triggered by the stressful news kept intruding into my other thoughts. Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect communication. During the initial stages of a romantic relationship individuals may be so “love struck” that they don’t see incompatible personality traits or don’t negatively evaluate behaviors they might otherwise find off-putting. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters.

Transaction Model of Communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating, because communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).

To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what communication is and what communication does. The transmission model views communication as a thing, like an information packet, that is sent from one place to another. From this view, communication is defined as sending and receiving messages. The interaction model views communication as an interaction in which a message is sent and then followed by a reaction (feedback), which is then followed by another reaction, and so on. From this view, communication is defined as producing conversations and interactions within physical and psychological contexts. The transaction model views communication as integrated into our social realities in such a way that it helps us not only understand them but also create and change them.

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. In short, we don’t communicate about our realities; communication helps to construct our realities.

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators . Unlike the interaction model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. For example, on a first date, as you send verbal messages about your interests and background, your date reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait until you are done sending your verbal message to start receiving and decoding the nonverbal messages of your date. Instead, you are simultaneously sending your verbal message and receiving your date’s nonverbal messages. This is an important addition to the model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.

Figure 1.3 The Transaction Model of Communication

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.

Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. As we are socialized into our various communities, we learn rules and implicitly pick up on norms for communicating. Some common rules that influence social contexts include don’t lie to people, don’t interrupt people, don’t pass people in line, greet people when they greet you, thank people when they pay you a compliment, and so on. Parents and teachers often explicitly convey these rules to their children or students. Rules may be stated over and over, and there may be punishment for not following them.

Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. For example, as a new employee you may over- or underdress for the company’s holiday party because you don’t know the norm for formality. Although there probably isn’t a stated rule about how to dress at the holiday party, you will notice your error without someone having to point it out, and you will likely not deviate from the norm again in order to save yourself any potential embarrassment. Even though breaking social norms doesn’t result in the formal punishment that might be a consequence of breaking a social rule, the social awkwardness we feel when we violate social norms is usually enough to teach us that these norms are powerful even though they aren’t made explicit like rules. Norms even have the power to override social rules in some situations. To go back to the examples of common social rules mentioned before, we may break the rule about not lying if the lie is meant to save someone from feeling hurt. We often interrupt close friends when we’re having an exciting conversation, but we wouldn’t be as likely to interrupt a professor while they are lecturing. Since norms and rules vary among people and cultures, relational and cultural contexts are also included in the transaction model in order to help us understand the multiple contexts that influence our communication.

Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more easily. For example, you would likely follow social norms of politeness and attentiveness and might spend the whole day cleaning the house for the first time you invite your new neighbors to visit. Once the neighbors are in your house, you may also make them the center of your attention during their visit. If you end up becoming friends with your neighbors and establishing a relational context, you might not think as much about having everything cleaned and prepared or even giving them your whole attention during later visits. Since communication norms and rules also vary based on the type of relationship people have, relationship type is also included in relational context. For example, there are certain communication rules and norms that apply to a supervisor-supervisee relationship that don’t apply to a brother-sister relationship and vice versa. Just as social norms and relational history influence how we communicate, so does culture.

Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We will learn more about these identities in Chapter 2 “Communication and Perception” , but for now it is important for us to understand that whether we are aware of it or not, we all have multiple cultural identities that influence our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence their communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in their communication.

Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not limited to race or ethnicity.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

When cultural context comes to the forefront of a communication encounter, it can be difficult to manage. Since intercultural communication creates uncertainty, it can deter people from communicating across cultures or lead people to view intercultural communication as negative. But if you avoid communicating across cultural identities, you will likely not get more comfortable or competent as a communicator. Difference, as we will learn in Chapter 8 “Culture and Communication” , isn’t a bad thing. In fact, intercultural communication has the potential to enrich various aspects of our lives. In order to communicate well within various cultural contexts, it is important to keep an open mind and avoid making assumptions about others’ cultural identities. While you may be able to identify some aspects of the cultural context within a communication encounter, there may also be cultural influences that you can’t see. A competent communicator shouldn’t assume to know all the cultural contexts a person brings to an encounter, since not all cultural identities are visible. As with the other contexts, it requires skill to adapt to shifting contexts, and the best way to develop these skills is through practice and reflection.

Key Takeaways

• Communication models are not complex enough to truly capture all that takes place in a communication encounter, but they can help us examine the various steps in the process in order to better understand our communication and the communication of others.
• The transmission model of communication describes communication as a one-way, linear process in which a sender encodes a message and transmits it through a channel to a receiver who decodes it. The transmission of the message many be disrupted by environmental or semantic noise. This model is usually too simple to capture FtF interactions but can be usefully applied to computer-mediated communication.
• The interaction model of communication describes communication as a two-way process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts. This model captures the interactive aspects of communication but still doesn’t account for how communication constructs our realities and is influenced by social and cultural contexts.
• The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. This model includes participants who are simultaneously senders and receivers and accounts for how communication constructs our realities, relationships, and communities.
• Getting integrated: How might knowing the various components of the communication process help you in your academic life, your professional life, and your civic life?
• What communication situations does the transmission model best represent? The interaction model? The transaction model?
• Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter you had. Sketch out the communication encounter and make sure to label each part of the model (communicators; message; channel; feedback; and physical, psychological, social, relational, and cultural contexts).

Barnlund, D. C., “A Transactional Model of Communication,” in Foundations of Communication Theory , eds. Kenneth K. Sereno and C. David Mortensen (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1970), 83–92.

Ellis, R. and Ann McClintock, You Take My Meaning: Theory into Practice in Human Communication (London: Edward Arnold, 1990), 71.

Schramm, W., The Beginnings of Communication Study in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).

Shannon, C. and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1949), 16.

Thurlow, C., Laura Lengel, and Alice Tomic, Computer Mediated Communication: Social Interaction and the Internet (London: Sage, 2004), 14.

Communication in the Real World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Metaphorically speaking: cognitive abilities and the production of figurative language

• Published: 28 September 2012
• Volume 41 , pages 255–267, ( 2013 )

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• Roger E. Beaty 1 &
• Paul J. Silvia 1  

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Figurative language is one of the most common expressions of creative behavior in everyday life. However, the cognitive mechanisms behind figures of speech such as metaphors remain largely unexplained. Recent evidence suggests that fluid and executive abilities are important to the generation of conventional and creative metaphors. The present study investigated whether several factors of the Cattell–Horn–Carroll model of intelligence contribute to generating these different types of metaphors. Specifically, the roles of fluid intelligence (Gf), crystallized intelligence (Gc), and broad retrieval ability (Gr) were explored. Participants completed a series of intelligence tests and were asked to produce conventional and creative metaphors. Structural equation modeling was used to assess the contribution of the different factors of intelligence to metaphor production. For creative metaphor, there were large effects of Gf ( β = .45) and Gr ( β = .52); for conventional metaphor, there was a moderate effect of Gc ( β = .30). Creative and conventional metaphors thus appear to be anchored in different patterns of abilities: Creative metaphors rely more on executive processes, whereas conventional metaphors primarily draw from acquired vocabulary knowledge.

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Figurative language is perhaps the most common expression of creativity in everyday life (Carter, 2004 ). People often use figures of speech like metaphors to describe a vast array of emotions and experiences. Although figurative language pervades human dialogue, our understanding of how people come up with these types of expressions is quite limited. Psycholinguistic research has produced a wealth of knowledge on metaphor comprehension (e.g., Gibbs, 1994 ; Glucksberg, 2001 ; Kintsch, 2000 ; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980 ), but we are only now starting to understand how the mind creates metaphors (Chiappe & Chiappe, 2007 ; De Barros, Primi, Miguel, Almeida, & Oliveira, 2010 ; Pierce & Chiappe, 2009 ; Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ).

Nevertheless, all metaphors are not created equal; they vary in terms of novelty and familiarity. In the present study, we were interested in examining the cognitive processes involved in two types of figurative language. Conventional metaphors are straightforward, often clichéd or idiomatic expressions. Such metaphors are typically highly apt: Their structure represents a comprehensible and appropriate comparison between a topic and a characteristic exemplar (Tourangeau & Sternberg, 1982 ). For example, the conventional description “life is a journey” entails a one-to-one comparison, one that is familiar and easy to comprehend. Creative metaphors , in contrast, are distinctly original uses of language: They are unique in that neither the creator nor the audience has encountered the metaphor before. Creative metaphors are frequently used in conversation to describe an emotional experience (Carter, 2004 ), developed to express imagery in literature (Plotnik, 2007 ), and employed as symbolic tools in several artistic traditions (Kennedy, 2008 ).

The present research examined the contribution of several cognitive abilities from the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) model of intelligence (McGrew, 2009 ) to the generation of conventional and creative metaphors. Modern CHC theory, an emerging consensus on the structure of cognitive abilities based on decades of factor-analytic research (see Carroll, 1993 ), conceptualizes intelligence as a hierarchical structure of abilities, from narrow (specific abilities, such as inductive reasoning) to broad (global abilities, such as fluid intelligence) to general ( g ). Recent evidence demonstrates the strong contribution of fluid intelligence—a broad cognitive ability—to the generation of creative metaphors (Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ). It remains unclear, however, how other aspects of intelligence influence metaphor production. This study thus explores how three broad CHC abilities—fluid intelligence (Gf), crystallized intelligence (Gc), and broad retrieval ability (Gr)—influence how people produce both conventional and creative metaphors.

The property attribution model

Although there are several definitions of metaphor, one prominent description categorizes it as a higher-order term that includes other structures, like similes and analogies (Barnden, 2010 ; Grady, 2007 ). Metaphors function as a descriptive mechanism of communication; they describe a specific aspect of a given topic by relating it to a conceptually similar exemplar. Exemplars are often referred to as vehicles , and they embody some level of abstract relation to a referent concept (i.e., the topic ). The study of metaphor comprehension has been of interest to cognitive linguists for several decades, and a large body of research has been dedicated to understanding metaphoric structure and function (e.g., Gibbs, 1994 ; Glucksberg, McGlone, & Manfredi, 1997 ; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980 ). Nevertheless, an empirical understanding of how the mind produces figurative language remains elusive.

The property attribution model of metaphor comprehension provides a useful framework for conceptualizing metaphor production. According to this model, composing a metaphor involves making an abstract link between a topic and a vehicle by relating similar characteristics (Glucksberg, 2001 ). Shared conceptual knowledge between the topic and vehicle must be identified for a metaphor to be comprehensible (Glucksberg et al., 1997 ). While people search semantic memory for an appropriate vehicle, a superordinate attributive category maintains some characteristics of the topic that can be used to relate to the vehicle. For example, if one were to consider a metaphor for “music,” an attributive category—“something that is healing”—guides the search process en route to an appropriate vehicle (“medicine”).

Several aspects of Glucksberg’s ( 2001 ) property attribution model can be adopted to conceptualize the cognitive mechanics of metaphor generation. First, the formation and maintenance of a higher-order attributive category is analogous to Carroll’s ( 1993 ) concept of Gr. According to Carroll and others, Gr represents the capacity to fluently extract knowledge from long-term memory (Cattell, 1978 ; Horn, 1988 ; McGrew, 2005 ). Tasks developed to assess retrieval ability typically require people to generate members from a given category on the basis of a presented cue (e.g., “list synonyms for the word good ”). Considered in the context of Glucksberg’s model, one can see an apparent parallel between attributive categories and broad retrieval ability: Searching memory for a candidate vehicle to attribute to a specific topic seems much like the selective retrieval processes associated with Gr.

Furthermore, exercising top-down oversight of the metaphor generation process has been shown to recruit executive abilities associated with Gf (Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ). Previous research demonstrates Gf’s considerable association with working memory capacity (Kane et al., 2004 ) and implicates this ability in other controlled processes, such as directing attention during complex cognitive tasks (Heitz, Unsworth, & Engle, 2005 ) and managing interference from task-irrelevant information (Unsworth, 2010 ). Central to the attribution model described by Glucksberg ( 2001 ) is the process of relating two otherwise semantically unrelated concepts (e.g., lawyers and sharks ). One must prevent the literal or adjectival information closely linked to the topic and vehicle from interfering with the goal of making a figurative connection (e.g., some lawyers can be predatory, but they do not share the physical characteristics of sharks). We would thus expect fluid and executive abilities to facilitate the search process by maintaining the task goal in mind and inhibiting inapt associates that compete for activation in memory (Gernsbacher, Keysar, Robertson, & Werner, 2001 ).

Conventional metaphor production

An interest in metaphor generation has reemerged in the past decade, with several researchers attempting to identify the underlying cognitive processes involved (Chiappe & Chiappe, 2007 ; De Barros et al., 2010 ; Pierce & Chiappe, 2009 ; Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ). In a series of experiments, Chiappe and Chiappe administered measures of executive function and a series of metaphor tasks. In Experiment 1, participants completed a working memory task (listening span), a measure of inhibitory control (Stroop task), and a metaphor comprehension task that they designed (see Chiappe & Chiappe, 2007 ). Participants were split into high and low working memory span on the basis of performance on the listening span task. High-spans produced better metaphor interpretations—scored for quality on a 3-point scale by two raters—and did so at a faster rate than low-spans. Intrusion errors on the Stroop task were negatively correlated with the quality of metaphor interpretations and the length of time it took participants to generate these interpretations.

The second experiment assessed metaphor generation with a fill-in-the-blank completion task. For the metaphor task, participants had 15 min to complete 24 figurative statements, and they were given property descriptions to relate to each vehicle (e.g., “Some jobs are _____”; Property: something that is confining and constraining and can make you feel like you’re just putting in time). Two raters scored responses on a 6-point scale for aptness. Several executive tasks were administered, including measures of working memory (listening span), verbal fluency (generating first names, foods and drinks, and animals), and vocabulary knowledge (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; PPVT). Performance on the PPVT explained most of the variance in metaphor quality ( R 2 = .17); listening span scores explained a smaller yet significant portion of variance ( R 2 = .10). Commonality analysis was used to determine distinct contributions of variance from these independent measures. The unique proportion of variance contributed by listening span reduced to 2.9 %, with the remaining variance attributed to a shared contribution along with vocabulary knowledge.

Similar to Experiment 2, the third experiment assessed the role of working memory and vocabulary knowledge in the composition of conventional metaphors. Working memory was measured with listening span, digit span forward, and digit span reverse tasks. Participants completed the PPVT, verbal fluency tasks, the metaphor generation task, and the Magazine Recognition Questionnaire—a measure of familiarity with printed media—to assess one component of general knowledge. As a set, commonality analysis revealed that PPVT and listening span scores explained 31.3 % in metaphor quality, of which a majority (26.6 %) was contributed by the PPVT. A second commonality analysis including print exposure and listening span tasks showed a similar pattern ( R 2 = .29), with listening span explaining 9.1 % of unique variance. Digit span tasks were not included in the reported analysis, since performance on these tasks was weakly correlated with metaphor quality. Taken together, the authors interpreted the results from these three experiments as an indication that crystallized knowledge and executive abilities each influence the process of metaphor production.

Creative metaphor production

Investigations of conventional metaphor demonstrate how people construct simple figurative statements that are straightforward and easily interpreted. They have been limited to analyzing singular, discrete vehicles that are produced in response to fill-in-the-blank tests (e.g., Chiappe & Chiappe, 2007 ; Christensen & Guilford, 1963 ; De Barros et al., 2010 ; Taylor, 1947 ). In some cases, metaphor completion tasks have included additional constraints by essentially providing a definition of the to-be-produced vehicle (e.g., Chiappe & Chiappe, 2007 ; Pierce & Chiappe, 2009 ). These studies contribute to a greater understanding of conventional thinking, but they have several limitations for studying creative cognition.

Recent evidence suggests that fluid intelligence is essential to the creative thought process (Beaty & Silvia, in press ; Benedek, Franz, Heene, & Neubauer, 2012 ; Nusbaum & Silvia, 2011 ; Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ; Vartanian, Martindale, & Kwiatkowski, 2003 ). Several executive mechanisms have been shown to facilitate individual differences in creative thinking, such as controlling attention during idea generation (Vartanian, 2009 ; Zabelina & Robinson, 2010 ), implementing effective cognitive search strategies (Gilhooly, Fioratou, Anthony, & Wynn, 2007 ; Nusbaum & Silvia, 2011 ), and switching between semantic categories in memory (Nusbaum & Silvia, 2011 ). Considering the substantial contribution of fluid and executive abilities to domain-general creative thinking, one might expect these mechanisms to support similar types of cognition.

Silvia and Beaty ( 2012 ) examined the contribution of fluid intelligence to creative metaphor quality. Participants were presented with two different prompts and were asked to describe past emotional experiences using a metaphor. The first prompt asked people to “think of the most boring high-school or college class that you’ve ever had. What was it like to sit through?” For the next prompt, participants were asked to “think about the most disgusting thing you ever ate or drank. What was it like to eat or drink it?” Responses were scored by three raters on a 5-point scale using subjective scoring (Silvia et al., 2008 ). Six measures of inductive reasoning—primarily nonverbal and visual-spatial—were administered to assess fluid intelligence. Participants also completed the Five Factor Inventory, which measures the Big Five factors of personality (McCrae & Costa, 1997 ). Structural equation models revealed a large effect of fluid intelligence in predicting the creative quality of metaphors (standardized β = .49), and this effect remained large when personality was added to the model. Together, personality and fluid intelligence explained 35 % of the variance in creative metaphor quality.

The present research

In the present study, we explored the contribution of cognitive abilities to the generation of creative and conventional metaphors. Our previous study (Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ) demonstrated that fluid intelligence strongly predicts the creative quality of metaphors. One aim of the present research was to extend this finding. Studies of conventional metaphor suggest that executive abilities such as working memory contribute to the generation of conventional metaphors (Chiappe & Chiappe, 2007 ; Pierce & Chiappe, 2009 ). Are executive abilities equally as important for generating both creative and conventional metaphors? Since working memory and fluid intelligence are closely related constructs (Kane et al., 2004 ; Süß, Oberauer, Wittman, Wilhelm, & Schulze, 2002 ), we examined the contribution of fluid intelligence to both creative and conventional metaphors.

Another primary goal of this project was to explore how different cognitive abilities contribute to conventional and creative metaphor. Specifically, we were interested in testing aspects of the CHC model of intelligence (Carroll, 1993 ; McGrew, 2005 ). Past research has shown that Gf is broadly important to divergent thinking (Nusbaum & Silvia, 2011 ) and creative metaphor (Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ). Considering the results from the conventional metaphor literature (e.g., Chiappe & Chiappe, 2007 ; De Barros et al., 2010 ), one would expect Gf to be important for generating apt metaphors as well. In the present research, we examined the contribution of Gf to figurative language, with the goal of determining its relative importance to both types of metaphor.

We were also interested in examining the degree to which general knowledge influences metaphor production. Figurative statements involve vocabulary and other knowledge about the world, and people certainly vary in terms of acquired information (Kan, Kievit, Dolan, & van der Mass, 2011 ). Carroll ( 1993 ) referred to this acquired knowledge as crystallized intelligence (Gc), a higher-order factor that “develops through the investment of general intelligence into learning through education and experience” (p. 599). To what extent does acquired knowledge contribute to creative and conventional thinking?

Furthermore, past research indicates that Gr—the capacity to fluently recall concepts from long-term memory (Cattell, 1978 )—supports the creative thought process (Gilhooly et al., 2007 ; Silvia, Beaty, & Nusbaum, 2012 ). Taken in the context of the present study, the ability to retrieve knowledge from memory in an efficient and fluent manner should play an important role as well. More specifically, the generation of retrieval cues seems to be a key aspect of the selective search process. The notion that coming up with a metaphor engages selective retrieval mechanisms fits particularly well with the property attribution model of Glucksberg et al. ( 1997 ). Creating and deploying a superordinate attributive category—one that functions to guide the semantic search for appropriate descriptive vehicles—greatly resembles Carroll’s ( 1993 ) conceptualization of Gr.

In this study, participants completed several assessments that measure three factors of the CHC model of intelligence: fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, and broad retrieval ability. We administered the conventional metaphor task of Chiappe and Chiappe ( 2007 ) as well as the creative metaphor task used in our prior study. Considering the property attribution model of Glucksberg ( 2001 ) as a framework for metaphor generation, several executive processes should be important. For example, maintaining an attributive category in mind while searching semantic memory and managing interference from inapt, obvious, and adjectival information should require executive resources captured by Gf.

Finally, we were interested in the contribution of personality variables to metaphor production. Our previous study, using the NEO Five Factor Inventory (FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1992 ), found a large effect of openness to experience on creative metaphor (Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ). Openness consistently correlates with creativity (Feist, 1998 ; McCrae, 1987 ; Silvia, Nusbaum, Berg, Martin, & O’Connor, 2009 ) and with intelligence (Ashton, Lee, & Vernon, 2000 ; Goff & Ackerman, 1992 ), so openness is a potential “third variable.” The effects of personality traits on metaphor production are interesting in their own right, particularly to researchers in the large field of personality and creativity, but they also afford a test of the incremental validity of the CHC abilities.

Participants

The sample consisted of 222 undergraduate students from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro (156 women, 66 men). Participation was voluntary, and students received credit toward a research option in a psychology class for their involvement in the study. Students who indicated that English was not their primary language were excluded from analysis ( n = 18). Multivariate outlier tests revealed one highly outlying case, which was then excluded. In addition, data from participants who exhibited disengagement with the study were withheld from the analysis ( n = 12). Exclusion criteria included finishing the hour-long study in less than 30 min, “clicking through” tasks (as evidenced by experimenter observation notes and data analysis), frequently text-messaging, and holding conversation with other participants. The final sample consisted of 191 students (135 women, 56 men). The self-identified ethnic composition of the final sample was 57 % European American, 29 % African American, 5 % Hispanic/Latino, 4 % Native American, 3 % Asian American, and 3 % undeclared.

The study was carried out in a group setting, with the number of participants ranging from 1 to 8 per session. Students filled out consent forms and were briefed on the study procedure by an experimenter. Following informed consent, students completed metaphor tasks, several cognitive tasks, and some personality questionnaires. MediaLab v2010 software, run on standard Windows-based desktop PCs, was used to administer all measures in the study.

Metaphor tasks

Conventional metaphor generation task.

The metaphor task from Chiappe and Chiappe ( 2007 ) was used to assess individual differences in conventional metaphor generation. Twenty-four metaphor prompts were selected from the list of items. Task instructions—including metaphor examples and explanations—were taken verbatim from the Chiappe and Chiappe test manuals and were presented to participants in the present study. Several figurative statements provided examples during the instructions phase, along with accompanying explanations of their structure. Each item presented a topic and property description, followed by a fill-in-the-blank metaphor stem (e.g., “Come up with a metaphor that conveys that some jobs are confining and constraining, and make you feel like you are just putting in time”; “Some jobs are ______”). Footnote 1

Participants were asked to complete each statement with a vehicle that appropriately related to the topic (e.g., “jails”). If they were unable to think of a vehicle, they were instructed to type “I don’t know” into the response dialogue box. Students had 15 min to complete the 24 metaphors. Following the procedure of Chiappe and Chiappe ( 2007 ), two raters scored the vehicles for aptness, using a 6-point scale (from 0 to 5). Highly apt responses successfully attributed the vehicle to the topic vis-à-vis the specified property and received a score of 5. Instances where participants could not think of an appropriate vehicle received a score of 0. The remainder of the scale (i.e., 1–4) was applied to vehicular responses that related to the topic with varying degrees of aptness and abstractness. Raters were blind to each other’s scores and to the participants’ other data. For each rater, the 24 items were averaged to get a continuous score.

Creative metaphor generation task

Following the conventional metaphor task, participants were asked to describe two past experiences with a metaphor. The aim of this task was to assess creative thinking and participants’ ability to come up with a unique response. Instructions included definitions and examples of different types of metaphors (e.g., simile, metaphor, and compound metaphor). The experimenter informed students that they could work on the task for as long as they liked. Following the instructions phase, participants read the first of two metaphor prompts: “Think of the most boring high-school or college class that you’ve ever had. What was it like to sit through?” Examples of metaphoric stems were provided as potential starting points (e.g., “Being in that class was like . . .”). The second prompt stated: “Think about the most disgusting thing you ever ate or drank. What was it like to eat or drink?” Stems were also provided for this prompt (e.g., “Eating that ____ was like . . .”).

Instructions for this task included several descriptive terms to distinguish the characteristics of a creative response. We asked participants to “be creative” and “to come up with something that is clever, humorous, original, compelling, or interesting.” Previous studies of divergent thinking have demonstrated that instructions to “be creative” typically result in more unique responses (Christensen, Guilford, & Wilson, 1957 ; Harrington, 1975 ; Niu & Liu, 2009 ). For the present study, it was particularly important to discriminate between conventionality and creativity, especially since participants had just completed the conventional metaphor task. The examples of creative metaphors included figurative statements that were more elaborate and interesting than the conventional metaphor samples.

Responses were scored by three raters using subjective scoring (Amabile, 1982 ; Christensen et al., 1957 ; Silvia, 2011 ; Silvia et al., 2008 ). Each metaphor received a score of 1 ( not at all creative ) to 5 ( very creative ). Raters were trained to score responses on the basis of three criteria: remoteness, novelty, and cleverness. Remoteness reflects the conceptual distance of the metaphor—the extent to which the vehicle related to the topic abstractly. Novelty reflects the originality of the response: clichés and common idioms received a low score (e.g., “It was like watching paint dry”). Cleverness reflects the degree to which the response was funny, witty, or interesting. Although there were several criteria, each response received a single score from each rater. The subjective scoring method was used in our prior study of metaphor (Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ) and has been shown to be a reliable assessment of divergent thinking (Silvia, 2011 ). Similar to conventional metaphor scoring, raters were unaware of each other’s scores and of the participants’ other data.

Fluid intelligence (Gf)

Letter sets task.

This task presents a series of five letter sets with four letters in each set. Four of the sets follow a specific rule, such as vowel–consonant–vowel–consonant (e.g., ACIF). One of the letter sets does not follow the rule, and the goal is to identify this set. Participants must choose the correct answer from a list of five answer choices. The task included 16 items and was timed for 4 min (Ekstrom, French, Harman, & Dermen, 1976 ).

Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence task

The series completion task was adopted from Cattell’s Culture Fair Intelligence Test (Cattell & Cattell, 1961 /2008). Each task item has a row of boxes. Patterns within the boxes changed according to a specific rule, and the objective was to determine the successive element from a list of answer choices. Participants had 3 min to complete 13 problems.

Paper folding task

This task assesses visual-spatial reasoning ability, which covaries strongly with fluid intelligence (Kane et al., 2004 ). Each item presented a square piece of paper followed by a series of images that represented the paper being folded and punched with holes. Participants were to imagine the paper being unfolded and determine the final state of the paper from a series of answer choices. The task included ten items and was timed for 3 min (Ekstrom et al., 1976 ).

Broad retrieval ability (Gr)

Three verbal fluency tasks were administered, and participants had 1 min to enter as many responses as they could think of for each. The first prompt required students to generate synonyms for the word good , an assessment of associational fluency (Carroll, 1993 ). After the synonyms task, two other verbal fluency tasks were administered: a word fluency task (words that start with the letter M ) followed by an ideational fluency task ( occupations ). The letter M task required participants to generate different words that start with M ; the occupations prompt required the generation of types of jobs (Carroll, 1993 ).

Responses for all of the fluency tasks received two scores: overall output and adjusted output. The total number of responses—regardless of accuracy and repetition—was summed to calculate the overall output score. Adjusted output, which removed repetitions and invalid responses, was used in the analysis.

Crystallized intelligence (Gc)

Two tests from the ETS Kit of Factor-Referenced Cognitive Tasks assessed vocabulary knowledge: the Advanced Vocabulary Test II (18 items, 4 min) and the Extended Range Vocabulary Test (24 items, 4 min; Ekstrom et al., 1976 ). Questions from both tests presented a target word with four to five answer choices. Participants were asked to choose the word that best described the target word.

General knowledge tests

Multiple choice questions were administered from three general knowledge domains: general biology, literature, and American history. While there are many areas of specialized knowledge, the intent of the general knowledge tests was to obtain a measure of knowledge in common fields of study. Since the sample was made up of undergraduate students, it was reasonable to assume that coursework in these fields was completed by nearly all participants prior to college. Literature questions were compiled from various subject texts. The history and biology test items came from high school advanced placement (AP) study guides. Questions were taken from practice tests and chosen on the basis of a criterion of medium difficulty. Participants had 10 min to answer 30 questions (10 from each domain).

Personality

Following the cognitive tasks, participants completed the NEO Five Factor Inventory (FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1992 ). The questionnaire consists of 60 items and measures five factors of personality: openness to experience, neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (McCrae & Costa, 1997 ). Items consist of statements that reflect one of the five factors, and participants rate the statements on a 5-point scale (1 =  strongly disagree ; 5 =  strongly agree ). We measured personality to assess each factor’s unique contribution to metaphor production and to determine the incremental validity of the intelligence variables.

Model specification

The data were analyzed with structural equation models, using Mplus 6.12 with maximum likelihood estimation. Dependent variables included conventional and creative metaphors, and independent variables were the cognitive abilities. Prior to analyzing the full structural model, we ran confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) to test the loadings of all measures and model fit. The three factors of intelligence were modeled as latent variables—Gr, Gc, and Gf—indicated by scores on their respective tasks (see Fig.  1 ). Creative and conventional metaphors were also modeled as latent variables, indicated by the scores of the raters. Table  1 lists the descriptive statistics and correlations; Table  2 displays the correlations between the latent variables.

Effects of cognitive abilities on creative and conventional metaphors. The creative metaphor rating indicators are ordinal and, thus, do not have residual variances. Italicized values are not significant at p  < .05. Abbreviated indicator labels for the intelligence factors represent the following tasks: Gf1 = Cattell Series Completion, Gf2 = Paper Folding, Gf3 = Letter Sets; Gr1 = Jobs, Gr2 = Letter M Words, Gr3 = “Good” Synonyms; Gc1 = Extended Vocabulary, Gc2 = Advanced Vocabulary, and Gc3 = U.S. History. The correlations between Gf, Gr, and Gc were omitted for clarity. The correlation between Gr and Gf was .27, between Gc and Gf was .48, and between Gc and Gr was .38

• Intelligence

Our first model analyzed the factor structure of the three intelligence variables. The variances of Gf, Gc, and Gr were fixed to 1. A CFA of the specified model suggested good fit: χ 2 (41) = 58.47, p = .047; CFI = .94; SRMR = .049; RMSEA = .047 (90 % CI: .012, .073). However, the Gc variable showed mixed loadings for its five indicators. Specifically, the biology and literature measures loaded poorly on the Gc factor. Further analysis of internal consistency revealed low alphas for biology (Cronbach’s α = .10) and literature (α = −.07). The history test loaded moderately on the Gc factor and showed modest but adequate internal consistency (α = .50). The two vocabulary tests were the most robust indicators of our Gc factor, consistent with past research linking vocabulary knowledge with crystallized intelligence (Carroll, 1993 ). Factor loadings for the Gf and Gc latent variables were moderate in magnitude. The revised CFA (see Fig.  1 ), with the biology and literature variables excluded from the model, showed good fit: χ 2 (24) = 41.08, p = .016; CFI = .94; SRMR = .049; RMSEA = .061 (90 % CI: .026, .092). As a comparison, we considered the fit of an implausible model: A general intelligence variable was specified with all nine intelligence tests serving as indicators. As was expected, this model showed considerably worse fit: χ 2 (27) = 134.128, p < .001; CFI = .633; SRMR = .101; RMSEA = .144 (90 % CI: .120, .168).

Creative metaphor

Scores from the two creative metaphor tasks were specified as categorical variables. Similar to our past research analyzing subjective ratings of verbal creativity tasks (e.g., Nusbaum & Silvia, 2011 ), we found the distribution of scores to be highly skewed. A majority of responses received low scores from the four raters, and very few were coded at the upper end of the scale (i.e., 4s and 5s). This level of skew violates the assumption of multivariate normality and leads to issues with model convergence (Kline, 2011 ). Modeling the scores as ordinal handles the skewed ratings by estimating the likelihood of each score (i.e., 1–5) without assuming multivariate normality (Nusbaum & Silvia, 2011 ; Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ).

Each metaphor—“gross food” and “boring class”—was specified as a lower-order latent variable indicated by the four raters’ scores (see Fig.  1 ). We also specified a higher-order creative metaphor factor with the “gross food” and “boring class” variables as indicators. The paths were constrained to be equal so that the higher-order variable could be identified. The variance of this higher-order factor was fixed to 1. One notable issue with analyzing categorical variables in structural equation models is the shortage of fit statistics suitable to assess model fit. However, the structural model reached convergence, which is an indication of an admissible solution (Kline, 2011 ). We have also specified similar structural equation models in our previous study of cognitive ability and creative metaphor (Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ).

We estimated the reliability of the subjective ratings using generalizability theory (Cronbach, Gleser, Nanda, & Rajaratnam, 1972 ), an extension of classical reliability statistics that is ideal for crossed and nested designs (Brennan, 2001 ; Shavelson & Webb, 1991 ). In our study, for example, we have two tasks crossed by four raters. Using EduG 6.1 (Cardinet, Johnson, & Pini, 2010 ), we specified a design in which the tasks were fixed and the participants and raters were random. The G coefficient—a holistic estimate of reliability with the same scale and interpretation as Cronbach’s alpha—was .78, indicating a good level of score reliability.

Conventional metaphor

Conventional metaphor was modeled as a latent variable indicated by the two raters’ scores. The lower-order rating variables were constrained to be equal, and the higher-order factor’s variance was fixed to 1 for model identification. Similar to the procedure described in Chiappe and Chiappe ( 2007 ), we computed an average of each participant’s total score on all 24 items. The interrater reliability for the two raters was quite high (Cronbach’s α = .97).

Intelligence and creative metaphor

We analyzed the direct effects of Gf, Gc, and Gr on the quality of creative metaphors. Figure  1 depicts the structural model and standardized effects; Table  3 lists details for the regression effects. As was expected, fluid intelligence strongly predicted creative metaphors ( β = .45, p = .017). This effect size can be interpreted as “large” using the benchmarks of .10 for small, .30 for medium, and .50 for large (Cohen, 1988 ). Interestingly, the magnitude of this effect was similar to that in our previous study ( β = .49; Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ). Gr had a similarly large effect on metaphor creativity ( β = .52, p < .001), and Gc had a moderate but nonsignificant effect ( β = .24, p = .206).

Intelligence and conventional metaphor

For the conventional metaphor task, the structural model found a significant effect of Gc on metaphor ratings ( β = .30, p = .005). However, the direct effects of Gf ( β = .10, p = .371) and Gr ( β = .08, p = .469) were small and nonsignificant (see Fig. 1 and Table  3 ). These findings point to a minor influence of executive abilities but a larger influence of general knowledge in conventional metaphor production. It is worth noting that we estimated the effects of intelligence on conventional metaphor using structural equation modeling, whereas Chiappe and Chiappe ( 2007 ) used ANOVA models. While the present study differs in this regard, analyzing latent variables typically yields larger effects than do observed variables (Kline, 2011 ; Silvia, 2008 ). Footnote 2

Personality and metaphor production

We assessed the role of personality in producing both types of metaphor. First, we entered the five factors of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992 ) into a model as predictors of creative metaphor. The factors were specified as observed variables to simplify the large model. Table  3 displays a summary of the standardized regression coefficients. Consistent with past research on personality and creativity (Batey & Furnham, 2006 ; Feist, 1998 ; McCrae, 1987 ), openness to experience had a substantial effect on creative metaphor quality ( β = .61, p < .001). All other personality variables had small and nonsignificant effects. A second model included the personality variables as predictors of creative metaphor, along with the three intelligence factors. This allowed for a test of incremental validity of the CHC variables. Openness again predicted creative metaphors ( β = .35, p = .006). The effect sizes for Gf ( β = .45) and Gr ( β = .55) remained stable, while the effect of Gc on creative metaphors was reduced to zero ( β = −.02, p = .945). Previous studies have shown moderate correlations between Gc and openness (Ashton et al., 2000 ; Goff & Ackerman, 1992 ), so the diminished effect is likely due to their shared variance.

Regarding conventional metaphor, a model specified with the personality variables as predictors yielded small effects for conscientiousness ( β = −.16, p = .045) and openness ( β = .14, p = .051). Including personality in a model with Gf, Gr, and Gc predicting conventional metaphor quality yielded similar effects for the IQ variables (see Table  3 ). However, the effects of conscientiousness ( β = −.09, p = .274) and openness ( β = .03, p = .752) were decreased. Taken together, the inclusion of personality factors in a model with the intelligence variables influenced the weak coefficients for conventional metaphor most significantly, whereas the large effects of Gf and Gr on creative metaphors were largely unchanged. Footnote 3

The present study provides several insights into the nature of metaphor production. Our results demonstrate the differential contribution of cognitive abilities to the generation of creative and conventional metaphors. One goal of the present research was to replicate the results from our previous study of creative metaphor (Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ). Specifically, we again tested the hypothesis that fluid intelligence would predict the creative quality of metaphors. Structural equation models revealed this effect to be almost identical to that in our prior analysis. Including additional factors of intelligence in the present analysis allowed us to extend our previous study and take a closer look at other underlying mechanisms involved in creative ideation.

Recent studies have reported close links between conventional metaphor generation and higher-order executive processes (e.g., Chiappe & Chiappe, 2007 ; Pierce & Chiappe, 2009 ). In our study, however, fluid intelligence had a small effect on conventional metaphor production. This observation does not entirely contradict the results from Chiappe and Chiappe’s work; they measured the effect of executive mechanisms with assessments of working memory and controlled attention, although the effects on conventional metaphor quality were small and nonsignificant in some cases. Nevertheless, considering the strong association between fluid intelligence and working memory capacity (Kane, Hambrick, & Conway, 2005 ), one would expect at least a modest relation between Gf and conventional metaphor. Our study bolstered the likelihood of observing this relationship by analyzing latent variables, which remove measurement error and typically yield larger effect sizes (Kline, 2011 ).

Our results suggest a less important role of executive processes in conventional metaphor generation, since Gf and Gr showed small effects in our structural equation model. But it is worth noting that we did not explicitly manipulate the conventionality of topics and vehicles, as did Pierce and Chiappe ( 2009 ) in their follow-up study of metaphor production. They found that the conventionality of topic–category pairs predicted vehicle aptness: Participants tended to converge on an apt solution when the attributive category was closely linked with the topic. Such a manipulation was not central to this study; our main goal was to contrast the different cognitive abilities that influence two distinct types of metaphors—conventional and creative—and our analysis suggests that these recruit different processes. We nonetheless encourage future researchers to explore the nuances and underlying mechanics of these distinct forms of figurative language.

Vocabulary knowledge accounted for the most variance in Chiappe and Chiappe’s ( 2007 ) study, and Gc had a medium effect on conventional metaphor production in our study. Thus, producing conventional metaphors might primarily draw upon prior knowledge and minimally recruit executive resources. On the other hand, the results for crystallized intelligence and creative metaphor quality are not as clear, considering that our latent Gc factor did not significantly predict the creative quality of metaphors and had essentially no effect after controlling for personality.

Another notable result from the present analysis involved the strong relation between Gr and creative metaphor. Crafting a novel metaphor should recruit selective retrieval processes, so we expected Gr to play a role, although the magnitude of this effect was greater than we anticipated ( β = .52). In light of past research, however, one might expect Gr to contribute to creative ideation. For example, Carroll’s ( 1993 ) CHC model of intelligence includes divergent thinking as a facet of Gr. Creative metaphor production could be considered a close cousin of divergent thinking, although the tasks used to measure these constructs differ in their demands (e.g., the elaboration of a single response in creative metaphor generation vs. the generation of several alternate uses for an object in divergent thinking). Nevertheless, the theoretical basis of broad retrieval ability should be developed further to better understand its function in metaphor production.

The function of retrieval ability might not be surprising when considered in terms of Glucksberg’s ( 2001 ) property attribution model. Glucksberg posited that the process by which we comprehend a figurative statement includes the creation and maintenance of a superordinate attributive category that serves to relate the topic of a metaphor to a vehicle (Glucksberg et al., 1997 ). Such a mechanism has been adopted in recent models of metaphor generation (e.g., Chiappe & Chiappe, 2007 ; Silvia & Beaty, 2012 ). In a typical selective retrieval task, one must deploy a given search cue (e.g., “words that start with the letter M ”) to extract relevant information from long-term memory. This type of targeted search process also fits with our conceptualization of metaphor use. Producing a novel metaphor—one that meets certain abstract criteria—should recruit selective retrieval mechanisms vis-à-vis a higher-order attributive category. In our experiment, participants had to form an attributive category for “things that are gross” and selectively retrieve exemplars that satisfied these criteria. The close resemblance in task demands thus helps to explain the large effect of Gr on creative metaphor quality.

Perhaps the most important avenue for future research to pursue is to dig beneath the global effects of intelligence to uncover the fundamental cognitive processes involved in metaphor production. Much is known about the nature of fluid intelligence, such as its strong association with working memory and inhibitory control (Kane et al., 2004 ), but how does this ability specifically influence the process of generating figurative language? Many abilities fall under the umbrella of executive process (Friedman & Miyake, 2004 ), and they may have different influences on metaphor production, as they have been shown to have with respect to divergent thinking (Benedek et al., 2012 ). Using the property attribution model as a guiding framework, future work should continue to examine the ways in which executive processes facilitate creative metaphor production.

Figurative language is a common mode of communication, but the cognitive processes that support both creative and conventional metaphor use are not well understood. The present analysis revealed that higher-order mechanisms associated with executive processes predicted the quality of creative metaphors, while crystallized knowledge predicted peoples’ ability to generate conventional metaphors. Taken together, this study provides new evidence for the differential contribution of intellectual abilities to metaphor production, and it extends the study of creative cognition within the CHC intelligence framework.

We considered this task a measure of conventional metaphor production , defined as the ability to generate a vehicle term that aptly fits the constraints of an attributive category. This term is used for the sake of distinguishing Chiappe and Chiappe’s (2007) task from our creative metaphor task. For the conventional task, responses should be familiar: Most participants should converge on the same small range of responses. For the creative task, responses should be unfamiliar: They needn’t fit the bounds of an attributive category, and most participants should give unique responses. All metaphors should be more or less apt, of course. But for our purposes, conventional metaphors were assessed for aptness, and creative metaphors were assessed for novelty.

We did not measure typing speed in this study, but in hindsight, it seemed like it could be potentially confounded with performance on the speeded Gr tasks. In a subsequent study of 16 Gr tasks ( n = 131; Silvia et al., 2012), we found near-zero correlations between typing speed and the measures of broad retrieval ability used in the present study (synonyms for good , r = .058; occupations, r = .013; words that start with the letter M , r = −.022).

Out of curiosity, we explored alternate scoring methods to see whether they would influence the model results. One such method recoded responses ranging from zero to three as 0, and those from four to five as 1, effectively scoring vehicles as “apt” or “inapt.” This procedure yielded a similar pattern of effect sizes in regard to the intelligence variables (e.g., Gf, β = .12, p = .277; Gc, β = .34, p = .002), with the most notable change being a decrease in the effect of Gr ( β = −.04, p = .724).

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Author Note

This research is based on a master’s thesis completed by Roger E. Beaty. We are grateful to Peter Delaney and Michael Kane for their comments on this research and to Dan Chiappe for sharing the instructions and items for his metaphor task.

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Beaty, R.E., Silvia, P.J. Metaphorically speaking: cognitive abilities and the production of figurative language. Mem Cogn 41 , 255–267 (2013). https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-012-0258-5

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3.12 Movement and Vocal Qualities in Your Presentation

[Author removed at request of original publisher] and Linda Macdonald

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to

• Explain how to use movement and voice to increase the effectiveness of your presentation.

At some point in your business career you will be called upon to give a speech. It may be to an audience of one on a sales floor or to a large audience at a national meeting. In this section we’ll examine several strategies for using movement and voice for the greatest effect on your audience.

Customers and audiences respond well to speakers who are comfortable with themselves. Comfortable doesn’t mean overconfident or cocky, and it doesn’t mean shy or timid. It means that an audience is far more likely to forgive the occasional “umm” or “ahh,” or the nonverbal equivalent of a misstep if the speaker is comfortable with themselves and their message.

Would you rather listen to a speaker who moves confidently across the stage or one who hides behind the podium, one who expresses themselves non-verbally with purpose and meaning or one who crosses their arms or turns their back to you?

Audiences are most likely to respond positively to open, dynamic speakers who convey the feeling of being at ease with their bodies. The setting, combined with audience expectations, will give a range of movement. If you are speaking at a formal event, or if you are being filmed, you may be expected to stay in one spot. If the stage allows you to explore, closing the distance between yourself and your audience may prove effective. Consider what your audience expects and what you yourself find most comfortable.

Novice speakers are sometimes told to keep their arms at their sides or to restrict their movements to only those that are necessary. If you are in formal training for a military presentation, or a forensics (speech and debate) competition, this may be true. But in business and industry, expressive gestures, like arm movements while speaking, may be appropriate and, in fact, expected.

Again, what does your audience consider appropriate and what do you feel comfortable doing during your presentation? Since the emphasis is always on meeting the needs of the customer, whether it is an audience of one or a large national gathering, you may need to stretch outside your comfort zone. But don’t stretch too far and move yourself into the uncomfortable range. Find a balance between challenge and comfort.

Movement is an important aspect of your speech and requires planning, the same as the words you choose and the visual aids you design. Be natural, but try not to shuffle your feet, pace back and forth, or rock on your heels through your entire speech. These behaviours distract your audience from your message and can communicate nervousness, undermining your credibility.

Positions on the Stage

Figure 3.12.1, speaker’s triangle.

In a speech presentation, positions on the stage can guide both the speaker and the audience through transitions. The speaker’s triangle (see Figure 3.12.1) indicates where the speaker starts in the introduction, moves for the first point, moves for the second point, and then returns to the original position to make the third point and conclusion. This movement technique can be quite effective to help you remember each of your main points and reinforce the structure of your speech. Your movement will also demonstrate purpose and reinforce your credibility.

Gestures involve using your arms and hands while communicating. Gestures provide a way to channel your nervous energy into a positive activity that benefits your speech and gives you something to do with your hands. For example, watch people in normal, everyday conversations. They frequently use their hands to express themselves. Do you think they think about how they use their hands? Most people do not. Their arm and hand gestures come naturally as part of their expression, often reflecting what they have learned within their community.

For professional speakers this is also true, but deliberate movement through functional gestures can reinforce, repeat, and even regulate an audience’s response to verbal and nonverbal messages. You want to come across as comfortable and natural, and your use of your arms and hands contributes to your presentation. A well-chosen gesture can help make a point memorable or lead the audience to the next point. Dananjaya Hettiarachchi’s 2.5-minute video offers tips on both body movement and gestures.

(Direct link to 4 essential body language tips by Dananjaya Hettiarachchi)

Facial Gestures

Facial gestures involve using your face to display feelings and attitudes non-verbally. They may reinforce, or contradict, the spoken word, and their impact cannot be underestimated. As we have discussed, people often focus more on how we say something than what we actually say, and place more importance on our nonverbal gestures (Mehrabian, 1981). As in other body movements, your facial gestures should come naturally, but giving them thought and consideration can keep you aware of how you are communicating the nonverbal message.

Facial gestures should reflect the tone and emotion of your verbal communication. If you are using humour in your speech, you will likely smile to complement the amusement expressed in your words. Smiling will be much less appropriate if your presentation involves a serious subject such as cancer or car accidents. Consider how you want your audience to feel in response to your message, and identify the facial gestures you can use to promote those feelings. Then practice in front of a mirror so that the gestures come naturally.

In Western cultures, eye contact is essential for building a relationship with the audience. Eye contact refers to the speaker’s gaze in engaging the audience members. It can vary in degree and length and, in many cases, is culturally influenced. Both the speaker’s and audience member’s notion of what is appropriate will influence expectations for eye contact. In some cultures, there are understood behavioural expectations for male gaze directed toward females, and vice versa. In a similar way, children may have expectations of when to look their elders in the eye and when to gaze down. Depending on the culture, both may be nonverbal signals of listening. Understanding your audience is critical when it comes to nonverbal expectations.

When giving a presentation, avoid looking over people’s heads, staring at a point on the wall, or letting your eyes dart all over the place. The audience will find these mannerisms unnerving. They will not feel as connected, or receptive, to your message and you will reduce your effectiveness. Move your eyes gradually and naturally across the audience, both close to you and toward the back of the room. Try to look for faces that look interested and engaged in your message. Do not focus on only one or two audience members, as audiences may respond negatively to perceived favouritism. Instead, try to give as much eye contact as possible across the audience. Keep it natural, but give it deliberate thought.

In “Your Speaking Voice”, Toastmasters International (2011) says that “ you can develop the sort of voice that wins favourable attention and reflects the qualities you wish to project” (p. 3). According to Toastmasters, you can correct bad speaking habits and develop effective speaking qualities by aiming to develop a voice that is

pleasant, conveying a sense of warmth

natural, reflecting your true per sonality and sincerity

dynamic, giving the impression of force and strength – even when it isn’t especially loud

expressive, portraying various shades of meaning and never sounding monotonous or without emotion

easily heard, thanks to proper volume and clear articulation

In working to convey a sense of warmth, remember that your goal is to build a relationship with your audience. In most business settings, a conversational tone is appropriate in achieving a connection. Toastmasters’ second goal concerns a natural, genuine personality. Speaking from your core values, as discussed in Chapter 1.3 ,  helps achieve this goal.

A dynamic and expressive voice uses a range of volumes, pace, and inflections to enhance the content of the speech. Toastmasters says that an effective speaker may use as many as 25 different vocal notes: “A one-note speaker is tedious to an audience and promotes inattention and boredom. Vocal variety is the way you use your voice to create interest, excitement, and emotional involvement. It is accomplished by varying your pitch, vol ume, and timing” (p. 6).  A dynamic voice is one that attracts attention and reflects confidence.

Filler words like “um” and “uh” can reduce your dynamism and affect your credibility since you may appear unsure or unfamiliar with your content. In addition to avoiding this filler-word habit, avoid using a “ vocal fry “, a low growl at the end of a sentence, or an uplift at the end of a declarative statement. The effects of these habits on your demonstration of authority and conviction are addressed in this 3-minute video by Taylor Mali:

(Direct link to Totally like whatever, you know by Taylor Mali video)

Your volume should make the audience comfortable– not so soft that audiences must strain to hear you or so loud that audiences feel threatened or uneasy. You will need to adjust your volume depending on the size of your audience and the space to ensure that the person farthest away from you can hear. You may also need to eliminate outside noises by closing doors and windows. Be sure that you do not create noises yourself that are distracting. Shoes on tile floors, heavy jewelry, and phones can create distracting noises. If possible, you can also move closer to your audience so that they can hear you more comfortably; this technique also develops trust with your audience.

The following 16-minute video by David JP Phillips effectively pulls together the skills discussed in this chapter. According to Phillips, a communication expert, everyone can be an effective speaker. As he points out in his TED Talk, we refer to presentation skills , not talent, indicating that we all can learn to use techniques that will help us develop a relationship with our audiences and deliver high quality presentations. Some of the skills he demonstrates in this video might be successfully incorporated in your own presentations.

(Direct link to The 110 Techniques of Communication and Public Speaking by David JP Phillips video)

Check Your Knowledge (10 Questions)

Mehrabian, A. (1981). Silent messages: Implicit communication of emotions and attitudes (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Toastmasters International. (2011). Your speaking voice: Tips for adding strength and authority to your voice. https://toastmasterscdn.azureedge.net/medias/files/department-documents/education-documents/199-your-speaking-voice.pdf

3.12 Movement and Vocal Qualities in Your Presentation Copyright © 2021 by [Author removed at request of original publisher] and Linda Macdonald is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Figurative Language

Figurative Language Definition

What is figurative language? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

Figurative language is language that contains or uses figures of speech . When people use the term "figurative language," however, they often do so in a slightly narrower way. In this narrower definition, figurative language refers to language that uses words in ways that deviate from their literal interpretation to achieve a more complex or powerful effect. This view of figurative language focuses on the use of figures of speech that play with the meaning of words, such as metaphor , simile , personification , and hyperbole .

Some additional key details about figurative language:

• Figurative language is common in all sorts of writing, as well as in spoken language.
• Figurative language refers to language that contains figures of speech, while figures of speech are the particular techniques. If figurative speech is like a dance routine, figures of speech are like the various moves that make up the routine.
• It's a common misconception that imagery, or vivid descriptive language, is a kind of figurative language. In fact, writers can use figurative language as one tool to help create imagery, but imagery does not have to use figurative language.

Figurative Language Pronunciation

Here's how to pronounce figurative language: fig -yer-uh-tiv lang -gwij

Figures of Speech and Figurative Language

To fully understand figurative language, it's helpful to have a basic understanding of figures of speech. More specifically, it's helpful to understand the two main types of figures of speech: tropes and schemes .

• Tropes are figures of speech that play with and shift the expected and literal meaning of words.
• Schemes are figures of speech that involve a change from the typical mechanics of a sentence, such as the order, pattern, or arrangement of words.

Put even more simply: tropes play with the meaning of words, while schemes play with the structure of words, phrases, and sentences.

The Different Things People Mean When They Say Figurative Language

When people say figurative language, they don't always mean the precise same thing. Here are the three different ways people usually talk about figurative language:

• Dictionary definition of figurative language: According to the dictionary, figurative language is simply any language that contains or uses figures of speech. This definition would mean that figurative language includes the use of both tropes and schemes.
• Much more common real world use of figurative language: However, when people (including teachers) refer to figurative language, they usually mean language that plays with the literal meaning of words. This definition sees figurative language as language that primarily involves the use of tropes.
• Another common real world use of figurative language: Some people define figurative language as including figures of speech that play with meaning as well as a few other common schemes that affect the rhythm and sound of text, such as alliteration and assonance .

What does all that boil down to for you? If you hear someone talking about figurative language, you can usually safely assume they are referring to language that uses figures of speech to play with the meaning of words and, perhaps, with the way that language sounds or feels.

Common Types of Figurative Language

There are many, many types of figures of speech that can be involved in figurative language. Some of the most common are:

• Metaphor : A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unrelated things by stating that one thing is another thing, even though this isn't literally true. For example, the phrase "her lips are a blooming rose" obviously doesn't literally mean what it says—it's a metaphor that makes a comparison between the red beauty and promise of a blooming rose with that of the lips of the woman being described.
• Simile : A simile, like a metaphor, makes a comparison between two unrelated things. However, instead of stating that one thing is another thing (as in metaphor), a simile states that one thing is like another thing. An example of a simile would be to say "they fought like cats and dogs."
• Oxymoron : An oxymoron pairs contradictory words in order to express new or complex meanings. In the phrase "parting is such sweet sorrow" from Romeo and Juliet , "sweet sorrow" is an oxymoron that captures the complex and simultaneous feelings of pain and pleasure associated with passionate love.
• Hyperbole : Hyperbole is an intentional exaggeration of the truth, used to emphasize the importance of something or to create a comic effect. An example of a hyperbole is to say that a backpack "weighs a ton." No backpack literally weighs a ton, but to say "my backpack weighs ten pounds" doesn't effectively communicate how burdensome a heavy backpack feels.
• Personification : In personification, non-human things are described as having human attributes, as in the sentence, "The rain poured down on the wedding guests, indifferent to their plans." Describing the rain as "indifferent" is an example of personification, because rain can't be "indifferent," nor can it feel any other human emotion.
• Idiom : An idiom is a phrase that, through general usage within a particular group or society, has gained a meaning that is different from the literal meaning of the words. The phrase "it's raining cats and dogs" is known to most Americans to mean that it's raining hard, but an English-speaking foreigner in the United States might find the phrase totally confusing.
• Onomatopoeia : Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which words evoke the actual sound of the thing they refer to or describe. The “boom” of a firework exploding, the “tick tock” of a clock, and the “ding dong” of a doorbell are all examples of onomatopoeia.
• Synecdoche : In synecdoche, a part of something is used to refer to its whole . For example, "The captain commands one hundred sails" is a synecdoche that uses "sails" to refer to ships—ships being the thing of which a sail is a part.
• Metonymy : Metonymy is a figure of speech in which an object or concept is referred to not by its own name, but instead by the name of something closely associated with it. For example, in "Wall Street prefers lower taxes," the New York City street that was the original home of the New York Stock Exchange stands in for (or is a "metonym" for) the entire American financial industry.
• Alliteration : In alliteration, the same sound repeats in a group of words, such as the “ b ” sound in: “ B ob b rought the b ox of b ricks to the b asement.” Alliteration uses repetition to create a musical effect that helps phrases to stand out from the language around them.
• Assonance : The repetition of vowel sounds repeat in nearby words, such as the " ee " sound: "the squ ea ky wh ee l gets the gr ea se." Like alliteration, assonance uses repeated sounds to create a musical effect in which words echo one another.

Figurative Language vs. Imagery

Many people (and websites) argue that imagery is a type of figurative language. That is actually incorrect. Imagery refers to a writers use of vivid and descriptive language to appeal to the reader's senses and more deeply evoke places, things, emotions, and more. The following sentence uses imagery to give the reader a sense of how what is being described looks, feels, smells, and sounds:

The night was dark and humid, the scent of rotting vegetation hung in the air, and only the sound of mosquitoes broke the quiet of the swamp.

This sentence uses no figurative language. Every word means exactly what it says, and the sentence is still an example of the use of imagery. That said, imagery can use figurative language, often to powerful effect:

The night was dark and humid, heavy with a scent of rotting vegetation like a great-aunt's heavy and inescapable perfume, and only the whining buzz of mosquitoes broke the silence of the swamp.

In this sentence, the description has been made more powerful through the use of a simile ("like a great-aunt's..."), onomatopoeia ("whining buzz," which not only describes but actually sounds like the noise made by mosquitoes), and even a bit of alliteration in the " s ilence of the s wamp."

To sum up: imagery is not a form of figurative language. But a writer can enhance his or her effort to write imagery through the use of figurative language.

Figurative Language Examples

Figurative language is more interesting, lively, beautiful, and memorable than language that's purely literal. Figurative language is found in all sorts of writing, from poetry to prose to speeches to song lyrics, and is also a common part of spoken speech. The examples below show a variety of different types of figures of speech. You can see many more examples of each type at their own specific LitChart entries.

Figurative Language Example: Metaphor

Metaphor in shakespeare's romeo and juliet.

In Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet , Romeo uses the following metaphor in Act 2 Scene 2 of Romeo and Juliet , after sneaking into Juliet's garden and catching a glimpse of her on her balcony:

But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.

Romeo compares Juliet to the sun not only to describe how radiantly beautiful she is, but also to convey the full extent of her power over him. He's so taken with Juliet that her appearances and disappearances affect him like those of the sun. His life "revolves" around Juliet like the earth orbits the sun.

Figurative Language Example: Simile

In this example of a simile from Slaughterhouse-Five , Billy Pilgrim emerges from an underground slaughterhouse where he has been held prisoner by the Germans during the deadly World War II firebombing of Dresden:

It wasn't safe to come out of the shelter until noon the next day. When the Americans and their guards did come out, the sky was black with smoke. The sun was an angry little pinhead. Dresden was like the moon now , nothing but minerals. The stones were hot. Everybody else in the neighborhood was dead.

Vonnegut uses simile to compare the bombed city of Dresden to the moon in order to capture the totality of the devastation—the city is so lifeless that it is like the barren moon.

Figurative Language Example: Oxymoron

These lines from Chapter 7 of Ernest Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls describe an encounter between Robert Jordan, a young American soldier fighting in the Spanish Civil War, and his lover María.

She held herself tight to him and her lips looked for his and then found them and were against them and he felt her, fresh, new and smooth and young and lovely with the warm, scalding coolness and unbelievable to be there in the robe that was as familiar as his clothes, or his shoes, or his duty and then she said, frightenedly, “And now let us do quickly what it is we do so that the other is all gone.”

The couple's relationship becomes a bright spot for both of them in the midst of war, but ultimately also a source of pain and confusion for Jordan, as he struggles to balance his obligation to fight with his desire to live happily by Maria's side. The contradiction contained within the oxymoron "scalding coolness" emphasizes the couple's conflicting emotions and impossible situation.

Figurative Language Example: Hyperbole

Elizabeth Bennet, the most free-spirited character in Pride and Prejudice , refuses Mr. Darcy's first marriage proposal with a string of hyperbole :

From the very beginning, from the first moment I may almost say, of my acquaintance with you, your manners impressing me with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish disdain of the feelings of others, were such as to form that ground-work of disapprobation, on which succeeding events have built so immoveable a dislike; and I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry.

Elizabeth's closing statement, that Darcy is the "last man in the world" whom she would ever marry, is an obvious hyperbole. It's hard to believe that Elizabeth would rather marry, say, an axe murderer or a diseased pirate than Mr. Darcy. Even beyond the obvious exaggeration, Austen's use of hyperbole in this exchange hints at the fact that Elizabeth's feelings for Darcy are more complicated than she admits, even to herself. Austen drops various hints throughout the beginning of the novel that Elizabeth feels something beyond mere dislike for Darcy. Taken together with these hints, Elizabeth's hyperbolic statements seem designed to convince not only Darcy, but also herself, that their relationship has no future.

Figurative Language Example: Personification

In Chapter 1 of The Scarlet Letter , Nathaniel Hawthorne describes a wild rose bush that grows in front of Salem's gloomy wooden jail:

But, on one side of the portal, and rooted almost at the threshold, was a wild rose-bush, covered, in this month of June, with its delicate gems, which might be imagined to offer their fragrance and fragile beauty to the prisoner as he went in, and to the condemned criminal as he came forth to his doom, in token that the deep heart of Nature could pity and be kind to him.

In the context of the novel's setting in 17th century Boston, this rose bush, which grows wild in front of an establishment dedicated to enforcing harsh puritan values, symbolizes those elements of human nature that cannot be repressed, no matter how strict a community's moral code may be: desire, fertility, and a love of beauty. By personifying the rosebush as "offering" its blossoms to reflect Nature's pity (Nature is also personified here as having a "heart"), Hawthorne turns the passive coincidence of the rosebush's location into an image of human nature actively resisting its constraints.

Figurative Language Example: Idiom

Figurative language example: onomatopoeia.

In Act 3, Scene 3 of Shakespeare's The Tempest , Caliban uses onomatopoeia to convey the noises of the island.

Be not afeard. The isle is full of noises, Sounds, and sweet airs that give delight and hurt not. Sometimes a thousand twangling instruments Will hum about mine ears, and sometime voices...

The use of onomatopoeia makes the audience feel the sounds on the island, rather than just have to take Caliban's word about there being noises.

Figurative Language Example: Synecdoche

In Act 4, Scene 3 of Shakespeare's Macbeth , an angry Macbeth kicks out a servant by saying:

Take thy face hence.

Here, "thy face" stands in for "you." Macbeth is simply telling the servant to leave, but his use of synecdoche makes the tone of his command more harsh and insulting because he uses synecdoche to treat the servant not as a person but as an object, a body part.

Figurative Language Example: Metonymy

In his song "Juicy," Notorious B.I.G. raps:

Now I'm in the limelight 'cause I rhyme tight

Here he's using "limelight" as a metonymy for fame (a "limelight" was a kind of spotlight used in old theaters, and so it came to be associated with the fame of being in the spotlight). Biggie's use of metonymy here also sets him up for a sweet rhyme.

Figurative Language Example: Alliteration

In his song "Rap God," Eminem shows his incredible lyrical dexterity by loading up the alliteration :

S o I wanna make sure, s omewhere in this chicken s cratch I S cribble and doodle enough rhymes T o maybe t ry t o help get s ome people through t ough t imes But I gotta k eep a few punchlines Just in c ase, ‘ c ause even you un s igned Rappers are hungry l ooking at me l ike it's l unchtime…

Why Do Writers Use Figurative Language?

The term figurative language refers to a whole host of different figures of speech, so it's difficult to provide a single definitive answer to why writers use figurative language. That said, writers use figurative language for a wide variety of reasons:

• Interest and beauty: Figurative language allows writes to express descriptions, ideas, and more in ways that are unique and beautiful.
• Complexity and power: Because figurative language can create meanings that go beyond the literal, it can capture complex ideas, feelings, descriptions, or truths that cause readers to see things in a new way, or more closely mirror the complex reality of the world.
• Visceral affect: Because figurative language can both impact the rhythm and sound of language, and also connect the abstract (say, love) with the concrete (say, a rose), it can help language make an almost physical impact on a reader.
• Humor: By allowing a writer to layer additional meanings over literal meanings, or even to imply intended meanings that are the opposite of the literal meaning, figurative language gives writers all sorts of options for creating humor in their writing.
• Realism: People speak and even think in terms of the sorts of comparisons that underlie so much figurative language. Rather than being flowery, figurative language allows writers to describe things in ways that match how people really think about them, and to create characters who themselves feel real.

In general, figurative language often makes writing feel at once more accessible and powerful, more colorful, surprising, and deep.

Other Helpful Figurative Language Resources

• The dictionary definition of figurative : Touches on figurative language, as well as some other meanings of the word.
• Figurative and Frost : Examples of figurative language in the context of the poetry of Robert Frost.
• Figurative YouTube : A video identifying various forms of figurative language from movies and television shows.
• Wikipedia on literal and figurative language : A bit technical, but with a good list of examples.

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• Figure of Speech
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• Personification
• Flat Character
• Falling Action
• Polysyndeton
• Protagonist
• Parallelism
• Characterization

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The Communication Process

Mar 12, 2019

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The Communication Process. What is communication?. Communication is the process of sharing information by using symbols to send and receive messages. The sender sends a message and a receiver receives it A message is the content of communication, made up of ideas and feelings.

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Presentation Transcript

What is communication? • Communication is the process of sharing information by using symbols to send and receive messages. • The sender sends a message and a receiver receives it • A message is the content of communication, made up of ideas and feelings The Sender Vladimir Putin Message You are the devil! The Receiver Barack Obama

Communication (continued) • Channels are the means used to send messages • Verbal messages: sound waves • Non-verbal messages: sound and light waves SENDER CHANNEL RECEIVER

The Communication Process • Feedback is a response to a message; feedback tells the sender whether the message has been received and understood.

The Communication Process • Messages are carried between senders and receivers by verbal and non-verbal symbols. • Verbal symbols: words • Non-verbal symbols: tone of voice, facial expression, body language, etc.

The Communication Process • Encoding: turning ideas and feelings into verbal and nonverbal symbols • Decoding: finding the meaning of verbal and non-verbal symbols ? This food seems to have an excess of sodium chloride encoding decoding Oh, it’s too salty!

The Communication Process • Interference is anything that gets in the way of clear communication • Physical noise: sounds that prevent a person from being heard • Psychological noise: the thoughts and feelings people have that interfere with what is being said • Semantic noise: interference caused by words that trigger strong negative feelings against the speaker or the content of the speech

Sending Verbal Messages • Language: a system of sounds and symbols used to communicate ideas and feelings • Symbol: something that stands for something else = chair

Language Usage • Standard English: language that is in keeping with established rules and conventions – follows grammar guidelines • Nonstandard English: language that is not totally in keeping with or violates rules and conventions

Language Usage • Sublanguage: a subsystem of an established language that provides a group of people convenient words for ideas and objects that are of great importance to that group and are spoken about frequently.

SlangLanguage made up of newly coined words or figures of speech or old words used in new, often outrageous, ways • m bizzle: Mercedes Benz • w'happen: West Indian slang word for ‘Hi,’ ‘Hey,’ or ‘How are you’; literally an abbreviation of ‘whats happening?’ W’happen, baby? come 'ere naw, me's a sweet bwoy yah nah" W’happen?

Jargon • Jargon: language that is understood by people in a particular group or field but is not necessarily understood by those outside the group

Language Usage • Dialect: a regional or cultural variety of language differing from standard English in pronunciation, sentence structure and use of words

Credits • http://www.uga.edu/iws/images/friday_&_whm_speakers/bridget_anderson_dialect.gif • Hillbilly? • http://www.exploratorium.edu/frank/jargon/images/jargon_04_Image_3110.jpeg • Mathematicians • http://www.thehanley.co.uk/gfx/photos/jargon_buster.jpg • Jargon buster • http://www.mercedes-benz-chrysler-jeep-dodge.cz/obr/mercedes_benz.jpg • Mercedes • http://d1206209.u31.worldispnetwork.com/JorElHayseed.jpg • Hayseed • http://docsouth.unc.edu/church/hood100/hood218.jpg • West Indies 1 • http://culturedominica.com/culturedominica/festival/shannon/shannon4.jpg • Miss West Indies • http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/0/0b/240px-Pretzel.jpg • Pretzels • http://www.pbs.org/mediashift/files/George%20W.%20Bush.JPG • George W Bush • http://www.objector.org/awol/graphics/hugo-chavez.jpg • Hugo Chavez • http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/20051102/a928_1928.jpg • Body language 1 • http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/04/sb_presentations/image/intro2.jpg • Body language 2 • http://pep-web.org/document.php?id=ppsy.002.0140.jpg • Facial expressions

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Figurative Language: Everything You Need To Know

Figurative language is everywhere. You can easily find it in poetry, literature, marketing messages, pop culture, and in your daily speech. If you've ever thought, "she sings like a lark," “I'm as hungry as a horse," or "that movie was an emotional roller coaster," you already know what figurative language is.

So, how do you distinguish figures of speech from other forms of language? How can you use figurative language to establish your reputation as an impactful communicator? 

Figures of speech can significantly benefit team discussions, presentations, and other workplace scenarios. Below, Poised explains figurative language in more detail and shares how to harness these tools to improve your communication skills.

What Is Figurative Language?

Figurative language employs figures of speech to elicit new images or strengthen the impact of content. If you’re trying to deliver a specific message or evoke a particular feeling in an interesting way, figurative language is an excellent platform.

For instance, you might tell your friend, "It's raining cats and dogs out here," to describe the inconvenient weather conditions you’re caught in. You could just say, "It's raining heavily," but the latter statement more aptly expresses the urgency of the circumstances.

Using figures of speech allows you to connect with listeners and readers on a deeper level because it creates fresh connections between images, concepts, or objects that normally would not be linked. This offers your audience new insights and helps them gain a more vivid, imaginative picture of the content. 

Figurative language can take something rather ordinary and make it significant. It can explain abstract concepts through comparisons with something your audience can relate to.

Authors across genres employ figures of speech to identify and evoke precise moods and feelings for which conventional wording wouldn't suffice. Business leaders, employees, and politicians can use figures of speech to persuade listeners. Novelists can use them to bring readers into the fictional world they've worked so hard to develop.

There are many types of figurative language worth learning. For brevity's sake, let's discuss the three primary forms of figurative language:

What Is a Metaphor?

A metaphor is a word or phrase for a specific thing that refers to a different thing to suggest or highlight the similarities between the two things. The term metaphor also refers to an idea, activity, or object that serves as a symbol of a different thing.

Metaphors describe actions or objects in a manner that isn't literally true but helps the listener understand the context by comparing different things or expressing an idea. Simply put, a metaphor says that one thing is another thing (unlike a simile, which states that something is like another thing). Metaphors equate the two things for comparison or symbolism's sake. 

Many consider William Shakespeare to be the king of the metaphor in the English Language. Perhaps the most common example of this type of figurative speech can be found in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, with the line "It is the east and Juliet is the sun."

Assuming the literal meaning of a metaphor can quickly make you confused. It's vital to recognize metaphors for what they are and allow them to add color and insight to the language in which they are active.

Sometimes, the colorful language of metaphors is the only way to truly describe abstract concepts or emotions. Other times, it simply makes communication more exciting and entertaining.

What Is a Simile?

Another standard figure of speech is the simile, which is essentially a metaphor that uses the words "like" or "as" to compare different things. People use similes to further describe something by comparing it to something else that may seem unrelated on the surface. 

You may have heard the statement, "Life is like a box of chocolates." This famous line from the 1994 film Forrest Gump beautifully illustrates the unpredictability of life. Choose a random piece of chocolate in a box, and you won't know the flavor until you take a bite. 

Most communicators use hyperbole for added emphasis when employing similes. Consider the statement "They were moving at the speed of light" to describe race car drivers at a race. 

Obviously, no human beings or cars can move that fast. But the statement succinctly expresses that the drivers were traveling at extraordinarily high speeds during the race. In other words, similes can make your communication more compelling and even informative.

Working the occasional simile into your presentation can do wonders for boosting your message’s clarity and keeping your audience engaged. As with metaphors, you can also use similes to enlighten your listeners on hard-to-explain concepts.

Furthermore, similes are more direct in their comparisons than metaphors, which tend to be more subtle and poetic. However, some figurative language examples are overused in everyday speech or as literary devices. When this occurs, they become a clicé and should be avoided. 

What Is an Analogy?

An analogy also compares two things to explain ideas, objects, or images. The two things in an analogy are physically distinct yet have figurative similarities; the analogy identifies those similarities.

Analogies are almost always used to simplify abstract or complex ideas. You can link unfamiliar ideas with common ones to help your team members better comprehend the key points of your message.

Take, for example, the concepts of time and money . The two terms are physically different, but the phrase "Time is money, so spend it wisely" gets a clear message across to listeners.

So, how is an analogy different from a metaphor or simile? Metaphors and similes are figures of speech that compare or imply a similarity between two things, and these devices help communicators to “show” instead of “tell.” On the other hand, an analogy focuses more on clarification or explanation. 

In other words, analogies go deeper. Here are a few sentences to demonstrate the difference between metaphors, similes, and analogies:

• Metaphor: She is a well of wisdom.
• Simile: She is like a well of wisdom.
• Analogy: She is like a well of wisdom guiding them to a more fulfilling life.

What Are Some Examples of Figurative Language?

So, you're ready to see figurative language in action. Here are some common examples of metaphors, similes, and analogies to consider:

Examples of Metaphors 

• She has a heart of stone: Someone with this condition may be cold and unemotional.
• That’s a slippery slope: A warning that one or two minor steps could lead to a dangerous outcome.
• He’s my better half: A metaphor that assumes the union of two individuals. Many people employ this phrase to describe their spouses.
• We live in a beautiful melting pot. A culture or location that includes people from various backgrounds.
• He was the black sheep of the family: A member of a family or other group that doesn't quite fit in with the other members.
• She was brilliant but also a late bloomer: A popular comparison between the aging process and a blooming flower.

Examples of Similes

• The kids were babbling like brooks.
• The older lady was as sweet as sugar.
• She runs like a gazelle.
• He went white as a ghost when they jumped out.
• You look like a monkey hanging from those bars.
• He thought the science project was as easy as pie.
• The businessman was cool as a cucumber in the meeting.
• Are you always busy as a bee?

Examples of Analogies

• Life is like a race: You must keep running to the best of your ability as life brings unexpected circumstances. Those who continue to run and participate in the race are the ones fully prepared in the long run.
• That’s like finding a needle in a haystack: To find a needle in a haystack is almost impossible, which is why this analogy is used to describe the search for a significant other or something else of great value.
• We must leave our comfort zones as a caterpillar comes out of its cocoon: The idea behind this analogy is that a person can reach their beautiful potential by coming out of their shell like a caterpillar exits its cocoon, and transforms into a butterfly.
• That was as irritating as nails on a chalkboard: Rub your fingernails along a chalkboard, and you'll clearly understand this analogy!
• The pen is the writer’s weapon, just as the sword is the warrior’s weapon: Swords are used for killing or protecting, and writers can do the same with their pens (or keys).

How To Use Figurative Language

You may already have an idea of how you can employ figures of speech in your virtual meetings and other workplace scenarios.

Here are a few brief tips for using figurative language in your communication:

Make Your Communication More Interesting

No matter what industry your company works in, chances are your team covers many of the same topics on a weekly basis. You can use metaphors, similes, and analogies to present ideas, review guidelines, and devise strategies in a new light. Add a splash of color to the conversation; the right figure of speech can entertain and engage your listeners.

Make a Point More Effectively

Pay attention to some of the abstract concepts you encounter in team meetings. These ideas can be difficult to explain using only literal language. Be mindful of how you can incorporate engaging figures of speech to explain the unexplainable through comparison or symbolism. 

Tell a Relevant Story

Every leader and employee understands the importance of telling compelling stories in virtual meetings and at other work functions. One of the easiest ways to make your story more relevant to your audience is to use metaphors, similes, or analogies to compare your ideas to other things your listeners are sure to understand. 

Poised: The Simplest Way To Improve Your Communication

Being literal sometimes just isn’t enough. Continue to learn how you can work more figures of speech into your video calls, collaboration sessions, and other work situations. 

Remember to use any tools available to boost your communication skills and help you reach your next career milestone. The Poised AI-powered communication coach will help you communicate more effectively during meetings while analyzing your long-term performance for regular progress updates. 

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The Top 20 Figures of Speech | ThoughtCo

Romeo & Juliet, Act 2, Literary Elements | Mountain View Schools

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What is Communication Process: Examples, Stages & Types

Table of Contents

Communication enables us to connect, share ideas, and collaborate with one another. But have you ever wondered what exactly goes into the process of effective communication? How do our thoughts and intentions transform into meaningful messages that are understood by others?

In this blog post, we will delve into the details of the communication process. We will explore its fundamental components, examine how messages are transmitted and received, and highlight the key factors that can influence successful communication.

Definition of the communication process?

“The systematic process in which individuals interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings in a particular context.” – Joseph A. DeVito “The process by which people use signs, symbols, and behaviors to exchange information and create meaning.” – Kory Floyd

What is the communication process? 

The communication process refers to the steps and elements involved in the successful transmission and understanding of a message between a sender and a receiver. It includes the exchange of information, ideas, opinions, or emotions through various channels or mediums. The communication process is cyclical, meaning it involves continuous feedback and adjustment. 

Effective communication requires clarity, relevance, active listening, and consideration of the needs and perspectives of both the sender and the receiver. By understanding and utilizing the communication process, individuals and organizations can enhance their ability to convey messages, build relationships, and achieve their communication goals.

Process of communication with diagram

What is the communication process cycle?

The communication process cycle is a continuous and dynamic sequence of stages involved in the successful exchange of messages between a sender and a receiver. The communication process cycle typically includes the following phases:

• Sender’s Input
• Message Transmission
• Message Reception
• Receiver’s Response
• Feedback Transmission
• Iteration and Adjustment

The communication process cycle is continuous, as it involves ongoing interactions and exchanges between the sender and the receiver.

Distinctive characteristics of the communication process?

The following characteristics help distinguish the communication process from other forms of human interaction and highlight its unique nature. The key characteristics of the communication process are as follows:

• Sender-Receiver Relationship : The communication process involves a relationship between the sender and the receiver. It requires both parties to participate actively and engage in the exchange of messages.
• Noise Effect : The communication process can be influenced by noise, which refers to any barriers or disruptions that affect the accurate transmission or reception of the message. Noise can be physical (e.g., background noise) or psychological (e.g., cultural differences) .

Related Reading : Psychological barriers to effective communication  

• Dynamic and Ongoing : Communication is a continuous process that involves ongoing interactions and exchanges between the sender and the receiver. It is not a one-time event but evolves.
• Subjectivity : The communication process is subject to interpretation and perception by both the sender and the receiver. Each individual may interpret and understand the message based on their own experiences, beliefs, and perspectives.

Components of the communication process

The communication process consists of several interconnected components that work together to facilitate effective communication.

1/ Sender: The sender takes the lead in initiating the communication process. They have a message or information to convey to the receiver. The sender’s role involves encoding the message, which means converting thoughts or ideas into a communicable format.

2/ Message: The message represents the ideas or informational content that the sender intends to convey. It can be expressed through different channels, including verbal, written, or non-verbal forms. Verbal elements include spoken or written words, while non-verbal elements encompass body language, facial expressions, and gestures.

3/ Channel: The channel serves as the pathway through which the message is conveyed from the sender to the receiver. Communication channels can include face-to-face conversations, phone calls, emails, text messages, video conferencing, or social media platforms.

4/ Receiver: The receiver is the person or group of people who are the intended target of the message. They play a crucial role in the communication process by decoding and interpreting the message received from the sender.

5/ Feedback: Feedback is the response or reaction given by the receiver in relation to the sender’s message. It serves as a vital component of the communication process, allowing the sender to gauge the effectiveness of their message and make necessary adjustments.

To know more check out our detailed article on: What are the components of the communication process

Types of the communication process

Communication processes can be broadly categorized into four main types:

1/ Verbal Communication Process: Verbal communication involves the usage of spoken or written language to express and convey messages. It allows for immediate feedback and clarification, promoting interactive and real-time exchanges.

Further Reading: What is verbal communication

2/ Nonverbal Communication Process: Nonverbal communication involves the transmission of messages without the use of words.  It incorporates a range of nonverbal cues such as physical movements, hand gestures,  vocal intonation, interpersonal distance, and other forms of nonverbal expression.

Further Reading: What is nonverbal communication

3/ Visual Communication Process: Visual communication relies on visual elements to convey messages. It involves the use of images, graphics, charts, diagrams, videos, presentations, and other visual aids. Visual communication is effective in simplifying complex information, enhancing understanding, and appealing to visual learners.

Further Reading: What are the advantages and disadvantages of visual communication

4/ Written Communication Process: Written communication includes the utilization of written words or text as a means to convey information. It includes letters, memos, reports, articles, emails, text messages, social media posts, and other forms of written communication.

Further Reading: What is written communication with example

How does the communication process work? 

The communication process involves 8 interconnected stages that facilitate the exchange of information, ideas, or messages between a sender and a receiver. Here’s a simplified explanation of how the communication process works:

8 stages of the communication process 

1/ Sender’s Input: The communication process begins with the sender, who initiates the communication by having a message to convey. The sender identifies the purpose of the communication and formulates the message accordingly. This involves determining what information, ideas, or emotions need to be conveyed and what outcome the sender hopes to achieve through the communication.

2/ Encoding the message: After formulating the message, the sender encodes it by selecting appropriate symbols, language, or means of expression. Encoding involves converting thoughts or ideas into a form that can be understood by the receiver. This could include: 

• Selecting specific words 
• Using nonverbal cues such as gestures or facial expressions 
• Utilizing visual or auditory elements to enhance the message’s meaning.

3/ Message Transmission: Once the message is encoded, the sender transmits it through a chosen communication medium or channel. The medium can vary depending on the nature of the communication and the available options, such as: 

• Face-to-face conversations
• Written communication
• Telephone calls or emails, 
• Social media platforms

The sender selects the most suitable medium to effectively deliver the message to the receiver.

4/ Receptioning the Message: The receiver, who is the intended recipient of the message, receives the transmitted message through the selected medium or channel. The receiver perceives the message using their senses (e.g., hearing or reading) or through technological devices (e.g., listening to an audio recording or reading a text on a screen). The receiver’s attention and focus on the message play a crucial role in this stage.

5/ Decoding the Message: Upon receiving the message, the receiver decodes it by interpreting and extracting meaning from the information received. Decoding involves understanding the encoded symbols, language, or context used by the sender to derive the intended message. The receiver applies their knowledge, experiences, cultural background, and perceptual filters to make sense of the message and derive meaning from it.

6/ Receiver’s Response: After decoding the message, the receiver formulates a response or feedback based on their understanding and interpretation. This response can take various forms, such as verbal or written communication, actions, or nonverbal cues. The response allows the receiver to provide: 

• Feedback, 
• Seek clarification, 
• Ask questions, 
• Express agreement or disagreement, 
• Contribute additional information related to the message.

7/ Feedback Transmission: The receiver’s response is transmitted back to the sender through the same or a different communication medium or channel. Feedback serves as an essential component of the communication process, as it provides valuable information to the sender. It helps the sender gauge the effectiveness, understanding, and impact of the message on the receiver. Feedback allows for adjustments, clarification, and improvement of future communications, ensuring the accuracy and clarity of the message.

Related Reading : What is feedback in the communication cycle

8/ Noise: Throughout the communication process, various factors can influence the effectiveness of communication. These factors include noise, which can be

• External Noise: (e.g., Environmental distractions or technical issues) 
• Internal Noise: (e.g., Preconceived notions or biases) 

Noise can disrupt message transmission or reception. The communication context, such as the physical environment, cultural norms, relationship dynamics, and power dynamics between the sender and receiver, can also impact the communication process.

Example of the communication process? 

Sarah, a project manager, wants to inform her team about a change in project deadlines, so she sends an email.

1/ Sender: Sarah, the project manager

• Sarah, as the project manager, is the sender of the message. She initiates communication by composing and sending emails.

2/ Message: Change in project deadlines

• The message is about the change in project deadlines. Sarah wants to inform her team members about this important update.

3/ Encoding: Composing the email

• Sarah encodes her message by composing an email. She chooses the appropriate words, tone, and structure to effectively convey the information regarding the change in project deadlines.

4/ Medium: Email

• The medium used for communication in this scenario is email. Sarah sends the message through the company’s email system.

5/ Channel: Company’s email server

• The channel refers to the means through which the message is transmitted. In this case, the email is transmitted through the company’s email server to reach the team members’ inboxes.

6/ Receivers: Sarah’s team members

• Sarah’s team members are the intended receivers of the message. They will receive and interpret the email sent by Sarah.

7/ Decoding: Reading and understanding the email

• The team members decode the email by reading it and interpreting the content. They understand that there has been a change in project deadlines based on the information provided by Sarah.

8/ Feedback: Team members’ response or clarification

• After decoding the message, the team members may provide feedback to Sarah by replying to the email. They might seek clarification, acknowledge the change, or ask questions related to the new deadlines.

9/ Noise: Distractions or communication barriers

• Noise can refer to technical issues with the email server, language barriers, or even conflicting priorities that could negatively affect the effective transmission or reception of the message.

10/ Context: Project management and deadlines

• The context of the communication is the project management and the change in deadlines. It provides the background and relevance for Sarah’s message to her team members.

The example highlights how the communication process functions within a business, specifically in the scenario of Sarah communicating changes in project deadlines to her team members via email.

Examples of communication models: 

Communication models provide frameworks for understanding the complexities of the communication process. Two well-known models are the Shannon-Weaver model and the Transactional model. The Shannon-Weaver model focuses on the transmission of information from the sender to the receiver through a linear process.

The Transactional model emphasizes the dynamic nature of communication, where both the sender and receiver actively participate in encoding, decoding, and exchanging messages.

Why communication process is important? 

The communication process serves as the foundation for effective and meaningful interactions between individuals, groups, and organizations. Here are some key reasons why the communication process is vital:

• Enhancing Decision-Making: Effective communication is essential for informed decision-making. Through the communication process, individuals can gather insights, weigh different options, and collectively arrive at well-informed decisions that consider multiple factors and stakeholder interests.
• Conflict Resolution: Communication plays a vital role in resolving conflicts and addressing differences. By encouraging open dialogue, active listening, and empathy, the communication process allows individuals to express their concerns, and find mutually acceptable solutions.
• Achieving Organizational Objectives: In the organizational context, the communication process is vital for achieving goals and objectives. It ensures that employees understand the organization’s vision, mission, and strategies.
• Influencing and Persuasion: Communication is a powerful tool for influencing and persuading others. The communication process allows for the delivery of persuasive messages that can shape opinions, change behaviors, and motivate individuals or groups to take desired actions.
• Social and Cultural Cohesion: Communication is a fundamental aspect of human interaction and societal cohesion. The communication process helps bridge gaps, promote understanding across diverse cultures, and foster inclusive and harmonious relationships within communities and societies.

Importance of the communication process in real life?

Effective communication serves as a cornerstone for building and nurturing relationships in personal, and social life. By actively engaging in the communication process, individuals establish connections and build trust, which forms the foundation of healthy and meaningful relationships.

Moreover, the communication process provides a platform for individuals to express their thoughts, emotions, and experiences. It serves as a medium for self-expression, enabling individuals to share their perspectives and joys with others. 

Additionally, engaging in the communication process contributes to personal growth and development. It enhances self-awareness and interpersonal skills. Through active participation in communication, individuals can refine their communication abilities, become more adaptable, and strengthen their relationships, both personally and professionally.

What are the common problems in the process of communication?

There are several common problems that can arise in the process of communication. These problems can hinder effective communication and lead to misunderstandings or breakdowns in the exchange of information. Here are some common communication problems:

1/ Misunderstandings : Misunderstandings can arise when the receiver does not accurately grasp the intended meaning of a message, leading to misinterpretations. This can happen due to differences in language or individual interpretations. Misunderstandings can result in misinformation and ineffective communication.

2/ Encoding and Decoding Errors: Encoding involves transforming thoughts or ideas into a communicable format, while decoding refers to the interpretation of the received message. Errors can occur during encoding or decoding, leading to misinterpretation or distortion of the intended message.

3/ Channel Selection : Choosing the appropriate communication channel is crucial for effective message transmission. Using an incorrect or inefficient channel can lead to message loss, distortion, or delayed communication. Selecting the right channel based on the nature of the message and the target audience is essential.

4/ Lack of Adaptability : Communication processes need to be adaptable to different contexts, audiences, and communication styles. Failing to adapt the communication approach can result in resistance or a lack of engagement from the intended recipients.

How does intercultural communication affect the communication process? 

Intercultural communication refers to the exchange of information and ideas between individuals or groups from different cultural backgrounds. It plays a significant role in today’s globalized world where people with diverse cultural identities interact and collaborate. Intercultural communication can have a profound impact on the communication process in several ways:

• Language Barriers: Different cultures have distinct languages or variations of languages. When individuals from different cultures communicate, language barriers may arise , making it challenging to convey ideas accurately.
• Nonverbal Communication Differences: Nonverbal communication, such as eye contact and body movements can reflect cultural variations. Various cultures may attribute different interpretations to specific nonverbal cues, resulting in differences in meaning and understanding.
• Cultural Context: Cultural context significantly influences the communication process. Social norms, customs, and historical backgrounds shape how messages are constructed and interpreted. Without an understanding of the cultural context, messages may be misunderstood. 

Related Reading : Cultural Barriers To Communication: Examples & How to Overcome it

Communication process in the workplace 

In the workplace, the communication process refers to the series of interactions through which information, feedback, and instructions are exchanged between employees or teams to achieve common goals and facilitate effective work dynamics.

It involves both verbal and non-verbal communication , utilizing various channels and methods to ensure clear and meaningful understanding among employees and across different levels of the organization. 

Communication process in advertising 

In advertising, the communication process refers to the strategic and systematic approach of developing and delivering persuasive messages to target audiences with the goal of promoting products, services, or ideas. It involves a series of interconnected stages that aim to capture attention, generate interest, and elicit desired actions from the audience.

Impact of Technology on the communication process 

The impact of technology on the communication process refers to the changes and transformations that technology has brought to the way people exchange information, connect with others, and engage in communication. It has revolutionized various aspects of communication, including speed, accessibility, reach, and modes of interaction. Here are some key impacts of technology on the communication process:

• Speed and Efficiency: Technology has drastically increased the speed and efficiency of communication. Messages can be sent and received instantly through various digital platforms, reducing the time required for information exchange and decision-making processes.
• Global Connectivity: The internet and digital communication technologies have facilitated global connectivity, bringing together individuals from diverse regions of the world. Geographic barriers no longer limit communication, allowing individuals to connect, collaborate, and engage with others regardless of their physical location.
• Expanded Communication Channels: Technology has expanded the range of communication channels available. In addition to face-to-face conversations, people can communicate through emails, instant messaging, video calls, social media platforms, and other digital tools. This variety of channels provides flexibility and choice in how people interact and exchange information.

In addition, the impact of technology on the communication process also comes with challenges. Misinterpretation, miscommunication, and information overload are limitations of digital communication . Balancing virtual interactions with maintaining personal connections and non-verbal cues can also be a challenge. It is important to be mindful of these challenges and adapt communication strategies accordingly.

What makes the communication process effective and ineffective? 

Key factors that make the communication process effective:.

1/ Clarity: Clearly articulating ideas and messages using concise and understandable language helps ensure that the intended meaning is easily comprehended by the audience.

2/ Active Listening: Actively engaging in the communication process by attentively listening to the speaker, seeking clarification when needed, and demonstrating genuine interest in their message.

3/ Empathy and Understanding: Showing empathy towards others’ perspectives, being open-minded, and seeking to understand their viewpoints fosters a positive and inclusive communication environment.

4/ Feedback and Confirmation: Providing feedback to the speaker to confirm understanding, asking questions, and actively seeking clarification when necessary to ensure accurate comprehension.

5/ Contextual Awareness: Being mindful of the context and situation in which the communication takes place, including cultural norms, social dynamics, and any relevant background information.

6/ Timeliness: Communicating information in a timely manner, providing updates and responses promptly, and avoiding unnecessary delays to maintain the relevance and effectiveness of the communication .

By incorporating these factors into the communication process, individuals can enhance their ability to convey messages clearly and promote meaningful and effective interactions.

Key factors that can make the communication process ineffective:

1/ Non-Verbal Inconsistency: Sending conflicting non-verbal cues, such as mismatched facial expressions or body language, can create confusion and mistrust.

2/ Information Overload: Overwhelming the audience with excessive or irrelevant information can lead to disengagement and hinder understanding.

3/ Assumptions and Stereotyping: Making assumptions about others’ knowledge, beliefs, or experiences based on stereotypes can lead to miscommunication and misunderstandings.

4/ Emotional Barriers: Allowing strong emotions, such as anger, frustration, or fear, to dominate the communication process can prevent effective dialogue and problem-solving.

Awareness of these factors can help individuals identify and address potential barriers to effective communication and fostering productive interactions

Frequently Asked Questions 

Q1) what are the 7 steps of the communication process .

Ans: The communication process involves seven key steps: sender, message, channel, encoding, decoding, receiver, and feedback. The sender initiates the process by encoding a message, which is transmitted through a chosen channel. The receiver decodes the message and provides feedback, completing the communication loop. Following these steps enhances communication effectiveness.

Q2) What are the 5 stages of communication? 

Ans: The communication process involves five stages: sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback. The sender encodes and delivers the message through a chosen channel, which is then received, decoded, and responded to by the receiver. 

Q3) What is most important in the communication process?

Ans: The most important aspects of effective communication are clarity and active listening. Clarity involves using clear and concise language, while active listening refers to actively engaging with the speaker during a conversation or communication exchange.  Other important elements include feedback, non-verbal communication, empathy, emotional intelligence, and adaptability.

Q4) What are the basics of the communication process? 

Ans: The basics of the communication process include a sender who encodes a clear message, a chosen channel for transmission, an engaged receiver who decodes the message, and feedback for effective communication. Minimizing noise and considering the context is important.

Q5) What is a two-way communication process?

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Figurative Language PowerPoint

Updated:  14 Jun 2023

Explore figurative language with your students using this comprehensive teaching presentation.

Editable:  PowerPoint

• Curriculum Curriculum:  AUS V8, AUS V9

Years:  5 - 6

• Microsoft PowerPoint (potx) Sign up to Plus

What Is Figurative Language?

Figurative language is a word or phrase that does not have a literal meaning. It is used by an author for the sake of comparison or dramatic effect. Some examples of figurative language include personification, hyperbole, simile, metaphor, idiom and onomatopoeia.

When teaching figurative language, it can often be challenging to locate age-appropriate examples to use with our students! This teaching presentation will teach your students how the author’s use of figurative language achieves a specific purpose using child-friendly, age-appropriate examples.

Figurative Language Examples and Activities

This comprehensive teaching presentation describes each type of figurative language and gives an example for the students to study. The PowerPoint offers built-in check-for-understanding slides, making it easy to see which students need extra support while keeping your students engaged throughout the presentation. It also ends with a link to a figurative language activity, allowing your students to put their learning into action!

The types of figurative language taught in this PowerPoint include:

• personification
• onomatopoeia.

More Great Resources for Exploring Figurative Language

Use the Download button to access the Microsoft PowerPoint teaching presentation.

This resource has been designed to be used with our Figurative Language Worksheet and Figurative Language Sorting Activity . Links to these resources can also be found within the presentation.

This resource was created by Meagan Lee, a Teach Starter collaborator.

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Figurative Framing: Shaping Public Discourse Through Metaphor, Hyperbole, and Irony

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Christian Burgers, Elly A. Konijn, Gerard J. Steen, Figurative Framing: Shaping Public Discourse Through Metaphor, Hyperbole, and Irony, Communication Theory , Volume 26, Issue 4, 1 November 2016, Pages 410–430, https://doi.org/10.1111/comt.12096

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Framing is an important concept in communication, yet many framing studies set out to develop frames relevant to only one issue. We expand framing theory by introducing figurative framing. We posit that figurative language types like metaphor, hyperbole and irony are important in shaping public discourse, because these figures contain important linguistic and conceptual content about the issue under discussion. We first explicate the role of each individual figure (metaphor, hyperbole, and irony) in the framing of important societal issues. Then, we focus on complex figurative frames (combinations of metaphor, hyperbole, and/or irony). The article concludes with a research agenda, connecting figurative framing to the four key processes in framing research (frame building, frame setting, individual-level effects, and feedback loop).

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How to Prepare a Presentation on Communication?

Complication of Data and Information for helping you to prepare a  presentation on Communication! After reading this article we will learn about:- 1. Communicating among People 2. Importance and Meaning of Communication 3. Process 4. Model 5. Behavioural Processes 6. Networks in Organisations 7. Communication in Groups 8. Managing the Communication Process 9. Organisational Actions and Other Details .

• Media and Communication

1. Communicating among People:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Communicating among people is not an easy task as it may appear to a layman. Thus, for managers to be able to communicate effectively, they must understand certain fundamental aspects of the communication process, i.e., how interpersonal factors such as perception, communication channels, nonverbal behaviour, and listening — all work to enhance or detract from communication.

1. Perception and Communication,

2. Communication Channels,

3. Nonverbal Communication, and

4. Listening.

1. Perception and Communication:

Perception refers to the process one uses to make sense out of the environment. However, perception in itself often fails to give us an accurate picture of the environment. Perpetual selectivity refers to the process by which various objects and stimuli that vie for our attention are screened and selected by individuals. Certain stimuli fail to catch our attention but others do.

Once individuals recognize a stimulus, they organize or categorise it according to their frame of reference, that is, perceptual organisation. We just need a partial one to enable perceptual organisation to take place. For example, anybody can spot an old friend from a long distance and, without seeing the face or other features, recognize the person from the body movement.

The most common form of perceptual organisation is stereo-typing. A stereotype is “a widely held generalisation about a group of people that assigns attributes to them solely on the basis of one or a few categories, such as age, race, or, occupation.” For instance, young men usually assume that old people have a conservative outlook. Students may stereotype professors of philosophy as absent-minded.

What is of importance to managers is that they should be aware of the fact that words can mean different things to different people and should not assume that they already know what the other person or the communication is about.

2. Communication Channels:

Managers have a choice of many channels through which to communicate to others (both managers or employees). A manager may discuss a problem face to face, use the telephone, write a memo or letter, or put an item in a newsletter, depending on the nature of the management. In truth, channels differ in their capacity to convey information.

To be more specific, the physical characteristics of a channel limit the type and quantum of information that can be conveyed among managers. The channels available to managers can be classified into a hierarchy based on information richness. Channel richness refers to the quantum of information that can be transmitted during a communi­cation episode. Figure 14.1 illustrates the hierarchy of channel richness.

The capacity of an information channel is influenced by three characteristics:

(1) The ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously;

(2) The ability to facilitate rapid feedback; and

(3) The ability to establish a personal focus for the communication.

On the contrary, interpersonal written media, including fliers, bulletins and computer reports, are the lowest in richness.

Channel selection also depends on whether the message is routine or non-routine. There is no misinterpretation in case of routine messages because they convey data or statistics or simply put into words what managers already agree on and understand. This explains why routine messages can be efficiently communicated through a channel lower in richness.

In a word, routing messages are simple and straightforward. On the contrary, non-routine messages typically are ambiguous, concern novel events, and have great potential for misunderstanding. These are often characterised by time pressure and surprise. It is possible for managers to communicate non-routine messages effectively only by selecting rich channels.

3. Nonverbal Communication:

Such communication refers to messages sent through human actions and behaviours (such as body movements, facial expressions, posture, or dress) rather than through words. It represents a major portion of the messages we send or receive.

Nonverbal communication occurs mostly face to face. So far three sources of communication cues during face-to-face communication have been discovered: the verbal, which are the actual spoken words, the vocal which include the pitch, tone, and timbre of a person’s voice; and facial expressions.

R. L. Dafts has rightly suggested that “managers should pay close attention to non-verbal behaviour when communicating. They must learn to coordinate their verbal and non-verbal messages and at the same time be sensitive to what their peers, subordinates and supervisors are saying nonverbally.”

4. Listening:

The last important characteristic associated with successful interpersonal communication is listen­ing. A good listener must have certain qualities: he has to find areas of interest, be flexible, work hard at listening and use thought speed to mentally summarise, weigh, and anticipate what the speaker will say. Table 14.1 illustrates a number of ways to distinguish a bad from a good listener.

The listener is responsible for message reception, which is no doubt a vital link in the communication process. The listener must actively seek to grasp facts and feelings and interpret the genuine meaning of the message. Only at this stage can the receiver provide the feedback with which to complete the communication circuit. Listening requires at least 3 things: attention, energy and skill.

Most U.S. multinational firms take listening very seriously. Managers are made to know that they are expected to listen to employees.

2. Importance and Meaning of Communication :

Communication permeates every organisational (managerial) function. It is a problem that plagues many organisations and individual managers. When for instance, managers perform the planning function, they collect information, write letters, memos, and reports, and then meet with other managers to explain the nature of the plan.

When managers act as leaders, they communicate with subordinates with a view to motivating them to accomplish certain tasks. In performing the organising function, managers gather necessary information about the state of the organisation and communicate to others about a new organisational structure.

Thus there is hardly any need to emphasise that communication skills are a basic part of any managerial function (activity). Commu­nication is just a managerial tool designed to accomplish objectives and should not be treated as an end in itself.

In a particular day, the manager performs various tasks — attending meetings, making and receiving telephone calls and correspondence. Ail are a necessary part of a every manager’s job and all clearly involve communication.

The various roles of managers involve a great deal of communication. The three major types of managerial roles of interpersonal, decisions and informational. The interpersonal roles involve interacting with supervisors, subordinates, peers and others outside the organisation.

The decisional roles require that managers seek out information to use in making decisions and then communicate those decisions to others. The informational roles obviously involve communication; they focus specifically on acquiring and transmitting information.

Communication also relates directly to the basic management functions of planning, organising, leading and controlling.

As Griffin has summed up the whole thing in the following words:

“Environmental scanning, integrating, planning time horizons and decision-making, for example, all necessitate communication. Delegation, coordination and organisation change and development also contain communication. Developing reward systems and interacting with subordinates as a part of leading function would be impossible without some form of communication. And, commu­nication is essential to establishing standards, monitoring performance and taking corrective actions as a part of control”.

Communication is essentially the process of transmitting information from one person to another and can thus be defined as “the process by which information is exchanged and understood by two or more people, usually with the intent to motivate or influence behaviour.”

3. Process of Communication :

Effective communication is the process of sending message in such a way that the message received is close in meaning to the message, this definition of effective communication incorporates the ideas of meaning and consistency of meaning. Meaning is that which the individual who initiates the communication process wishes to convey.

In effective communication, the meaning is transmitted in such a manner that the receiving person understands it. However it is to be noted at the outset that communication is not just sending information. The distinction between sharing and proclaim­ing is crucial for managerial success.

A manager who does not listen to others is like a used car dealer who claims, “I sold the car-he just did not buy it.” True enough, management communication is a two-way street that includes listening and other forms of feedback.

Three conditions:

Three conditions are necessary for communication to take place. Firstly, there must be at least two people involved. The relationship between these two people can vary signifi­cantly, in terms of proximity, intensity and time. Two managers having a discussion in an office engage in communication. Of course, more than two people may be engaged in consumer. Secondly, there must be information to be communicated. And third, there is need to make so attempt to transmit this information.

In the words of D.K. Berlo, effective communication is as follows:

When two people interact, they put themselves into each other’s shoes, try to perceive the world as the other person perceives it, try to predict how the other will respond. Interaction involves reciprocal role-taking, the mutual employment of empathetic skills. The goal of interaction is ‘the merge of self and other, a complete ability to anticipate, predict and behave in accordance with the joint needs of self and other.

It is the sheer desire to share understanding that motivates executives to visit employees on the shop floor and share food with them. The things managers succeed in learning from direct communication with employees shape their understanding of the corporation.

In a broad sense, communication is the process of transferring meaning in the form of ideas or information from one person to another. It is to be noted that a true interchange of meaning between people includes not only the words used in their conversations. It includes a number of other aspects of human behaviour, viz., shades of meaning and emphasis, facial expressions, vocal inflections, and all the unintended and involuntary gestures that suggest real meaning.

For an effective interchange mere transmission of data is not enough. What is required is that the person sending the message and receiving it rely on certain skills (speaking, writing, listening, reading and the like) to make the exchange of meaning successful.

Communication is the chain of understanding that links the members of different units or divisions of an organisation at various levels and in diverse areas.

It has three major elements:

(1) An act of making oneself understood,

(2) A means of pairing information between people, and

(3) A system for communicating between individuals.

This is the traditional view of communication which may occur between two or among more individuals. This view is being modified by the technological revolution to include communication between people, between people and machines, and even one machine and another (or one machine and other machines).

4. A Model of the Communication Process :

Most organisational people think that communication is a simple task because they communicate without conscious thought or effort. However, a deeper analysis reveals that effective communica­tion is really a complex ex­ercise and in any organisa­tion there are innumerable opportunities for sending or receiving the wrong mes­sages.

Often managers say, “But that’s not what I meant.” There are also occa­sions when a manager gives people directions in a clear fashion (at least in his own opinion) and they still get lost. Often a subordinate wastes time on misunder­stood instructions.

These are some of the situations in which individuals fail to communicate effectively with one another. In order to understand the reasons for such failure, we may now examine a model of inter-personal communication developed by C. Shannon and W. Weaver in 1949. The model is described in Fig. 14.2 below.

One-way communication (or communication from one person to another) involves five steps: meaning, encoding, transmission, decoding, and meaning. In the case of two-way communication (involving interaction between people), the three steps of encoding, transmission, and decoding are repeated as the second person responds to the first.

The process begins when one person (a sender) initiates a communication exchange. This person has decided that a fact, idea, opinion, or similar concept needs to be transmitted to someone else. This fact, idea, or opinion has meaning to the sender, whether it be simple and concrete or complex and abstract. Thus meaning is the first step in the communication process.

The next step is to encode the meaning into a form appropriate to the situation. This encoding might take the form of words, facial expressions, gestures, or even artistic expressions and physical action.

Obviously, the selection of an appropriate form for encoding the meaning is one point in the process where problems can arise.

After the message has been encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel. The channel by which this present encoded message is being transmitted to you is the printed page. Other common channels include face-to-face discussion, the air waves (usually one-way communi­cation) and telephone lines. Transmission is step 3 of the communication process.

Next, the message is received and decoded by one or more other people via such senses as eyesight and hearing. And, after the message is received, it must be translated into meaning relevant to the receiver.

In many cases, this meaning prompts a response, and the cycle is continued when the new message is sent by the same steps back to the original sender (steps 6,7, and 8). As suggested in Figure 14.2, “noise” may disrupt the process after it is transmitted but before it is received. Noise can literally be noise, such as someone coughing, a truck driving by, or two other people talking close at hand.

It can also include such disruptions as a letter being lost in the mail, a telephone line going dead, or one of the participants in a conversation being called away before the communication process is completed.

5. Behavioural Processes that Effect Communication :

Since communication involves more than one person, we would expect emotional and psychological differences between people to affect the communication process. And, the behavioural processes that probably have the most impact on communication are perception and attitudes.

Perception and Communication :

Perception can be defined as “the processes an individual uses to receive information from the environment”. This means that perception exploits the five senses of hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting and smelling. In terms of communication, perception plays a major role in receiving the message transmitted from the sender (step 3 in Fig. 14.2) and decoding it (step 4 in Fig. 14.2).

For managers the barrage of information takes the form of sales forecasts, phone calls and conversations. As Fig. 14.3 shows, perception acts as a filter for organisational people. It screens out information that is trivial and irrelevant. Perception helps us select and organise information from the external environment of business.

Selection (also known as selective perception) is the process of screening out informa­tion organisation people are uncomfortable with (cost saving by a rival firm) or just do not want to bother about (development of a new sales promotion strategy by a competing firm).

Organising:

As we select and filter information from the external environment, it is to be organised. Organising refers to the process of categorising, grouping and filling in information in a systematic fashion. Information is organised either by stereotyping or by grouping it into categories. After organising information, it is also necessary to fill in gaps to make it more meaningful.

Attitudes and Communication:

A second important behavioural process that can affect communication is the attitudes of the people involved. As attitude is a person’s predisposition to respond in a favourable or unfavourable way to an object (in this sense, an object can be a person or an idea or even a physical object). All people develop their own attitudes toward jobs, other people and everything else they come into contact with.

People’s attitudes have three basic components, viz., emotional, knowledge and behavioural. The emotional component is the individual’s feelings about the object, i.e., it reflects whether a person likes or dislikes the object and how central this like or dislike is to his (her) personal value system.

The knowledge component of an attitude is the beliefs and information the person has about the object. The third output of an attitude is behavioural interrelation. Because of how we feel about the object and what we think we know about it, we develop intentions of how we expect to behave. However, people’s behavioural intentions change with changes in circumstances.

Attitudes are closely related to both the decoding (step 4) and the meaning (step 5) stages of the communication world presented in Fig. 14.2. They also influence the receiver’s responses. Attitudes interact with perception within the communication process. In short, attitudes help determine what information people selectively perceive and how they organise it.

Interpersonal Communication :

Interpersonal communication normally refers to communication between a small number of people. Such communication is of three types – oral, written and nonverbal.

(i) Oral Communication:

Oral communication involves face-to-face conversation, group discussions, telephone calls and other situations in which the sender uses the spoken word to communicate. The main advantages of this form of communication is that it allows prompt feedback in the form of verbal questions or agreement, facial expressions and gestures. Oral communication is easy and can be done with little preparation and without any equipment.

However, oral communication may suffer from problems of inaccuracy as the speaker chooses the wrong words to convey his (her) meaning or leaves out pertinent details, as noise disrupts the process, or as the receiver forgets part of or all of the message. In a two-way discussion, there is hardly any time for a thoughtful, considered response or for introducing many new facts. And, there is no permanent record of what has been said.

(ii) Written Communication:

Written communication may solve most of the problems inherent in oral communication. However, this type of communication does not occur presently. Moreover, it is not respected by managers.

The most serious drawback of written communication is that it slows feedback and often leads to misunderstanding. This problem can easily be solved by a phone call.

On the positive side, written communication is often quite accurate and it provides a permanent record of the communication which, in future, can serve as an ‘evidence’ of exactly what took place.

(iii) Non-Verbal Communication :

It refers to any communication exchange that does not use words and that uses verbalization to carry more meaning than the strict definition of the words themselves. Facial expressions, body move­ments, physical contact, sneers and gestures may all be used.

Study has indicated that three important kinds of nonverbal communication are practiced by managers: images, settings and body language. Images in this context refer to the kinds of words people elect to use.

The setting for communication refers to such things as boundaries, familiarity, the home turf and other such elements. Organisational theorists have written much about the symbols of power in organisations. The size and location of one’s office, the kinds of furniture in the office, and the accessibility of the person in the office all communicate useful information.

Body language is the third form of nonverbal communication. The distance we stand from someone as we speak, for example, has meaning. Positioning oneself closer than customary may signal familiarity or aggression. Another effective means of nonverbal communication is eye contact. Depending on the situation, prolonged eye contact might suggest either hostility or romantic interest. Other kinds of body language include body and arm movement, pauses in speech and mode of dress.

Organisational Communication :

Unlike interpersonal communication discussed so far, organisational communication involves broad pattern of communication, involving a large number of people. To start with, we may discuss various organisational communication networks.

Communication Network (channels) :

Communication networks refer to certain structured arrangements of a small number of individuals who are allowed to transmit information and communicate with one another only in a set and well-defined pattern. Simply put, a communication network is a pattern through which the members of the group communicate. Four types of networks have been discussed in groups numbering three, four, five members. See Fig.14.4

1. The wheel network:

In this network one member is at the center and four (or more) members are at each end of a spoke. In the wheel, all communication flows through one central person who is probably the group formal or informal leader. Obviously this network is highly centralised because one person receives and transmits all information.

2. The Y network:

The Y is slightly less centralised: two persons are closer to the centre.

3. The chain network:

In this case two members serve as endpoints; each can communicate directly with one person in the middle. The middle members act as relay points to the individual at the centre. The chain begins to offer a more even flow of information among members.

The path is closed by the shaded circle. In such a situation, the central person communicates directly only with the two middle members. They can have any communi­cation with the end individuals. So, the chain network is also centralised. But, it is not as centralised as the wheel network.

4. The circle network:

It is to some extent decentralised in the sense that each individual in it can communicate with the other two next to him.

5. The completely connected (all-channel) network:

It allows a free flow of information among all group members. This type of network is highly decentralised in nature. In this situation, every individual in the group can participate equally and communicate directly with every other individual in the group and the group’s leader, if there is one, is not likely to have excessive power.

Consequences:

(a) Centralised Networks:

It may be noted that the two highly centralised networks — such as the wheel and the chain — are effective in solving routine and clear problems that mainly involve information gathering. This is logical in the sense that the individual at the centre of the wheel and chain networks is processing and weeding out the information the group generates, thus totally ignoring irrelevant communications.

Furthermore, in these types of communication networks, the leadership position of the central individual is strong. It is because he stands the strongest chance of influencing the other members of the group. The final point about centralised networks is that these groups structure their communication patterns very rapidly, since everyone learns quickly that he must process informa­tion through the individual in the central position.

(b) Decentralised networks:

Two decentralised networks such as the all-channel and the circle are more appropriate when the group is faced with a non-routine or ambiguous problem. Since, under these two systems, individu­als can communicate directly with each other they feel free to express opinions and to generate various solutions; mostly of a creative and innovative nature.

The members of the groups enjoy a greater degree of satisfaction than in centralised networks because they are allowed to communicate with one another and to express their own points of view.

6. Networks in Organisations:

The practising manager can supply these findings to the behaviour of small specialised work groups within an organisation. In case of structured work which is to be performed by the members of the group in a set and routine fashion, the manager is possibly dealing with a centralised network.

On the contrary, if the manager directs the activities of a group whose work is non-routine, he seems to be a part of a decentralized network. Virtually all the properties of formal network models are found to exist in actual work groups most of the time. Unskilled employees, for instance, who perform repetitive jobs on the assembly line, work in centralised networks in the sense that the pace of the assembly line allows only limited communication among individuals.

Formal Communication Flows:

To understand organisational communication we have to examine the basic directions in which it moves. Formal communication channels are largely dictated by the structure of the organisation. Alternatively, they are prescribed by some other formal means. As Fig, 14.5 shows three basic com­munication channels are: vertical (upward and downward), hori­zontal (central) and di­agonal.

As each level in the communication chain can add to, take from, modify, or completely change the intent of a given message, there will be loss of information in the chain of command.

One proximate reason for this seems to be that messages are usually broader and more general at higher levels of management. As Chester Barnard has noted: “It follows that something may be lost or added by transmission at each stage of the process……. Moreover, when communications go from high positions down they often must be made more specific as they proceed.”

2. Managerial Unanimity:

Authority is a necessary feature of any representative organisation. It is not possible to accomplish much without certain persons having the right to make decisions. Yet the basic fact that one person supervises others creates a barrier to free and open communication.

3. Specialisation:

Specialisation is no doubt a part of organisational life. But it is not an unmixed blessing. It often tends to separate people even when they work side by side. The performance of difference functions, the pursuance of special interests of subgroups, use of different technical terms frequently prevent any commonality of feeling, make understanding very difficult, create strains between individuals and departments, act as barriers to communication and lead to errors.

In the words of Dafts: “Differences across departments in terms of needs and goals interfere with communications. Each department perceives problems in its own terms.” The production depart­ment, for instance, is concerned with production schedules and may not fully appreciate the need for and urgency of the department to supply the product in the market as quickly as possible.

Likewise, the specialised jargon (or technical vocabulary) of the engineering department may make it difficult for engineers to communicate with less educated foremen on the shop floor.

4. Lack of Channels:

Additionally, lack of adequate formal channels reduces communication effectiveness. It is of considerable importance for organisations to provide adequate upward, downward, and horizontal communication in the form of employee surveys, open door policies, newsletters, memos, task forces, and liaison personnel. In the absence of such formal channels, it is not possible for the organisation as a whole to communicate.

5. Mismatch between Communication Flow and Organisation’s Tasks:

Finally, it may be noted that the communication flow may not fit the group’s or organisation’s task. As Dafts has noted: “If a centralized communication structure is used for a non-routine task, there will not be enough information circulated to solve problems. When a decentralised, wide open communication style is used for solving simple tasks, excess communication takes place. The organisation, department or group is most efficient when the amount of communication flowing among employees fits the nature of the task.”

6. Perpetual Differences:

If people perceive a situation differently, they may also have difficulty in communicating with one another. Two people often fail to communicate effectively if one has a positive impression and the other a negative one about the same problem or the same solution to a particular problem.

Individual Barriers :

Even in the absence of the above organisational barriers managers could find that their messages would became distorted. On most occasions miscommunications are caused not by organisational factors, but by problems of human and language imperfections.

Individual barriers are of the following four categories:

1. Interpersonal Barriers:

Such barriers include problems with emotions and perceptions held by group participation. Com­munication will be a hazardous task if, for instance, people are more concerned with their own feelings and emotions than with the people with whom they are communicating. Dafts has noted that “Rigid perpetual labeling or categorizing of others prevents modification or alteration of opinions. If a person’s mind is made up before the start of the communication process, communi­cation will fail. Moreover, people with diverse backgrounds or knowledge may interpret commu­nication in different ways.”

A deeper analysis reveals that there are five specific inter-personnel barriers to communication. These are discussed below (and illustrated in Fig. 14.9).

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