research work life balance

Work-life balance -a systematic review

Vilakshan - XIMB Journal of Management

ISSN : 0973-1954

Article publication date: 15 December 2021

Issue publication date: 31 July 2023

This study aims to systematically review the existing literature and develop an understanding of work-life balance (WLB) and its relationship with other forms of work-related behavior and unearth research gaps to recommend future research possibilities and priorities.

Design/methodology/approach

The current study attempts to make a detailed survey of the research work done by the pioneers in the domain WLB and its related aspects. A total of 99 research work has been included in this systematic review. The research works have been classified based on the year of publication, geographical distribution, the methodology used and the sector. The various concepts and components that have made significant contributions, factors that influence WLB, importance and implications are discussed.

The paper points to the research gaps and scope for future research in the area of WLB.

Originality/value

The current study uncovered the research gaps regarding the systematic review and classifications based on demography, year of publication, the research method used and sector being studied.

Work-life balance
Flexibility
Individual’s ability to balance work-life
Support system
WLB policy utilization
Societal culture

S., T. and S.N., G. (2023), "Work-life balance -a systematic review", Vilakshan - XIMB Journal of Management , Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 258-276. https://doi.org/10.1108/XJM-10-2020-0186

Emerald Publishing Limited

Published in Vilakshan – XIMB Journal of Management . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence maybe seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

In this technological era, work is becoming demanding with changing nature of work and working patterns (Thilagavathy and Geetha, 2020 ). The proactive, aggressive and demanding nature of business with the intention of reaching the top requires active involvement and comprehensive devotion from the employees, thereby compromising their work-life balance (WLB) (Turanlıgil and Farooq, 2019 ). Research concerning the work-life interface has exploded over the past five decades because of the changing trends in the nature of gender roles, families, work and careers (Powell et al. , 2019 ). Researchers in this domain has published many literature reviews with regard to WLB. It is argued that the study of WLB remains snowed under by a lack of conceptual clarity (Perrigino et al. , 2018 ). Thus, research and theory only partially view the employees’ work-life needs and experiences.

How WLB is conceptualized in the past?

What are the factors that significantly influenced WLB?

In which geographical areas were the WLB studies undertaken?

Which sectors remain unstudied or understudied with regard to WLB?

Methodology

We systematically conducted the literature review with the following five steps, as shown in Figure 1 . The first step was to review the abstracts from the database like EBSCO, Science Direct, Proquest and JSTOR. The articles from publishers like ELSEVIER, Emerald insight, Springer, Taylor and Francis and Sage were considered. The literature survey was conducted using the search terms WLB, balancing work and family responsibility and domains of work and life between the period 1990 to 2019. This search process led to the identification of 1,230 relevant papers. Inclusion criteria: The scholarly articles concerning WLB published in the English language in journals listed in Scopus, web of science or Australian business deans council (ABDC) were included in this review. Exclusion criteria: The scholarly articles concerning WLB published in languages other than English were not taken into consideration. Similarly, unpublished papers and articles published in journals not listed in Scopus, web of science or ABDC were excluded.

In the second step, we identified the duplicates and removed them. Thus, the total number of papers got reduced to 960. Following this, many papers relating to work-life spillover and work-life conflict were removed, resulting in further reduction of the papers to 416. Subsequently, in the third step, the papers were further filtered based on the language. The paper in the English language from journals listed in Scopus, web of science or ABDC were only considered. This search process resulted in the reduction of related papers to 93. The fourth step in the search process was further supplemented with the organic search for the related articles, leading to 99 papers illustrated in Appendix Table 1 . In the fifth step, an Excel sheet was created to review the paper under different headings and the results are as follows.

Literature review

Evolution and conceptualization of work-life balance.

WLB concern was raised earlier by the working mothers of the 1960s and 1970s in the UK. Later the issue was given due consideration by the US Government during the mid of 1980. During the 1990s WLB gained adequate recognition as the issue of human resource management in other parts of the world (Bird, 2006 ). The scholarly works concerning WLB have increased, mainly because of the increasing strength of the women workforce, technological innovations, cultural shifts in attitudes toward the relationship between the work and the family and the diversity of family structures (Greenhaus and Kossek, 2014 ). The research works on WLB include several theoretical work-family models. Though the research on WLB has expanded to a greater extend, there are considerable gaps in our knowledge concerning work-family issues (Powell et al. , 2019 ).

Moreover, in studies where WLB and related aspects are explored, researchers have used different operational definitions and measurements for the construct. Kalliath and Brough (2008) have defined WLB as “The individual’s perception that work and non-work activities are compatible and promote growth in accordance with an individual’s current life priorities.” WLB is “a self-defined, self-determined state of well being that a person can reach, or can set as a goal, that allows them to manage effectively multiple responsibilities at work, at home and in their community; it supports physical, emotional, family, and community health, and does so without grief, stress or negative impact” (Canadian Department of Labor, as cited in Waters and Bardoel, 2006 ).

Figure 2 depicts the flowchart of the framework for the literature survey. It clearly shows the factors that have been surveyed in this research article.

Individual factors

The individual factors of WLB include demographic variables, personal demands, family demands, family support and individual ability.

Work-life balance and demography.

WLB has significant variations with demographic variables (Waters and Bardoel, 2006 ). A significant difference was found between age (Powell et al. , 2019 ), gender (Thilagavathy and Geetha, 2020 ) and marital status (Powell et al. , 2019 ) regarding WLB. There is a significant rise in women’s participation in the workforce (Jenkins and Harvey, 2019 ). WLB issues are higher for dual-career couples (Crawford et al. , 2019 ).

Many studies were conducted on WLB with reference to sectors like information technology (IT), information technology enabled services, Banking, Teaching, Academics and Women Employment. A few WLB studies are conducted among services sector employees, hotel and catering services, nurses, doctors, middle-level managers and entrepreneurs. Only very scarce research has been found concerning police, defense, chief executive officers, researchers, lawyers, journalists and road transport.

Work-life balance and personal demands.

High work pressure and high family demand lead to poor physical, psychological and emotional well-being (Jensen and Knudsen, 2017 ), causing concern to employers as this leads to reduced productivity and increased absenteeism (Jackson and Fransman, 2018 ).

Work-life balance and family demands.

An employee spends most of the time commuting (Denstadli et al. , 2017 ) or meeting their work and family responsibilities. Dual career couple in the nuclear family finds it difficult to balance work and life without domestic help (Dumas and Perry-Smith, 2018 ; Srinivasan and Sulur Nachimuthu, 2021 ). Difficulty in a joint family is elderly care (Powell et al. , 2019 ). Thus, family demands negatively predict WLB (Haar et al. , 2019 ).

Work-life balance and family support.

Spouse support enables better WLB (Dumas and Perry-Smith, 2018 ). Family support positively impacted WLB, especially for dual-career couples, with dependent responsibilities (Groysberg and Abrahams, 2014 ).

Work-life balance and individual’s ability.

Though the organizations implement many WLB policies, employees still face the problems of WLB (Dave and Purohit, 2016 ). Employees achieve better well-being through individual coping strategies (Zheng et al. , 2016 ). Individual resources such as stress coping strategy, mindfulness emotional intelligence positively predicted WLB (Kiburz et al. , 2017 ). This indicates the imperative need to improve the individual’s ability to manage work and life.

Organizational factor

Organizational factors are those relating to organization design in terms of framing policies, rules and regulations for administering employees and dealing with their various activities regarding WLB ( Kar and Misra, 2013 ). In this review, organizational factors and their impact on the WLB of the employee have been dealt with in detail.

Work-life balance and organizational work-life policies.

The organization provides a variety of WLB policies (Jenkins and Harvey, 2019 ). Employee-friendly policies positively influenced WLB ( Berg et al. , 2003 ). Further, only a few IT industries provided Flexi timing, work from home and crèches facilities (Downes and Koekemoer, 2012 ). According to Galea et al. (2014) , industry-specific nuance exists.

Work-life balance and organizational demands.

Organizations expect employees to multi-task, causing role overload (Bacharach et al. , 1991 ). The increasing intensity of work and tight deadlines negatively influenced WLB (Allan et al. , 1999 ). The shorter time boundaries make it challenging to balance professional and family life (Jenkins and Harvey, 2019 ). Job demands negatively predicted WLB (Haar et al. , 2019 ).

Work-life balance and working hours.

Work does vacuum up a greater portion of the personal hours (Haar et al. , 2019 ). This causes some important aspects of their lives to be depleted, undernourished or ignored (Hughes et al. , 2018 ). Thus, employees find less time for “quality” family life (Jenkins and Harvey, 2019 ).

Work-life balance and productivity.

Organizational productivity is enhanced by the synergies of work-family practices and work-team design (Johari et al. , 2018 ). Enhanced WLB leads to increased employee productivity (Jackson and Fransman, 2018 ).

Work-life balance and burnout.

WLB is significantly influenced by work exhaustion (burnout). Negative psychological experience arising from job stress is defined as burnout (Ratlif, 1988). Increased work and non-work demands contribute to occupational burnout and, in turn, negatively predict WLB and employee well-being (Jones et al. , 2019 ).

Work-life balance and support system.

Support from Colleagues, supervisors and the head of institutions positively predicted WLB (Ehrhardt and Ragins, 2019 ; Yadav and Sharma, 2021 ). Family-supportive organization policy positively influenced WLB (Haar and Roche, 2010 ).

Work-life balance and employee perception.

The employee’s perception regarding their job, work environment, supervision and organization positively influenced WLB (Fontinha et al. , 2019 ). Employees’ awareness concerning the existence of WLB policies is necessary to appreciate it (Matthews et al. , 2014). The employee’s perception of the need for WLB policies differs with respect to their background (Kiburz et al. , 2017 ).

Work-life balance and job autonomy.

Job autonomy is expressed as the extent of freedom the employee has in their work and working pattern ( Bailey, 1993 ). According to Ahuja and Thatcher (2005) , autonomy and flexibility enable employees to balance competing demands of work-life. Job autonomy will enhance WLB (Johari et al. , 2018 ).

Work-life balance and job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction is the driving force for task accomplishment and employees’ intention to stay (Brough et al. , 2014 ). Employees’ positive perception concerning their job enhances job satisfaction (Singh et al. , 2020 ; Yadav and Sharma, 2021 ). WLB and job satisfaction are positively correlated (Jackson and Fransman, 2018 ).

Work-life balance and organizational commitment.

Alvesson (2002) describes organizational commitment as a mutual and fair social exchange. WLB positively predicted organizational commitment (Emre and De Spiegeleare, 2019 ). Work-life policies offered by an organization lead to increased loyalty and commitment (Callan, 2008 ).

Work-life balance and work-life balance policy utilization.

The utilization of WLB policies (Adame-Sánchez et al. , 2018 ) helps meet job and family demands. Despite the availability of WLB policies, their actual adoption is rather small (Waters and Bardoel, 2006 ) and often lag behind implementation (Adame-Sánchez et al. , 2018 ).

Work-life balance and organizational culture.

Employees perceive WLB policy utilization may badly reflect their performance appraisal and promotion (Bourdeau et al. , 2019 ). Hence, seldom use the WLB policies (Dave and Purohit, 2016 ). The perception of the organization culture as isolated, unfriendly and unaccommodating (Fontinha et al. , 2017 ); a lack of supervisor and manager support and a lack of communication and education about WLB strategies (Jenkins and Harvey, 2019 ). This leads to counterproductive work behavior and work-family backlash (Alexandra, 2014 ). As a result, growing evidence suggests a dark side to WLB policies, but these findings remain scattered and unorganized (Perrigino et al. , 2018 ). Organizational culture significantly affects WLB policy utilization (Callan, 2008 ; Dave and Purohit, 2016 ).

Societal factors

Societal changes that have taken place globally and locally have impacted the individual’s lifestyle. In this modern techno world, a diversified workforce resulting from demographic shifts and communication technology results in blurring of boundaries between work and personal life (Kalliath and Brough, 2008 ).

Work-life balance and societal demands.

Being members of society, mandates employee’s participation in social events. But in the current scenario, this is witnessing a downward trend. The employee often comes across issues of inability to meet the expectation of friends, relatives and society because of increased work pressure. Societal demands significantly predicted WLB (Mushfiqur et al. , 2018 ).

Work-life balance and societal culture.

Societal culture has a strong influence on WLB policy utilization and work and non-work self-efficacy. Specifically, collectivism, power distance and gendered norms had a strong and consistent impact on WLB Policy utilization by employees (Brown et al. , 2019 ). Women’s aspiration to achieve WLB is frequently frustrated by patriarchal norms deep-rooted in the culture (Mushfiqur et al. , 2018 ).

Work-life balance and societal support.

WLB was significantly predicted by support from neighbors, friends and community members (Mushfiqur et al. , 2018 ). Sometimes employees need friend’s viewpoints to get a new perspective on a problem or make a tough decision (Dhanya and Kinslin, 2016 ). Community support is an imperative indicator of WLB ( Phillips et al. , 2016 ).

Analyzes and results

Article distribution based on year of publication.

The WLB studies included for this review were between the periods of 1990–2019. Only a few studies were published in the initial period. A maximum of 44 papers was published during 2016–2019. Out of which, 17 studies were published during the year 2019. In the years 2018, 2017 and 2016 a total of 12, 7 and 8 studies were published, respectively. The details of the article distribution over the years illustrate a rising trend, as shown in Figure 3 .

Geographical distribution

Papers considered for this review were taken globally, including the research works from 26 countries. American and European countries contributed to a maximum of 60% of the publications regarding WLB research. Figure 4 illustrates the contribution of different countries toward the WLB research.

Basic classification

The review included 99 indexed research work contributed by more than 70 authors published in 69 journals. The contribution worth mentioning was from authors like Allen T.D, Biron M, Greenhaus J. H, Haar J.M, Jensen M.T, Kalliath T and Mc Carthy A. The basic categorization revealed that the geographical distribution considered for this review was from 26 different countries, as shown in Figure 4 . The research was conducted in (but not limited to) countries like Africa, Australia, Canada, China, India, Israel, The Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore, Sweden, Turkey, the USA and the UK. American and European countries together contributed to the maximum of 60% of publications. Further, the categorization uncovered that 7 out of the 99 journals contributed to 30% of the WLB papers considered for this review, clearly illustrated in Table 1 .

Methodology-based categorization of papers

The basic information like research methods, sources of data, the proportion of papers using specific methodologies were considered for methodology-based categorization. The categorization revealed that 27 out of 99 papers reviewed were conceptual and the remaining 72 papers were empirical. The empirical papers used descriptive, exploratory, explanatory or experimental research designs. Further, categorization based on the data collection method revealed that 69 papers used the primary data collection method. Additionally, classification uncovered that 57 papers used the quantitative method, whereas 11 papers used the qualitative approach and four used the mixed method. The most prominent primary method used for data collection was the questionnaire method with 58 papers, while the remaining 20 papers used interview (10), case study (5), experimental studies (3), daily dairy (1) or panel discussion (1).

Sector-based categorization of papers

The sector-based categorization of papers revealed that 41.6% (30 papers) of research work was carried out in service sectors. This is followed by 40.2% (29 papers) research in the general public. While one paper was found in the manufacturing sector, the remaining nine papers focused on managers, women, the defense sector, police and the public sector, the details of which are showcased in Table 2 .

Research gap

Individual factor.

The literature survey results demonstrated that the impact of employee education and experience on their WLB had not been examined.

The literature survey has uncovered that the relationship between income and WLB has not been explored.

The influence of domestic help on WLB has not been investigated.

Much of the research work has been carried out in developed countries like the US, UK, European countries and Australia. In contrast, very scarce research works have been found in developing countries and underdeveloped countries.

Not much work has been done in WLB regarding service sectors like fire-fighters, transport services like drivers, railway employees, pilots, air hostesses, power supply department and unorganized sectors.

A review of the relevant literature uncovered that studies concerning the individual’s ability to balance work and life are limited. The individual’s ability, along with WLB policies, considerably improved WLB. Individual strategies are the important ones that need investigation rather than workplace practices.

Kibur z et al . (2017) addressed the ongoing need for experimental, intervention-based design in work-family research. There are so far very scares experimental studies conducted with regard to WLB.

Organizational factor.

A very few studies explored the impact of the WLB policies after the implementation.

Studies concerning the organizational culture, psychological climate and WLB policy utilizations require investigation.

Organizational climates influence on the various factors that predict WLB needs exploration.

Societal factor.

The impact of the societal factors on WLB is not explored much.

Similarly, the influence of societal culture (societal beliefs, societal norms and values systems) on WLB is not investigated.

Discussion and conclusion

The current research work aspires to conduct a systematic review to unearth the research gaps, and propose direction for future studies. For this purpose, literature with regard to WLB was systematically surveyed from 1990 to 2019. This led to identifying 99 scientific research papers from index journals listed in Scopus, the web of science or the ABDC list. Only papers in the English language were considered. The review section elaborated on the evolution and conceptualization of WLB. Moreover, the literature review discussed in detail the relationship between WLB and other related variables. Further, the research works were classified based on the fundamental information revealed that a maximum of 44 papers was published during the year 2016–2019. The geographical distribution revealed that a maximum of research publications concerning WLB was from American and European countries. Further, the basic classification revealed that 7 out of the 69 journals contributed to 30% of the WLB papers considered for this review. The methodology-based classification unearthed the fact that 73% of the papers were empirical studies. Additionally, the categorization uncovered that 79% ( n = 57) of papers used quantitative methods dominated by survey method of data collection. Sector-based categorization made known the fact that a maximum of 41.6% of research work was carried out in the service sector. The research gaps were uncovered based on the systematic literature review and classifications and proposed future research directions.

Limitations

We acknowledge that there is a possibility of missing out a few papers unintentionally, which may not be included in this review. Further, papers in the English language were only considered. Thus, the papers in other languages were not included in this systematic review which is one of the limitations of this research work.

Implications

The discussion reveals the importance and essentiality of the individual’s ability to balance work and life. Consequently, the researchers have proposed future research directions exploring the relationship between the variables. WLB is an important area of research; thus, the proposed research directions are of importance to academicians. The review’s finding demonstrates that there are very scarce studies on the individual’s ability to balance work and life. This leaves a lot of scopes for researchers to do continuous investigation in this area. Hence, it is essential to conduct more research on developing individuals’ ability to balance work and life. There are a few experimental studies conducted so far in WLB. Future experimental studies can be undertaken to enhance the individual’s ability to balance work and life.

Flow chart of the steps in systematic review process

Framework for the literature review

Distribution of papers based on year of publication

Geographical distribution of papers across countries

Journals details

Name of the journal	No. of papers	1990–1999	2000–2009	2010–2019
	8	–	1	7
	5	1	3	1
	4	–	–	4
	4	–	1	3
	3	–	–	3
	3	–	–	3
	3	–	3	–
Others (below three papers)	69	9	15	44
Total	99	10	23	65

Sectors being studied	No. of papers	(%)
General population	29	40.2
Education services	11	15.2
Health care services	7	9.7
Financial services (banking and insurance)	6	8.3
Managers	5	6.9
IT services	4	5.5
Hotel management	2	2.7
Government employee	2	2.7
Women	2	2.7
Manufacturing	1	1.3
Others	3	4.1

Table 1 List of papers included in the review

Adame-Sánchez , C. , Caplliure , E.M. and Miquel-Romero , M.J. ( 2018 ), “ Paving the way for competition: drivers for work-life balance policy implementation ”, Review of Managerial Science , Vol. 12 No. 2 , pp. 519 - 533 , doi: 10.1007/s11846-017-0271-y .

Ahuja , M. and Thatcher , J. ( 2005 ), “ Moving beyond intentions and towards the theory of trying: effects of work environment and gender on post-adoption information technology use ”, MIS Quarterly , Vol. 29 No. 3 , pp. 427 - 459 .

Allan , C. , O'Donnell , M. and Peetz , D. ( 1999 ), “ More tasks, less secure, working harder: three dimensions of labour utilization ”, Journal of Industrial Relations , Vol. 41 No. 4 , pp. 519 - 535 , doi: 10.1177/002218569904100403 .

Alvesson ( 2002 ), Understanding Organizational Culture , Sage Publications , London . 10.4135/9781446280072

Bacharach , S.B. , Bamberger , R. and Conely , S. ( 1991 ), “ Work-home conflict among nurses and engineers: mediating the impact of stress on burnout and satisfaction at work ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior , Vol. 12 No. 1 , pp. 39 - 63 , doi: 10.1002/job.4030120104 .

Bailey , T.R. ( 1993 ), “ Discretionary effort and the organization of work: employee participation and work reform since Hawthorne ”, Teachers College and Conservation of Human Resources , Columbia University .

Bardoel , E.A. ( 2006 ), “ Work-life balance and human resource development ”, Holland , P. and De Cieri , H. (Eds), Contemporary Issues in Human Resource Development: An Australian Perspective , Pearson Education , Frenchs Forest, NSW , pp. 237 - 259 .

Berg , P. , Kalleberg , A.L. and Appelbaum , E. ( 2003 ), “ Balancing work and family: the role of high - commitment environments ”, Industrial Relations , Vol. 42 No. 2 , pp. 168 - 188 , doi: 10.1111/1468-232X.00286 .

Bird , J. ( 2006 ), “ Work-life balance: doing it right and avoiding the pitfalls ”, Employment Relations Today , Vol. 33 No. 3 , pp. 21 - 30 , doi: 10.1002/ert.20114 .

Bourdeau , S. , Ollier-Malaterre , A. and Houlfort , N. ( 2019 ), “ Not all work-life policies are created equal: career consequences of using enabling versus enclosing work-life policies ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol. 44 No. 1 , pp. 172 - 193 , doi: 10.5465/amr.2016.0429 .

Brough , P. , Timm , C. , Driscoll , M.P.O. , Kalliath , T. , Siu , O.L. , Sit , C. and Lo , D. ( 2014 ), “ Work-life balance: a longitudinal evaluation of a new measure across Australia and New Zealand workers ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 25 No. 19 , pp. 2724 - 2744 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2014.899262 .

Callan , S.J. ( 2008 ), “ Cultural revitalization: the importance of acknowledging the values of an organization's ‘golden era’ when promoting work-life balance ”, Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal , Vol. 3 No. 1 , pp. 78 - 97 , doi: 10.1108/17465640810870409 .

Crawford , W.S. , Thompson , M.J. and Ashforth , B.E. ( 2019 ), “ Work-life events theory: making sense of shock events in dual-earner couples ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol. 44 No. 1 , pp. 194 - 212 , doi: 10.5465/amr.2016.0432 .

Dave , J. and Purohit , H. ( 2016 ), “ Work-life balance and perception: a conceptual framework ”, The Clarion- International Multidisciplinary Journal , Vol. 5 No. 1 , pp. 98 - 104 .

Denstadli , J.M. , Julsrud , T.E. and Christiansen , P. ( 2017 ), “ Urban commuting – a threat to the work-family balance? ”, Journal of Transport Geography , Vol. 61 , pp. 87 - 94 , doi: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.04.011 .

Downes , C. and Koekemoer , E. ( 2012 ), “ Work-life balance policies: the use of flexitime ”, Journal of Psychology in Africa , Vol. 22 No. 2 , pp. 201 - 208 , doi: 10.1080/14330237.2012.10820518 .

Dumas , T.L. and Perry-Smith , J.E. ( 2018 ), “ The paradox of family structure and plans after work: why single childless employees may be the least absorbed at work ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol. 61 No. 4 , pp. 1231 - 1252 , doi: 10.5465/amj.2016.0086 .

Ehrhardt , K. and Ragins , B.R. ( 2019 ), “ Relational attachment at work: a complimentary fit perspective on the role of relationships in organizational life ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol. 62 No. 1 , pp. 248 - 282 , doi: 10.5465/amj.2016.0245 .

Emre , O. and De Spiegeleare , S. ( 2019 ), “ The role of work-life balance and autonomy in the relationship between commuting, employee commitment, and well-being ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 32 No. 11 , pp. 1 - 25 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2019.1583270 .

Fontinha , R. , Easton , S. and Van Laar , D. ( 2017 ), “ Overtime and quality of working life in academics and non-academics: the role of perceived work-life balance ”, International Journal of Stress Management , ( in Press ).

Fontinha , R. , Easton , S. and Van Laar , D. ( 2019 ), “ Overtime and quality of working life in academics and non-academics: the role of perceived work-life balance ”, International Journal of Stress Management , Vol. 26 No. 2 , pp. 173 , doi: 10.1037/str0000067 .

Galea , C. , Houkes , I. and Rijk , A.D. ( 2014 ), “ An insider’s point of view: how a system of flexible working hours helps employees to strike a proper balance between work and personal life ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 25 No. 8 , pp. 1090 - 1111 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2013.816862 .

Greenhaus , J.H. and Kossek , E.E. ( 2014 ), “ The contemporary career: a work–home perspective ”, Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior , Vol. 1 No. 1 , pp. 361 - 388 , doi: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091324 .

Groysberg , B. and Abrahams , R. ( 2014 ), “ Manage your work, manage your life ”, Harvard Business Review , Vol. 92 No. 3 , pp. 58 - 66 , available at: https://hbr.org/2014/03/manage-your-work-manage-your-life

Haar , J.M. and Roche , M. ( 2010 ), “ Family-supportive organization perceptions and employee outcomes: the mediating effects of life satisfaction ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 21 No. 7 , pp. 999 - 1014 , doi: 10.1080/09585191003783462 .

Haar , J.M. , Sune , A. , Russo , M. and Ollier-Malaterre , A. ( 2019 ), “ A cross-national study on the antecedents of work-life balance from the fit and balance perspective ”, Social Indicators Research , Vol. 142 No. 1 , pp. 261 - 282 , doi: 10.1007/s11205-018-1875-6 .

Hughes , R. , Kinder , A. and Cooper , C.L. ( 2018 ), “ Work-life balance ”, The Wellbeing Workout , pp. 249 - 253 , doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-92552-3_42 .

Jackson , L.T. and Fransman , E.I. ( 2018 ), “ Flexi work, financial well-being, work-life balance and their effects on subjective experiences of productivity and job satisfaction of females in an institution of higher learning ”, South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences , Vol. 21 No. 1 , pp. 1 - 13 , doi: 10.4102/sajems.v21i1.1487 .

Jenkins , K. and Harvey , S.B. ( 2019 ), “ Australian experiences ”, Mental Health in the Workplace , pp. 49 - 66 . Springer , Cham .

Jensen , M.T. and Knudsen , K. ( 2017 ), “ A two-wave cross-lagged study of business travel, work-family conflict, emotional exhaustion, and psychological health complaints ”, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology , Vol. 26 No. 1 , pp. 30 - 41 , doi: 10.1080/1359432X.2016.1197206 .

Johari , J. , Yean Tan , F. and TjikZulkarnain , Z.I. ( 2018 ), “ Autonomy, workload, work-life balance, and job performance among teachers ”, International Journal of Educational Management , Vol. 32 No. 1 , pp. 107 - 120 , doi: 10.1108/IJEM-10-2016-0226 .

Jones , R. , Cleveland , M. and Uther , M. ( 2019 ), “ State and trait neural correlates of the balance between work-non work roles ”, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging , Vol. 287 , pp. 19 - 30 , doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2019.03.009 .

Kalliath , T. and Brough , P. ( 2008 ), “ Work-life balance: a review of the meaning of the balance construct ”, Journal of Management & Organization , Vol. 14 No. 3 , pp. 323 - 327 , doi: 10.1017/S1833367200003308 .

Kar , S. and Misra , K.C. ( 2013 ), “ Nexus between work life balance practices and employee retention-the mediating effect of a supportive culture ”, Asian Social Science , Vol. 9 No. 11 , p. 63 , doi: 10.1016/j.soscij.2019.03.008 , doi: 10.5539/ass.v9n11p63 .

Kiburz , K.M. , Allen , T.D. and French , K.A. ( 2017 ), “ Work-family conflict and mindfulness: investigating the effectiveness of a brief training intervention ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior , Vol. 38 No. 7 , pp. 1016 - 1037 , doi: 10.1002/job.2181 .

Mushfiqur , R. , Mordi , C. , Oruh , E.S. , Nwagbara , U. , Mordi , T. and Turner , I.M. ( 2018 ), “ The impacts of work-life balance (WLB) challenges on social sustainability: the experience of nigerian female medical doctors ”, Employee Relations , Vol. 40 No. 5 , pp. 868 - 888 , doi: 10.1108/ER-06-2017-0131 .

Perrigino , M.B. , Dunford , B.B. and Wilson , K.S. ( 2018 ), “ Work-family backlash: the ‘dark side’ of work-life balance (WLB) policies ”, Academy of Management Annals , Vol. 12 No. 2 , pp. 600 - 630 , doi: 10.5465/annals.2016.0077 .

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Acknowledgements

Funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Data availability: The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Compliance of ethical standard statement: The results reported in this manuscript were conducted in accordance with general ethical guidelines in psychology.

Corresponding author

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Int J Environ Res Public Health

Striking a Balance between Work and Play: The Effects of Work–Life Interference and Burnout on Faculty Turnover Intentions and Career Satisfaction

Sheila a. boamah.

1 Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Nursing, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada

Hanadi Y. Hamadi

2 Department of Health Administration, Brooks College of Health (Building 39), University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA; [email protected] (H.Y.H.); ude.fnu@50597310n (H.S.)

Farinaz Havaei

3 School of Nursing, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 2B5, Canada; [email protected]

Hailey Smith

4 Department of Surgery-Jacksonville, Center for Health Equity & Engagement Research, Urban Health Alliance of Jacksonville, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Jacksonville, FL 32209, USA; [email protected]

Associated Data

Research data are not publicly available due to the restrictions (e.g., contains information that could compromise the privacy of research participants) and in accordance with the ethics agreement.

Background: The interactions between work and personal life are important for ensuring well-being, especially during COVID-19 where the lines between work and home are blurred. Work–life interference/imbalance can result in work-related burnout, which has been shown to have negative effects on faculty members’ physical and psychological health. Although our understanding of burnout has advanced considerably in recent years, little is known about the effects of burnout on nursing faculty turnover intentions and career satisfaction. Objective: To test a hypothesized model examining the effects of work–life interference on nursing faculty burnout (emotional exhaustion and cynicism), turnover intentions and, ultimately, career satisfaction. Design: A predictive cross-sectional design was used. Settings: An online national survey of nursing faculty members was administered throughout Canada in summer 2021. Participants: Nursing faculty who held full-time or part-time positions in Canadian academic settings were invited via email to participate in the study. Methods: Data were collected from an anonymous survey housed on Qualtrics. Descriptive statistics and reliability estimates were computed. The hypothesized model was tested using structural equation modeling. Results: Data suggest that work–life interference significantly increases burnout which contributes to both higher turnover intentions and lower career satisfaction. Turnover intentions, in turn, decrease career satisfaction. Conclusions: The findings add to the growing body of literature linking burnout to turnover and dissatisfaction, highlighting key antecedents and/or drivers of burnout among nurse academics. These results provide suggestions for suitable areas for the development of interventions and policies within the organizational structure to reduce the risk of burnout during and post-COVID-19 and improve faculty retention.

1. Introduction

Burnout is rampant among the academic workforce and nursing faculty are no exception. The high prevalence of burnout among faculty is attributed to the characteristics of the work environment including excessive workloads, time demands, high expectations and fierce competition, and lack of support and poor leadership [ 1 , 2 ]. The ongoing rise of COVID-19-pandemic-related stressors and unrelenting/accelerating work expectations has further exacerbated burnout among faculty [ 3 ]. Emerging studies suggest that the pandemic has blurred the boundaries between individuals’ work and personal life, leading to more unequal work–life balances amongst faculty members [ 4 , 5 ]. From a psychological perspective, the COVID-19-induced shift to virtual/online formats for teaching and learning creates additional stress and challenge to faculty members due to the increased demands for student support and workload in the absence of face-to-face interactions [ 5 ]. Moreover, the demands of the pandemic and its innumerable effects have placed additional pressure on faculty and, in many ways, limiting their ability to initiate research without decreasing the pressure and expectation to publish [ 6 ], thus further increasing risks of burnout.

The high prevalence of burnout is grounds for concern, as it has deleterious effects on career longevity and job turnover, which further worsens the ongoing nursing workforce shortages and poses a serious risk for mental health challenges, faculty well-being, and quality of life [ 7 ]. It is critical that burnout and turnover of nursing faculty is addressed as it could bottleneck the number of nurses that would be able to receive training, restricting the number of clinical nurses in the future. While factors that lead to burnout have been widely discussed in the organizational and healthcare literature among clinical nurses [ 8 , 9 , 10 ], few studies have investigated the antecedents or predictors of burnout among nursing faculty [ 4 ]. To our knowledge, no study has comprehensively examined academic nurses’ work–life balance and association with burnout and turnover intentions during the pandemic. Given that the main causes of burnout are deeply rooted within the work environment, it is important to understand how organizational factors predisposes faculty to burnout especially in the context of COVID-19 to effectively mitigate the risks.

To extend evidence from past research, the present study investigated the mediating effects of burnout on the relationships between work–life interference and turnover intentions and career satisfaction among nursing faculty. Understanding these relationships is crucial to inform evidence-based interventions, strategies, and policies to address the dimensions of burnout in academic settings.

In this study, we integrated Greenhaus et al.’s [ 11 ] theory of work–life interference and Leiter and Maslach’s [ 12 ] burnout model as the theoretical framework to examine personal and workplace factors that influence nursing faculty retention outcomes (see Figure 1 ).

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Hypothesized study model proposing the mediating effect of burnout (emotional exhaustion and cynicism) on the relationship between work-life interference, turnover intensions, and career satisfaction.

1.1. Work–Life Interference

Work–life interference (or lack of balance) is defined as an inter-role conflict where work demands make it such that one is unable to concurrently meet personal life demands or vice versa [ 11 , 13 ]. The more individuals experience job demands, such as work overload and time pressure, the more work–life conflict they experience [ 14 , 15 ]. While the direction of the conflict between work and life is bidirectional, the work and personal/family boundaries are easily permeable meaning that work demands tend to interfere with personal/family life to a greater extent than if the case was in reverse [ 11 ].

Research on the intersection of work with personal life has gain considerable attention in recent years, in both directions—work affecting personal life and vice versa. Work–life interference has been found to act as a “psychosocial risk factor” for ill-health and depletion of psychological health and well-being, namely, life satisfaction [ 16 ]. Some of the outcomes that have been consistently demonstrated in studies in non-academic work settings as it relates to work–life interference include nurse burnout and turnover intentions [ 9 ], absenteeism, intention to leave [ 17 ], stress, and poor work-related performance [ 18 ]. In the academic context, work–life interference has been reported to be pervasive among university faculty members, especially for female faculty due to the academic work culture that focuses on high levels of productivity and minimizes traditional/domestic roles and responsibilities [ 19 ]. Given that balance between work and personal life remains a critical issue in academia and that incompatibility bears a negative effect on important work and health outcomes, it is critical to understand its role in burnout development.

1.2. Burnout

Burnout is defined as a psychological syndrome that arises from continued exposure to work-related stressors, and it is characterized by emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and sensations of ineffectiveness and lack of achievement [ 12 ]. Emotional exhaustion is the prime manifestation of burnout, as it occurs when one experiences fatigue and depleted of emotional resources, resulting in cynicism or depersonalization and callousness toward others [ 10 ]. Cynicism can manifest itself as emotional resentment towards colleagues and/or the organization [ 20 ]. Common symptoms associated with burnout include chronic indecision, lack of motivation, irritability, disengagement, and withdrawal from participating in organizational operations [ 8 ].

The effects of burnout have been well documented in the organizational literature. Factors such as prolonged heavy workloads, insufficient time for personal life, or a paucity of human or material resources can increase the risks of burnout [ 21 , 22 ]. Among clinical nurses, burnout has been linked to decreased job satisfaction [ 23 ], turnover intentions [ 20 ], reduced work effort, and lower-quality patient care [ 24 ]. Pre-pandemic research shows, in academia, burnout has been associated with a decline in faculty members’ ability to teach [ 25 ], lack of concentration and creativity, deterioration in mental and physical health [ 7 , 26 ], high turnover intentions [ 21 , 25 ], and actual turnover [ 27 ]. A 2019 study by Alves and colleagues found that burnout had a direct negative effect on faculty members’ quality of life, regardless of their field of expertise/study. More profoundly, female academics reported to have experienced a higher likelihood of burnout and dissatisfaction because of work–life imbalance and unresolved interpersonal conflicts [ 28 , 29 ]. Since burnout has been closely related to clinical nurse retention and is seemly prevalent among women, it is crucial to understand the effects of burnout on nursing faculty retention factors, specifically job turnover intentions and career satisfaction.

1.3. Turnover Intention

Turnover intention refers to the subjective account of one’s likelihood of leaving their employment in the near future [ 30 ]. It is the last stage of cognitive withdrawal, whereby an employee takes active steps to search for alternative employment [ 30 ]. Employee turnover has a substantial impact on remaining employees and the organization in terms of the direct cost of new recruitment, selection, and training of new staff. The indirect costs of turnover include diminished workplace morale and productivity, loss of organizational knowledge, and employee demoralization [ 31 ]. According to research, an individual’s intention to leave an organization is the immediate and the most reliable and consistent predictor of actual turnover [ 31 , 32 ]. Organizational/institutional characteristics and collegial relationships are crucial to employee turnover. For example, in the nursing literature, factors such as the practice environment, including leadership support, collegial relationships, professional autonomy, and role conflict, were identified as key predictors of clinical nurses’ turnover intentions and eventual turnover [ 24 , 33 , 34 ].

In academia, high turnover of the faculty leads to a decline in research activities and students’ learning [ 35 ]. More profoundly, high turnover contributes to increased burnout among remaining faculty furthering the supply–demand gap in nursing faculty workforce and the general nursing clinical workforce. Studies show that female academics have the highest attrition rates due to the fact of reports of female academics often being assigned heavier teaching loads and fewer resources than their counterparts [ 28 , 29 , 36 ]. For example, female faculty often feel pressured to assume heavier student advising committee loads, especially in departments with fewer women (e.g., STEM faculty), which negatively impacts on their productivity and satisfaction [ 29 , 37 ]. This is particularly concerning since nursing continues to be a primarily female-dominant profession. Although a wide range of research has been conducted on faculty turnover, few studies have focused on nurse faculty. Given the current gap in nursing faculty supply and demand in Canada [ 38 ], the retention of nursing faculty should be the top priority of institutions/organizations that aim to be efficient and effective in their operations.

1.4. Career Satisfaction

Career satisfaction is an individual’s evaluation of an organizational/workplace factors (e.g., advancement, development, and income) relative to their own goals, expectations, and accomplishments [ 39 ]. It is an important construct in career success and commitment [ 40 ]. In academia, one key aspect of faculty career satisfaction is the nature of the work itself as it relates to teaching, research, and service obligations [ 41 ]. Another important component of satisfaction is a sense of community within the workplace and how faculty members perceive they are valued, respected, and recognized (e.g., receiving rewards, comparable salaries) by their peers and organization [ 42 , 43 ]. Additionally, faculty members perceived that control of their career development [ 41 ], high degrees of autonomy [ 44 ], and the challenge they take from their work [ 43 ] were significant contributing factors to their career satisfaction. Research indicates that a faculty member who had leadership support and mentor experience greater academic success and career satisfaction [ 45 ]. In turn, faculty members who mentored colleagues and students and have quality relationships had increased career satisfaction [ 43 , 46 ].

Past studies [ 47 , 48 ] have found that the quality of work–life of faculty have a significant impact on their satisfaction and morale. For example, a recent study correlated a lower perception of medical faculty members’ quality of life with poor physical, psychological, and social health [ 7 ]. Among faculty, the level of satisfaction in their career was a key component in their intent to leave their organization or academia. Provided that multiple factors go into faculty retention, focusing exclusively on the linkages among work–life interference, burnout, turnover intentions, and career satisfaction should better illuminate the work-and-life-related factors that lead faculty to opt-out of an institution.

1.5. Hypothesized Model (Specific Aims)

Based on our theoretical framework and previous research from the nursing and management literature, we predicted that higher faculty ratings of work–life interference would be associated with higher emotional exhaustion which, in turn, would be related to higher cynicism and, ultimately, increased turnover intentions and lower career satisfaction.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. study design.

This study adopted a non-experimental predictive design to examine the relationships described in the hypothesized study model.

2.2. Participants and Settings

Nursing faculty members employed in both college and university settings in Canada were recruited to participate in this study. Inclusion criteria consisted of faculty with various appointments/positions (e.g., lecturers, assistant professor, and teaching track) in undergraduate and graduate nursing programs. Adjunct, casual, or visiting professors were excluded. Eligible participants were identified based on their institution’s online profile and were sent an email request with a link to complete a web-based structured questionnaire housed in Qualtrics. The survey consisted of several baseline characteristics along with valid and reliable instruments. The survey package included a letter explaining the study risks and benefits and strategies undertaken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity (e.g., no directly identifiable information or IP addresses). Data for this study were collected in summer 2021. Participation was voluntary and respondents could withdraw from the survey at any time prior to submitting their response. Return of a completed survey indicated consent to participate. To improve survey response rates, the Dillman [ 49 ] method was used. To maintain confidentiality, participants were randomly assigned personal identifying numbers (PIN) numbers to complete the survey anonymously (see study protocol – page 4, paragraph 2) [ 50 ]. Non-responders were sent a reminder email three weeks after the initial invitation, followed by a reminder message four weeks later to optimize response rates and to obtain an adequate sample size (≥200 participants) [ 51 ].

2.3. Instrument Validity, Reliability, and Rigor

In total, four instruments were used to measure the key variables in this analysis. All the measures were standardized questionnaires with acceptable psychometric properties and demonstrated construct validity [ 12 , 52 ]. The scores for each of the items were averaged to obtain an overall measure for each of the variables.

Interference between work and personal life was measured using a modified version of Fisher-McAuley et al.’s [ 52 ] work interference with personal life (WIPL) scale. The WIPL is a questionnaire designed to measure directions and domains of work-personal life interference and enhancement. The 7-item scale measures the extent to which an employee’s working life has affected maintaining a work–life balance. Scale items include, “My personal life suffers because of my work” and “I often neglect my personal needs because of the demands of my work”. Responses are provided on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Not at all) to 7 (Almost all the time), with lower scores indicating a better work–life balance and high scores representing work–life interference. The construct validity of the WIPL scale was established in a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) that showed a good fit for the hypothesized factor structure ( χ 2 = 247, df = 122, CFI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.06) [ 9 ]. Internal consistency reliability was established among nursing and business samples [ 9 , 11 ] with Cronbach’s α of 0.92 and 0.89, respectively. Internal scale consistency was comparable in this study (α = 0.93).

Burnout was measured by the emotional exhaustion and cynicism subscales of the Maslach burnout inventory-general survey (MBI-GS) [ 10 ], each consisting of 5 items. Sample items of the MBI-GS are framed as statements of job-related feelings (e.g., “I feel burned out from my work”; “I feel confident that I am effective at getting things done”) and are rated on a 6-point Likert scale from 0 = never to 6 = daily. Burnout is reflected in higher scores on exhaustion and cynicism and lower scores on efficacy, whereas the opposite pattern reflects greater engagement. Higher scores (≥3.0) on each subscale reflect burnout [ 12 ]. Previous research using the MBI-GS among nurses has demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity [ 9 , 12 , 53 ]. Cronbach’s α in the present study was 0.95.

Intention to leave the job was measured using a three-item scale developed by Camman et al. [ 54 ]. The items on the scale determined whether the employee is likely to voluntarily leave the organization in the near future. Respondents rated items such as, “I plan to leave this organization in the next year” on a 7-point Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). This scale has demonstrated construct validity and acceptable internal consistency in samples of clinical nurses [ 9 ] and frontline nurse managers [ 55 ] with Cronbach’s α of 0.92 and 0.80, respectively. Similar Cronbach’s α are reported in this study.

Career satisfaction was measured using the five-item career satisfaction scale developed by Greehaus et al. [ 11 ]. Respondents indicated their level of agreement with each of the statements (sample item: “I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my overall career goals”) on a 5-point Likert scale rating from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The mean score was computed as an index of career satisfaction, with a higher score indicating greater satisfaction. Reliability testing of the scale using a normative sample was shown to be internally consistent with a Cronbach’s α of 0.84 [ 56 ]. In the present study, the internal reliability was acceptable (α = 0.79).

2.4. Data Analysis

Data were downloaded from Qualtrics and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences software (SPSS ® ) (version 25, Armonk, NY, USA) [ 57 ] and later exported to the Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) statistical software program (version 25) [ 58 ] for structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis. Descriptive statistics, including measures of central tendency and dispersion, were computed and the reliability of each measurement tool was tested using Cronbach’s α coefficient. Collinearity diagnostics indicated the absence of singularity or multicollinearity [ 51 ]. The hypothesized model in this study was tested using path analysis within SEM procedures in AMOS [ 58 ]. Significance levels of the direct and indirect effects in the model were estimated using Preacher and Hayes’ bootstrapping method with 5000 bootstrap samples [ 59 ] as a more robust way of testing mediation hypothesis. Statistically significant results were achieved if the 95% confidence intervals did not contain zero [ 60 ]. In SEM, a sample size of ≥200 is recommended [ 51 ] to have confidence in the goodness-of-fit tests. The index of overall fit of the hypothesized model was evaluated using the following criteria: the omnibus fit indices (e.g., chi-square, p -value, and chi-square/degrees of freedom ratio), the incremental fit indices (e.g., comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and the incremental fit index (IFI)) [ 61 ]. The critical value for CFI and IFI is ≥0.90 [ 51 ]. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) can be considered an “absolute fit index”, with 0 indicating the “best fit” and values > 0 suggest a worse fit [ 51 ]. Values of 0.05 or below on the RMSEA are generally considered indicative of a close-fitting model. Values between up to 0.08 and 0.10 [ 61 ] are considered acceptable. However, an RMSEA ≥ 0.10 suggests a model that may have more serious problems in its specification [ 51 ]. Assessment of the above criteria are reported in Section 3 .

2.5. Ethical Consideration

Data collection began after obtaining ethics approval from the Hamilton Integrated Research Ethics Board (#1477).

3.1. Demographic Characteristics

Among the 1649 eligible participants invited, a total of 645 participants provided valid responses (response rate = 39.1%). Faculty mainly self-identified as female (93.6%), 83.1% were White, and 68.7% were married. The majority (81%) reported being employed in a university, and over three-quarters (76.1%) were non-tenured. Thirty-eight percent worked in a large university, and 33.3% worked in a mid-sized university. Respondents worked mostly in a full-time permanent capacity (70.2%), were either master’s (54.9%) or PhD (31.9%) prepared, and 40.9% had been at their current organization for over 10 years. An additional demographic profile of the participants is reported in Table 1 .

Frequencies for faculty demographic characteristics.

Characteristic		%
Sex
Female	604	93.6
Male	36	5.6
Other	5	0.8
Age
≤39 years	145	22.5
40–49 years	191	29.6
50–59 years	195	30.2
≥60 years	106	16.4
Prefer not to say	8	1.2
Highest education
PhD	206	31.9
Masters	354	54.9
Bachelor	79	12.2
Diploma	6	1.0
Academic rank
Lecturer	230	35.7
Assistant Professor	144	22.3
Associate Professor	82	12.7
Full Professor	88	13.6
Clinical/Sessional instructor	101	15.7
Tenure status
Tenured	152	23.6
Tenure track	82	12.7
Teaching track	168	26.0
Non-tenure track	149	23.1
Clinical track	92	14.3
Employment status
Full-time permanent	453	70.2
Full-time temporary	75	11.6
Part-time	117	18.2
Years worked in current organization
≤1 year	45	7.0
2–5 years	200	31.0
6–10 years	136	21.1
>10 years	264	40.9
Hours worked per week
≤35 h	85	13.2
36–40 h	122	19.0
41–45 h	121	18.8
>46 h	314	48.9

3.2. Descriptive Statistics

The means, standard deviations (SDs), Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities, and the correlation matrix for the major study variables are reported in Table 2 . Scores on each measure were normally distributed and all alphas were within acceptable ranges (0.79–0.95). Faculty, on average, reported moderately high levels of work interfering with life (M = 4.59, SD = 1.38) and emotional exhaustion (M = 3.68, SD = 1.68). Scores on cynicism (M = 2.91, SD = 1.44) and turnover intentions (M = 2.16, SD = 1.01) were rated slightly low. Overall, respondents to the survey were highly satisfied with their careers (M = 4.08, SD = 0.76).

Correlations, means, standard deviations, and reliabilities of the major study variables.

Study Variable	M	SD	Range	α	1	2	3	4	5
1. Work–life interference	4.59	1.38	1–7	0.93	1	0.65 **	0.47 **	0.28 **	−0.33 **
2. Emotional exhaustion	3.68	1.68	0–6	0.94		1	0.71 **	0.39 **	−0.41 **
3. Cynicism	2.50	1.89	0–6	0.93			1	0.51 **	−0.55 **
4. Turnover intentions	2.17	1.02	1–5	0.76				1	−0.49 **
5. Career satisfaction	4.08	0.761	1–5	0.79					1

M = mean; SD = standard deviation; α = Cronbach’s alpha. ** Significant = p ≤ 0.001.

3.3. Test of the Hypothesized Model

The hypothesized model was supported by the model fit statistics: χ 2 (5) = 7.883, p = 0.001, IFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, CFI = 0.99, and RMSEA = 0.03, indicating that the data were a good fit to the model. As hypothesized, work interference with life domains had a strong direct positive effect on emotional exhaustion (β = 0.67, p < 0.001) which, in turn, had a significant positive effect on cynicism (β = 0.71, p < 0.001). Cynicism was positively associated with turnover intentions (β = 0.60, p < 0.001) and negatively with career satisfaction (β = −0.31, p < 0.001). In addition, turnover intentions had a negative direct effect on career satisfaction (β = −0.55, p < 0.001). The standardized effects of coefficient in the model are illustrated in Figure 2 .

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Final study model. Standardized coefficients.

4. Discussion

This study investigated the extent to which work demands of nursing faculty were related to their turnover intentions and career satisfaction through experiences of burnout (emotional exhaustion and cynicism). Overall, the results provide support for the hypothesized model linking faculty work–life interference with increased burnout (emotional exhaustion and cynicism) and subsequent higher turnover intentions and lower career satisfaction. We found that work–life interference had a robust positive effect on emotional exhaustion which, in turn influenced cynicism as described in the burnout theory. In addition, cynicism had both a negative effect on career satisfaction and a direct positive effect on turnover intentions, which is a phenomenon that occurs after sustained emotional exhaustion resulting from stressful working conditions [ 12 ]. Subsequently, increase in turnover intentions was shown to have led to lower career satisfaction.

Consistent with previous research in the education and healthcare fields, work–life interference was related to high levels of emotional exhaustion [ 9 , 25 , 62 ]. The interactions between work and home (non-working) life are important for ensuring well-being, especially during COVID-19 where the lines between work and home are blurred [ 63 ]. The increasing demand for work in nursing schools and colleges has led to an increase in workload, long workhours, course overloads, additional clinical rotations, and irregular work schedules attributed to environmental distributions [ 64 , 65 ]. This was highlighted in a report by The National League for Nursing (NLN), indicating that nursing faculty work more than 56 hours per week with a high workload and found it challenging to achieve a work–life balance [ 66 ], especially for faculty who teach in multiple differing environments, including clinical/hospital settings that involve day, evening, and weekend hours. The findings in our study confirm this, where nursing faculty reported that working longer hours and experiencing greater work–life imbalance predisposed them to higher risk for emotional exhaustion and cynicism.

Ongoing exposure to workplace stressors, including heavy workload and work–life interference, is the primary mechanism for developing severe burnout as confirmed by this study, where emotional exhaustion among faculty led to increased cynicism. Cynicism can be attributed to faculty members’ feelings of disrespect and anger towards their organizations or discomfort, hatred, and even shame when they think about their organizations, which may lead to decline in organizational commitment and eventual turnover [ 67 ]. In the healthcare literature, increased cynicism has been found to lead to deviant behavior, such as misappropriation, intentional wrong doings, damaging materials, and aggression, which can be damaging to the organization [ 68 , 69 ]. Cynicism can lead to serious disruption in the teaching–learning environment [ 62 ]. When faculty members lose trust in their organization and have increased cynicism, they are unwilling to stay with the organization, leading to a higher turnover rate [ 70 , 71 ]. Operating with fewer human resources results in greater dissatisfaction among existing faculty, leading to nursing faculty seeking other positions outside their current organizations and eventually leaving academia altogether [ 72 , 73 ]. Another study identified the factors leading to high turnover rates due to the fact of dissatisfaction including lack of extrinsic rewards, scheduling conflicts, family/work imbalance, poor collegial interaction, limited professional opportunities, praise/recognition, and control/responsibility [ 70 , 74 , 75 ]. When these factors are not being satisfied, staff become cynical and lack trust within the organization and are highly inclined to seek employment elsewhere.

As indicated in this study, the negative implications of work–life imbalance and burnout among nursing faculty can be long lasting as it influences key workplace retention factors. While no one is immune to burnout, a US-based study found that PhD-prepared faculty experience higher emotional exhaustion compared to DNP-prepared faculty [ 28 ]. Furthermore, early career researchers are more likely to experience sustained emotional exhaustion as, historically, most nurse academics transition from a clinical background with little preparation for the complex faculty role [ 76 ], which further contributes to their vulnerability in the high-pressure academic work environment. For example, a Canadian study showed that when nurses are being recruited to work, they are not prepared for the level of mental exhaustion in relation to their perspective of the challenges of the career [ 77 ]. Specifically, lack of leadership and collegial support has been linked to increased turnover intentions [ 38 , 75 ], disappointment, and dissatisfaction of the career chosen and eventual turnover [ 38 ]. This extends to mid-career and senior faculty, where negative working conditions can play a key role in early retirement [ 28 ]. Increased career exits further contribute to nursing faculty shortage, which negatively impact student training, mentoring, and preparation of highly skilled nurses equipped to care for patients [ 65 , 78 ].

Our findings suggest that there is a need to politically address burnout, as studies in Canada and in other countries indicate that burnout can lead to emotional and physical symptoms such as an uneven chronotype [ 73 , 79 , 80 , 81 ], as the physical and psychological symptoms may negatively impact the mental well-being of faculty resulting in high turnover and career dissatisfaction as shown in this study. In contrast to our study findings, one study has shown that very few nursing faculty members leave their careers due to the fact of dissatisfaction, especially if they have higher education in that field [ 82 ]. While retaining such faculty is important, it is even more crucial to understand the impact of faculty dissatisfaction on their productivity, organizational commitment, morale, and workplace culture. To retain satisfied nursing faculty, academic leaders must find ways to support the development of programs and implement targeted interventions to help nursing faculty navigate work–life balance and manage stress and burnout, including setting work options for flexible work practices and maximum hours worked per week to maintain productivity [ 75 , 81 , 83 ]. Additionally, leaders should implement workplace wellness policies, commit to plans that will increase efficiency and productivity, and frequently review long-term plans to help prioritize organizational goals and objectives [ 84 ]. In creating these supportive working conditions, these leaders will enable nursing faculty to adopt empowering strategies shown to reduce burnout including prioritizing their personal health, engaging in a balanced work–life practices and personal activities, seeking peer support, and advocating for systemic change [ 48 , 85 , 86 ]. These strategies are important especially during and post-COVID-19, as burnout can have a ripple effect leading to a further shortage of registered nurses to provide high-quality care to patients and communities.

While burnout is a common phenomenon in academia, in addition to supporting previous literature [ 75 ], this study introduced and tested the mediating effects of burnout on the relationships between work–life interference, turnover intentions, and career satisfaction among nurse academics in Canada. The results afford increased understanding of nursing faculty’s experience and may provide suggestions for suitable areas for the development of interventions and policies within the organizational structure to reduce the risk of burnout and faculty leaving their positions. Given the strong evidence of the negative health and organizational effects of burnout [ 7 ] and the current nursing faculty shortage, it is particularly important to address work–life issues in effort to sustain a strong nursing workforce.

5. Strengths and Limitations

This study has several strengths. For example, to our knowledge, this is among the first studies to link work–life interference, burnout, turnover intentions, and career satisfaction in the nursing or management literature in a comprehensive way among Canadian nurse academics. Furthermore, this is among the few studies reporting nursing faculty environment and related stressors during a global pandemic. The use of validated instruments to measure burnout, emotional exhaustion, and career satisfaction allows for easier comparison to other results/data reported in other national and international studies using these same measures. Additionally, the survey was anonymous which hopefully served to produce more honest, candid responses from those who completed and returned a survey. Another strength of this study is its implementation period, during summer 2021, which was in one of the peak time frames of the COVID-19 pandemic; thus, these data arguably capture the perspectives and views of nursing faculty as they practiced nursing during these unprecedented times.

Using this cross-sectional design, we were unable to confirm causation. Therefore, the results presented should be translated as non-directional relationships [ 87 ]. Given the response rate is moderate and comparable to studies with similar samples, the findings can only be generalized to other academic institutions with similar challenges. Additionally, we did not perform comparative analysis on the academic rank and/or location for those who did not respond compared to those who did, to justify absence of selection bias. Another potential limitation is that we might have missed nursing faculty who may have a faculty appointment in a setting other than ‘nursing’; however, part of our process searched based on faculty members’ degrees (e.g., RN) rather than solely on a faculty member’s department that held their primary academic appointment.

6. Conclusions

This research adds to the small but crucial body of research describing the effects of work–life imbalance and burnout on faculty retention and career satisfaction. Our findings suggest that academic institutions and organizations need to pay close attention to the drivers of burnout and associated symptoms and ensure that concrete and proactive approaches and mechanisms are in place to mitigate the effects of psychological stress and burnout on faculty mental health and wellness, especially during and post-pandemic. With the current nursing practice and faculty workforce shortages, every effort must be made to create healthy work environments to retain satisfied and productive faculty, as it has subsequent effects on the quality of student training, mentoring, and quality research to advance nursing practice globally. Promoting work–life balance and workload management, including reducing teaching assignments and service commitments, providing adequate time for research activities, and pausing the tenure clock for pre-tenured faculty, is a great start to improving faculty satisfaction, retention, and career longevity.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge with heartfelt thanks the respondents for their participation in this research.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.A.B.; methodology, S.A.B.; formal analysis, S.A.B.; data curation, S.A.B.; writing—original draft preparation, S.A.B., H.Y.H. and H.S.; writing—review and editing, F.H. and F.W.; funding acquisition, S.A.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This study was supported by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada (grant number: 430-2020-01042).

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was approved by the Hamilton Integrated Research Ethics Board (#1477; approved: 1 December 2020).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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CAREER COLUMN
08 April 2020

Ten work–life balance tips for researchers based at home during the pandemic

Lucy A. Taylor 0

Lucy A. Taylor is a junior research fellow in the Department of Zoology and Christ Church college, University of Oxford, UK.

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I find it really hard to work from home. I have tried it on numerous occasions over the years, including when writing up my master’s thesis and, more recently, in my postdoctoral work, but I am still not great at it. There’s always something else I could be doing: eating snacks, watching television or even rearranging my room. It’s easy to think ‘I could just do this later’, but, often, ’later’ gets pushed back further and further. Eventually, this results in a breakdown of my work–life balance: I’m not productive when I should be working and I feel guilty relaxing at other times because I feel like I should be working.

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Work-Life Balance: Why We Need it & How to Improve It

Struggling to find the perfect work-life balance? Work responsibilities with personal life can often feel like an endless balancing act. The constant pressure to meet deadlines, manage tasks, and maintain relationships can leave us feeling stretched and stressed. But what if there was a way to bring more harmony into your life? Imagine a life where work and personal time complement each other, leaving you feeling fulfilled and energized.

In this blog, we’ll explore why achieving work-life balance is so crucial and provide practical, easy-to-follow tips to help you create a more balanced and satisfying life.

What is Work-Life Balance?

Work-life balance refers to the equilibrium between personal life and work life. It means allocating enough time and energy to both professional responsibilities and personal activities in a way that neither significantly hamper the other.

Organizations can support this through flexible work schedules, remote work options, promoting regular breaks, encouraging the use of vacation time, and fostering a supportive work environment.

Why Do You Need to Ensure Healthy Work-Life Balance?

Here’s why ensuring a healthy balance of work and life should be a priority:

1. Mental and Physical Health

Stress and overwork can take a serious toll on your mental and physical health. Conditions such as anxiety, depression, heart disease, and hypertension are all linked to stress and long working hours. Achieving a healthy balance helps mitigate these risks by providing the necessary time for:

Exercise and

This balance allows for a rejuvenated mind and body, essential for maintaining overall health and well-being.

2. Increase Your Work Productivity

Contrary to the belief that more working hours equal higher productivity, overworked employees often experience burnout , leading to decreased efficiency and more errors. When employees have a balanced schedule that allows them to recharge, they return to work with better focus, higher energy levels, and increased productivity. A well-rested mind is more creative and capable of tackling challenges effectively.

3. Employee Retention

Organizations that promote work and work-life balance are more likely to retain their employees. High employee turnover rates are costly and disruptive, leading to a loss of knowledge and experience. By creating a balanced environment, companies can enhance employee loyalty and reduce turnover, ultimately benefiting from a stable and committed workforce.

4. Contributes to Job Satisfaction

A good work-life balance contributes significantly to job satisfaction. Employees who have the time and energy to pursue personal interests and spend quality time with family and friends are happier and more content. This satisfaction translates into:

Higher engagement
Employee Motivation
Commitment to their work

5. Boost Creativity and Innovation

Time away from work allows employees to relax and engage in activities that stimulate their creativity. Whether pursuing a hobby, traveling, or simply spending time in nature, these activities can inspire innovative ideas and fresh perspectives. A balanced lifestyle creates a creative and innovative mindset, which can lead to breakthroughs and advancements in the workplace.

6. Promotes Workplace Relationships

A balanced personal and professional life promotes positive interactions with colleagues. Employees who are not overly stressed are more likely to:

Collaborate effectively
Communicate openly
Build strong relationships with their peers.

A harmonious workplace environment enhances teamwork and leads to better overall performance.

7. Improves Work Quality

Maintaining high standards at work requires focus and attention to detail, which are often compromised when individuals are overwhelmed. A balanced lifestyle ensures that employees are able to maintain the quality of their work by being fully present and engaged during their working hours. This leads to consistent and reliable performance.

8. Personal Fulfillment

Ultimately, achieving a healthy work-life balance allows individuals to lead more fulfilling lives. It allows one to pursue personal goals, hobbies, and passions, contributing to a sense of purpose and happiness. A balanced life enables individuals to enjoy both their professional and personal achievements, leading to a well-rounded and satisfying life experience.

How Does Work-Life Balance Look Like?

A poor work-life balance often leads to burnout, chronic stress, and diminished. However, a healthy balance of work and life looks different for everyone, as it is created according to individual needs and circumstances. However, there are common elements that generally characterize a healthy balance of work and life:

Defined Work Hours: Having set work hours helps create boundaries between professional and personal life.

Time for Personal Activities: Allocating time for hobbies, exercise, relaxation, and social activities.

Flexibility: The ability to adjust work schedules to accommodate personal needs, such as:

Attending a child’s school event.
Handling a personal appointment without guilt or negative repercussions.

Stress Management: Implementing techniques to manage stress effectively, such as:

Mindfulness
Regular exercise

It ensures that work stress does not spill over into personal life.

Quality Family and Social Time: Spending quality time with family and friends helps strengthen relationships and provides emotional support.

Time Management: Efficiently managing time to ensure that work tasks are completed within work hours.

Regular Breaks and Vacations: Take regular breaks during the workday and use vacation time to fully disconnect from work and recharge.

Personal Fulfillment: Pursuing personal interests and passions outside of work, which contributes to overall happiness and satisfaction.

How to Improve Your Work-Life Balance?

A healthy balance of work and life can seem like an elusive goal. However, it’s essential for maintaining both personal well-being and professional productivity. Here are some practical strategies to help you create a more balanced life:

1. Self-Assessment

The first step to improving your work-life balance is to take a step back and evaluate your current situation. Reflect on how different aspects of your life are influencing each other. Ask yourself questions like:

Am I spending quality time on activities I truly enjoy?
Am I dedicating enough time and energy to people and things that matter to me?
Do my professional and personal goals still align? Why or why not?
Where do I feel most stuck, and what about this situation is causing that feeling?

Journaling your thoughts and feelings can help you identify areas needing adjustment and provide clarity on your current situation.

2. Assess Your Priorities

Once you have a clearer understanding of your current work-life situation, it’s time to identify and reassess your priorities. Consider these questions:

What truly matters to me, and am I spending enough time on it?
Where can I make compromises, and where have I compromised too much?
How can I ensure I am dedicating enough time to my goals and relationships?
Where can I integrate responsibilities to honor multiple commitments simultaneously?

By clearly defining your priorities, you can make more informed decisions about how to allocate your time and energy.

3. Manage Your Time Effectively

Effective time management is crucial for maintaining a healthy work-life balance. Here are some tips to help you manage your time better:

Review Your Schedule: Take a look at how you currently spend your time and identify areas where you can make adjustments.
Time Blocking: Allocate specific blocks of time for different tasks or activities. This helps you focus on one thing at a time and prevents multitasking.
Prioritization Matrix: Use tools like the Eisenhower Matrix to prioritize tasks based on urgency and importance.
Avoid Multitasking: Focus on one task at a time to improve efficiency and reduce stress.

4. Set Clear Limits

Setting clear boundaries is essential for protecting your personal time and preventing burnout. Communicate your boundaries to colleagues, friends, and family to ensure they understand and respect them. Here’s how to start:

Define Physical Boundaries: Create a designated workspace if you work from home to separate personal relationships from work.
Set Emotional Boundaries: Protect your mental health by not letting work-related stress spill over into your life.
Time Boundaries: Set specific work hours and stick to them. Avoid checking work emails or taking calls after hours.

5. Continuous Improvement

Achieving a good balance of work and life is an ongoing process that requires continuous reflection and adjustment. Regularly assess your strategies and make necessary refinements to ensure you’re maintaining a healthy balance. Keep in mind that life changes over time, and being flexible will help you adapt as needed.

How QuestionPro Helps You in Your Work-Life Balance?

Work-life integration is crucial for both personal well-being and professional productivity. QuestionPro Workforce offers a range of tools and features designed to help organizations and employees achieve a better balance. Here’s how QuestionPro Workforce can help you achieve work life balance:

1. Employee Feedback and Insights

QuestionPro Workforce allows organizations to gather ongoing feedback from employees about their work experiences and satisfaction. This includes insights into:

Workloads
Stress levels
Overall job satisfaction

The platform provides actionable data that can help identify areas where employees may be struggling to maintain balance. This feedback can be used to make informed decisions about adjustments needed to improve work life balance and employee satisfaction.

2. Pulse Surveys

Pulse surveys enable regular check-ins with employees to understand their current state of well-being and balance of work and life. This helps organizations stay informed about how employees are feeling on an ongoing basis.

The real-time nature of pulse surveys allows for quicker responses to any issues that arise, facilitating timely interventions to address work-life balance concerns before they escalate.

3. Workload Management

QuestionPro Workforce includes tools to assess and manage employee workloads. By understanding how workloads are distributed, organizations can make adjustments to prevent burnout and ensure a manageable balance of work and life for all team members.

Data from workload assessments can help in optimizing resource allocation, ensuring that no employee is overburdened and that tasks are evenly distributed across the team.

4. Employee Engagement and Well-being Programs

The platform tracks various engagement metrics that are closely linked to work-life balance. High levels of engagement often correlate with better balance of work and life, as engaged employees are generally more satisfied with their roles.

Insights from QuestionPro Workforce can guide the development of well-being programs and initiatives tailored to employees’ needs, promoting a healthier balance between work and personal life.

5. Customizable Reporting and Analytics

Customizable reporting features allow organizations to create reports that focus on specific aspects of work-life balance, such as:

Employee satisfaction and
Stress levels.

Analyzing trends over time can help identify patterns and make long-term improvements to work-life balance strategies.

6. Employee Development and Support

QuestionPro Workforce offers tools for tracking employee development and career growth. Supporting employees’ professional development can contribute to their overall job satisfaction and balance.

The platform can also help identify when employees might benefit from additional support or resources, such as counseling or professional development opportunities, which can enhance their balance of work and life.

Achieving a healthy work-life balance is crucial for overall well-being and professional success. By conducting self-assessments, reassessing priorities, managing time effectively, setting clear limits, and continuously reflecting and refining your approach, you can create a more balanced and fulfilling life.

QuestionPro Workforce provides a complete suite of tools that support work-life balance management through continuous feedback, workload assessment, and engagement tracking. By exploring these features, organizations can create a more balanced work environment that promotes employee well-being, satisfaction, and productivity.

Remember, finding what works for you takes time and adjustment. Stay patient and committed to a healthier work-life balance with QuestionPro.

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A Workaholic’s Guide to Reclaiming Your Life

Six strategies for finding better balance. by Malissa Clark

Summary .

Workaholism is when work dominates your thoughts and your activities, to the detriment of other aspects of your life, including but not limited to your relationships and your health. In this article, Malissa Clark presents depictions of workaholism and equips readers with six coping strategies to break the cycle. Through mechanisms such as redefining what is and is not urgent, fixing the workaholic clock, and embracing rest and recovery, workaholics can unlearn toxic behaviors and reclaim their time and lives.

My daughter, Alex, was born three years into my PhD program, smack in the middle of midterms. I was at a coffee shop, scrambling to complete a take-home exam, when my contractions started. I told myself I would continue until they were consistent, which bought me several more hours, until the pain was unbearable. I reluctantly stopped working and headed home (and shortly thereafter to the hospital).

BYU: Study examines effects of full-day kindergarten on maternal work-life balance

By abigail haven - special to the daily herald | sep 7, 2024.

Nate Edwards, BYU Photo

As the back-to-school season sweeps across the nation, families are adjusting to a significant shift in the educational landscape: the rise of full-day kindergarten. While much attention has focused on how extended school hours benefit children academically, new research from Brigham Young University and the University of Notre Dame sheds light on another crucial aspect — how this change impacts parents, particularly mothers.

“Public school serves two purposes that are both important for kids. First, school is an investment in growth; helping a child’s cognitive development, social development and language development,” said Jocelyn Wikle, BYU professor of family life. “Another purpose is that while children are at school, parents have opportunities to use their time in other ways that can also be valuable for families.”

To understand the impact of full-day kindergarten on family relationships and time, Wikle, along with BYU economics professor Riley Wilson and Chloe Gibbs from Notre Dame, analyzed nationwide data from surveys collected from federal agencies, the Census Bureau, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and national education data. They used these different viewpoints to understand the different ways families are impacted by full-day kindergarten.

“The changes in full-day kindergarten have affected millions of children and their families,” Wilson said. “It seemed important to document how the families responded to these changes.”

The study, recently published by the Annenberg Institute, found that access to full-day kindergarten decreases the burden on mothers of kindergarten-aged children to provide transportation in the middle of the day, giving greater flexibility to mothers’ schedules. Mothers have additional time in the day to work or pursue other family responsibilities.

Full-day kindergarten can also be a form of subsidized child care, providing mothers with increased financial opportunities.

“Families with young children are juggling a lot,” Wikle said. “Moms need support during a stressful stage of parenting, and schools can provide that support through offering full-day kindergarten options.”

Their research also shows that on school days, children in full-day kindergarten only spend 57 minutes less with their mothers each day than children in half-day kindergarten. This, along with improved test scores from full-day participants, seems to negate many concerns about full-day kindergarten.

“Overall, full-day kindergarten relaxes time constraints for moms and allows them to spend their time differently,” Wilson said. “On average, this means spending more time working but not necessarily less time engaging in high-quality activities with children such as reading together, one-on-one time or physical care for the children.”

Wikle says she hopes school administrators, parents and families consider this research as a reference point to help each family make the right choice for their situation. She noted the positive outcomes of full-day kindergarten as an added option for families.

“The nice thing about full-day kindergarten is that in no state are parents required to use it for their children. States require school districts to provide it, but it’s still a family’s choice about whether they do half-day or full-day,” Wikle said. “This just expands choices for parents. Parents can choose their best option based on what is best for their child.”

Abigail Haven is a writer for BYU University Communications.

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Impact of Work-Life Balance on Employee Work Performance: The Mediating Role of Employee Creativity

First Online: 30 August 2024

Cite this chapter

Nguyen Minh Ha ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8411-7817 4 , 5 , 6 ,
Nguyen Thanh Phuong Thuy 7 &
Ngo Thanh Trung ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6256-8801 5 , 8

Modern people have many personal and professional obligations. Work-life balance has become a key factor that attracts more people. This study investigates the relationships between work-life balance, employee creativity, and work performance. Five main aspects of work-life balance are explored, including work overload, work stress, flexible work arrangements, family responsibilities, and organizational support. 419 accounting and auditing personnel in Vietnam are surveyed to obtain research data. Qualitative research methods were used to better understand the relationships and improve the pre-designed questionnaire. The Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) method is used to estimate the relationships between concepts. Three dimensions of work-life balance, including work overload, work stress, and family responsibilities, have harmful impacts on work performance, according to the findings. On the other hand, increasing flexible work arrangements and organizational support promote work performance. In addition, employee creativity acts as a mediating variable, enhancing the positive effect of organizational support on work performance. The findings provide important empirical evidence for management recommendations to improve employee work performance by reducing the negative effects of work overload, work stress, and family responsibilities while increasing the positive effects of flexible work arrangements, organizational support, and employee creativity.

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Nguyen Minh Ha

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Nguyen Minh Ha & Ngo Thanh Trung

Research Centre in Business, Economics and Resources (CBER), Ho Chi Minh City Open University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

The Graduate School, Ho Chi Minh City Open University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Nguyen Thanh Phuong Thuy

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Faculty of Banking and Finance, Ho Chi Minh City Open University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

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Ha, N.M., Thuy, N.T.P., Trung, N.T. (2024). Impact of Work-Life Balance on Employee Work Performance: The Mediating Role of Employee Creativity. In: Tung, L.T., Sinh, N.H., Ha, P. (eds) Disruptive Technology and Business Continuity. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5452-6_11

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Charted: The top benefits employers are offering to retain workers

According to a new report from the International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans (IFEBP), employers are offering several different benefits to help retain their workers, including telemedicine services, fertility services, work-life balance options, and more.

Ready-to-use slides: Market outlook for employer-sponsored insurance

What benefits employers are offering

For the report, IFEBP surveyed 625 organizations across almost 20 industries, ranging in size from fewer than 50 employees to over 10,000 employees. Among the respondents, 61 employers were healthcare organizations.

According to the report, most healthcare benefits have remained stable year-over-year. When it comes to telemedicine, 78% of employers offer the service, similar to 2022. The five most popular types of telemedicine services offered were general medicine, mental health, behavioral healthcare, primary care, and dermatology.

Other types of healthcare benefits offered include mental health benefits, chiropractic services, contraception, and vision benefits.

Employers are also offering fertility benefits, which include medications, in vitro fertilization, genetic testing, egg harvesting or freezing services, and more. In 2024, 42% of U.S. organizations said they offered fertility benefits, up from 30% who said the same in 2020.

When it comes to work-life balance benefits, employers are offering different dependent care/services and flexible work options. Among employers, 69.4% said they offered dependent-care flexible spending accounts, and 68.8% said they offered hybrid work arrangements.

Employers also offered miscellaneous benefits in several categories, including wellness benefits, at-work perks, insurances, education, events/entertainment, and financial/retirement planning.

Fertility benefits could boost retention

According to Julie Stich, VP of content at IFEBP, more employers are increasing access to fertility benefits due to their high value to employees, regardless of gender identity or relationship status.

"The increasing number of plan sponsors offering family-forming benefits indicates that they are a highly-valued benefit by employees," Stich said. Additionally, she noted that "these benefits are a positive way to create a more inclusive workplace."

Other data has also suggested that reproductive health benefits can help increase retention. In a survey of 1,200 HR leaders and 3,000 full-time employees from Maven Clinic, 75% of employers said reproductive health benefits are important for employee retention, and 57% of employees said they have taken or might take a job because it offered family or reproductive health benefits.

A separate survey from Harris Poll and HR Brew also found that many Americans are supportive of fertility benefits, with 63% of respondents saying companies should offer them. Among millennial and Gen Z respondents, support increased to 73%.

"While not a lot of employers offer it yet, you see a lot of signals in the market that there's consideration and thoughtfulness about how to offer it in the future, to signal that they're kind of a future-ready company that has their values aligned with next generational talent," said Libby Rodney, chief strategy officer at Harris Poll.

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Benefits include:

Are you working yourself to death? Your job won't prioritize your well-being. You can.

At one point, i worked three jobs, attended school and cared for three children. i was overwhelmed and exhausted. the only reprieve came by quitting one of my jobs..

When I first read the story of 60-year-old Denise Prudhomme, a Wells Fargo employee who was found dead at her desk four days after she clocked in to the office, I was saddened that her last breath was taken at work in a cubicle .

Did she not have any friends or peers she associated with at work? Was no one checking in on her? Heartbreaking.

It got me thinking about how overworked and exhausted many Americans are. It also reminded me of a quote often attributed to actor Jet Li: “You’re killing yourself for a job that would replace you within a week if you dropped dead. Take care of yourself.”

We don't know many of the details surrounding Prudhomme's death, but we do know she started work early on a Friday morning and was found dead in the office on a Tuesday afternoon. A cause of death was not immediately determined, but police said there were no signs of foul play. Wells Fargo issued a statement offering condolences to Prudhomme's family.

15 Americans die at work every day

In 2022, the Bureau of Labor and Statistics recorded 5,486 workplace fatalities , including homicides and fatal accidents. The thought of 15 people dying at work each day on average in our country is inconceivable.

America’s employees are tired and overworked, with many earning low wages and suffering from jobdissatisfaction. Although wages have increased significantly in recent years, the average American still makes less than $60,000 per year .

At one point, I worked three jobs, attended school and cared for three children. My husband is in themilitary, often on duty for 12-hour shifts and involved in military exercises, which left me to be asolo parent much of the time.

I was overwhelmed and exhausted. The only reprieve came by quitting one of my jobs, which led to greater financial insecurity, more family stress and regret. The silver lining − I wasn't as tired.

Overworked and underpaid: My life as a teacher left me frustrated. And thankful.

Last year, Rep. Mark Takano, D-Calif., introduced a bill that would reduce the standard workweekfrom 40 to 32 hours . The bill, sponsored by eight other Democrats, was sent to the HouseCommittee on Education and the Workforce.

Unfortunately, the committee took no action on the legislation. Until something legally changes, we have to exercise agency over our own well-being by setting boundaries in the workplace.

Opinion alerts: Get columns from your favorite columnists + expert analysis on top issues, delivered straight to your device through the USA TODAY app. Don't have the app? Download it for free from your app store .

If you're too sick to work, it's simple, just don't go in, right? But more than 1 in 5 workers don't have the benefit of paid sick days . And missing an unpaid day of work often means more stress over paying the bills.

Although more than 90% of Americans have health insurance, nearly half of Americans don't go to the doctor regularly , in part because they lack comprehensive medical coverage. The high cost of medical co-pays and medication also deter people from going to the doctor.

The average American works 260 days per year and accrues around 11 days of paid time off and eight paid sickdays . That's a total of 19 days each year you can miss work and still be paid.

But the first time I got COVID-19 in 2021, I was out of work for seven days – with 40 unpaid work hours.

Changing corporate America: Gen Z is redefining what workers should expect from their employers. It's a good thing.

Set boundaries at work to protect your health

Prudhomme's tragic story should be a reminder to us all to take care of ourselves. Society’s expectation of employees − where exhaustion, overwork and isolation often go unnoticed until it's too late − is unsafe and outdated.

If we're not prioritizing our own well-being, no one will. We can’t afford to wait for laws to change or for employers to prioritize us over profits. We have to set boundaries and seek balance.

Let’s not wait for tragedy to push us into action. We need to live now.

Marla Bautista is a military fellow columnist at USA TODAY Opinion .

You can read diverse opinions from our USA TODAY columnists and other writers on the Opinion front page , on X, formerly Twitter, @usatodayopinion and in our Opinion newsletter .

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Strategic Moves for Career Advancement: What Really Makes a Difference

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As business continues to grow rapidly, strategic career growth has become a necessity. Advancing in your career requires more than hard work; it demands a thoughtful approach, continuous learning, and the ability to seize opportunities as they arise. With targeted strategies, you can accelerate your journey to the top, ensuring that each step makes a real difference.

This article will discover actionable tips to help you reach and excel in your career, positioning yourself for long-term success.

📈 Set Clear, Achievable Goals

Setting clear, achievable goals is the cornerstone of a successful career trajectory. Defining what you want to achieve not only gives you direction but also helps you measure your progress along the way. Having a vision for where you want to go is essential, but breaking that vision into manageable, actionable steps is equally important. Start by outlining your long-term career objectives, then decompose these goals into smaller, actionable milestones that can be tackled in the short term. This approach makes your goals more attainable and allows you to track your progress more effectively.

For example, if your long-term goal is to attain a senior leadership position, identify the skills, experiences, and achievements required to reach that level. Then, set intermediate objectives, such as leading a major project or obtaining a relevant certification. Regularly revisiting and adjusting these goals is crucial; your aspirations and circumstances may evolve as you advance in your career.

Schedule periodic reviews of your goals to ensure they remain aligned with your career aspirations and make adjustments as needed to stay on track. This dynamic approach ensures that you are always moving forward and adapting to new opportunities and challenges.

📈 Invest in Continuous Learning

Investing in continuous learning is crucial for staying ahead in your career. The business landscape is constantly evolving , and those who commit to lifelong learning are better equipped to adapt and thrive. Whether it’s through online courses, workshops, or mentorship, there are countless ways to expand your knowledge and expertise.

Additionally, staying updated with industry trends ensures you’re always in tune with the latest developments, allowing you to adapt quickly and make informed decisions. With ongoing education, you equip yourself with the tools you need to succeed and lead.

📈 Seek Out Leadership Opportunities

Taking on leadership roles can significantly accelerate your career growth. Leadership experience demonstrates your ability to drive results, manage teams, and make strategic decisions – highly valued qualities in any organization. Look for opportunities to lead projects, join committees, or mentor colleagues within your current role. Consider volunteering for leadership positions in professional associations or community groups outside the workplace.

Even if you’re not in a formal managerial role, you can develop leadership skills by taking initiative, seeking feedback, and working on effective communication and decision-making. These experiences not only enhance your capabilities but also position you as a proactive and influential leader.

📈 Stay Resilient and Adaptable

Staying resilient and adaptable is crucial for navigating the inevitable setbacks and changes in your career. Resilience allows you to bounce back from challenges and maintain your focus on long-term goals, even when faced with obstacles. On the other hand, adaptability helps you thrive in a rapidly evolving job market, ensuring that you remain relevant and valuable as new trends and technologies emerge.

To build resilience:

Start by developing a growth mindset.
Embrace challenges as opportunities to learn and grow rather than setbacks.
Cultivate strong problem-solving skills and build a support network that can offer guidance and encouragement during tough times.

Practicing self-care and stress management techniques, such as mindfulness or regular exercise, can also help maintain your emotional and mental well-being.

Being adaptable involves staying informed about industry changes and continuously updating your skills to meet new demands. Engage in ongoing professional development, seek feedback, and be open to new experiences. Flexibility in your approach and a willingness to pivot when necessary can significantly enhance your career prospects and keep you ahead of the curve.

📈 Prioritize Work-Life Balance

Maintaining a healthy work-life balance is crucial for long-term career success. When you effectively balance your professional responsibilities with your personal life, you not only enhance your overall well-being but also boost your productivity and job satisfaction. Striking this balance helps prevent burnout and keeps you motivated and engaged in your work.

To manage this balance:

Start by setting clear boundaries between work and personal time.
Establish specific work hours and stick to them, ensuring you dedicate time to activities and relationships outside of work.
Prioritize tasks and delegate when possible, using tools and techniques to manage your time efficiently.

For instance, employing time-blocking strategies or using project management apps can help you stay organized and focused.

Self-care plays a pivotal role in sustaining career growth. Regularly engage in activities that rejuvenate you, whether it’s exercise , hobbies, or spending time with loved ones. Taking care of your physical and mental health improves your overall quality of life and enhances your performance and resilience at work. By making self-care a priority , you ensure that you remain at your best, both personally and professionally, paving the way for continued career advancement.

To recap, setting clear, achievable goals, investing in continuous learning, seeking leadership opportunities, staying resilient and adaptable, and prioritizing work-life balance are all essential strategies for advancing your career. Take proactive steps in these areas to position yourself for significant growth and success.

Remember, your career journey is a continuous process of development and opportunity. Embrace these strategies with determination and enthusiasm, and let your commitment to personal and professional excellence drive you to new heights. Your path to success is within your control – take charge and make it extraordinary.

Ivy Exec is the premier resource for professionals seeking career advancement. Whether you are on the job, or looking for your next one - Ivy Exec has the tools you need.

Work-life balance -a systematic review

Design/methodology/approach

Originality/value

Introduction

Methodology

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Individual factors

Work-life balance and demography.

Work-life balance and personal demands.

Work-life balance and family demands.

Work-life balance and family support.

Work-life balance and individual’s ability.

Organizational factor

Work-life balance and organizational work-life policies.

Work-life balance and organizational demands.

Work-life balance and working hours.

Work-life balance and productivity.

Work-life balance and burnout.

Work-life balance and support system.

Work-life balance and employee perception.

Work-life balance and job autonomy.

Work-life balance and job satisfaction.

Work-life balance and organizational commitment.

Work-life balance and work-life balance policy utilization.

Work-life balance and organizational culture.

Societal factors

Work-life balance and societal demands.

Work-life balance and societal culture.

Work-life balance and societal support.

Analyzes and results

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Basic classification

Methodology-based categorization of papers

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Organizational factor.

Societal factor.

Discussion and conclusion

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Acknowledgements

Corresponding author

Report an issue or find answers to frequently asked questions

Striking a Balance between Work and Play: The Effects of Work–Life Interference and Burnout on Faculty Turnover Intentions and Career Satisfaction

Hanadi Y. Hamadi

Farinaz Havaei

Hailey Smith

Associated Data

1. Introduction

1.1. Work–Life Interference

1.2. Burnout

1.3. Turnover Intention

1.4. Career Satisfaction

1.5. Hypothesized Model (Specific Aims)

2. Materials and Methods

2.2. Participants and Settings

2.3. Instrument Validity, Reliability, and Rigor

2.4. Data Analysis

2.5. Ethical Consideration

3.1. Demographic Characteristics

3.2. Descriptive Statistics

3.3. Test of the Hypothesized Model

4. Discussion

5. Strengths and Limitations

6. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Author Contributions

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed Consent Statement

Data Availability Statement

Ten work–life balance tips for researchers based at home during the pandemic

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