quantitative psychology research topics

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50+ Research Topics for Psychology Papers

How to Find Psychology Research Topics for Your Student Paper

• Specific Branches of Psychology
• Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy
• Human Cognition
• Human Development
• Critique of Publications
• Famous Experiments
• Historical Figures
• Specific Careers
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Your Own Study/Experiment

Are you searching for a great topic for your psychology paper ? Sometimes it seems like coming up with topics of psychology research is more challenging than the actual research and writing. Fortunately, there are plenty of great places to find inspiration and the following list contains just a few ideas to help get you started.

Finding a solid topic is one of the most important steps when writing any type of paper. It can be particularly important when you are writing a psychology research paper or essay. Psychology is such a broad topic, so you want to find a topic that allows you to adequately cover the subject without becoming overwhelmed with information.

I can always tell when a student really cares about the topic they chose; it comes through in the writing. My advice is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you, so you’ll be more motivated to do thorough research.

In some cases, such as in a general psychology class, you might have the option to select any topic from within psychology's broad reach. Other instances, such as in an  abnormal psychology  course, might require you to write your paper on a specific subject such as a psychological disorder.

As you begin your search for a topic for your psychology paper, it is first important to consider the guidelines established by your instructor.

Research Topics Within Specific Branches of Psychology

The key to selecting a good topic for your psychology paper is to select something that is narrow enough to allow you to really focus on the subject, but not so narrow that it is difficult to find sources or information to write about.

One approach is to narrow your focus down to a subject within a specific branch of psychology. For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write a paper on some sort of social psychology topic. Next, you might narrow your focus down to how persuasion can be used to influence behavior .

Other social psychology topics you might consider include:

• Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism)
• Social cognition
• Person perception
• Social control and cults
• Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing
• Attraction, romance, and love
• Nonverbal communication
• Prosocial behavior

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

Exploring a psychological disorder or a specific treatment modality can also be a good topic for a psychology paper. Some potential abnormal psychology topics include specific psychological disorders or particular treatment modalities, including:

• Eating disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Profile a  type of therapy  (i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, psychoanalytic therapy)

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Cognition

Some of the possible topics you might explore in this area include thinking, language, intelligence, and decision-making. Other ideas might include:

• False memories
• Speech disorders
• Problem-solving

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Development

In this area, you might opt to focus on issues pertinent to  early childhood  such as language development, social learning, or childhood attachment or you might instead opt to concentrate on issues that affect older adults such as dementia or Alzheimer's disease.

Some other topics you might consider include:

• Language acquisition
• Media violence and children
• Learning disabilities
• Gender roles
• Child abuse
• Prenatal development
• Parenting styles
• Aspects of the aging process

Do a Critique of Publications Involving Psychology Research Topics

One option is to consider writing a critique paper of a published psychology book or academic journal article. For example, you might write a critical analysis of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams or you might evaluate a more recent book such as Philip Zimbardo's  The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil .

Professional and academic journals are also great places to find materials for a critique paper. Browse through the collection at your university library to find titles devoted to the subject that you are most interested in, then look through recent articles until you find one that grabs your attention.

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Famous Experiments

There have been many fascinating and groundbreaking experiments throughout the history of psychology, providing ample material for students looking for an interesting term paper topic. In your paper, you might choose to summarize the experiment, analyze the ethics of the research, or evaluate the implications of the study. Possible experiments that you might consider include:

• The Milgram Obedience Experiment
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Little Albert Experiment
• Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments
• The Asch Conformity Experiment
• Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Topics of Psychology Research About Historical Figures

One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the  history of psychology  and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology.

While this type of paper may be historical in nature, there is no need for this assignment to be dry or boring. Psychology is full of fascinating figures rife with intriguing stories and anecdotes. Consider such famous individuals as Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Harry Harlow, or one of the many other  eminent psychologists .

Psychology Research Topics About a Specific Career

​Another possible topic, depending on the course in which you are enrolled, is to write about specific career paths within the  field of psychology . This type of paper is especially appropriate if you are exploring different subtopics or considering which area interests you the most.

In your paper, you might opt to explore the typical duties of a psychologist, how much people working in these fields typically earn, and the different employment options that are available.

Topics of Psychology Research Involving Case Studies

One potentially interesting idea is to write a  psychology case study  of a particular individual or group of people. In this type of paper, you will provide an in-depth analysis of your subject, including a thorough biography.

Generally, you will also assess the person, often using a major psychological theory such as  Piaget's stages of cognitive development  or  Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development . It is also important to note that your paper doesn't necessarily have to be about someone you know personally.

In fact, many professors encourage students to write case studies on historical figures or fictional characters from books, television programs, or films.

Psychology Research Topics Involving Literature Reviews

Another possibility that would work well for a number of psychology courses is to do a literature review of a specific topic within psychology. A literature review involves finding a variety of sources on a particular subject, then summarizing and reporting on what these sources have to say about the topic.

Literature reviews are generally found in the  introduction  of journal articles and other  psychology papers , but this type of analysis also works well for a full-scale psychology term paper.

Topics of Psychology Research Based on Your Own Study or Experiment

Many psychology courses require students to design an actual psychological study or perform some type of experiment. In some cases, students simply devise the study and then imagine the possible results that might occur. In other situations, you may actually have the opportunity to collect data, analyze your findings, and write up your results.

Finding a topic for your study can be difficult, but there are plenty of great ways to come up with intriguing ideas. Start by considering your own interests as well as subjects you have studied in the past.

Online sources, newspaper articles, books , journal articles, and even your own class textbook are all great places to start searching for topics for your experiments and psychology term papers. Before you begin, learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

What This Means For You

After looking at this brief list of possible topics for psychology papers, it is easy to see that psychology is a very broad and diverse subject. While this variety makes it possible to find a topic that really catches your interest, it can sometimes make it very difficult for some students to select a good topic.

If you are still stumped by your assignment, ask your instructor for suggestions and consider a few from this list for inspiration.

• Hockenbury, SE & Nolan, SA. Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers; 2014.
• Santrock, JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

80 fascinating psychology research questions for your next project

Last updated

15 February 2024

Reviewed by

Brittany Ferri, PhD, OTR/L

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Psychology research is essential for furthering our understanding of human behavior and improving the diagnosis and treatment of psychological conditions.

When psychologists know more about how different social and cultural factors influence how humans act, think, and feel, they can recommend improvements to practices in areas such as education, sport, healthcare, and law enforcement.

Below, you will find 80 research question examples across 16 branches of psychology. First, though, let’s look at some tips to help you select a suitable research topic.

• How to choose a good psychology research topic

Psychology has many branches that break down further into topics. Choosing a topic for your psychology research paper can be daunting because there are so many to choose from. It’s an important choice, as the topic you select will open up a range of questions to explore.

The tips below can help you find a psychology research topic that suits your skills and interests.

Tip #1: Select a topic that interests you

Passion and interest should fuel every research project. A topic that fascinates you will most likely interest others as well. Think about the questions you and others might have and decide on the issues that matter most. Draw on your own interests, but also keep your research topical and relevant to others.

Don’t limit yourself to a topic that you already know about. Instead, choose one that will make you want to know more and dig deeper. This will keep you motivated and excited about your research.

Tip #2: Choose a topic with a manageable scope

If your topic is too broad, you can get overwhelmed by the amount of information available and have trouble maintaining focus. On the other hand, you may find it difficult to find enough information if you choose a topic that is too narrow.

To determine if the topic is too broad or too narrow, start researching as early as possible. If you find there’s an overwhelming amount of research material, you’ll probably need to narrow the topic down. For example, instead of researching the general population, it might be easier to focus on a specific age group. Ask yourself what area of the general topic interests you most and focus on that.

If your scope is too narrow, try to generalize or focus on a larger related topic. Expand your search criteria or select additional databases for information. Consider if the topic is too new to have much information published on it as well.

Tip #3: Select a topic that will produce useful and relevant insights

Doing some preliminary research will reveal any existing research on the topic. If there is existing research, will you be able to produce new insights? You might need to focus on a different area or see if the existing research has limitations that you can overcome.

Bear in mind that finding new information from which to draw fresh insights may be impossible if your topic has been over-researched.

You’ll also need to consider whether your topic is relevant to current trends and needs. For example, researching psychology topics related to social media use may be highly relevant today.

• 80 psychology research topics and questions

Psychology is a broad subject with many branches and potential areas of study. Here are some of them:

Developmental

Personality

Experimental

Organizational

Educational

Neuropsychology

Controversial topics

Below we offer some suggestions on research topics and questions that can get you started. Keep in mind that these are not all-inclusive but should be personalized to fit the theme of your paper.

Social psychology research topics and questions

Social psychology has roots as far back as the 18th century. In simple terms, it’s the study of how behavior is influenced by the presence and behavior of others. It is the science of finding out who we are, who we think we are, and how our perceptions affect ourselves and others. It looks at personalities, relationships, and group behavior.

Here are some potential research questions and paper titles for this topic:

How does social media use impact perceptions of body image in male adolescents?

2. Is childhood bullying a risk factor for social anxiety in adults?

Is homophobia in individuals caused by genetic or environmental factors?

What is the most important psychological predictor of a person’s willingness to donate to charity?

Does a person’s height impact how other people perceive them? If so, how?

Cognitive psychology research questions

Cognitive psychology is the branch that focuses on the interactions of thinking, emotion, creativity, and problem-solving. It also explores the reasons humans think the way they do.

This topic involves exploring how people think by measuring intelligence, thoughts, and cognition. 

Here are some research question ideas:

6. Is there a link between chronic stress and memory function?

7. Can certain kinds of music trigger memories in people with memory loss?

8. Do remote meetings impact the efficacy of team decision-making?

9. Do word games and puzzles slow cognitive decline in adults over the age of 80?

10. Does watching television impact a child’s reading ability?

Developmental psychology research questions

Developmental psychology is the study of how humans grow and change over their lifespan. It usually focuses on the social, emotional, and physical development of babies and children, though it can apply to people of all ages. Developmental psychology is important for understanding how we learn, mature, and adapt to changes.

Here are some questions that might inspire your research:

11. Does grief accelerate the aging process?

12. How do parent–child attachment patterns influence the development of emotion regulation in teenagers?

13. Does bilingualism affect cognitive decline in adults over the age of 70?

14. How does the transition to adulthood impact decision-making abilities

15. How does early exposure to music impact mental health and well-being in school-aged children?

Personality psychology research questions

Personality psychology studies personalities, how they develop, their structures, and the processes that define them. It looks at intelligence, disposition, moral beliefs, thoughts, and reactions.

The goal of this branch of psychology is to scientifically interpret the way personality patterns manifest into an individual’s behaviors. Here are some example research questions:

16. Nature vs. nurture: Which impacts personality development the most?

17. The role of genetics on personality: Does an adopted child take on their biological parents’ personality traits?

18. How do personality traits influence leadership styles and effectiveness in organizational settings?

19. Is there a relationship between an individual’s personality and mental health?

20. Can a chronic illness affect your personality?

Abnormal psychology research questions

As the name suggests, abnormal psychology is a branch that focuses on abnormal behavior and psychopathology (the scientific study of mental illness or disorders).

Abnormal behavior can be challenging to define. Who decides what is “normal”? As such, psychologists in this area focus on the level of distress that certain behaviors may cause, although this typically involves studying mental health conditions such as depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and phobias.

Here are some questions to consider:

21. How does technology impact the development of social anxiety disorder?

22. What are the factors behind the rising incidence of eating disorders in adolescents?

23. Are mindfulness-based interventions effective in the treatment of PTSD?

24. Is there a connection between depression and gambling addiction?

25. Can physical trauma cause psychopathy?

Clinical psychology research questions

Clinical psychology deals with assessing and treating mental illness or abnormal or psychiatric behaviors. It differs from abnormal psychology in that it focuses more on treatments and clinical aspects, while abnormal psychology is more behavioral focused.

This is a specialty area that provides care and treatment for complex mental health conditions. This can include treatment, not only for individuals but for couples, families, and other groups. Clinical psychology also supports communities, conducts research, and offers training to promote mental health. This category is very broad, so there are lots of topics to explore.

Below are some example research questions to consider:

26. Do criminals require more specific therapies or interventions?

27. How effective are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treating mental health disorders?

28. Are there any disadvantages to humanistic therapy?

29. Can group therapy be more beneficial than one-on-one therapy sessions?

30. What are the factors to consider when selecting the right treatment plan for patients with anxiety?

Experimental psychology research questions

Experimental psychology deals with studies that can prove or disprove a hypothesis. Psychologists in this field use scientific methods to collect data on basic psychological processes such as memory, cognition, and learning. They use this data to test the whys and hows of behavior and how outside factors influence its creation.

Areas of interest in this branch relate to perception, memory, emotion, and sensation. The below are example questions that could inspire your own research:

31. Do male or female parents/carers have a more calming influence on children?

32. Will your preference for a genre of music increase the more you listen to it?

33. What are the psychological effects of posting on social media vs. not posting?

34. How is productivity affected by social connection?

35. Is cheating contagious?

Organizational psychology research questions

Organizational psychology studies human behavior in the workplace. It is most frequently used to evaluate an employee, group, or a company’s organizational dynamics. Researchers aim to isolate issues and identify solutions.

This area of study can be beneficial to both employees and employers since the goal is to improve the overall work environment and experience. Researchers apply psychological principles and findings to recommend improvements in performance, communication, job satisfaction, and safety. 

Some potential research questions include the following:

36. How do different leadership styles affect employee morale?

37. Do longer lunch breaks boost employee productivity?

38. Is gender an antecedent to workplace stress?

39. What is the most effective way to promote work–life balance among employees?

40. How do different organizational structures impact the effectiveness of communication, decision-making, and productivity?

Forensic psychology research questions

Some questions to consider exploring in this branch of psychology are:

41. How does incarceration affect mental health?

42. Is childhood trauma a driver for criminal behavior during adulthood?

43. Are people with mental health conditions more likely to be victims of crimes?

44. What are the drivers of false memories, and how do they impact the justice system?

45. Is the media responsible for copycat crimes?

Educational psychology research questions

Educational psychology studies children in an educational setting. It covers topics like teaching methods, aptitude assessment, self-motivation, technology, and parental involvement.

Research in this field of psychology is vital for understanding and optimizing learning processes. It informs educators about cognitive development, learning styles, and effective teaching strategies.

Here are some example research questions:

46. Are different teaching styles more beneficial for children at different times of the day?

47. Can listening to classical music regularly increase a student’s test scores?

48. Is there a connection between sugar consumption and knowledge retention in students?

49. Does sleep duration and quality impact academic performance?

50. Does daily meditation at school influence students’ academic performance and mental health?

Sports psychology research question examples

Sport psychology aims to optimize physical performance and well-being in athletes by using cognitive and behavioral practices and interventions. Some methods include counseling, training, and clinical interventions.

Research in this area is important because it can improve team and individual performance, resilience, motivation, confidence, and overall well-being

Here are some research question ideas for you to consider:

51. How can a famous coach affect a team’s performance?

52. How can athletes control negative emotions in violent or high-contact sports?

53. How does using social media impact an athlete’s performance and well-being?

54. Can psychological interventions help with injury rehabilitation?

55. How can mindfulness practices boost sports performance?

Cultural psychology research question examples

The premise of this branch of psychology is that mind and culture are inseparable. In other words, people are shaped by their cultures, and their cultures are shaped by them. This can be a complex interaction.

Cultural psychology is vital as it explores how cultural context shapes individuals’ thoughts, behaviors, and perceptions. It provides insights into diverse perspectives, promoting cross-cultural understanding and reducing biases.

Here are some ideas that you might consider researching:

56. Are there cultural differences in how people perceive and deal with pain?

57. Are different cultures at increased risk of developing mental health conditions?

58. Are there cultural differences in coping strategies for stress?

59. Do our different cultures shape our personalities?

60. How does multi-generational culture influence family values and structure?

Health psychology research question examples

Health psychology is a crucial field of study. Understanding how psychological factors influence health behaviors, adherence to medical treatments, and overall wellness enables health experts to develop effective interventions and preventive measures, ultimately improving health outcomes.

Health psychology also aids in managing stress, promoting healthy behaviors, and optimizing mental health, fostering a holistic approach to well-being.

Here are five ideas to inspire research in this field:

61. How can health psychology interventions improve lifestyle behaviors to prevent cardiovascular diseases?

62. What role do social norms play in vaping among adolescents?

63. What role do personality traits play in the development and management of chronic pain conditions?

64. How do cultural beliefs and attitudes influence health-seeking behaviors in diverse populations?

65. What are the psychological factors influencing the adherence to preventive health behaviors, such as vaccination and regular screenings?

Neuropsychology research paper question examples

Neuropsychology research explores how a person’s cognition and behavior are related to their brain and nervous system. Researchers aim to advance the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral and cognitive effects of neurological disorders.

Researchers may work with children facing learning or developmental challenges, or with adults with declining cognitive abilities. They may also focus on injuries or illnesses of the brain, such as traumatic brain injuries, to determine the effect on cognitive and behavioral functions.

Neuropsychology informs diagnosis and treatment strategies for conditions such as dementia, traumatic brain injuries, and psychiatric disorders. Understanding the neural basis of behavior enhances our ability to optimize cognitive functioning, rehabilitate people with brain injuries, and improve patient care.

Here are some example research questions to consider:

66. How do neurotransmitter imbalances in specific brain regions contribute to mood disorders such as depression?

67. How can a traumatic brain injury affect memory?

68. What neural processes underlie attention deficits in people with ADHD?

69. Do medications affect the brain differently after a traumatic brain injury?

70. What are the behavioral effects of prolonged brain swelling?

Psychology of religion research question examples

The psychology of religion is a field that studies the interplay between belief systems, spirituality, and mental well-being. It explores the application of the psychological methods and interpretive frameworks of religious traditions and how they relate to both religious and non-religious people.

Psychology of religion research contributes to a holistic understanding of human experiences. It fosters cultural competence and guides therapeutic approaches that respect diverse spiritual beliefs.

Here are some example research questions in this field:

71. What impact does a religious upbringing have on a child’s self-esteem?

72. How do religious beliefs shape decision-making and perceptions of morality?

73. What is the impact of religious indoctrination?

74. Is there correlation between religious and mindfulness practices?

75. How does religious affiliation impact attitudes towards mental health treatment and help-seeking behaviors?

Controversial topics in psychology research question examples

Some psychology topics don’t fit into any of the subcategories above, but they may still be worthwhile topics to consider. These topics are the ones that spark interest, conversation, debate, and disagreement. They are often inspired by current issues and assess the validity of older research.

Consider some of these research question examples:

76. How does the rise in on-screen violence impact behavior in adolescents.

77. Should access to social media platforms be restricted in children under the age of 12 to improve mental health?

78. Are prescription mental health medications over-prescribed in older adults? If so, what are the effects of this?

79. Cognitive biases in AI: what are the implications for decision-making?

80. What are the psychological and ethical implications of using virtual reality in exposure therapy for treating trauma-related conditions?

• Inspiration for your next psychology research project

You can choose from a diverse range of research questions that intersect and overlap across various specialties.

From cognitive psychology to clinical studies, each inquiry contributes to a deeper understanding of the human mind and behavior. Importantly, the relevance of these questions transcends individual disciplines, as many findings offer insights applicable across multiple areas of study.

As health trends evolve and societal needs shift, new topics emerge, fueling continual exploration and discovery. Diving into this ever-changing and expanding area of study enables you to navigate the complexities of the human experience and pave the way for innovative solutions to the challenges of tomorrow.

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Quantitative Psychology Research

The 80th Annual Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Beijing, 2015

• Conference proceedings
• © 2016
• L. Andries van der Ark 0 ,
• Daniel M. Bolt 1 ,
• Wen-Chung Wang 2 ,
• Jeffrey A. Douglas 3 ,
• Marie Wiberg 4

University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

You can also search for this editor in PubMed   Google Scholar

University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA

Education university of hong kong, hong kong, china, university of illinois, champaign, usa, umeå university, umeå, sweden.

• Contains the latest work in measurement and statistics within psychology
• Covers a broad range of topics with applications in psychology, education and throughout the social sciences
• Fourth in a series of recent volumes to cover research presented at the Annual Meetings of the Psychometric Society
• Includes supplementary material: sn.pub/extras

Part of the book series: Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics (PROMS, volume 167)

Included in the following conference series:

• IMPS: The Annual Meeting of the Psychometric Society

Conference proceedings info: IMPS 2015.

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Concepts and Models from Psychometrics

Using the gamma generalized linear model for modeling continuous, skewed and heteroscedastic outcomes in psychology.

How to Think Straight About Psychometrics: Improving Measurement by Identifying its Assumptions

• Cognitive diagnostic modeling
• Computerized adaptive testing
• Item response theory
• Psychological scaling
• Psychology methodology
• Psychometric methods
• Quantitative methods
• Structural Equation Modeling
• Item Characteristic Curves
• Multidimensional Ranking Items
• Multidimensional Latent Ability
• Scalability Coefficients
• Guttman's Reliability Coefficients
• cognitive data
• Personality Development Measurement
• Q Matrix Theory
• Program Evaluation
• growth curve modeling

Table of contents (29 papers)

Front matter, continuation ratio model in item response theory and selection of models for polytomous items.

• Seock-Ho Kim

Using the Asymmetry of Item Characteristic Curves (ICCs) to Learn About Underlying Item Response Processes

• Sora Lee, Daniel M. Bolt

A Three-Parameter Speeded Item Response Model: Estimation and Application

• Joyce Chang, Henghsiu Tsai, Ya-Hui Su, Edward M. H. Lin

An Application of a Random Mixture Nominal Item Response Model for Investigating Instruction Effects

• Hye-Jeong Choi, Allan S. Cohen, Brian A. Bottge

Item Response Theory Models for Multidimensional Ranking Items

• Wen-Chung Wang, Xuelan Qiu, Chia-Wen Chen, Sage Ro

Different Growth Measures on Different Vertical Scales

Investigation of constraint-weighted item selection procedures in polytomous cat, estimating classification accuracy and consistency indices for multidimensional latent ability.

• Wenyi Wang, Lihong Song, Shuliang Ding, Yaru Meng

Item Response Theory Models for Person Dependence in Paired Samples

• Kuan-Yu Jin, Wen-Chung Wang

Using Sample Weights in Item Response Data Analysis under Complex Sample Designs

• Xiaying Zheng, Ji Seung Yang

Scalability Coefficients for Two-Level Polytomous Item Scores: An Introduction and an Application

• Daniela R. Crisan, Janneke E. van de Pol, L. Andries van der Ark

Numerical Differences Between Guttman’s Reliability Coefficients and the GLB

• Pieter R. Oosterwijk, L. Andries van der Ark, Klaas Sijtsma

Optimizing the Costs and GT based reliabilities of Large-scale Performance Assessments

• Yon Soo Suh, Dasom Hwang, Meiling Quan, Guemin Lee

A Confirmatory Factor Model for the Investigation of Cognitive Data Showing a Ceiling Effect: An Example

• Karl Schweizer

The Goodness of Sample Loadings of Principal Component Analysis in Approximating to Factor Loadings with High Dimensional Data

• Lu Liang, Kentaro Hayashi, Ke-Hai Yuan

Remedies for Degeneracy in Candecomp/Parafac

• Paolo Giordani, Roberto Rocci

Growth Curve Modeling for Nonnormal Data: A Two-Stage Robust Approach Versus a Semiparametric Bayesian Approach

• Xin Tong, Zijun Ke

The Specification of Attribute Structures and Its Effects on Classification Accuracy in Diagnostic Test Design

• Ren Liu, Anne Corinne Huggins-Manley

Conditions of Completeness of the Q-Matrix of Tests for Cognitive Diagnosis

• Hans-Friedrich Köhn, Chia-Yi Chiu

Editors and Affiliations

L. Andries van der Ark

Daniel M. Bolt

Wen-Chung Wang

Jeffrey A. Douglas

Marie Wiberg

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Quantitative Psychology Research

Book Subtitle : The 80th Annual Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Beijing, 2015

Editors : L. Andries van der Ark, Daniel M. Bolt, Wen-Chung Wang, Jeffrey A. Douglas, Marie Wiberg

Series Title : Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-38759-8

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Mathematics and Statistics , Mathematics and Statistics (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-319-38757-4 Published: 05 August 2016

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-319-81742-2 Published: 07 June 2018

eBook ISBN : 978-3-319-38759-8 Published: 04 August 2016

Series ISSN : 2194-1009

Series E-ISSN : 2194-1017

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : IX, 398

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Research Topics & Ideas: Psychology

100+ Psychology Topic Ideas To Fast-Track Your Research

If you’re starting out on the dissertation or thesis journey for your psychology degree, the very first challenge you’ll face is finding a solid research topic . In this post, we’ll help get the topic ideation process started by providing a meaty list of research ideas, spanning a range of psychology sub-disciplines. We’ll also look at some examples from actual theses and dissertations to give you an idea of what these look like in the real world.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps (which we’ll explain a little later). Therefore, it’s important to recognise that this post is only the first step in finding a high-quality psychology-centred research topic. To develop a research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this all sounds a bit intimidating, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course , which covers the process of writing a dissertation or thesis from A-Z. You can also sign up for our free webinar that explores how to find a high-quality research topic. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, have a look at our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Psychology-Related Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• Behavioural psychology
• Clinical psychology
• Cognitive psychology
• Developmental psychology
• Educational psychology
• Forensic psychology
• Social psychology
• Sports psychology
• Examples of actual dissertation topics
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

How To Find A Research Topic

In the video below, we explain how to find suitable research ideas (in psychology or any field), and how to then refine those into well-articulated potential topics for your dissertation or thesis. We also discuss a few important evaluation criteria to help you make the right choice for your project.

Below you’ll find a list of research ideas to get your thinking started. Please note that these research topic ideas are intentionally broad and generic, so you will need to refine them a fair deal using the techniques we discussed in the video above.

We’ve grouped the topic ideas based on a few popular areas of psychology to make it a little easier for you to find something in your particular field of interest. That said, there is naturally some overlap between topics, so keep this in mind.

Research Ideas: Behavioural Psychology

• Cultural variation in behaviour and mental health of adolescents during a disaster: a case study
• The impact of parental drug use and risky behaviour on early child development
• The effects of video game violence on aggressive behaviour among teenage boys in school
• The relationship between adverse childhood experiences and adult risk-seeking behaviour
• The impact of physical exercise on anxiety and health-harming behaviour
• The relationship between personality traits and addiction behaviour
• The effects of reinforcement schedules on decision-making and associative learning
• The effects of daily mindfulness practice on stress and anxiety in middle-aged women
• The use of behavioural interventions in the treatment of eating disorders in poorer communities
• Understanding implicit cognitive processes involved in the over-consumption of fast food
• The use of cognitive behavioural therapy for alcohol addiction treatment
• The impact of extensive technology use in children on long-term attention and focus
• The impact of social media on self-destructive behaviour and poor mental health outcomes
• Exploring the role of sleep and sleep deprivation on healthy behaviours

Research Ideas: Clinical Psychology

• The use of mindfulness-based approaches in the treatment of anxiety disorders among college students
• The use of technology in the delivery of psychological services in war-torn countries
• The effectiveness of dialectical behaviour therapy for borderline personality disorder
• The use of virtual reality technology in the treatment of phobias and PTSD among war veterans
• The role of childhood adversity on adult mental health in immigrant populations in the USA
• The role of genetics and epigenetics in the development of bipolar disorder in Pakistani women: an integrative review
• The effectiveness of pharmacotherapy in the treatment of social anxiety among hikikomori in Japan
• The perception of healthcare workers and patients on the use of teletherapy for the delivery of psychological services
• The impact of social support on mental health outcomes among single parents.
• The effectiveness of integrative therapeutic approaches in the treatment of schizophrenia
• The effectiveness of trauma-focused therapies on post-traumatic growth in domestic abuse survivors
• The role and use of cognitive-behavioural therapy for depression among first-generation students
• The effectiveness of family therapy in addressing childhood trauma and depression
• The impact of cultural mistrust on the diagnosis and treatment of mental health issues in culturally-diverse populations
• The effectiveness of group therapy on post-traumatic stress symptoms among survivors of sexual assault

Research Ideas: Cognitive Psychology

• The impact of lifelong aerobic exercise on cognitive function in old age
• The effects of evening screen use on cognitive development in preschool children
• The impact of sleep deprivation on decision-making among graduate students
• The use of neuroimaging to understand the neural basis of memory retrieval
• The effect of conservative religious homes on social functioning in LGBT+ adolescents
• The role of positive emotions in working memory among high school learners
• The neural basis of decision-making and problem-solving during undergraduate statistic assessments
• The neural basis of language processing among adults learning English as a second language
• The role of technological tools in improving working memory in older adults
• The role of attention in emotional face processing among adult males
• The impact of depression on cognitive function during ageing The impact of daily meditation and mindfulness practice on cognitive function
• The relationship between increased protein intake and improved cognitive function
• The effects of stress on cognitive function among final-year learners

Research Ideas: Developmental Psychology

• The impact of maternal affection on cognitive, social, and emotional development
• The effects of parenting styles on children’s executive function
• The impact of late-night screen use on child development
• The role of digital play on child development outcomes
• Exploring the impact of poverty on early child development in Brazil
• The trauma-informed care as moderating the impact of trauma on child development
• Evaluating the relationship between peer relationship quality and child social development
• The impact of child-targeted media and advertising on child behavioural development
• The role of parental attachment in child resilience
• The moderating impact of culture on bullying and child social development
• The impact of single-parenting on child development in India
• The impact of early educational interventions on child socio-emotional development
• The impact of digital technology use on adolescent development and mental health
• The impact of socioeconomic status on child executive function
• The role of genetics and epigenetics on child neurodevelopmental outcomes linked to depression

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Research Ideas: Educational Psychology

• The relationship between self-regulated learning and academic performance in asynchronous versus synchronous learning environments
• Exploring effective parental involvement strategies and their impact on student achievement
• The role of intrinsic motivation in formative assessment in the classroom
• The impact of classroom management and practice on student learning and behaviour
• University students’ preference regarding online learning environments
• The effects of gentrification on student achievement in traditionally poor neighbourhoods
• The impact of teacher expectations and academic self-concept on K12 student mathematics performance
• The use and effectiveness of game-based learning in a high school biology classroom
• The impact of prejudice on the relationship between student motivation and academic performance among Black university students
• The impact of culture on second language English student learning preferences
• The effects of student self-efficacy and engagement on academic performance in secondary school mathematics
• The role of metacognition in learning musicality in hip hop
• The role of small group instruction on teacher efficacy and stress in early childhood education
• The perception and use of multimedia among high school biology teachers in France
• The use of augmented reality applications and its impact on student learning, motivation and attitude

Research Ideas: Forensic Psychology

• The impact of trauma on the psychological functioning of police officers and first responders
• Understanding cultural considerations during forensic psychological assessment and treatment of trauma
• Ethical considerations of the use of AI in forensic psychology in the legal system
• The psychological factors related to recidivism among white collar female offenders in the USA
• The psychological factors related to false confessions among juveniles
• Understanding the use of psychological assessment in the evaluation of eyewitness testimony in criminal courts in England
• The impact of trauma on the reflective functioning of adult female sexual assault victims
• The use and effectiveness of psychological interventions in reducing recidivism among non-violent criminals
• The impact of domestic violence on the mental health and forensic evaluation of men
• Exploring the ethical considerations and use of behavioural analysis in the study of criminal behaviour
• The use and limitations of neuropsychological assessment in forensic evaluations
• The use of social media forensics in evaluating criminal behaviour in violent crimes
• The racialised use of psychological assessment in the evaluation of competency to stand trial in Canada
• Exploring the use and availability of virtual reality technologies in forensic psychology in Spain
• The impact of motivational interviewing-based interventions among criminalized drug users

Research Ideas: Social Psychology

• The impact of prejudice and discrimination on social behaviour among African immigrants in South Africa
• The impact of social networks on behaviour and well-being among young adult females
• The effects of social identity on non-conformity in University students
• The effects of group dynamics on risk-seeking behaviour in adult men
• The impact of social media on the quality of interpersonal relationships among high school learners
• The impact of parental emotional intelligence on pro-social behaviour in children and adolescents
• The effects of conformity and deviance on social attitudes and behaviour during a global recession
• The effects of Tik Tok on social comparison and self-esteem among teenage girls
• Understanding gendered differences in social influence and algorithms on impulsive decision-making
• The effects of social support on mental health among healthcare workers in the UK
• The effects of gender roles on social behaviour among trans teens
• The impact of perceived power and social status on the behaviour of social media influencers
• The impact of social norms on prosocial behaviour among women
• The effects of community participation on aggression and violence in middle-aged men
• The impact of culture and gender on social behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic

Research Ideas: Sports Psychology

• The moderating role of cultural factors on the relationship between mental health and sports performance in team sports
• The role of mindfulness practice in addressing stress and anxiety in young national athletes
• The relationship between team cohesion and performance in cricket teams
• The effect of transformational leadership on female sports teams in Canada
• The effect of positive self-talk on athletic performance and motivation among Olympic athletes
• The use and perception of hypnosis in New Zealand team sports Understanding stress and burnout in University team athletes
• The efficacy of personalised nutrition and diet on athletic performance among sprinters
• Exploring mental preparation techniques and their effect on athletic motivation and resilience among team-sport athletes
• Exploring the perception and understanding of goal-setting characteristics on athletic performance among team coaches
• The effects of motivational feedback on the performance of female gymnasts
• The perception and use of visualization and imagery among coaches as a means to enhance sport performance
• The impact of sports injuries on mental health and recovery in high school athletes
• The moderating role of sleep on mental toughness and sports performance in Olympic athletes
• The use and perception of technology in sports training and performance in little league softball

Psychology-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in psychology, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various psychology degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• Effects of a Patient Question Prompt List on Outpatient Palliative Care Appointments (McDarby, 2022)
• The role of affect and exercise goals in physical activity engagement in younger and older adults (Stojanovic, 2022)
• Lay Theories about Whether Emotion Helps or Hinders Reasoning and Well-being (Karnaze, 2022)
• The effects of blast-induced traumatic brain injury on two transgenic models of Alzheimer’s Disease (Gann, 2020)
• Understanding the parental mind: Examining the stability of parental reflective functioning across the birth of a child and associations with maternal mind-mindedness (Pitzen, 2021)
• An investigation of ineffective ally behaviours (Collier, 2019)
• Response Inhibition-Related Beta Power: Distinguishing Cognitively Intact Elders by Risk for Alzheimer’s Disease (Evans, 2021)
• Recognition Memory of Extremely High-Frequency Words (Miller, 2019)
• The Relationship between Dementia Caregiver Burden and Caregiver Communications in a Memory Clinic Setting (Martin, 2021)
• Examination of Maternal Versus Paternal Ratings of Child Pre-Injury Functioning in Predicting Child Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms (Sayer, 2021)
• Electromyography As A Means of Predicting The Rubber Hand Illusion (Teaford, 2021)
• Linking Diversity Climate and Feedback Seeking Through Interpersonal Processes and Race Effects (Flores, 2021)

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are far more specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. This is an important thing to keep in mind as you develop your own research topic. That is to say, to create a top-notch research topic, you must be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

Fast-Track Your Topic Ideation

Still unsure about how to find the right topic for your research project? Check out our private coaching services , where we work with psychology students on a 1:1 basis to help them find the perfect topic.

10 Comments

Great insight

A very interesting site that offers a variety of options regarding research topics.

You’re most welcome

A good platform to get information

Amazing and interesting options 👌

Very useful but had not any field of research in health psychology

I feel honored going through this lovely stuff put together. Thank you so much

I need counseling psychology research topics

very empowering and insightful presentations. Can I be assisted in crafting a school psychology-related research topic about African context

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Home » 500+ Psychology Research Topic Ideas

500+ Psychology Research Topic Ideas

Table of Contents

Psychology is a vast field that encompasses a wide range of topics and research areas. From the study of cognition and behavior to the exploration of mental health disorders, there are countless avenues for researchers to explore within this field. Whether you are a college student, graduate student, or professional in the field of psychology, selecting a research topic can be a daunting task. To help guide your research endeavors, we have compiled a list of 500+ unique psychology research topic ideas across various subfields of psychology. These research topics range from the study of abnormal psychology and cognitive psychology to military psychology and education. With this extensive list, we hope to provide you with inspiration and ideas to jumpstart your research journey.

Psychology Research Topic Ideas

Psychology Research Topic Ideas are as follows:

• The effects of social media on self-esteem in adolescents
• The role of parenting styles in shaping children’s personality development
• The impact of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction in adults
• The influence of music on mood and emotional regulation
• The effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive functioning
• The relationship between personality traits and job satisfaction
• The effects of physical exercise on mental health
• The role of culture in shaping social identity and behavior
• The impact of peer pressure on decision-making in adolescents
• The effects of childhood trauma on adult attachment styles
• The influence of personality on romantic relationships
• The effects of bullying on mental health in children and adolescents
• The role of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The impact of positive psychology interventions on well-being
• The effects of social support on coping with stress
• The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement
• The effects of technology use on cognitive functioning
• The influence of gender roles on social behavior
• The effects of pet ownership on mental health
• The role of attachment styles in parent-child relationships
• The impact of social comparison on body dissatisfaction in women
• The effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on chronic pain management
• The relationship between personality disorders and criminal behavior
• The effects of stereotype threat on academic performance
• The influence of self-esteem on romantic relationships
• The effects of environmental factors on cognitive development in children
• The role of resilience in coping with trauma
• The effects of gaming on cognitive functioning and addiction
• The impact of mindfulness interventions on workplace productivity
• The relationship between social support and physical health.
• The relationship between self-compassion and mental health
• The impact of cognitive biases on decision-making
• The role of attachment styles in romantic relationships
• The effects of social isolation on mental health
• The influence of cultural values on parenting practices
• The relationship between social media use and body image dissatisfaction
• The effects of childhood obesity on mental health and well-being
• The impact of mindfulness-based interventions on addiction recovery
• The role of personality in predicting job performance and success
• The effects of sleep quality on academic achievement
• The influence of social identity on intergroup conflict
• The effects of nature exposure on stress reduction
• The impact of meditation on empathy and compassion
• The role of emotion regulation in coping with chronic illness
• The effects of gratitude interventions on well-being and life satisfaction
• The relationship between personality traits and leadership effectiveness
• The impact of trauma on brain development in children
• The role of social norms in shaping behavior
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on eating disorders
• The influence of cultural factors on mental health stigma
• The effects of emotional intelligence on workplace relationships and team effectiveness
• The relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement
• The impact of exercise on cognitive aging and dementia prevention
• The role of empathy in moral decision-making
• The effects of social comparison on academic motivation
• The influence of cultural factors on the perception of mental illness
• The effects of childhood bullying on long-term mental health outcomes
• The role of personality in romantic partner selection and satisfaction
• The impact of parental divorce on children’s emotional and behavioral outcomes
• The relationship between personality traits and coping strategies in stressful situations.
• The impact of personality disorders on interpersonal relationships
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on workplace stress and burnout
• The role of emotional intelligence in romantic relationships
• The effects of cultural factors on the development of eating disorders
• The relationship between attachment styles and emotional regulation
• The impact of early childhood education on cognitive development
• The effects of exposure to violence on mental health outcomes
• The role of motivation in academic achievement and success
• The influence of culture on the perception of intelligence and academic achievement
• The effects of technology use on social skills and communication
• The relationship between self-esteem and social anxiety
• The impact of trauma on memory processing and recall
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement
• The effects of exercise on mental health outcomes in older adults
• The influence of cultural factors on romantic attraction and mate selection
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on depression and anxiety
• The relationship between personality traits and substance abuse
• The impact of environmental factors on child development
• The role of motivation in workplace productivity and job satisfaction
• The effects of social media use on sleep quality and quantity
• The influence of cultural factors on the perception and treatment of addiction
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety disorder
• The relationship between personality traits and risk-taking behavior
• The impact of prenatal stress on child development and behavior
• The role of emotional intelligence in leadership effectiveness
• The effects of meditation on attention and focus
• The influence of cultural factors on mental health treatment-seeking behavior
• The effects of traumatic events on personal growth and resilience
• The relationship between personality traits and creativity
• The impact of mindfulness interventions on emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents.
• The effects of social comparison on body dissatisfaction
• The impact of parental stress on child behavior and development
• The role of mindfulness in stress management during pregnancy
• The effects of cultural factors on the development of social anxiety disorder
• The relationship between personality traits and procrastination
• The impact of trauma on addiction and substance abuse
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health treatment
• The effects of exercise on self-esteem and body image
• The influence of personality traits on the development of eating disorders
• The relationship between childhood trauma and adult mental health outcomes
• The impact of meditation on academic performance and focus
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards body image and appearance
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on chronic pain management
• The relationship between personality traits and moral decision-making
• The impact of early childhood attachment on romantic relationships
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards sexuality and sexual behavior
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in older adults
• The influence of personality traits on the development of obsessive-compulsive disorder
• The relationship between childhood bullying and adult mental health outcomes
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on panic disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards substance use and addiction
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on insomnia and sleep quality
• The relationship between personality traits and social comparison behavior
• The impact of parental divorce on romantic relationship outcomes
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards aging and age-related changes
• The effects of social support on stress management in college students
• The influence of personality traits on the development of anxiety disorders
• The relationship between childhood trauma and romantic relationship outcomes
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards masculinity and femininity
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on work-related stress
• The relationship between personality traits and forgiveness
• The impact of peer pressure on adolescent substance abuse
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health stigma
• The effects of social support on stress management in healthcare workers
• The influence of personality traits on the development of depression
• The relationship between childhood trauma and substance abuse
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on depression
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards body modification and cosmetic surgery
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on emotional regulation in adolescents.
• The effects of social media on self-esteem and body image in adolescent girls
• The impact of parental emotional neglect on adult mental health outcomes
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards gender and sexual orientation identity
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on post-traumatic stress disorder
• The relationship between personality traits and attachment styles in romantic relationships
• The impact of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic illness
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards disability and ableism
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on emotional eating and food addiction
• The influence of personality traits on the development of borderline personality disorder
• The relationship between childhood adversity and adult mental health outcomes
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on generalized anxiety disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards aging and dementia
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic pain
• The relationship between personality traits and coping strategies in response to stress
• The impact of maternal mental health on child behavior and development
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health in the workplace
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on stress and burnout in healthcare professionals
• The influence of personality traits on the development of narcissistic personality disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and sleep disorders
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on bipolar disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards diversity and inclusion
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in refugees and immigrants
• The relationship between personality traits and empathy
• The impact of social comparison on academic performance and motivation
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health in the military
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on addiction recovery and relapse prevention
• The influence of personality traits on the development of antisocial personality disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and borderline personality disorder
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social skills and communication in autism spectrum disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health in the LGBTQ+ community
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with substance use disorder
• The relationship between personality traits and creativity in the arts and sciences
• The impact of early childhood exposure to violence on adult mental health outcomes
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and aging in rural communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and self-care
• The influence of personality traits on the development of schizophrenia
• The relationship between childhood trauma and dissociative identity disorder
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety in children and adolescents
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and spirituality
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic stress.
• The impact of personality traits on job performance and satisfaction
• The relationship between childhood trauma and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• The effects of exposure therapy on phobias and anxiety disorders
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health in minority communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in caregivers of individuals with chronic illness or disability
• The relationship between cognitive flexibility and problem-solving abilities
• The impact of psychoeducation on stigma reduction towards mental illness
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and substance use in college students
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on academic performance and stress in college students
• The influence of personality traits on the development of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• The relationship between childhood trauma and depression in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on depression and anxiety in cancer patients
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and body image in men
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome
• The relationship between resilience and post-traumatic growth
• The impact of music therapy on mental health outcomes in individuals with schizophrenia
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and motherhood
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on emotional regulation and mood disorders in adolescents
• The influence of personality traits on the development of hoarding disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and substance use disorder in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on insomnia and sleep disorders
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and masculinity
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic migraines
• The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness
• The impact of group therapy on social skills and communication in individuals with autism spectrum disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and aging in urban communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on compassion and empathy in healthcare professionals
• The influence of personality traits on the development of postpartum depression
• The relationship between childhood trauma and bipolar disorder in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on self-esteem and body image in individuals with eating disorders
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and family dynamics in immigrant families
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic gastrointestinal disorders
• The relationship between personality traits and self-compassion
• The impact of play therapy on social-emotional development in children with autism spectrum disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and aging in LGBTQ+ communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on anxiety and depression in individuals with chronic pain
• The relationship between childhood trauma and borderline personality disorder symptoms in adolescence
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms in children and adolescents.
• The effects of physical exercise on mood and anxiety in older adults
• The relationship between childhood trauma and attachment styles in romantic relationships
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on body dysmorphic disorder symptoms
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and spirituality in indigenous communities
• The relationship between personality traits and risky behavior in adolescence
• The influence of parental bonding on the development of borderline personality disorder in young adults
• The impact of mindfulness interventions on stress and burnout in healthcare professionals
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and disability in rural communities
• The effects of psychotherapy on self-compassion in individuals with depression
• The relationship between childhood trauma and dissociative symptoms in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety disorder in individuals with autism spectrum disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and help-seeking behaviors in Asian American communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• The influence of family functioning on the development of substance use disorders in adolescents
• The impact of expressive writing on emotional processing in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in survivors of domestic violence
• The relationship between childhood trauma and disordered eating behaviors in young adults
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on panic disorder symptoms in individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community support in refugee populations
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD)
• The relationship between personality traits and romantic relationship satisfaction
• The influence of childhood attachment on the development of post-traumatic stress disorder in adulthood
• The impact of group therapy on social skills and self-esteem in individuals with social anxiety disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and faith-based support in African American communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on emotion regulation and coping skills in individuals with borderline personality disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and anxiety sensitivity in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on health anxiety symptoms in individuals with chronic illnesses
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and social stigma in Hispanic/Latino communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic hepatitis C
• The relationship between personality traits and decision-making processes
• The influence of parent-child communication on the development of eating disorders in adolescents
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on gambling disorder symptoms
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and access to care in rural communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with bipolar disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and rumination in adulthood
• The impact of group therapy on self-esteem and assertiveness in individuals with avoidant personality disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Native American populations.
• The effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance and decision-making
• The relationship between personality traits and addiction susceptibility
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on hoarding disorder symptoms
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and spirituality in Hispanic/Latino communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with multiple sclerosis
• The relationship between childhood trauma and emotional regulation in adulthood
• The influence of social media on body image and self-esteem in adolescents
• The impact of mindfulness interventions on impulsivity and self-control in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and help-seeking behaviors in LGBTQ+ communities
• The effects of cognitive training on cognitive performance and brain structure in older adults
• The relationship between personality traits and risk-taking behaviors in college students
• The impact of family therapy on communication and conflict resolution in families with a history of domestic violence
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Asian American communities
• The relationship between childhood trauma and interpersonal functioning in adulthood
• The influence of cultural identity on mental health outcomes in immigrant populations
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on eating disorder symptoms in individuals with type 1 diabetes
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and stigma in Arab American communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• The relationship between childhood trauma and attachment styles in adulthood friendships
• The impact of expressive writing on stress and immune function in caregivers of individuals with dementia
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in rural Native American communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic pain and depression
• The relationship between personality traits and emotional intelligence
• The influence of parental warmth and discipline on the development of anxiety disorders in children
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on postpartum depression symptoms
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and access to care in South Asian communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with borderline personality disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and resilience in adulthood
• The impact of group therapy on social anxiety and loneliness in individuals with hearing loss
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community support in Pacific Islander communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and depression
• The relationship between personality traits and leadership styles
• The influence of peer relationships on the development of depressive symptoms in adolescents
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on body image and self-esteem in individuals with gender dysphoria
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Middle Eastern communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and addiction
• The relationship between childhood trauma and substance use disorders in adulthood
• The impact of group therapy on emotion regulation and self-esteem in individuals with personality disorders
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in immigrant and refugee communities.
• Sure, here are 40 more psychology research topic ideas:
• The effects of meditation on creativity and divergent thinking
• The relationship between personality traits and career satisfaction
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on sleep disturbances in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and help-seeking behaviors in Black communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI)
• The relationship between childhood trauma and attachment styles in romantic relationships in adulthood
• The influence of social norms on substance use behaviors in college students
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Indigenous communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with chronic pain
• The impact of group therapy on emotion regulation and social connectedness in individuals with eating disorders
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in African immigrant communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with spinal cord injuries (SCI)
• The relationship between childhood trauma and the development of eating disorders in adulthood
• The influence of social identity on stereotype threat and academic performance in college students
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms in individuals with Parkinson’s disease
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and help-seeking behaviors in Southeast Asian communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• The relationship between personality traits and coping strategies in individuals with chronic pain
• The impact of group therapy on emotion regulation and social support in individuals with borderline personality disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Muslim communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and depression
• The relationship between childhood trauma and emotional intelligence in adulthood
• The influence of attachment styles on romantic relationship satisfaction in adults
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety symptoms in individuals with social communication disorder (SCD)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in refugee communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with substance use disorders
• The relationship between personality traits and resilience in individuals with chronic illnesses
• The impact of group therapy on emotion regulation and social skills in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Caribbean communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with fibromyalgia and depression
• The influence of social comparison on body dissatisfaction and eating disorder behaviors in adolescents
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on depression symptoms in individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Native Hawaiian communities
• The relationship between personality traits and coping strategies in individuals with traumatic brain injuries (TBI)
• The impact of group therapy on social anxiety symptoms in individuals with intellectual disabilities
• The role of social comparison in body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors in men
• The effects of parental attachment on romantic relationships in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety symptoms in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS)
• The relationship between cultural values and parenting practices in Latino families
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and anxiety
• The role of social norms in shaping attitudes towards mental health and help-seeking behaviors in South Asian communities
• The influence of personality traits on academic achievement in college students
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on depression symptoms in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis (RA)
• The relationship between attachment styles and romantic relationship satisfaction in same-sex couples
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with schizophrenia
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Arab communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic pain and anxiety
• The relationship between childhood adversity and substance use disorders in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety symptoms in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• The role of cultural beliefs about mental illness and stigma in Latino communities
• The effects of social identity on stereotype threat and academic achievement in minority college students
• The relationship between personality traits and coping strategies in caregivers of individuals with dementia
• The impact of group therapy on depression symptoms in individuals with traumatic brain injuries (TBI)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in LGBTQ+ communities
• The relationship between attachment styles and romantic relationship satisfaction in individuals with chronic illnesses
• The influence of personality traits on stress and coping in police officers
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety symptoms in individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD)
• The role of cultural beliefs about mental illness and stigma in Asian communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and depression
• The relationship between childhood trauma and interpersonal relationships in adulthood
• The impact of group therapy on anxiety symptoms in individuals with social phobia
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Native American communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with postpartum depression
• The relationship between personality traits and burnout in healthcare professionals
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety symptoms in individuals with chronic pain and fibromyalgia
• The role of cultural beliefs about mental illness and stigma in African American communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and anxiety
• The relationship between childhood trauma and emotional regulation in adolescence
• The influence of personality traits on well-being and life satisfaction in older adults
• The impact of group therapy on depression symptoms in individuals with borderline personality disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Hispanic/Latino communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• The relationship between attachment styles and emotional regulation in individuals with substance use disorders

Psychology Research Topic Ideas College Students

• The effects of virtual reality exposure therapy on anxiety and phobias among college students
• The relationship between attachment styles and romantic relationship satisfaction among college students
• The impact of social norms on substance use among college students
• The effects of cultural identity on mental health and academic achievement among college students
• The role of self-compassion in reducing burnout among college students
• The relationship between social media use and FOMO (fear of missing out) among college students
• The impact of environmental factors on mental health and well-being among college students
• The effects of self-esteem on social anxiety and social skills among college students
• The role of positive psychology interventions in promoting well-being and academic success among college students
• The relationship between gender identity and mental health outcomes among college students
• The impact of parental communication on mental health and academic performance among college students
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on PTSD symptoms among college students
• The relationship between personality traits and academic procrastination among college students
• The role of humor in reducing stress and promoting well-being among college students
• The impact of social identity on academic motivation and achievement among college students
• The effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on academic performance and mental health among college students
• The relationship between academic stress and substance use among college students
• The role of cultural competence in promoting diversity and inclusion on college campuses
• The impact of emotional intelligence on academic success and career readiness among college students
• The effects of peer mentoring programs on academic motivation and success among college students
• The relationship between exercise and cognitive functioning in college students
• The role of optimism in promoting resilience and well-being among college students
• The impact of music therapy on anxiety and depression among college students
• The effects of exposure to nature on mental health and well-being among college students
• The relationship between parental involvement and emotional regulation among college students
• The role of forgiveness in promoting well-being and interpersonal relationships among college students
• The impact of social comparison on body image and self-esteem among college students
• The effects of attachment styles on coping with stress among college students
• The relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic performance among college students
• The role of grit in promoting academic perseverance and achievement among college students
• The impact of COVID-19 on mental health and well-being among college students
• The effects of peer pressure on substance use and risky behaviors among college students
• The relationship between social support and academic engagement among college students
• The role of cognitive biases in promoting or hindering academic success among college students
• The impact of physical activity on mental health and well-being among college students
• The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on academic motivation and success among college students
• The relationship between perfectionism and academic burnout among college students
• The role of parental support in promoting academic resilience and success among college students with disabilities
• The impact of diversity education on promoting empathy and reducing prejudice among college students
• The effects of assertiveness training on communication skills and interpersonal relationships among college students.

Graduate Psychology Research Topic Ideas

• The impact of mindfulness-based interventions on reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression in clinical populations
• The role of self-compassion in promoting emotional well-being among adults with chronic illness
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on PTSD symptoms in military veterans
• The relationship between sleep quality and cognitive functioning in aging populations
• The impact of positive psychology interventions on well-being and resilience among individuals with chronic pain
• The role of emotion regulation in reducing symptoms of borderline personality disorder
• The effects of virtual reality exposure therapy on social anxiety in individuals with autism spectrum disorder
• The relationship between executive functioning and academic achievement in children with ADHD
• The impact of family-based interventions on reducing symptoms of substance use disorders among adolescents
• The role of mindfulness in promoting emotional regulation and stress management in healthcare professionals
• The effects of cognitive remediation therapy on cognitive functioning in individuals with schizophrenia
• The relationship between attachment styles and therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy
• The impact of cultural factors on the manifestation and treatment of eating disorders
• The role of emotion regulation in reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety in postpartum women
• The effects of acceptance and commitment therapy on reducing symptoms of OCD
• The relationship between childhood ADHD and adult executive functioning and academic achievement
• The impact of animal-assisted therapy on reducing symptoms of PTSD in veterans
• The role of social support in promoting resilience and well-being among individuals with chronic illness
• The effects of cognitive remediation therapy on reducing negative symptoms in individuals with schizophrenia
• The relationship between executive functioning and social skills in children with autism spectrum disorder
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on reducing symptoms of hoarding disorder
• The role of emotion regulation in reducing symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder
• The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on reducing symptoms of burnout among healthcare professionals
• The relationship between social support and quality of life in individuals with multiple sclerosis
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on reducing symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder
• The role of mindfulness in promoting well-being and emotional regulation in individuals with chronic pain
• The effects of cognitive remediation therapy on reducing negative symptoms in individuals with bipolar disorder
• The relationship between executive functioning and academic achievement in children with learning disabilities
• The impact of acceptance and commitment therapy on reducing symptoms of social anxiety disorder
• The role of emotion regulation in reducing symptoms of borderline personality disorder in adolescents
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on reducing symptoms of panic disorder
• The relationship between social support and depression in individuals with HIV/AIDS
• The impact of cognitive remediation therapy on reducing symptoms of ADHD in adults
• The role of mindfulness in promoting well-being and emotional regulation in individuals with depression
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on reducing symptoms of substance use disorders in individuals with co-occurring PTSD
• The relationship between executive functioning and quality of life in individuals with traumatic brain injury
• The impact of acceptance and commitment therapy on reducing symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder
• The role of emotion regulation in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression in adolescents with chronic illness
• The effects of cognitive remediation therapy on reducing cognitive impairment in individuals with Parkinson’s disease.

Military Psychology Research Topic Ideas

• The impact of military deployment on the mental health and well-being of service members
• The role of resilience in promoting posttraumatic growth among military personnel
• The effects of combat exposure on emotional regulation and decision-making abilities
• The relationship between military leadership styles and team cohesion
• The impact of military culture on help-seeking behaviors among service members with mental health concerns
• The role of perceived social support in promoting resilience among military spouses during deployment
• The effects of military service on identity formation and self-concept
• The relationship between deployment-related stress and marital satisfaction among military couples
• The impact of military sexual trauma on mental health outcomes and treatment seeking behaviors among service members
• The role of mindfulness in reducing symptoms of PTSD among military personnel
• The effects of trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy on reducing symptoms of PTSD among military veterans
• The relationship between military deployment and substance use disorders
• The impact of military deployment on parent-child relationships and child outcomes
• The role of perceived organizational support in promoting job satisfaction and retention among military personnel
• The effects of exposure therapy on reducing combat-related nightmares and sleep disturbances among military personnel
• The relationship between military service and risk-taking behaviors
• The impact of military culture on mental health stigma and treatment seeking behaviors among service members
• The role of positive psychology interventions in promoting resilience and well-being among military personnel and their families
• The effects of virtual reality exposure therapy on reducing symptoms of specific phobias among military personnel
• The relationship between military service and traumatic brain injury
• The impact of deployment on career development and job satisfaction among military personnel
• The role of cognitive appraisal in the stress and coping process among military personnel
• The effects of a peer support program on reducing symptoms of PTSD among military personnel
• The relationship between military service and intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization
• The impact of military deployment on parenting practices and child outcomes among military families
• The role of perceived organizational justice in promoting job satisfaction and retention among military personnel
• The effects of acceptance and commitment therapy on reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety among military personnel
• The relationship between military service and suicidal ideation and behavior
• The impact of military deployment on social support networks and social integration
• The role of perceived unit cohesion in promoting resilience and mental health among military personnel
• The effects of cognitive remediation therapy on improving cognitive functioning and job performance among military personnel with traumatic brain injury
• The relationship between military service and alcohol misuse and addiction
• The impact of military deployment on sibling relationships and family functioning
• The role of perceived leadership support in promoting job satisfaction and retention among military personnel
• The effects of exposure therapy on reducing symptoms of phobic avoidance among military personnel
• The relationship between military service and eating disorders
• The impact of military deployment on community reintegration and social support among veterans
• The role of perceived control in the stress and coping process among military personnel
• The effects of a mindfulness-based intervention on reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety among military spouses during deployment
• The relationship between military service and personality disorders.

Psychology Research Topic Ideas in Education

• The effects of mindfulness practices on student well-being and academic performance
• The impact of classroom diversity on student attitudes and academic achievement
• The role of parent-teacher communication in promoting student success
• The effects of differentiated instruction on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between school climate and student mental health outcomes
• The impact of technology integration on student learning outcomes
• The role of teacher-student relationships in promoting student engagement and academic success
• The effects of social-emotional learning programs on student behavior and academic performance
• The relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement
• The impact of peer tutoring on student academic performance
• The role of motivation in promoting student academic success
• The effects of educational gaming on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between parental involvement and student academic achievement
• The impact of teacher expectations on student academic performance
• The role of goal-setting in promoting student academic success
• The effects of growth mindset interventions on student motivation and academic achievement
• The relationship between teacher burnout and student academic outcomes
• The impact of teacher diversity on student attitudes and academic achievement
• The role of classroom management in promoting student engagement and academic success
• The effects of student-centered learning on student academic performance
• The relationship between teacher empathy and student academic outcomes
• The impact of school-based mental health services on student mental health outcomes and academic achievement
• The role of parental involvement in homework on student academic success
• The effects of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between student motivation and academic achievement in STEM fields
• The impact of teacher professional development on student academic outcomes
• The role of teacher feedback in promoting student academic success
• The effects of cooperative learning on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between classroom climate and student academic outcomes
• The impact of restorative justice practices on student behavior and academic achievement
• The role of teacher support in promoting student academic success
• The effects of flipped classrooms on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between teacher autonomy and student academic outcomes
• The impact of teacher collaboration on student academic performance
• The role of metacognition in promoting student academic success
• The effects of active learning on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between student engagement and academic achievement in language learning
• The impact of teacher coaching on student academic outcomes
• The role of self-regulated learning in promoting student academic success
• The effects of outdoor learning on student engagement and academic achievement.

Cognitive Psychology Research Topic Ideas

• The role of attention in perception and memory
• The effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive functioning
• The relationship between creativity and cognitive flexibility
• The cognitive processes involved in decision-making
• The impact of stress on cognitive performance
• The role of working memory in problem-solving
• The cognitive factors involved in language acquisition
• The relationship between attention and executive functions
• The effect of aging on cognitive abilities
• The role of attention in visual perception
• The cognitive processes involved in learning and memory
• The impact of technology on cognitive development
• The relationship between cognition and emotion
• The effect of anxiety on cognitive performance
• The cognitive processes involved in attentional control
• The role of executive functions in decision-making
• The effect of mindfulness practices on cognitive functioning
• The relationship between language and cognition
• The cognitive processes involved in reading comprehension
• The impact of nutrition on cognitive development
• The role of working memory in language processing
• The effect of exercise on cognitive performance
• The cognitive processes involved in mental rotation tasks
• The relationship between cognitive load and learning
• The effect of multitasking on cognitive performance
• The cognitive processes involved in problem-solving
• The role of executive functions in goal-directed behavior
• The impact of cognitive training on cognitive abilities
• The relationship between attention and perception
• The effect of music on cognitive performance
• The cognitive processes involved in decision-making under uncertainty
• The role of cognitive control in self-regulation
• The impact of bilingualism on cognitive development
• The relationship between cognitive biases and decision-making
• The effect of caffeine on cognitive performance
• The cognitive processes involved in face recognition
• The role of cognitive dissonance in attitude change
• The impact of mindfulness-based interventions on cognitive functioning
• The relationship between cognitive styles and problem-solving
• The cognitive processes involved in mental imagery.

Forensic Psychology Research Topic Ideas

• The impact of childhood trauma on criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of forensic psychological evaluations in court proceedings
• The role of mental illness in criminal behavior
• The effect of substance abuse on criminal behavior
• The impact of eyewitness testimony on legal outcomes
• The role of psychopathy in criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of restorative justice practices
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and criminal behavior
• The effect of media coverage on public perceptions of crime
• The impact of prison environment on offender rehabilitation
• The role of the insanity defense in criminal cases
• The effectiveness of sex offender treatment programs
• The relationship between domestic violence and homicide
• The effect of legal representation on trial outcomes
• The impact of juvenile delinquency prevention programs
• The role of cultural factors in criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of parole and probation programs
• The relationship between mental illness and violence
• The effect of polygraph testing on legal outcomes
• The impact of criminal profiling on law enforcement investigations
• The role of victim impact statements in sentencing
• The effectiveness of correctional education programs
• The relationship between childhood attachment styles and criminal behavior
• The effect of cognitive biases in legal decision-making
• The impact of witness identification procedures on accuracy
• The role of forensic hypnosis in criminal investigations
• The effectiveness of drug court programs
• The relationship between alcohol use and criminal behavior
• The effect of societal stereotypes on criminal sentencing
• The impact of prison overcrowding on offender rehabilitation
• The role of cultural competence in forensic assessments
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders
• The relationship between trauma and criminal behavior in women
• The effect of plea bargaining on legal outcomes
• The impact of social support on offender rehabilitation
• The role of forensic psychology in counterterrorism efforts
• The effectiveness of offender reentry programs
• The relationship between intellectual disability and criminal behavior
• The effect of forensic testimony on jury decision-making.

Abnormal psychology research topic ideas

• The effects of childhood trauma on the development of anxiety disorders
• The relationship between depression and sleep disturbances
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder
• The impact of social media on body image and eating disorders
• The role of genetics in the development of schizophrenia
• The effect of early intervention on the progression of psychosis
• The impact of stigma on help-seeking behaviors for mental health disorders
• The relationship between substance use disorders and mental health
• The effect of exercise on symptoms of depression and anxiety
• The impact of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy on post-traumatic stress disorder
• The role of attachment styles in the development of personality disorders
• The effectiveness of cognitive remediation therapy for schizophrenia
• The relationship between childhood ADHD and the development of anxiety disorders
• The effect of mindfulness meditation on symptoms of depression and anxiety
• The impact of cultural factors on the diagnosis and treatment of mental health disorders
• The role of neuroplasticity in the treatment of addiction
• The effectiveness of exposure therapy for specific phobias
• The effect of stress on the development of mental health disorders
• The impact of sleep disturbances on the onset of bipolar disorder
• The role of trauma in the development of dissociative disorders
• The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia
• The relationship between childhood abuse and the development of borderline personality disorder
• The effect of peer support on the recovery of individuals with mental health disorders
• The impact of cultural differences on the presentation of mental health symptoms
• The role of cognitive biases in the maintenance of anxiety disorders
• The effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder
• The relationship between early life stressors and the development of depression
• The effect of nutrition on mental health
• The impact of virtual reality exposure therapy on phobia treatment
• The role of genetics in the development of mood disorders
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy for anxiety disorders
• The relationship between childhood trauma and the development of dissociative identity disorder
• The effect of stigma on treatment outcomes for individuals with mental health disorders
• The impact of childhood adversity on the development of personality disorders
• The role of emotional regulation in the treatment of borderline personality disorder
• The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy for depression
• The relationship between sleep disturbances and the development of anxiety disorders
• The effect of stigma on mental health professionals’ treatment decisions
• The impact of cultural factors on the expression of bipolar disorder symptoms.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Exploring 200+ Psychology Topics to Research: Unlocking the Depths of the Mind

The world of psychology is as vast as the human mind itself. Delving into the intricate workings of the human psyche can be both fascinating. For students, academics, or anyone with a curious mind, choosing the right psychology topics to research is paramount. In this blog, we’ll navigate through the labyrinth of psychology topics, helping you find your way to a captivating and meaningful research endeavor.

How To Select Psychology Topics To Research?

Table of Contents

• Follow Your Interests: Start with what you love. What aspects of human behavior or the mind fascinate you the most? It’s much easier to research something you’re passionate about.
• Consider Relevance: Think about how your chosen topic fits into your academic or career goals. Does it relate to what you’re studying or the job you want? If it does, great!
• Balance the Scope: Don’t pick a topic that’s too broad or too narrow. Find that sweet spot in the middle. You want a topic that’s focused enough to research effectively but not so narrow that there’s no existing information.
• Explore Different Areas: Research the various branches of psychology, like cognitive, social, clinical, developmental, or biological psychology. See which one resonates with you the most.
• Seek Advice: Talk to your professors, mentors, or peers. They can provide guidance and suggestions based on your interests and goals.

200+ Popular Psychology Topics To Research: Category Wise

40+ cognitive psychology topics.

• The role of working memory in problem-solving.
• Cognitive effects of sleep deprivation.
• Neural basis of attention and focus.
• Influence of language on cognitive development.
• Decision-making biases in economic behavior.
• The psychology of learning and memory.
• The impact of stress on cognitive performance.
• Cognitive decline in aging populations.
• Emotion and memory recall.
• False memories and eyewitness testimony.
• Cognitive processes in creativity.
• Cognitive aspects of decision-making in healthcare.
• The psychology of expertise and skill acquisition.
• Cognitive factors in reading comprehension.
• The role of schemas in information processing.
• Cognitive development in infants.
• Cognitive rehabilitation after brain injury.
• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and executive functions.
• Neural mechanisms of perception and visual attention.
• The psychology of problem-solving in artificial intelligence.
• Cognitive aspects of mathematical reasoning.
• Neural plasticity and cognitive recovery.
• Cognitive load and its impact on learning.
• Memory consolidation during sleep.
• Attentional disorders and their impact on cognitive functioning.
• The influence of music on cognitive processes.
• Cognitive development in bilingual individuals.
• Cognitive aspects of decision-making in criminal behavior.
• Neural correlates of cognitive control.
• The psychology of cognitive biases in politics.
• Cognitive effects of mindfulness meditation.
• The part working memory plays in academic success.
• Cognitive processes in language acquisition.
• Cognitive factors in problem gambling behavior.
• The psychology of cognitive development in children with autism.
• Cognitive aspects of spatial navigation.
• Memory distortions and the courtroom.
• Neural basis of cognitive dissonance.
• Cognitive aspects of social perception.
• Cognitive rehabilitation in Alzheimer’s disease.

40+ Social Psychology Research Topics

• The impact of social media on self-esteem.
• Groupthink and decision-making.
• Stereotype threat in academic settings.
• Bystander effect in emergencies.
• Cross-cultural perspectives on conformity.
• Online dating and self-presentation.
• The psychology of social influence.
• The role of empathy in prosocial behavior.
• Social identity and intergroup relations.
• Aggression and video game exposure.
• Prejudice and discrimination in modern society.
• The influence of social norms on behavior.
• Attitudes and attitude change.
• Social support and mental health.
• Obedience to authority figures.
• Social comparison and self-concept.
• The psychology of attraction and relationships.
• The bystander intervention model.
• Body image and social media.
• Political polarization and social psychology.
• The psychology of fake news and misinformation.
• Emotional contagion and social interactions.
• Stereotyping in the workplace.
• Consequences of cyberbullying.
• The impact of group dynamics on creativity.
• Gender roles and socialization.
• The role of humor in social interactions.
• Social factors in decision-making and risk-taking.
• Altruism and volunteerism.
• The psychology of leadership and authority.
• Social exclusion and its effects on individuals.
• The relationship between religion and prosocial behavior.
• Social influence in marketing and advertising.
• Online activism and social change.
• The psychology of online communities and forums.
• Attachment styles and adult relationships.
• Social perceptions of beauty and attractiveness.
• Social isolation’s negative consequences on mental health.
• The psychology of public speaking anxiety.
• The role of forgiveness in interpersonal relationships.

40+ Clinical Psychology Research Topics

• Effects of childhood trauma on mental health in adults.
• Efficacy of virtual therapy for treating anxiety disorders.
• Exploring the genetics of schizophrenia.
• Effects of mindfulness meditation on depression.
• Cultural factors in the diagnosis of eating disorders.
• Examining the link between sleep disorders and mood disorders.
• Assessing the effectiveness of group therapy for substance abuse.
• The role of attachment in borderline personality disorder.
• Investigating the stigma surrounding mental illness.
• Treating PTSD in veterans through exposure therapy.
• Neurobiological basis of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
• Parent-child relationships and their impact on conduct disorder.
• Gender differences in the prevalence of depression.
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder.
• Psychopharmacology and treatment-resistant depression.
• The psychology of self-harm and self-injury.
• Internet addiction and its connection to mental health.
• Assessing the efficacy of art therapy for PTSD.
• Personality disorders and their impact on interpersonal relationships.
• Evaluating the effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) in treating borderline personality disorder.
• Factors contributing to the rise in adolescent depression.
• Exploring the link between childhood abuse and dissociative identity disorder.
• Cross-cultural perspectives on the diagnosis of ADHD.
• The role of serotonin in mood disorders.
• Mindfulness-based stress reduction in chronic pain management.
• Impact of family dynamics on eating disorders in adolescents.
• Examining the long-term effects of child neglect on adult mental health.
• Psychosocial factors in the development of schizophrenia.
• Gender dysphoria and psychological well-being.
• The psychology of resilience in cancer patients.
• Attachment styles and their influence on adult relationships.
• Virtual reality exposure therapy for phobias.
• Exploring the effectiveness of equine therapy for trauma survivors.
• Autism spectrum disorders and early intervention.
• Body image dissatisfaction and its link to eating disorders.
• The psychological impact of chronic illness.
• Cognitive rehabilitation in traumatic brain injury.
• Sleep disorders in children and their impact on academic performance.
• The role of social support in recovery from substance abuse.
• Neuropsychological assessment in Alzheimer’s disease diagnosis.

40+ Developmental Psychology Research Topics

• The impact of parental divorce on child development.
• Adolescents’ self-identity and social media.
• Long-term effects of early childhood attachment on adult relationships.
• Gender identity development in children.
• The influence of birth order on personality development.
• The role of genetics in language development.
• Autism spectrum disorder interventions for toddlers.
• Adolescent peer pressure and substance abuse.
• The impact of bullying on psychological development.
• Sibling rivalry and its long-term effects.
• Parenting styles and their influence on children’s behavior.
• The development of moral reasoning in children.
• Influence of cultural factors on child development.
• Attachment theory and foster care outcomes.
• The impact of technology on cognitive development in children.
• Children’s understanding of death and grief.
• Cognitive development in bilingual children.
• The role of play in early childhood development.
• Attachment disorders and interventions in adopted children.
• The development of emotional intelligence in adolescents.
• The impact of poverty on child development.
• The relationship between nutrition and cognitive development.
• Bullying prevention and intervention programs in schools.
• The role of grandparents in child development.
• Developmental aspects of sibling relationships.
• Child prodigies and their psychological development.
• Gender stereotypes and their influence on children’s aspirations.
• The effects of early education on academic success.
• Cognitive development in children with learning disabilities.
• The impact of divorce on young adults’ romantic relationships.
• Parent-child communication about sex education.
• Adolescents’ body image and its influence on self-esteem.
• Influence of peer relationships on early social development.
• The role of extracurricular activities in adolescent development.
• Long-term outcomes for children in same-sex parent families.
• Cognitive development in children with ADHD.
• The effects of early exposure to screens on cognitive development.
• The role of attachment in adolescent mental health.
• Identity development in multicultural children.

40+ Biological Psychology Research Topics

• The neural basis of addiction and substance abuse.
• The role of genetics in personality traits.
• Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive function.
• Exploring the gut-brain connection and its impact on mental health.
• Neural mechanisms of stress and its long-term effects.
• The relationship between brain structure and intelligence.
• The impact of exercise on brain health and cognition.
• Neurobiological factors in eating disorders.
• Neural pathways involved in fear and anxiety.
• The influence of hormones on behavior and mood.
• Neuroplasticity and its implications for recovery after brain injuries.
• The biology of memory and amnesia.
• Understanding the neurological basis of schizophrenia.
• The role of neurotransmitters in depression.
• The impact of aging on brain structure and function.
• Neural mechanisms underlying aggression and violence.
• Brain imaging techniques and their applications in research.
• The effects of prenatal exposure to toxins on brain development.
• Neurological aspects of autism spectrum disorders.
• Brain changes associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• The genetics of Alzheimer’s disease.
• Neurobiology of consciousness and altered states of consciousness.
• The role of the amygdala in emotional processing.
• Neural mechanisms of sexual attraction and orientation.
• The impact of nutrition on brain development and function.
• Brain regions involved in decision-making and impulsivity.
• Neurological factors in Tourette’s syndrome.
• The biology of reward and motivation.
• Neural correlates of empathy and social cognition.
• Genetic predisposition to addiction.
• The influence of hormones on maternal behavior.
• The neurological basis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
• Adolescent brain development and the effects on behavior.
• The prefrontal cortex’s function in executive tasks.
• Linguistic disorders and language neuroscience.
• Neuroinflammation’s effects on mental health.
• Mechanisms in the brain that affect sensory perception.
• Neurological and genetic influences on bipolar disorder.
• The impact of persistent pain on brain development and function.
• The endocannabinoid system’s function in controlling mood.

Research Methodology for Psychology Topics

Understanding various research methodologies is key to conducting a successful study. Whether you opt for experimental designs, surveys, case studies, or sophisticated data analysis, each method offers unique insights. Choose the methodology that aligns with your research questions and objectives, ensuring a robust and reliable study.

Resources for Psychology Research

In the digital age, a wealth of resources for psychology topics to research is at your fingertips. Utilize academic journals, databases, books, and online courses to enhance your understanding. 

Engage with professional organizations and attend conferences to stay updated with the latest research trends and network with fellow enthusiasts.

Tips for Successful Psychology Topics for Research

• Choose a Fascinating Topic: Select a research topic that genuinely interests you. Your passion and curiosity will drive your motivation and engagement throughout the research process.
• Narrow Your Focus: Refine your research question to ensure it’s specific and manageable. A focused question will lead to more meaningful and in-depth findings.
• Conduct a Thorough Literature Review: Familiarize yourself with existing research in your chosen area. This helps you build on prior knowledge and identify gaps in the literature.
• Hypothesize and Predict: Develop clear hypotheses and predictions for your study. This sets the direction for your research and provides a framework for data collection and analysis.
• Choose the Right Research Method: Select the research method that best suits your research question, whether it’s experiments, surveys, interviews, or case studies.
• Ethical Considerations: Prioritize ethical guidelines in your research, including obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and avoiding harm to participants.
• Sample Selection: Carefully choose your sample to make sure it’s representative of the population you’re studying. Consider factors like age, gender, and cultural diversity.
• Data Collection: Collect data systematically and ensure its accuracy and reliability. Use well-established measurement tools when applicable.
• Data Analysis: Employ appropriate statistical techniques to analyze your data. Make use of software like SPSS or R for thorough analysis.
• Interpret Results Objectively: Avoid confirmation bias and interpret your results objectively, even if they don’t align with your initial hypotheses.
• Discuss Limitations: Acknowledge the limitations of your study in your research paper. This demonstrates your awareness of potential weaknesses and strengthens your research’s credibility.
• Contribute to the Field: Highlight the significance of your research and how it contributes to the broader field of psychology. What does it add to existing knowledge?
• Write Clearly and Concisely: Communicate your findings in a clear, concise, and well-structured manner. Use APA or other relevant style guides for formatting.
• Peer Review: Seek feedback from colleagues, mentors, or professors. Peer review can help identify blind spots and improve the quality of your work.
• Stay Organized: Maintain detailed records of your research process, including notes, data, and references. Organization is key to successful research.
• Time Management: Plan your research timeline carefully, allocating sufficient time for each stage, from literature review to data collection and analysis.
• Persevere: Research often involves setbacks and challenges. Stay persistent, adapt when necessary, and remain dedicated to your research goals.
• Publish and Share: Consider presenting your research at conferences and seek opportunities for publication in academic journals . Sharing your findings contributes to the advancement of the field.
• Stay Informed: Keep up with the latest research trends and developments in psychology. Attend conferences and join professional organizations to stay connected with the academic community.
• Collaborate: Don’t hesitate to collaborate with other researchers, as teamwork can lead to valuable insights and more significant research outcomes.

Choosing the psychology topics to research is akin to embarking on an adventure into the depths of the human mind. Each topic holds the potential to unravel mysteries, challenge assumptions, and make a meaningful impact on individuals and society. 

As you venture into this realm, remember that your curiosity and dedication are your greatest assets. Embrace the journey, learn from every step, and let your research contribute to the ever-expanding tapestry of psychological knowledge. Happy researching!

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The Use of Research Methods in Psychological Research: A Systematised Review

Salomé elizabeth scholtz.

1 Community Psychosocial Research (COMPRES), School of Psychosocial Health, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Werner de Klerk

Leon t. de beer.

2 WorkWell Research Institute, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Research methods play an imperative role in research quality as well as educating young researchers, however, the application thereof is unclear which can be detrimental to the field of psychology. Therefore, this systematised review aimed to determine what research methods are being used, how these methods are being used and for what topics in the field. Our review of 999 articles from five journals over a period of 5 years indicated that psychology research is conducted in 10 topics via predominantly quantitative research methods. Of these 10 topics, social psychology was the most popular. The remainder of the conducted methodology is described. It was also found that articles lacked rigour and transparency in the used methodology which has implications for replicability. In conclusion this article, provides an overview of all reported methodologies used in a sample of psychology journals. It highlights the popularity and application of methods and designs throughout the article sample as well as an unexpected lack of rigour with regard to most aspects of methodology. Possible sample bias should be considered when interpreting the results of this study. It is recommended that future research should utilise the results of this study to determine the possible impact on the field of psychology as a science and to further investigation into the use of research methods. Results should prompt the following future research into: a lack or rigour and its implication on replication, the use of certain methods above others, publication bias and choice of sampling method.

Introduction

Psychology is an ever-growing and popular field (Gough and Lyons, 2016 ; Clay, 2017 ). Due to this growth and the need for science-based research to base health decisions on (Perestelo-Pérez, 2013 ), the use of research methods in the broad field of psychology is an essential point of investigation (Stangor, 2011 ; Aanstoos, 2014 ). Research methods are therefore viewed as important tools used by researchers to collect data (Nieuwenhuis, 2016 ) and include the following: quantitative, qualitative, mixed method and multi method (Maree, 2016 ). Additionally, researchers also employ various types of literature reviews to address research questions (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). According to literature, what research method is used and why a certain research method is used is complex as it depends on various factors that may include paradigm (O'Neil and Koekemoer, 2016 ), research question (Grix, 2002 ), or the skill and exposure of the researcher (Nind et al., 2015 ). How these research methods are employed is also difficult to discern as research methods are often depicted as having fixed boundaries that are continuously crossed in research (Johnson et al., 2001 ; Sandelowski, 2011 ). Examples of this crossing include adding quantitative aspects to qualitative studies (Sandelowski et al., 2009 ), or stating that a study used a mixed-method design without the study having any characteristics of this design (Truscott et al., 2010 ).

The inappropriate use of research methods affects how students and researchers improve and utilise their research skills (Scott Jones and Goldring, 2015 ), how theories are developed (Ngulube, 2013 ), and the credibility of research results (Levitt et al., 2017 ). This, in turn, can be detrimental to the field (Nind et al., 2015 ), journal publication (Ketchen et al., 2008 ; Ezeh et al., 2010 ), and attempts to address public social issues through psychological research (Dweck, 2017 ). This is especially important given the now well-known replication crisis the field is facing (Earp and Trafimow, 2015 ; Hengartner, 2018 ).

Due to this lack of clarity on method use and the potential impact of inept use of research methods, the aim of this study was to explore the use of research methods in the field of psychology through a review of journal publications. Chaichanasakul et al. ( 2011 ) identify reviewing articles as the opportunity to examine the development, growth and progress of a research area and overall quality of a journal. Studies such as Lee et al. ( 1999 ) as well as Bluhm et al. ( 2011 ) review of qualitative methods has attempted to synthesis the use of research methods and indicated the growth of qualitative research in American and European journals. Research has also focused on the use of research methods in specific sub-disciplines of psychology, for example, in the field of Industrial and Organisational psychology Coetzee and Van Zyl ( 2014 ) found that South African publications tend to consist of cross-sectional quantitative research methods with underrepresented longitudinal studies. Qualitative studies were found to make up 21% of the articles published from 1995 to 2015 in a similar study by O'Neil and Koekemoer ( 2016 ). Other methods in health psychology, such as Mixed methods research have also been reportedly growing in popularity (O'Cathain, 2009 ).

A broad overview of the use of research methods in the field of psychology as a whole is however, not available in the literature. Therefore, our research focused on answering what research methods are being used, how these methods are being used and for what topics in practice (i.e., journal publications) in order to provide a general perspective of method used in psychology publication. We synthesised the collected data into the following format: research topic [areas of scientific discourse in a field or the current needs of a population (Bittermann and Fischer, 2018 )], method [data-gathering tools (Nieuwenhuis, 2016 )], sampling [elements chosen from a population to partake in research (Ritchie et al., 2009 )], data collection [techniques and research strategy (Maree, 2016 )], and data analysis [discovering information by examining bodies of data (Ktepi, 2016 )]. A systematised review of recent articles (2013 to 2017) collected from five different journals in the field of psychological research was conducted.

Grant and Booth ( 2009 ) describe systematised reviews as the review of choice for post-graduate studies, which is employed using some elements of a systematic review and seldom more than one or two databases to catalogue studies after a comprehensive literature search. The aspects used in this systematised review that are similar to that of a systematic review were a full search within the chosen database and data produced in tabular form (Grant and Booth, 2009 ).

Sample sizes and timelines vary in systematised reviews (see Lowe and Moore, 2014 ; Pericall and Taylor, 2014 ; Barr-Walker, 2017 ). With no clear parameters identified in the literature (see Grant and Booth, 2009 ), the sample size of this study was determined by the purpose of the sample (Strydom, 2011 ), and time and cost constraints (Maree and Pietersen, 2016 ). Thus, a non-probability purposive sample (Ritchie et al., 2009 ) of the top five psychology journals from 2013 to 2017 was included in this research study. Per Lee ( 2015 ) American Psychological Association (APA) recommends the use of the most up-to-date sources for data collection with consideration of the context of the research study. As this research study focused on the most recent trends in research methods used in the broad field of psychology, the identified time frame was deemed appropriate.

Psychology journals were only included if they formed part of the top five English journals in the miscellaneous psychology domain of the Scimago Journal and Country Rank (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ). The Scimago Journal and Country Rank provides a yearly updated list of publicly accessible journal and country-specific indicators derived from the Scopus® database (Scopus, 2017b ) by means of the Scimago Journal Rank (SJR) indicator developed by Scimago from the algorithm Google PageRank™ (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ). Scopus is the largest global database of abstracts and citations from peer-reviewed journals (Scopus, 2017a ). Reasons for the development of the Scimago Journal and Country Rank list was to allow researchers to assess scientific domains, compare country rankings, and compare and analyse journals (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ), which supported the aim of this research study. Additionally, the goals of the journals had to focus on topics in psychology in general with no preference to specific research methods and have full-text access to articles.

The following list of top five journals in 2018 fell within the abovementioned inclusion criteria (1) Australian Journal of Psychology, (2) British Journal of Psychology, (3) Europe's Journal of Psychology, (4) International Journal of Psychology and lastly the (5) Journal of Psychology Applied and Interdisciplinary.

Journals were excluded from this systematised review if no full-text versions of their articles were available, if journals explicitly stated a publication preference for certain research methods, or if the journal only published articles in a specific discipline of psychological research (for example, industrial psychology, clinical psychology etc.).

The researchers followed a procedure (see Figure 1 ) adapted from that of Ferreira et al. ( 2016 ) for systematised reviews. Data collection and categorisation commenced on 4 December 2017 and continued until 30 June 2019. All the data was systematically collected and coded manually (Grant and Booth, 2009 ) with an independent person acting as co-coder. Codes of interest included the research topic, method used, the design used, sampling method, and methodology (the method used for data collection and data analysis). These codes were derived from the wording in each article. Themes were created based on the derived codes and checked by the co-coder. Lastly, these themes were catalogued into a table as per the systematised review design.

Systematised review procedure.

According to Johnston et al. ( 2019 ), “literature screening, selection, and data extraction/analyses” (p. 7) are specifically tailored to the aim of a review. Therefore, the steps followed in a systematic review must be reported in a comprehensive and transparent manner. The chosen systematised design adhered to the rigour expected from systematic reviews with regard to full search and data produced in tabular form (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). The rigorous application of the systematic review is, therefore discussed in relation to these two elements.

Firstly, to ensure a comprehensive search, this research study promoted review transparency by following a clear protocol outlined according to each review stage before collecting data (Johnston et al., 2019 ). This protocol was similar to that of Ferreira et al. ( 2016 ) and approved by three research committees/stakeholders and the researchers (Johnston et al., 2019 ). The eligibility criteria for article inclusion was based on the research question and clearly stated, and the process of inclusion was recorded on an electronic spreadsheet to create an evidence trail (Bandara et al., 2015 ; Johnston et al., 2019 ). Microsoft Excel spreadsheets are a popular tool for review studies and can increase the rigour of the review process (Bandara et al., 2015 ). Screening for appropriate articles for inclusion forms an integral part of a systematic review process (Johnston et al., 2019 ). This step was applied to two aspects of this research study: the choice of eligible journals and articles to be included. Suitable journals were selected by the first author and reviewed by the second and third authors. Initially, all articles from the chosen journals were included. Then, by process of elimination, those irrelevant to the research aim, i.e., interview articles or discussions etc., were excluded.

To ensure rigourous data extraction, data was first extracted by one reviewer, and an independent person verified the results for completeness and accuracy (Johnston et al., 2019 ). The research question served as a guide for efficient, organised data extraction (Johnston et al., 2019 ). Data was categorised according to the codes of interest, along with article identifiers for audit trails such as authors, title and aims of articles. The categorised data was based on the aim of the review (Johnston et al., 2019 ) and synthesised in tabular form under methods used, how these methods were used, and for what topics in the field of psychology.

The initial search produced a total of 1,145 articles from the 5 journals identified. Inclusion and exclusion criteria resulted in a final sample of 999 articles ( Figure 2 ). Articles were co-coded into 84 codes, from which 10 themes were derived ( Table 1 ).

Journal article frequency.

Codes used to form themes (research topics).

These 10 themes represent the topic section of our research question ( Figure 3 ). All these topics except, for the final one, psychological practice , were found to concur with the research areas in psychology as identified by Weiten ( 2010 ). These research areas were chosen to represent the derived codes as they provided broad definitions that allowed for clear, concise categorisation of the vast amount of data. Article codes were categorised under particular themes/topics if they adhered to the research area definitions created by Weiten ( 2010 ). It is important to note that these areas of research do not refer to specific disciplines in psychology, such as industrial psychology; but to broader fields that may encompass sub-interests of these disciplines.

Topic frequency (international sample).

In the case of developmental psychology , researchers conduct research into human development from childhood to old age. Social psychology includes research on behaviour governed by social drivers. Researchers in the field of educational psychology study how people learn and the best way to teach them. Health psychology aims to determine the effect of psychological factors on physiological health. Physiological psychology , on the other hand, looks at the influence of physiological aspects on behaviour. Experimental psychology is not the only theme that uses experimental research and focuses on the traditional core topics of psychology (for example, sensation). Cognitive psychology studies the higher mental processes. Psychometrics is concerned with measuring capacity or behaviour. Personality research aims to assess and describe consistency in human behaviour (Weiten, 2010 ). The final theme of psychological practice refers to the experiences, techniques, and interventions employed by practitioners, researchers, and academia in the field of psychology.

Articles under these themes were further subdivided into methodologies: method, sampling, design, data collection, and data analysis. The categorisation was based on information stated in the articles and not inferred by the researchers. Data were compiled into two sets of results presented in this article. The first set addresses the aim of this study from the perspective of the topics identified. The second set of results represents a broad overview of the results from the perspective of the methodology employed. The second set of results are discussed in this article, while the first set is presented in table format. The discussion thus provides a broad overview of methods use in psychology (across all themes), while the table format provides readers with in-depth insight into methods used in the individual themes identified. We believe that presenting the data from both perspectives allow readers a broad understanding of the results. Due a large amount of information that made up our results, we followed Cichocka and Jost ( 2014 ) in simplifying our results. Please note that the numbers indicated in the table in terms of methodology differ from the total number of articles. Some articles employed more than one method/sampling technique/design/data collection method/data analysis in their studies.

What follows is the results for what methods are used, how these methods are used, and which topics in psychology they are applied to . Percentages are reported to the second decimal in order to highlight small differences in the occurrence of methodology.

Firstly, with regard to the research methods used, our results show that researchers are more likely to use quantitative research methods (90.22%) compared to all other research methods. Qualitative research was the second most common research method but only made up about 4.79% of the general method usage. Reviews occurred almost as much as qualitative studies (3.91%), as the third most popular method. Mixed-methods research studies (0.98%) occurred across most themes, whereas multi-method research was indicated in only one study and amounted to 0.10% of the methods identified. The specific use of each method in the topics identified is shown in Table 2 and Figure 4 .

Research methods in psychology.

Research method frequency in topics.

Secondly, in the case of how these research methods are employed , our study indicated the following.

Sampling −78.34% of the studies in the collected articles did not specify a sampling method. From the remainder of the studies, 13 types of sampling methods were identified. These sampling methods included broad categorisation of a sample as, for example, a probability or non-probability sample. General samples of convenience were the methods most likely to be applied (10.34%), followed by random sampling (3.51%), snowball sampling (2.73%), and purposive (1.37%) and cluster sampling (1.27%). The remainder of the sampling methods occurred to a more limited extent (0–1.0%). See Table 3 and Figure 5 for sampling methods employed in each topic.

Sampling use in the field of psychology.

Sampling method frequency in topics.

Designs were categorised based on the articles' statement thereof. Therefore, it is important to note that, in the case of quantitative studies, non-experimental designs (25.55%) were often indicated due to a lack of experiments and any other indication of design, which, according to Laher ( 2016 ), is a reasonable categorisation. Non-experimental designs should thus be compared with experimental designs only in the description of data, as it could include the use of correlational/cross-sectional designs, which were not overtly stated by the authors. For the remainder of the research methods, “not stated” (7.12%) was assigned to articles without design types indicated.

From the 36 identified designs the most popular designs were cross-sectional (23.17%) and experimental (25.64%), which concurred with the high number of quantitative studies. Longitudinal studies (3.80%), the third most popular design, was used in both quantitative and qualitative studies. Qualitative designs consisted of ethnography (0.38%), interpretative phenomenological designs/phenomenology (0.28%), as well as narrative designs (0.28%). Studies that employed the review method were mostly categorised as “not stated,” with the most often stated review designs being systematic reviews (0.57%). The few mixed method studies employed exploratory, explanatory (0.09%), and concurrent designs (0.19%), with some studies referring to separate designs for the qualitative and quantitative methods. The one study that identified itself as a multi-method study used a longitudinal design. Please see how these designs were employed in each specific topic in Table 4 , Figure 6 .

Design use in the field of psychology.

Design frequency in topics.

Data collection and analysis —data collection included 30 methods, with the data collection method most often employed being questionnaires (57.84%). The experimental task (16.56%) was the second most preferred collection method, which included established or unique tasks designed by the researchers. Cognitive ability tests (6.84%) were also regularly used along with various forms of interviewing (7.66%). Table 5 and Figure 7 represent data collection use in the various topics. Data analysis consisted of 3,857 occurrences of data analysis categorised into ±188 various data analysis techniques shown in Table 6 and Figures 1 – 7 . Descriptive statistics were the most commonly used (23.49%) along with correlational analysis (17.19%). When using a qualitative method, researchers generally employed thematic analysis (0.52%) or different forms of analysis that led to coding and the creation of themes. Review studies presented few data analysis methods, with most studies categorising their results. Mixed method and multi-method studies followed the analysis methods identified for the qualitative and quantitative studies included.

Data collection in the field of psychology.

Data collection frequency in topics.

Data analysis in the field of psychology.

Results of the topics researched in psychology can be seen in the tables, as previously stated in this article. It is noteworthy that, of the 10 topics, social psychology accounted for 43.54% of the studies, with cognitive psychology the second most popular research topic at 16.92%. The remainder of the topics only occurred in 4.0–7.0% of the articles considered. A list of the included 999 articles is available under the section “View Articles” on the following website: https://methodgarden.xtrapolate.io/ . This website was created by Scholtz et al. ( 2019 ) to visually present a research framework based on this Article's results.

This systematised review categorised full-length articles from five international journals across the span of 5 years to provide insight into the use of research methods in the field of psychology. Results indicated what methods are used how these methods are being used and for what topics (why) in the included sample of articles. The results should be seen as providing insight into method use and by no means a comprehensive representation of the aforementioned aim due to the limited sample. To our knowledge, this is the first research study to address this topic in this manner. Our discussion attempts to promote a productive way forward in terms of the key results for method use in psychology, especially in the field of academia (Holloway, 2008 ).

With regard to the methods used, our data stayed true to literature, finding only common research methods (Grant and Booth, 2009 ; Maree, 2016 ) that varied in the degree to which they were employed. Quantitative research was found to be the most popular method, as indicated by literature (Breen and Darlaston-Jones, 2010 ; Counsell and Harlow, 2017 ) and previous studies in specific areas of psychology (see Coetzee and Van Zyl, 2014 ). Its long history as the first research method (Leech et al., 2007 ) in the field of psychology as well as researchers' current application of mathematical approaches in their studies (Toomela, 2010 ) might contribute to its popularity today. Whatever the case may be, our results show that, despite the growth in qualitative research (Demuth, 2015 ; Smith and McGannon, 2018 ), quantitative research remains the first choice for article publication in these journals. Despite the included journals indicating openness to articles that apply any research methods. This finding may be due to qualitative research still being seen as a new method (Burman and Whelan, 2011 ) or reviewers' standards being higher for qualitative studies (Bluhm et al., 2011 ). Future research is encouraged into the possible biasness in publication of research methods, additionally further investigation with a different sample into the proclaimed growth of qualitative research may also provide different results.

Review studies were found to surpass that of multi-method and mixed method studies. To this effect Grant and Booth ( 2009 ), state that the increased awareness, journal contribution calls as well as its efficiency in procuring research funds all promote the popularity of reviews. The low frequency of mixed method studies contradicts the view in literature that it's the third most utilised research method (Tashakkori and Teddlie's, 2003 ). Its' low occurrence in this sample could be due to opposing views on mixing methods (Gunasekare, 2015 ) or that authors prefer publishing in mixed method journals, when using this method, or its relative novelty (Ivankova et al., 2016 ). Despite its low occurrence, the application of the mixed methods design in articles was methodologically clear in all cases which were not the case for the remainder of research methods.

Additionally, a substantial number of studies used a combination of methodologies that are not mixed or multi-method studies. Perceived fixed boundaries are according to literature often set aside, as confirmed by this result, in order to investigate the aim of a study, which could create a new and helpful way of understanding the world (Gunasekare, 2015 ). According to Toomela ( 2010 ), this is not unheard of and could be considered a form of “structural systemic science,” as in the case of qualitative methodology (observation) applied in quantitative studies (experimental design) for example. Based on this result, further research into this phenomenon as well as its implications for research methods such as multi and mixed methods is recommended.

Discerning how these research methods were applied, presented some difficulty. In the case of sampling, most studies—regardless of method—did mention some form of inclusion and exclusion criteria, but no definite sampling method. This result, along with the fact that samples often consisted of students from the researchers' own academic institutions, can contribute to literature and debates among academics (Peterson and Merunka, 2014 ; Laher, 2016 ). Samples of convenience and students as participants especially raise questions about the generalisability and applicability of results (Peterson and Merunka, 2014 ). This is because attention to sampling is important as inappropriate sampling can debilitate the legitimacy of interpretations (Onwuegbuzie and Collins, 2017 ). Future investigation into the possible implications of this reported popular use of convenience samples for the field of psychology as well as the reason for this use could provide interesting insight, and is encouraged by this study.

Additionally, and this is indicated in Table 6 , articles seldom report the research designs used, which highlights the pressing aspect of the lack of rigour in the included sample. Rigour with regards to the applied empirical method is imperative in promoting psychology as a science (American Psychological Association, 2020 ). Omitting parts of the research process in publication when it could have been used to inform others' research skills should be questioned, and the influence on the process of replicating results should be considered. Publications are often rejected due to a lack of rigour in the applied method and designs (Fonseca, 2013 ; Laher, 2016 ), calling for increased clarity and knowledge of method application. Replication is a critical part of any field of scientific research and requires the “complete articulation” of the study methods used (Drotar, 2010 , p. 804). The lack of thorough description could be explained by the requirements of certain journals to only report on certain aspects of a research process, especially with regard to the applied design (Laher, 20). However, naming aspects such as sampling and designs, is a requirement according to the APA's Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS-Quant) (Appelbaum et al., 2018 ). With very little information on how a study was conducted, authors lose a valuable opportunity to enhance research validity, enrich the knowledge of others, and contribute to the growth of psychology and methodology as a whole. In the case of this research study, it also restricted our results to only reported samples and designs, which indicated a preference for certain designs, such as cross-sectional designs for quantitative studies.

Data collection and analysis were for the most part clearly stated. A key result was the versatile use of questionnaires. Researchers would apply a questionnaire in various ways, for example in questionnaire interviews, online surveys, and written questionnaires across most research methods. This may highlight a trend for future research.

With regard to the topics these methods were employed for, our research study found a new field named “psychological practice.” This result may show the growing consciousness of researchers as part of the research process (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003 ), psychological practice, and knowledge generation. The most popular of these topics was social psychology, which is generously covered in journals and by learning societies, as testaments of the institutional support and richness social psychology has in the field of psychology (Chryssochoou, 2015 ). The APA's perspective on 2018 trends in psychology also identifies an increased amount of psychology focus on how social determinants are influencing people's health (Deangelis, 2017 ).

This study was not without limitations and the following should be taken into account. Firstly, this study used a sample of five specific journals to address the aim of the research study, despite general journal aims (as stated on journal websites), this inclusion signified a bias towards the research methods published in these specific journals only and limited generalisability. A broader sample of journals over a different period of time, or a single journal over a longer period of time might provide different results. A second limitation is the use of Excel spreadsheets and an electronic system to log articles, which was a manual process and therefore left room for error (Bandara et al., 2015 ). To address this potential issue, co-coding was performed to reduce error. Lastly, this article categorised data based on the information presented in the article sample; there was no interpretation of what methodology could have been applied or whether the methods stated adhered to the criteria for the methods used. Thus, a large number of articles that did not clearly indicate a research method or design could influence the results of this review. However, this in itself was also a noteworthy result. Future research could review research methods of a broader sample of journals with an interpretive review tool that increases rigour. Additionally, the authors also encourage the future use of systematised review designs as a way to promote a concise procedure in applying this design.

Our research study presented the use of research methods for published articles in the field of psychology as well as recommendations for future research based on these results. Insight into the complex questions identified in literature, regarding what methods are used how these methods are being used and for what topics (why) was gained. This sample preferred quantitative methods, used convenience sampling and presented a lack of rigorous accounts for the remaining methodologies. All methodologies that were clearly indicated in the sample were tabulated to allow researchers insight into the general use of methods and not only the most frequently used methods. The lack of rigorous account of research methods in articles was represented in-depth for each step in the research process and can be of vital importance to address the current replication crisis within the field of psychology. Recommendations for future research aimed to motivate research into the practical implications of the results for psychology, for example, publication bias and the use of convenience samples.

Ethics Statement

This study was cleared by the North-West University Health Research Ethics Committee: NWU-00115-17-S1.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Happiness Index Methodology , Laura Musikanski, Scott Cloutier, Erica Bejarano, Davi Briggs, Julia Colbert, Gracie Strasser, Steven Russell Happiness Alliance

Happiness Index Methodology , Laura Musikanski, Scott Cloutier, Erica Bejarano, Davi Briggs, Julia Colbert, Gracie Strasser, Steven Russell

Journal of sustainable social change.

The Happiness Index is a comprehensive survey instrument that assesses happiness, well-being, and aspects of sustainability and resilience. The Happiness Alliance developed the Happiness Index to provide a survey instrument to community organizers, researchers, and others seeking to use a subjective well-being index and data. It is the only instrument of its kind freely available worldwide and translated into over ten languages. This instrument can be used to measure satisfaction with life and the conditions of life. It can also be used to define income inequality, trust in government, sense of community and other aspects of well-being within specific demographics …

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Apr Financial Stress Scale: Development And Validation Of A Multidimensional Measurement , Wookjae Heo, Soo Hyun Cho, Philseok Lee South Dakota State University

Apr Financial Stress Scale: Development And Validation Of A Multidimensional Measurement , Wookjae Heo, Soo Hyun Cho, Philseok Lee

Journal of financial therapy.

People usually experience financial stress in managing their financial resources. Despite financial stress’s importance in life outcomes and the need for a comprehensive and theory-based measurement of the construct, few studies have addressed the conceptual issues of financial stress and its measurement. Hence, by borrowing from theories of general stress, this study attempts to fill this gap. Using an expert panel and two separate online survey samples, we developed and validated a novel financial stress scale. A total of 688 responses were used in an exploratory factor analysis and 1,115 responses were used in a confirmatory factor analysis. This multidimensional …

Leadership's Impact On Employee Work Motivation And Performance , Tonia Marilu Joseph-Armstrong Walden University

Leadership's Impact On Employee Work Motivation And Performance , Tonia Marilu Joseph-Armstrong

Walden dissertations and doctoral studies.

AbstractLeadership is a major factor in terms of motivating employees, leading to enhanced performance. A study was conducted to examine the influence of supervisory leadership style on employee work motivation and job performance in organizations, specifically in a K-12 school setting. The main goal was to determine if there is a relationship between type of leadership demonstrated by school administrators and its impact on the teaching staff’s motivation and performance. Data for this quantitative study were gathered and analyzed from various public and private schools and included a sample of 100 participants. The predictor variable leadership was assessed using the …

The Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Online University Students' Performance , Maureen Cort-Blackson Walden University

The Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Online University Students' Performance , Maureen Cort-Blackson

Sleep deprivation affects the academic performance of online university students, and students who have family responsibilities and a full-time job have a higher prevalence of sleep deprivation. This phenomenological study examined the lived experiences of online university students regarding sleep patterns, sleep deprivation, and the impact on their academic performance. The theoretical foundation for this study was based on the opponent processing model that explains the 2 fundamental processes necessary for individuals to function at their optimum ability: the sleep-wake homeostatic process and the circadian rhythm processes. The research question explored the beliefs and perceptions of 10 online university students, …

Factors Impacting Parental Acceptance Of An Lgbt Child , Dani E. Rosenkrantz University of Kentucky

Factors Impacting Parental Acceptance Of An Lgbt Child , Dani E. Rosenkrantz

Theses and dissertations--educational, school, and counseling psychology.

Chrisler’s (2017) Theoretical Framework of Parental Reactions When a Child Comes Out as Lesbian, Gay, or Bisexual suggests that parental reactions to having a non-heteronormative child are impacted by a process of cognitively appraising information about their child’s identity and experiencing and coping with emotional responses, both of which are influenced by contextual factors such as a parent’s value system. However, some religious values can challenge parents in the process of accepting a lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) child. The purpose of this study was to test a model that examines the influence of cognitive-affective factors (cognitive flexibility, emotional …

Women Of Intimate Partner Abuse: Traumatic Bonding Phenomenon , Meghan Koch Walden University

Women Of Intimate Partner Abuse: Traumatic Bonding Phenomenon , Meghan Koch

Researchers indicate women succumb to relational abuse as seen with maladaptive attachment, identity enmeshment, and implicit maltreatment. Implicit violence and nonviolence, bonding victims to victimizers remains unstudied, although the domestic abuse phenomenon continues. Intimate partner abuse was examined through qualitative inquiry. There is much to learn about female victim perspectives describing attachment bonds, identity conflicts, and implicit maltreatment experiences. Traumatic bonding theory served as the lens through which female participant responses were examined in this study. Research questions were developed to focus on female attachment bond perceptions, views concerning self-esteem, self-identity, or self-reference, and implicit aggression, coercive control, or manipulation …

Negative Social Media And Its Influence On Athlete's Performance , Bernd R. Huber Cal Poly Humboldt

Negative Social Media And Its Influence On Athlete's Performance , Bernd R. Huber

Cal poly humboldt theses and projects.

This study aimed to investigate the potential impact of negative social media content on athletes' cortisol levels and subsequent performance. The study focused on the change in cortisol levels and differences in free throw performance, based on previous research findings. We hypothesized that negative social media postings would increase the stress experienced by student-athletes, resulting in elevated cortisol levels and decreased performance. Additionally, participants ( n = 8) completed a questionnaire to examine the interaction between preexisting fear and the biological stress response. Contrary to expectations, there was no significant change in stress response, and negative postings did not have …

The Relationship Between Parenting Style And The Level Of Emotional Intelligence In Preschool-Aged Children , Giselle Farrell Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine

The Relationship Between Parenting Style And The Level Of Emotional Intelligence In Preschool-Aged Children , Giselle Farrell

Pcom psychology dissertations.

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between parenting style and the level of emotional intelligence in preschool-aged children. The sample consisted of eighty parent participants of preschool-aged children between the ages of 3 and 6 years old. Participants completed the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) in order to assess their views on behaviors that parents typically demonstrate towards their children. Based on each participant’s responses on the PSDQ they were determined to favor one of the following three parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive. Participants also completed the Children’s Behavior Questionnaire- Very Short Form (CBQ-VSF) …

Virginity And Guilt Differences Between Men And Women , Caitlin M. Lipman, Alexis J. Moore Hanover College

Virginity And Guilt Differences Between Men And Women , Caitlin M. Lipman, Alexis J. Moore

Butler journal of undergraduate research.

In this research, the authors measured the levels of sexual guilt between two groups of people on multiple levels, virgins and nonvirgins, by gender. The differences between men and women when it comes to virginity will also be studied. Based on the sample size of college students, N = 364. College students (N=364) completed a 34-item online survey of questions that measure guilt levels. Ten out of the twenty questions are demographic questions, such as: age, ethnicity, religion, year, etc. The other questions were a combination of Likert scaled questions and open ended responses. We predicted that females will produce …

Writing While Black: African American Vernacular English (Aave) And Perceived Writing Performance , Jaylin N. Nesbitt James Madison University

Writing While Black: African American Vernacular English (Aave) And Perceived Writing Performance , Jaylin N. Nesbitt

Masters theses, 2020-current.

In the education system, there have historically been inequities that have severely disadvantaged Black students academically. One area in which these inequities surface is on writing assessments in the form of lower scores. I argue that because the U.S. education system is centered around Standard American English (SAE), it disadvantages those from different linguistic backgrounds, specifically Black students, as they are most likely to be speakers of African American Vernacular English (AAVE). Although there are theoretical justifications for this, past literature has not empirically tied inequities on writing assessments to Black students’ use of AAVE. The current study used Natural …

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The Feasibility Of Utilizing The Open Dynamic Interaction Network (Odin) App To Assess Rema Data Across 30 Days Among Those Recovering From Alcoholism , Dennis E. McChargue, Bilal Khan, Jesscia Phelps, Patrick Duryea, Kimberly A. Tyler, Arthur Andrews, Ellie Reznicek, Lucy Napper, Mohamed Saad, Hsuan-Wee Lee 2024 University of Nebraska-Lincoln

The Feasibility Of Utilizing The Open Dynamic Interaction Network (Odin) App To Assess Rema Data Across 30 Days Among Those Recovering From Alcoholism , Dennis E. Mcchargue, Bilal Khan, Jesscia Phelps, Patrick Duryea, Kimberly A. Tyler, Arthur Andrews, Ellie Reznicek, Lucy Napper, Mohamed Saad, Hsuan-Wee Lee

Department of psychology: faculty publications.

About ~4 million people with an alcohol use disorder receive treatment annually, and frequent relapse has produced a rapid revolving door between recovery and use. This paper presents preliminary data from a prospective micro-longitudinal study (30 days) that examines co-evolution of relapse risk processes of people with alcohol use disorders who entered a short-term residential substance use treatment. The primary goal of the current data was to assess the feasibility of using the open dynamic interaction network (ODIN) responsive ecological momentary assessment (rEMA). rEMA collected daily estimates on affect, urges, sober-support engagement, and use. The ODIN app administered twelve questions …

The Institutional Challenges Of A Quantified Self Study: An Attempt To Ascertain How Data Collected From A Mobile Device Can Be An Indicator Of Personal Mental Health Over Time , Julian Lazaras 2024 Portland State University

The Institutional Challenges Of A Quantified Self Study: An Attempt To Ascertain How Data Collected From A Mobile Device Can Be An Indicator Of Personal Mental Health Over Time , Julian Lazaras

University honors theses.

The adoption of an application of new technology always comes with a bias, this is never more true for the case of human behavioral analytics within higher education. While movements such as the quantified self movement make strides to reinterpret the realm of data analytics, psychology, and computer science, there are inevitably limitations to the adoption and application of such approaches within the standard realm of research. Herein is presented a case where an effort to evaluate the prospect of use of mobile phone data as secondary indicators of personal mental health through the lens of data analysis was put …

At The Intersection Of Domestic Violence And Mass Shootings: A Qualitative Analysis Of The Relationship Between Ipv And Gun Violence , Troy Bleau 2024 Portland State University

At The Intersection Of Domestic Violence And Mass Shootings: A Qualitative Analysis Of The Relationship Between Ipv And Gun Violence , Troy Bleau

The intersectional study of domestic violence and mass shootings has only recently been the subject of inquiry within the psychology field. Within the past ten years research has been developed to examine the relationship between these two epidemics. What authors have found is that DV does play a role in shooting perpetration. This study aimed to identify domestic violence as a risk factor to predict, and subsequently intervene before future instances of shootings. 112 shootings were analyzed between the years of 2020 and 2023--they were then categorized as DV-related, non-DV related, and/or History of DV. The tested hypothesis was that …

The Application Of Bayesian Meta-Analytic Models In Cognitive Research On Neurodevelopmental Disorders , Nic Zapparrata 2024 The Graduate Center, City University of New York

The Application Of Bayesian Meta-Analytic Models In Cognitive Research On Neurodevelopmental Disorders , Nic Zapparrata

Dissertations, theses, and capstone projects.

Meta-analysis is the systematic review and quantitative synthesis of specific areas in literature and is an important quantitative tool for researchers interested in synthesizing a particular body of research. The current research used meta-analysis to investigate processing speed in two neurodevelopmental disorders. This dissertation consisted of four meta-analytic papers. The first paper was a meta-analysis that synthesized a large body of research on processing speed, measured via reaction time (RT) measures, in groups of individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) versus age-matched neurotypical comparison groups. This research was motivated by two previous meta-analyses in the literature on processing speed …

Measurement Invariance Of The Pandemic Anxiety Inventory In Different Demographic Groups , Irvin Sam Schonfeld, Tasmyn Prytherch, Mark Cropley, Jay Verkuilen, Renzo Bianchi 2024 CUNY Graduate Center

Measurement Invariance Of The Pandemic Anxiety Inventory In Different Demographic Groups , Irvin Sam Schonfeld, Tasmyn Prytherch, Mark Cropley, Jay Verkuilen, Renzo Bianchi

Publications and research.

Background The Pandemic Anxiety Inventory (PAI) was developed in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Its content allows it to assess anxiety in connection to any pandemic. Previous research has demonstrated the instrument’s reliability and validity. An important question for clinicians and researchers, however, remains open: Does the PAI have similar meaning for members of different demographic groups? The finding of measurement invariance would allow clinicians and researchers to comparatively assess pandemic-related anxiety across demographic groups, including favored and disfavored groups.

Methods We conducted a multi-group confirmatory factor analysis to assess the measurement invariance of the PAI using data obtained …

Embodied Co-Regulation: A Neuroregulatory-Informed Dance/Movement Therapy Transition Intervention Method For Arousal Regulation For Adolescents In A Partial Hospitalization Program , ANAMARIA GUZMAN 2024 Lesley University

Embodied Co-Regulation: A Neuroregulatory-Informed Dance/Movement Therapy Transition Intervention Method For Arousal Regulation For Adolescents In A Partial Hospitalization Program , Anamaria Guzman

Expressive therapiehttps://digitalcommons.lesley.edu/cgi/myaccount.cgis capstone theses.

This thesis introduces a novel Dance/Movement Therapy (DMT) approach, focusing on nervous system arousal regulation during transitions between therapy groups. The core of the method involves a brief 5-minute exercise designed to modulate arousal levels, encompassing alertness and energy, aiming to establish a baseline homeostasis. Rooted in Polyvagal Theory and Developmental Neurobiology, the approach assumes the co-regulation of nervous systems within a group therapeutic setting. Two primary outcomes are self-assessed: 1) somatic experiences documented through narratives and 2) nervous system biodata measured using the Flowtime headband monitoring of brainwaves, heart rate, and other biomarkers. Results indicated that all six sessions …

Examining The Psychometric Properties Of Issaq-Ss Subscales And Testing Measurement Invariance Across First-Generation Status , Riley Herr 2024 James Madison University

Examining The Psychometric Properties Of Issaq-Ss Subscales And Testing Measurement Invariance Across First-Generation Status , Riley Herr

The ISSAQ-SS is a new scale developed for the purpose of measuring students on twelve noncognitive skills, all of which are theoretically predictive of academic success in higher education. Each of the twelve noncognitive skills measured via the ISSAQ-SS are represented by distinct subscales which contain five to nine items. Students respond to each item using a 4-point Likert scale. Given that the ISSAQ-SS is still new, further validity evidence is needed to support the use of this scale. For example, prior to comparing ISSAQ-SS subscale scores across groups of interest, it is necessary to establish that the subscales exhibit …

Measuring Alumni Career Outcomes: A Validity Study , Mason Jones 2024 James Madison University

Measuring Alumni Career Outcomes: A Validity Study , Mason Jones

Higher education experiences routine scrutiny as the cost continues to rise and evidence of a return on investment is variable. Higher education institutions would benefit from measuring post-graduate outcomes to better articulate their impact. The current study examines the factor structure and measurement invariance of the National Alumni Career Mobility (NACM) a 25-item survey, that is widely used to assess alumni career outcomes. Prior psychometric reports for the NACM purported two different factor structures: a five-factor and bifactor model. National reports disaggregated the data by demographic variables, including first-generation status. Disaggregation by first-generation status is problematic given the lack of …

Applying Exploratory Learning Methods To Sociopolitical Beliefs And Cognition. , Sarah French 2024 University of Louisville

Applying Exploratory Learning Methods To Sociopolitical Beliefs And Cognition. , Sarah French

Electronic theses and dissertations.

Americans are polarized along party lines across a variety of sociopolitical issues, including climate change and sustainability issues. Sociopolitical messaging often triggers biased processing that results in defensive rejection or biased elaboration (i.e., counterarguing) of belief-incongruent information. The current research examined whether exploratory learning activities, primarily applied in STEM-education research, can foster belief updating about polarized sustainability issues. Exploratory learning encourages people to engage with learning materials and arrive at their own conclusions before receiving direct instruction/messaging. In two experiments, participants reported their beliefs about carbon taxes and electric vehicle incentives (among other issues) before and after receiving counter-attitudinal persuasive …

An Investigation Of The Effectiveness Of Student’S T-Test Under Heterogeneity Of Variance , Hayden Nelson 2024 Western Kentucky University

An Investigation Of The Effectiveness Of Student’S T-Test Under Heterogeneity Of Variance , Hayden Nelson

Masters theses & specialist projects.

Within the field of psychology, few tests have been as thoroughly investigated as Student’s t-test. One area of criticism is the use of the test when the assumption for heterogeneity of variance between two samples is violated, such as when sample sizes and observed sample variances are unequal. The current study proposes a Monte Carlo analysis to observe a broad range of conditions in efforts to identify the resulting fluctuations in the proportion obtained significant results for two conditions: no mean difference (𝜇􀬵 = 𝜇􀬶) compared to the set level of alpha, and small-to-moderate mean differences (𝜇􀬵 ≠ 𝜇􀬶) compared …

Effects Of Emotional Intelligence And Social Support On The Relationship Between Childhood Maltreatment And Disordered Eating , Rachel Kilby 2024 University of Northern Colorado

Effects Of Emotional Intelligence And Social Support On The Relationship Between Childhood Maltreatment And Disordered Eating , Rachel Kilby

Undergraduate honors theses.

Current research has established a connection between childhood maltreatment and eating disorders, and some studies have looked at emotional intelligence or social support as mediators. However, little research has looked at how emotional intelligence and social support work together in the relationship between childhood maltreatment and eating disorders. This study looked at how emotional intelligence and social support act as mediators in this relationship. Undergraduate students (N=134) were administered the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ-90), Wong-Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS), Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), Perceived Social Support Scale (PSSS), and the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26). Correlations between scales were …

Investigating Bimanual Haptic Exploration With Arm-Support Exoskeletons , Balagopal Raveendranath 2024 Clemson University

Investigating Bimanual Haptic Exploration With Arm-Support Exoskeletons , Balagopal Raveendranath

All dissertations.

The ability to judge properties like weight and length of hand-held objects is essential in industrial work. Sometimes workers use devices like exoskeletons, which can augment their ability to lift and move heavy objects. Previous studies have investigated the perceptual information available for one-handed weight and length judgments. The current study investigated how blindfolded participants bimanually heft and wield objects to explore haptic information, to perceive object heaviness or length. The study also investigated the effects of using an arm-support exoskeleton (ASE) on the perceived weight of hand-held objects. We empirically tested whether people wield and manipulate objects differently, depending …

Regression Discontinuity Designs Within A Latent Variable Framework: Measurement Considerations For The Accuracy Of The Treatment Effect , Sarah Hammami 2024 University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Regression Discontinuity Designs Within A Latent Variable Framework: Measurement Considerations For The Accuracy Of The Treatment Effect , Sarah Hammami

College of education and human sciences: dissertations, theses, and student research.

Regression discontinuity designs are valuable quasi-experimental designs, especially when randomized control/clinical trials are ethically or practically challenging. Latent variables are prevalent in the social, behavioral, and educational (SBE) sciences—measurement assumptions have to be tested and met when using such variables. Not meeting those assumptions leads to biased results and (likely) erroneous inferential making. One way to minimize the impact of measurement assumption violation is to use latent variable modeling such as structural equation modeling (SEM). Soland, Johnson and Talbert (2022) conducted two simulation studies testing the effect of using a sum score (when the assumptions for using such a score …

Praise In The Collegiate Classroom: How Narcissism, Entitlement, Empathy, And A Desire For Fame Impact Student’S Preferences For Praise , Alexandra Crissman 2024 University of Lynchburg

Praise In The Collegiate Classroom: How Narcissism, Entitlement, Empathy, And A Desire For Fame Impact Student’S Preferences For Praise , Alexandra Crissman

Student scholar showcase.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between personality traits, namely narcissism, entitlement, empathy, and a desire for fame, and a preference for public praise in a student population. Past research has shown that those who are higher in narcissism are also higher in entitlement and that these rates have been rising with future generations. Past research has also indicated a negative relationship between narcissistic tendencies and empathy, inferring that those higher in narcissism tend to score lower on empathy measures. In this study, undergraduate students were surveyed online to determine scores on four measures of traits …

The Relationship Between Cognitive Impairment In Psychiatric Patients And Readmission Rate To An Inpatient Facility , Cherilyn Isis Schuff 2024 Florida Institute of Technology

The Relationship Between Cognitive Impairment In Psychiatric Patients And Readmission Rate To An Inpatient Facility , Cherilyn Isis Schuff

Theses and dissertations.

The primary intention of this study was to further understand the impact of assessing cognitive impairment in psychiatric patients, as a mediating factor on readmission rates. Mild cognitive dysfunction impacts a patient’s functional outcomes (Bowie & Harvey, 2006; Davis et al., 2012; Marcantonio, et al., 2001). Little information exists to guide best practices in the treatment of adults with cognitive impairment who are hospitalized for acute conditions (Davis et al., 2012). A cognitive impairment may impact patient prognosis and ability to function outside of a setting focused on stabilization. Neuropsychological testing is a valuable tool in predicting a patient’s cognitive …

Examining Differences In Self-Concept And Language Between Monolingual And Bilingual Undergraduate Students , Marilyn Vega-Wagner 2024 University of the Pacific

Examining Differences In Self-Concept And Language Between Monolingual And Bilingual Undergraduate Students , Marilyn Vega-Wagner

University of the pacific theses and dissertations.

The literature is lacking in studies that examine self-concept and language status among individuals older than adolescence. The purpose of this study is to conduct a quantitative nonexperimental comparative design to examine differences in self-concept and language status (monolingual or bilingual) between male and female undergraduate students in California. A total of 97 participants were examined in the study. The researcher conducted descriptive statistics on the demographics as well as a MANOVA and an ANOVA to answer the proposed research question. Based on the findings presented, the researcher failed to reject the null hypothesis of research question 1: There is …

The Effect Of Email Communication On Professor-Student Rapport, Academic Self-Efficacy, Resiliency, Motivation, And Spirituality , David J. Heim 2024 Missouri State University

The Effect Of Email Communication On Professor-Student Rapport, Academic Self-Efficacy, Resiliency, Motivation, And Spirituality , David J. Heim

Msu graduate theses.

Student retention and success rates are an increasing concern among collegiate administrators and educators. This study examined the influence of a college instructor’s email communications on professor-student rapport, student academic self-efficacy, resilience, motivation, and success. Researchers hypothesized that the student participants who received the encouraging email communications from their professor would demonstrate higher levels of professor-student rapport, higher levels of academic self-efficacy, resiliency, and success compared to the students who receive standard email communications from their professor. Five scales were utilized in this study including Professor-Student Rapport Scale, Academic Self-Efficacy Scale, Academic Resilience Scale (ARS-30), Daily Spiritual Experience Scale (DSES), …

Consistent Across Situations? A Person Specific Approach To Examining A Long-Standing Paradox. , Muchen Xi 2023 Washington University in St. Louis

Consistent Across Situations? A Person Specific Approach To Examining A Long-Standing Paradox. , Muchen Xi

Arts & sciences electronic theses and dissertations.

Bem and Allen (1974) address the person situation debate by proposing that there are some people behave more consistently, which can be better “explained” try personality traits, than others who are more influenced by situations. However, with failures to directly replicate Bem and Allen’s study, the existence of individual difference in cross situation consistency of behaviors remaining unclear. The current study addressed open questions that arose from the personality consistency debate by employing Mixed Effect Location Scale Model (MELSM) in an intensive longitudinal study. We found 1) there are individual difference in the overall behavioral consistency across situations; 2) there …

Detecting Careless Cases In Practice Tests , Steven Nydick 2023 Duolingo

Detecting Careless Cases In Practice Tests , Steven Nydick

Chinese/english journal of educational measurement and evaluation | 教育测量与评估双语期刊.

In this paper, we present a novel method for detecting careless responses in a low-stakes practice exam using machine learning models. Rather than classifying test-taker responses as careless based on model fit statistics or knowledge of truth, we built a model to predict significant changes in test scores between a practice test and an official test based on attributes of practice test items. We extracted features from practice test items using hypotheses about how careless test takers respond to items and cross-validated model performance to optimize out-of-sample predictions and reduce heteroscedasticity when predicting the closest official test. All analyses use …

Critical Transitions In Mental Health: Van Gogh Case Study , Anna Singley 2023 University of Portland

Critical Transitions In Mental Health: Van Gogh Case Study , Anna Singley

Annual symposium on biomathematics and ecology education and research.

No abstract provided.

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Critically Thinking About Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research

What should we do regarding our research questions and methodology.

Posted January 26, 2022 | Reviewed by Davia Sills

• Neither a quantitative nor a qualitative methodology is the right way to approach every scientific question.
• Rather, the nature of the question determines which methodology is best suited to address it.
• Often, researchers benefit from a mixed approach that incorporates both quantitative and qualitative methodologies.

As a researcher who has used a wide variety of methodologies, I understand the importance of acknowledging that we, as researchers, do not pick the methodology; rather, the research question dictates it. So, you can only imagine how annoyed I get when I hear of undergraduates designing their research projects based on preconceived notions, like "quantitative is more straightforward," or "qualitative is easier." Apart from the fact that neither of these assertions is actually the case, these young researchers are blatantly missing one of the foundational steps of good research: If you are interested in researching a particular area, you must get to know the area (i.e., through reading) and then develop a question based on that reading.

The nature of the question will dictate the most appropriate methodological approach.

I’ve debated with researchers in the past who are "exclusively" qualitative or "exclusively" quantitative. Depending on the rationale for their exclusivity, I might question a little deeper, learn something, and move on, or I might debate further. Sometimes, I throw some contentious statements out to see what the responses are like. For example, "Qualitative research, in isolation, is nothing but glorified journalism . " This one might not be new to you. Yes, qualitative is flawed, but so, too, is quantitative.

Let's try this one: "Numbers don’t lie, just the researchers who interpret them." If researchers are going to have a pop at qual for subjectivity, why don’t they recognize the same issues in quant? The numbers in a results section may be objectively correct, but their meaningfulness is only made clear through the interpretation of the human reporting them. This is not a criticism but is an important observation for those who believe in the absolute objectivity of quantitative reporting. The subjectivity associated with this interpretation may miss something crucial in the interpretation of the numbers because, hey, we’re only human.

With that, I love quantitative research, but I’m not unreasonable about it. Let’s say we’ve evaluated a three-arm RCT—the new therapeutic intervention is significantly efficacious, with a large effect, for enhancing "x" in people living with "y." One might conclude that this intervention works and that we must conduct further research on it to further support its efficacy—this is, of course, a fine suggestion, consistent with good research practice and epistemological understanding.

However, blindly recommending the intervention based on the interpretation of numbers alone might be suspect—think of all the variables that could be involved in a 4-, 8-, 12-, or 52-week intervention with human participants. It would be foolish to believe that all variables were considered—so, here is a fantastic example of where a qualitative methodology might be useful. At the end of the intervention, a researcher might decide to interview a random 20 percent of the cohort who participated in the intervention group about their experience and the program’s strengths and weaknesses. The findings from this qualitative element might help further explain the effects, aid the initial interpretation, and bring to life new ideas and concepts that had been missing from the initial interpretation. In this respect, infusing a qualitative approach at the end of quantitative analysis has shown its benefits—a mixed approach to intervention evaluation is very useful.

What about before that? Well, let’s say I want to develop another intervention to enhance "z," but there’s little research on it, and that which has been conducted isn’t of the highest quality; furthermore, we don’t know about people’s experiences with "z" or even other variables associated with it.

To design an intervention around "z" would be ‘jumping the gun’ at best (and a waste of funds). It seems that an exploration of some sort is necessary. This is where qualitative again shines—giving us an opportunity to explore what "z" is from the perspective of a relevant cohort(s).

Of course, we cannot generalize the findings; we cannot draw a definitive conclusion as to what "z" is. But what the findings facilitate is providing a foundation from which to work; for example, we still cannot say that "z" is this, that, or the other, but it appears that it might be associated with "a," "b" and "c." Thus, future research should investigate the nature of "z" as a particular concept, in relation to "a," "b" and "c." Again, a qualitative methodology shows its worth. In the previous examples, a qualitative method was used because the research questions warranted it.

Through considering the potentially controversial statements about qual and quant above, we are pushed into examining the strengths and weaknesses of research methodologies (regardless of our exclusivity with a particular approach). This is useful if we’re going to think critically about finding answers to our research questions. But simply considering these does not let poor research practice off the hook.

For example, credible qualitative researchers acknowledge that generalizability is not the point of their research; however, that doesn’t stop some less-than-credible researchers from presenting their "findings" as generalizable as possible, without actually using the word. Such practices should be frowned upon—so should making a career out of strictly using qualitative methodology in an attempt to find answers core to the human condition. All these researchers are really doing is spending a career exploring, yet never really finding anything (despite arguing to the contrary, albeit avoiding the word "generalize").

The solution to this problem, again, is to truly listen to what your research question is telling you. Eventually, it’s going to recommend a quantitative approach. Likewise, a "numbers person" will be recommended a qualitative approach from time to time—flip around the example above, and there’s a similar criticism. Again, embrace a mixed approach.

What's the point of this argument?

I conduct both research methodologies. Which do I prefer? Simple—whichever one helps me most appropriately answer my research question.

Do I have problems with qualitative methodologies? Absolutely—but I have issues with quantitative methods as well. Having these issues is good—it means that you recognize the limitations of your tools, which increases the chances of you "fixing," "sharpening" or "changing out" your tools when necessary.

So, the next time someone speaks with you about labeling researchers as one type or another, ask them why they think that way, ask them which they think you are, and then reflect on the responses alongside your own views of methodology and epistemology. It might just help you become a better researcher.

Christopher Dwyer, Ph.D., is a lecturer at the Technological University of the Shannon in Athlone, Ireland.

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Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Methods & Data Analysis

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research , on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human.  Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism ).

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.

Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.

Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews , documents, focus groups , case study research , and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts : Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.

Observations : The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews : generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals : Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis .

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded .

Key Features

• Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
• Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
• The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
• The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
• The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
• Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
• The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
• Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
• Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
• Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables , make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires , can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:

Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles .

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

Neuroimaging data : Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.

For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. 

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).

• Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
• The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
• The design of the study is determined before it begins.
• For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
• Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

• Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
• Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
• Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
• Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

• Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
• Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
• Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
• Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
• Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS . Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics . Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research : what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4) , 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4) , 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.

Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage

Further Information

• Mixed methods research
• Designing qualitative research
• Methods of data collection and analysis
• Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
• Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?
• Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data
• Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach
• Using the framework method for the analysis of
• Qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research
• Content Analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Thematic Analysis

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Ko Kuwabara

Associate professor.

Ko Kuwabara is an Associate Professor of Management at University of Kentucky. Ko’s research interests include networking, negotiations, and workplace politics. His current stream of research explores the motivational psychology of networking: who builds effective networks, what inhibits people from networking, and what can be done to promote sustained engagement in networking. He is currently designing and evaluating different interventions in order to help professionals build and manage their networks more effectively. In related research, he has examined the emergence of trust in cross-cultural interactions and online markets. His research has been published in leading academic journals including the Academy of Management Review, Academy of Management Journal, American Journal of Sociology, and Psychological Science.

Professor Kuwabara earned his PhD and BA in Sociology from Cornell University. Prior to joining the University of Kentucky, he was an associate professor of management at INSEAD in Singapore and the Columbia Business School where he taught courses on negotiation, social networks, and organisational change in the MBA and various executive education programs for organizations in Southeast Asia, Europe, Middle East, and North America.

Contact Information

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

Psychological wellbeing of italian students and clinical assessment tools at university counseling services during the covid-19 pandemic: a systematic review.

• 1 Department of Humanities, Literature and Cultural Heritage, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
• 2 Department of Humanities, Philosophy and Education, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic brought about unprecedented problems for contemporary society. Among the numerous challenges faced following the spread of the virus, the need to provide assessment tools and remote psychological assistance certainly deserves particular attention. Indeed, this profound paradigm shift in psychological assessment and care occurred during a period of fragility for people already suffering from the restrictions imposed to stem the spread of the virus. One population particularly affected by the pandemic was students, including university students. The latter faced the pandemic in a particularly critical formative period.

Methods: For these reasons, our systematic review has two main objectives: (i) identify the assessment tools and psychological dimensions most used/investigated during the pandemic in Italian university students; (ii) systematize and deepen our knowledge about the impact of the pandemic on the psychological wellbeing of Italian university students. Our search used PRISMA 2020 guidelines on Web of Science, Pubmed, Scopus, and EBSCOHost.

Results: The results indicated that the psychological dimensions most investigated in university students during the pandemic were anxiety and depression. At the same time, the most used assessment instruments were the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-Y) and the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). Furthermore, it is clear from the results that the pandemic has harmed the psychological wellbeing of university students. Finally, we dedicated a section to discuss the interventions implemented by university counseling services during the pandemic.

Discussion: This review could improve the work of university counseling services in this post-pandemic period and contribute to developing specific screening and assessment programs for future emergencies.

1 Introduction

The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic rapidly spread globally, leading the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare a state of global pandemic in March 2020 ( WHO, 2020 ). Despite the strategies implemented to contain the virus, which have significantly slowed its spread and had a substantial impact on reducing transmission ( Flaxman et al., 2020 ; Hsiang et al., 2020 ), the pandemic has profoundly affected various aspects globally, including mental health. Worldwide scientific literature illuminates the pervasive impact of COVID-19 on mental health, underscoring its profound repercussions within the general population. In particular, current literature suggests that both contracting the COVID-19 virus and the measures adopted for containment have contributed to the increased incidence and development of depression, anxiety disorders, stress, panic attacks, somatization disorders, sleep disturbances, symptoms of post-traumatic stress, manifestations of suicidal behavior, and social isolation ( Hossain et al., 2020 ; Hwang et al., 2020 ).

Among the demographic cohorts most profoundly affected by the pandemic, young adults and university students have emerged as particularly vulnerable populations ( Kross et al., 2013 ), with higher rates in women and younger students ( Almeida et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020 ). The disruption of daily routines, the erosion of social networks, and the uncertainty surrounding academic pursuits have compounded the psychological burden borne by this demographic cohort. Compared to the general population, a higher prevalence of mental health issues in university students has been evidenced ( Li et al., 2021 ; Villani et al., 2021 ). Various studies have shown, in fact, a significant rise in stress, anxiety, depression levels ( Alkhamees et al., 2020 ; Cao et al., 2020 ; Savage et al., 2020 ; Wang et al., 2020 ; Wathelet et al., 2020 ; Chen and Lucock, 2022 ; Faisal et al., 2022 ), and, more broadly, a deterioration in mental health among university students ( Browning et al., 2021 ; Villani et al., 2021 ; Kim et al., 2022 ). Regarding the different type of university courses, research has mainly focused on medical students whose mental health status has already been demonstrated to be poorer than that of general population especially due to academic stress ( Thuma et al., 2020 ). A recent systematic review ( Jia et al., 2022 ) which compared studies investigating the rates of mental health in medical students compared to general population, showed that the prevalence of depression and anxiety among medical students during COVID-19 was relatively higher than those of the general population and the healthcare workers. However, evidence produced contradictory results on this point. For example, comparing medical students with non-medical students (such as economics, law, education, and history), some studies showed that medical and healthcare students reported lower prevalence of moderate to severe levels of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms ( Sundarasen et al., 2020 ; Leroy et al., 2021 ; Xiong et al., 2021 ). Regarding depression levels, students who engaged in health-science-related studies had less risk of developing depression compared with students in other fields of studies ( Mekonen et al., 2021 ).

Recognizing the gravity of the situation and the possible negative repercussion of pandemic on university students' wellbeing, universities worldwide have implemented various psychological interventions and counseling initiatives aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of the pandemic on student mental health. These interventions encompassed a spectrum of approaches, ranging from individual counseling sessions and support groups to online mental health resources and virtual wellness workshops ( Son et al., 2020 ). In general, several studies have shown the effectiveness of digital mental health interventions in improving depression, anxiety, and overall psychological wellbeing among university students ( Musiat et al., 2014 ; Saleh et al., 2018 ; Lattie et al., 2019 ; Viskovich and Pakenham, 2020 ). During pandemic, the effectiveness of online interventions in promoting the mental health and wellbeing of university students has been demonstrated ( Riboldi et al., 2023 ).

Within the Italian context, the impact of COVID-19 on mental health has been a subject of growing concern and scholarly inquiry. Research by Giallonardo et al. (2020) and Rossi et al. (2020) well elucidated the disproportionate burden of mental health disorders among segments of the Italian population, shedding light on the intersecting socio-economic and psychosocial factors shaping vulnerability and resilience in the face of adversity.

Despite the burgeoning body of research on the broader impact of COVID-19 on mental health in Italy, there remains a conspicuous gap in our understanding of its specific ramifications for university students. Moreover, as the pandemic unfolded, Italian universities endeavored to support students grappling with the psychological fallout of the crisis, instituting online psychological interventions directed to university students. Yet, the efficacy and accessibility of university counseling services and mental health interventions during pandemic remain underexplored terrain, necessitating rigorous empirical inquiry to inform evidence-based practice and policy.

1.1 Aims of the study

Our systematic review has two main objectives: (i) identify the assessment tools and psychological dimensions most used/investigated during the pandemic in Italian university students; (ii) systematize and deepen our knowledge about the impact of the pandemic on the psychological wellbeing of Italian university students. In addition, we dedicate a section to discussing the interventions implemented by university counseling services during the pandemic.

2.1 Information sources, search strategy, and eligibility criteria

This review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines ( Page et al., 2021 ). On April 14 th , 2023, four electronic databases were consulted: Pubmed, Web of Science, Scopus, and EBSCOhost (APA PsycInfo). We limited our selection to scientific studies published in English and Italian languages from March 2020 to April 2023. We used words such as “Assessment,” “University,” “School,” “Psychological Counseling,” and synonyms. We adapted the syntax for the specificities of each database (see Supplementary material 5 for all the information on the literature search). Next, we used the backward (the works cited in the selected articles) and forward search (the studies that cited the selected articles) to identify any further studies. Our systematic review considered the following inclusion criteria: (i) studies concerning the Italian university student population; (ii) studies carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic period; (iii) studies that have carried out/delivered an assessment and one or more psychological intervention(s). The exclusion criteria were set as follows: (i) Scientific publications such as editorials, letters, and case reports; (ii) studies that have used only qualitative assessment methods; (iii) studies that used only unvalidated psychological scales. We focused on university students because university education is a transition period characterized by critical challenges for students (e.g., career choice, emancipation, and financial self-sufficiency; Arnett et al., 2014 ; Amerio et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, the period of university study coincides with the years in which the risk of onset of psychiatric disorders reaches its peak (75% of all lifetime mental disorders have their onset prior to the age of 24; Kessler et al., 2005 ). Mental disorders during this period can be associated with adverse effects on the development of young people, including worsening academic performance and dropout from university ( Scott et al., 2016 ; Bruffaerts et al., 2018 ). Furthermore, we focused on the Italian context as Italy was the first in Europe to face the consequences of the pandemic and implement rigorous measures to contain the spread of the virus. The measures taken to fight the virus in countries worldwide have been different and adapted to the specific national context, which has led to important differences in programs to contain the spread of the virus in different countries ( Gavosto and Romano, 2021 ).

2.2 Study selection and data extraction

The screening process was performed using the digital tool “Rayyan” ( Ouzzani et al., 2016 ). After removing duplicates, two authors performed the screening step independently (G.S., E.T.). This first step was based on the titles and the abstracts of each record yielded by the literature search. According to the eligibility criteria presented above, irrelevant studies were excluded. Then, after the first screening step, the same investigators read the full text of the remaining articles. For the letter, the same eligibility criteria were used for the inclusion/exclusion of the articles. During both phases of the study's selection, disagreements were resolved by discussion to find a consensus. Of the 1,702 studies initially retained, 60 publications met the eligibility criteria ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . PRISMA flowchart of the literature search and screening process.

It should be noted that nine studies ( Amatori et al., 2020 ; Biondi et al., 2021 ; Busetta et al., 2021 ; Di Consiglio et al., 2021 ; Cofini et al., 2022 ; Marzilli et al., 2022 ; Quintiliani et al., 2022 ; Alesi et al., 2023 ; Bassi et al., 2023 ) were added after backward and forward searching methods. For articles suitable for inclusion in this systematic review, the second and the third authors extracted data related to study characteristics (the number of participants, the types of assessment, the period of data collection, the instruments used for the assessment, the interventions, and the main findings reported). See Supplementary Table 1 (studies that investigated the psychological wellbeing of the general university student population) and Supplementary Table 2 (studies that investigated the psychological wellbeing of students attending university counseling services) for a description of the studies included in this systematic review. We decided to divide the studies into two sub-groups because students requiring psychological support have a higher psychological risk profile with more significant psychological distress than the general university student population ( Riva Crugnola et al., 2021 ). In Supplementary Tables 1 , 2 , we have reported the period in which the assessment was carried out, dividing the phases of the pandemic into two macro-periods: (i) lockdown period and (ii) pandemic period. The period indicated as “lockdown” goes from the closure of all non-essential commercial activities and the imposition of home confinement on the population due to the spread of COVID-19 in Italy (March 2020) up to the first easing of restrictive measures (May 2020). This period was characterized by very restrictive measures for the population and the same for the entire Italian territory. The second period, indicated as the “pandemic,” includes the second and third phases of the pandemic in Italy following the first lockdown phase. This period was characterized by less restrictive home confinement measures and the gradual reopening of non-essential commercial activities. At this stage, the restrictions were often heterogeneous between the Italian regions due to their classification into three risk scenarios. Finally, in Supplementary Table 3 , we reported additional information on studies included in the systematic review.

2.3 Risk-of-bias assessment

Our systematic review included several articles with different study designs. For this reason, we employed various tools to evaluate the quality of the evidence and the potential for bias. We applied the revised Cochrane Risk-of-Bias tool for randomized trials (RoB 2 – Higgins et al., 2016 ; Sterne et al., 2019 ). Furthermore, we used two different versions of the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS – Peterson et al., 2011 ) based on the study type: cohort studies (NOS – C) and cross-sectional studies (NOS – CS). Specifically, our systematic review included 3 randomized controlled trials ( Cozzolino et al., 2021a ; Celia et al., 2022a ; Malighetti et al., 2023 ), 14 longitudinal cohort studies ( Baiano et al., 2020 , 2022 ; Bussone et al., 2020 ; Parola et al., 2020 ; Gabrielli et al., 2021 ; Meda et al., 2021 ; Pisano et al., 2021 ; Tinella et al., 2021 ; Celia et al., 2022b ; Ierardi et al., 2022 ; Busetta et al., 2023 ; Cerutti et al., 2023 ; Conti et al., 2023 ; Renati et al., 2023 ), and 42 cross-sectional studies ( Amatori et al., 2020 ; Cellini et al., 2020 ; Giusti et al., 2020 , 2021 ; Savarese et al., 2020 ; Somma et al., 2020 ; Vitale et al., 2020 ; Abenavoli et al., 2021 ; Biondi et al., 2021 ; Burro et al., 2021 ; Busetta et al., 2021 ; Calandri et al., 2021 ; Commodari et al., 2021 ; De Pasquale et al., 2021a , b ; Di Consiglio et al., 2021 ; Fornili et al., 2021 ; Generali et al., 2021 ; Marelli et al., 2021 ; Ranieri et al., 2021 ; Romeo et al., 2021 ; Villani et al., 2021 ; Viselli et al., 2021 ; Amerio et al., 2022 ; Bottaro and Faraci, 2022 ; Calati et al., 2022 ; Carletto et al., 2022 ; Carpi et al., 2022 ; Cofini et al., 2022 ; Comparcini et al., 2022 ; Concerto et al., 2022 ; Giangrasso et al., 2022 ; Guidotti et al., 2022 ; Loscalzo and Giannini, 2022 ; Manfredi, 2022 ; Marzilli et al., 2022 ; Quarta et al., 2022 ; Quintiliani et al., 2022 ; Zurlo et al., 2022a , b ; Alesi et al., 2023 ; Bassi et al., 2023 ). The work conducted by Lo Moro et al. (2022) included two studies within the same article: a longitudinal cohort study and a cross-sectional one. Hence, we evaluated Lo Moro et al. (2022) twice, with the NOS – C and the NOS – CS, respectively. The evaluation of study quality was independently conducted by two authors (G.S., E.T.), who calculated percent agreement and Cohen's K ( Cohen, 1960 ), obtaining a percentage of agreement P(a) = 97% and a Cohen's K of 0.84—an almost perfect agreement level. Any discrepancies or concerns were subsequently deliberated with the other authors. All studies obtained a satisfactory risk of bias: no concerns and high risk of bias were highlighted, and the studies were judged to be at low risk of bias. See Supplementary Tables 4 , 5 , and Supplementary Figure 4 for each study's risk of bias scores included in the systematic review.

3.1 General results

The process through which the studies were included in the systematic review is described in the PRISMA flowchart ( Figure 1 ). The initial search provided 2,889 studies potentially relevant to the present systematic review. Of these, 1,361 were identified from Pubmed, 954 from Web of Science, 155 from Scopus, and 419 from Ebscohost (APA PsycInfo). The duplicates were removed ( N = 1,187), and 1,702 entries were screened. After screening the titles and abstracts, 1,587 articles were removed, leaving 115 articles to assess eligibility criteria. After reviewing the full texts, a further 64 were excluded. As shown in Figure 1 , 64 articles were excluded for the following reasons: (i) no psychological assessments were performed ( n = 16); (ii) no university students were assessed ( n = 46); iii) the assessment was not carried out during the period of the COVID-19 pandemic ( n = 2).

In addition to the 51 studies obtained through this selection process, we identified and included nine studies via backward and forward reference searching methods. This selection procedure supplied 60 articles suitable for inclusion in this systematic review. The data extracted from the 60 studies are summarized in Supplementary Table 1 (summary of psychological assessment findings in general university students' population) and Supplementary Table 2 (summary of psychological assessment/intervention findings in university students attending counseling services). Supplementary Table 1 contains forty-nine studies, while Supplementary Table 2 contains eleven. All studies delivered the assessment and interventions online during the lockdown and the subsequent pandemic period. Half of the forty-three studies that reported cross-sectional data investigated the psychological condition of students during the lockdown period, while the others delivered the assessment during the subsequent pandemic period. Five of these studies also collected the data before the lockdown period, while in four studies, participants were also asked to report their psychological state before the lockdown or pandemic period investigated. Six of the fifteen longitudinal cohort studies assessed the psychological wellbeing of Italian university students before and during the pandemic. Differently, four studies assessed it before and during the lockdown. The others (5 studies) delivered at least one psychological intervention during the pandemic.

Two randomized controlled trials provided at least one psychological intervention during the pandemic, while the other was during the lockdown period. 47.8% of the universities involved in the studies included in this review are from northern Italy (see Supplementary Table 3 ). Consistently, students from northern universities are the most represented (50.2%), followed by those studying in central Italy (34.71%), and finally, students from southern and island universities are the least numerous (15.04%). In almost all studies, the participants are mainly women. Of the six studies in which there are more male participants ( Amatori et al., 2020 ; Baiano et al., 2020 ; Parola et al., 2020 ; Amerio et al., 2022 ; Concerto et al., 2022 ; Manfredi, 2022 ), only one ( Concerto et al., 2022 ) have a percentage of women lower than 40%, while the remaining five have percentages of men only slightly higher than women. Most studies assess students from multiple departments. Instead, eight studies focus only on medical and nursing students (see Supplementary Table 3 ).

As shown in Figure 2 , the psychological dimensions most investigated by studies during the pandemic are anxiety (16.9%), depression (14%), stress (8%), aspects related to COVID-19 (e.g., fear and stress related to the pandemic), emotions (7%), social aspects (7%), and quality of life in general (6%). The “other” category contains 33% of all assessments considered in this review. This category includes studies that focused on psychological distress (5.16%), psychiatric symptoms other than depression and anxiety (e.g., symptoms of eating disorders, suicidal tendencies, smartphone, and internet addiction, 4.76%), and the quality of sleep (3.76%). Other psychological dimensions investigated, such as resilience, self-efficacy, self-esteem, metacognition, attitude to the future, coping, attachment, and personality traits, were explored by < 3% of the total assessment tools used in the studies. Finally, the most assessment instruments used are reported in Figure 3 (Beck Depression Inventory-II, BDI- II, 5.63%; State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, STAI-Y, 5.16%; Perceived Stress Scale, PSS, 5.16%; Symptom Check-List Item Revised, SCL-90-R, 3.92%; Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21, DASS-21, 2.94%; Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, PANAS, 2.45%; Patient Health Questionnaire 9, PHQ-9, 2.45%; Beck Anxiety Inventory, BAI, 1.96%; Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index, PSQI, 1.96%; Seven-Item Generalized Anxiety Disorder, GAD-7; 1.96%; General Health Questionnaire, GH-12; 1.47%; Mental Health Continuum-Short Form, MHC-SF, 1.47%; Fear of COVID-19, FCV-19S, 1.47%).

Figure 2 . Percentage of the most psychological dimensions investigated in university students during the pandemic. The percentage is calculated using the total number of assessment tools in all studies.

Figure 3 . Percentage of assessment tools most used during the pandemic. The percentage is calculated using the total number of assessment tools in all studies.

3.2 Main findings in the wellbeing of the university student population

This literature review shows an adverse effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the psychological wellbeing of Italian university students (i.e., Bussone et al., 2020 ; Commodari et al., 2021 ; Pisano et al., 2021 ; Viselli et al., 2021 ; Alesi et al., 2023 ). Studies mainly report increases in levels of depression (i.e., Conti et al., 2023 ), anxiety (i.e., Abenavoli et al., 2021 ), and stress (i.e., Lo Moro et al., 2022 ), both during the period of more significant lockdown restrictions and in the subsequent phase of the pandemic. Some longitudinal studies report an additive increase in the adverse effects on psychological wellbeing as the weeks pass during lockdown ( Giusti et al., 2020 ; Parola et al., 2020 ; Zurlo et al., 2022a ). However, during the subsequent pandemic phase, some psychological dimensions (i.e., depression) may improve compared to the lockdown's previous and more restrictive phase ( Di Consiglio et al., 2021 ; Meda et al., 2021 ). Another result that emerges is that the students who have suffered most from the measures imposed by the pandemic are women students ( Vitale et al., 2020 ; Busetta et al., 2021 , 2023 ; Romeo et al., 2021 ; Villani et al., 2021 ; Viselli et al., 2021 ; Amerio et al., 2022 ; Carletto et al., 2022 ), and younger students ( Fornili et al., 2021 ; Ranieri et al., 2021 ; Concerto et al., 2022 ). Although no studies included in this review directly compared students who sought university counseling services with Italian university students in general (but see Riva Crugnola et al., 2021 ), some studies ( Baiano et al., 2020 ; Cellini et al., 2020 ; Busetta et al., 2021 ) reported a greater negative effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on fragile students (i.e., students with high levels of depression and anxiety). Finally, Ierardi et al. (2022) reported that students who sought college counseling services before the pandemic had similar levels of psychological distress as those who did so during the pandemic.

It has been suggested that medical students are more likely than students of other faculties to experience higher levels of anxiety regarding COVID-19 ( Busetta et al., 2023 ). However, not all data confirm this view (e.g., Manfredi, 2022 ; Bassi et al., 2023 ). These inconsistent results could depend on the fact that the studies that include healthcare students are heterogeneous by year of course and type of specialization taken into consideration. University students have reported significant difficulties related to distance learning during the pandemic, such as reduced concentration ability and problems completing the thesis and internship activities ( Generali et al., 2021 ; Giusti et al., 2021 ). More severe psychological symptomatology was positively correlated with worse academic performance ( Amerio et al., 2022 ). The inability to attend university, distance from colleagues, and career uncertainty were associated with increased anxiety ( Villani et al., 2021 ; Comparcini et al., 2022 ; Busetta et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, Calandri et al. (2021) reported that the worsening of learning abilities was related to depressive symptoms through the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy ( Calandri et al., 2021 ). Fear of COVID-19 and worry about contracting the virus appear to be important factors in determining higher levels of anxiety and negative changes in mood and eating behavior, both during the lockdown and during the pandemic ( De Pasquale et al., 2021a , b ; Generali et al., 2021 ). Lastly, internalizing personality traits and immature defense mechanisms were both risk factors for depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms during the lockdown ( Biondi et al., 2021 ).

On the contrary, a healthy lifestyle (i.e. doing physical activity, healthy nutrition) ( Amatori et al., 2020 ; Fornili et al., 2021 ; Villani et al., 2021 ), a healthy relational environment (family, peer, and university) ( Calandri et al., 2021 ; Carletto et al., 2022 ), satisfaction with the quality of e-learning ( Giusti et al., 2021 ; Cofini et al., 2022 ), and the possibility of benefiting from external spaces and contact with nature ( Busetta et al., 2021 ; Quarta et al., 2022 ), are all factors reported as positive for mental health both during the lockdown and during the pandemic. Adaptive coping strategies were protective factors for managing COVID-19 stressors ( Zurlo et al., 2022b ), and high levels of resilience predicted lower levels of psychological distress after a year of the pandemic ( Renati et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, the study by Giangrasso et al. (2022) reported that high levels of mattering and self-esteem are crucial for adequate life satisfaction during the lockdown.

Almost all studies conducted on students who requested psychological counseling from university services have focused on the effectiveness of online psychological intervention (see Supplementary Table 2 ). These works show that five sessions of online psychological interventions ( Tinella et al., 2021 ) with psychodynamic ( Ierardi et al., 2022 ; Cerutti et al., 2023 ) and strategic ( Celia et al., 2022b ) approaches, and the Brain Wave Modulation Technique (BWM -T) ( Cozzolino et al., 2021b ; Celia et al., 2022a ), are effective in reducing perceived stress, negative affects, depressive and anxious symptoms, and in improving different aspects of students' psychological and emotional wellbeing (i.e., self-efficacy, emotional regulation, positive affect) both during the lockdown and the pandemic. Furthermore, Gabrielli et al. (2021) and Malighetti et al. (2023) report decreases in levels of anxiety and perceived stress using a healthy coping chatbot (“Atena,” 4 weeks of use) and improvements in psychological wellbeing through self-help virtual reality interventions (six sessions for 3 weeks), respectively. However, Ierardi et al. (2022) reported that the face-to-face intervention delivered before the pandemic was more effective than the online intervention delivered during the pandemic. While the online intervention improved levels of depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms, differently from face-to-face intervention, it was not effective in improving levels of life satisfaction ( Ierardi et al., 2022 ). Although none of these studies directly investigated the effects of university psychological counseling on academic performance, worse psychological symptomatology has been reported to be a strong predictor of poor academic performance ( Giusti et al., 2021 ). Finally, it is important to note that some university psychological counseling services have integrated specific interventions to improve academic performance (e.g., workshops on study methodologies in small groups of students in Savarese et al., 2020 ).

4 Discussion

A total of 60 articles were included in the present systematic review, sourced from various academic databases and through backward and forward reference searching methods. The review encompasses a comprehensive set of studies, including both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, as well as randomized controlled trials. This diversity in study designs enriches the understanding of the psychological dynamics among university students during the pandemic.

The studies included in the review primarily focused on assessing the psychological wellbeing of university students during the COVID-19 pandemic, with a notable emphasis on conducting assessments and interventions online during lockdown periods. The temporal distribution of studies provides insight into the evolving nature of the pandemic's impact on students' mental health: while some studies assessed psychological conditions during the lockdown period, others examined the subsequent pandemic period, offering a nuanced understanding of students' experiences over time.

The geographical distribution of universities included in the studies highlights a concentration of research in northern Italy. This regional focus may reflect varying degrees of COVID-19 impact across different regions and underscores the need for comprehensive, region-specific interventions and support projects. This finding also calls for the urgent need to better investigate the mental health of students in southern Italy, also considering the economic and structural gaps between northern and southern Italy and the impact these can have on psychological health and adult identity development ( Piumatti et al., 2016 ).

The results also identified specific demographic patterns. First, the predominance of female participants across most studies raises important considerations regarding gender-specific mental health needs and disparities in help-seeking behaviors. In line with this predominance and with the general international literature ( Almeida et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020 ), studies showed that women and younger students appeared to be disproportionately affected by the pandemic measures, experiencing higher levels of psychological distress compared to their male and older counterparts. These results can be considered in line with the significant worsening in quality of life reported in female university students during the pandemic ( Sulla et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, young students may have suffered more from the negative consequences of the pandemic due to less adaptive strategies than adults, which would consequently make them more at risk of developing psychological distress during a stressful event ( Schilling and Diehl, 2015 ; but see also Koch and Park, 2022 ). This disparity highlights the need to pay particular attention to the most vulnerable categories ( Saifee et al., 2021 ) and the need for targeted interventions tailored to the specific needs and vulnerabilities of these groups ( Gatto et al., 2022 ; Koch and Park, 2022 ). In addition, studies also showed that medical students, in particular, may experience heightened levels of anxiety related to COVID-19. Although results are not consistent across studies, this result appears in line with the international literature ( Mittal et al., 2021 ). Overall, the results suggested that understanding the unique stressors faced by vulnerable student populations is essential for developing targeted interventions and support services.

The reviewed studies used diverse array of assessment instruments, underscoring the complexity of measuring, and understanding psychological wellbeing during times of crisis but also showing a lack of homogeneity in methodology. Overall, the most investigated psychological dimensions during the pandemic included anxiety, depression, stress, COVID-19-related fears and stress, emotions, social aspects, and general quality of life. These findings widely underscored the multifaceted nature of the pandemic's impact on students' mental health and highlight the need for tailored interventions also addressing diverse psychological domains. Specifically, in line with the international literature ( Alkhamees et al., 2020 ; Cao et al., 2020 ; Savage et al., 2020 ; Wang et al., 2020 ; Wathelet et al., 2020 ; Chen and Lucock, 2022 ; Faisal et al., 2022 ), the studies highlighted a consistent increase in levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among university students during both the lockdown period and the subsequent phases of the pandemic. Some longitudinal studies indicate an exacerbation of adverse effects on psychological wellbeing as the duration of lockdown measures extended, emphasizing the cumulative stress experienced by students during prolonged periods of restriction. Several protective factors, including healthy lifestyle practices, social support, and adaptive coping strategies, emerged as mitigating factors against pandemic-induced psychological distress. From our point of view, the knowledge of risk and protective variables for mental health, even though referred to the COVID-19 period, might be useful in defining the areas on which the university counseling interventions can focus and in informing resilience-building interventions.

Regarding the studies that investigated the effectiveness of online psychological interventions, psychodynamic approaches as well as strategic interventions demonstrated effectiveness in reducing perceived stress, depressive and anxious symptoms, and improving emotional wellbeing among university students. This result is overall in line with the international literature ( Son et al., 2020 ). However, the review also acknowledged variations in the effectiveness of online interventions compared to face-to-face modalities, suggesting nuanced approaches to intervention delivery.

While the systematic review provides valuable insights into the psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Italian university students, several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings. The selection criteria employed in this review might lead to selection bias because studies failing to meet particular eligibility standards were excluded, thereby constraining the applicability of the results and disregarding significant subtleties in the psychological experiences of university students amid the pandemic. The studies included in the review exhibit heterogeneity in terms of study design, participant demographics, assessment tools, and intervention modalities. This diversity makes it challenging to synthesize findings and draw definitive conclusions across studies. Many of the included studies rely on self-report measures to assess psychological wellbeing, which may be susceptible to response bias and inaccuracies in reporting. Additionally, the lack of standardized assessment protocols across studies may compromise the validity and reliability of the findings. The review predominantly captures short-term effects of the pandemic on students' mental health, primarily during the lockdown and immediate post-lockdown periods. Long-term effects and trajectories of psychological wellbeing beyond the initial phases of the pandemic may not be adequately addressed. Moreover, it is important to underline that university counseling services constitute devices for the wellbeing and psychological health promotion, while these do not constitute health agencies and, therefore, do not have either the structure or the functions to actively combat serious situations. In this sense, it should be also clarified that universities do not always have standard and generalizable protocols on the management of serious cases that might help to create a more replicable and generalizable approaches within the different university settings. While the review highlights the effectiveness of online psychological interventions, the quality and rigor of the included intervention studies vary. Methodological limitations, such as small sample sizes, lack of control groups, and short follow-up periods, may limit the robustness of the evidence supporting intervention effectiveness. Addressing these limitations requires future research endeavors to adopt more rigorous methodologies, including larger sample sizes, longitudinal designs, and standardized assessment protocols. Efforts to explore eventual long-term psychological consequences of the pandemic and identify factors contributing to resilience and wellbeing among university students are warranted. Additionally, the results obtained from the present review are only partially generalizable since, despite the similar emergency characteristics experienced by different countries during COVID-19 pandemic, each country varied greatly both in terms of spread of the virus as well as of measures adopted to limit the infection. These variations have inevitably produced different conditions and measures also within the university settings, therefore, this aspect calls for caution in the interpretation of results.

5 Conclusion

The broad spectrum of research designs reviewed significantly enriched our comprehension of the psychological dynamics experienced by university students during the COVID-19 pandemic. The temporal distribution of studies offered insights into the evolving nature of the pandemic's impact on students' mental health, spanning from lockdown periods to subsequent phases. Geographically, a concentration of research in northern Italy highlighted the need for region-specific interventions and underscored the urgency to investigate the mental health of students in southern Italy, considering economic and structural disparities. Demographically, female, and younger students exhibited higher levels of psychological distress, emphasizing the importance of tailored interventions for vulnerable groups. Additionally, medical students showed heightened anxiety related to COVID-19, necessitating targeted support. The diverse array of assessment instruments used in the reviewed studies highlighted the complexity of measuring psychological wellbeing during crises, yet also revealed a lack of methodological homogeneity. Overall, studies indicated elevated levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among university students during lockdowns and subsequent pandemic phases, with longitudinal studies highlighting the cumulative stress over prolonged periods of restriction. Protective factors such as healthy lifestyle practices and social support emerged as crucial mitigating factors against pandemic-induced distress, informing resilience-building interventions within university settings. These findings broadly underscore the importance of ongoing monitoring and support for students' mental health in higher education context even beyond the challenging times. In terms of intervention, online psychological interventions, including psychodynamic and strategic approaches, demonstrated effectiveness in reducing stress and improving emotional wellbeing among students, suggesting the need to even more implement and potentiate these within university settings. Despite their effectiveness, we cannot prove specifically the extent of their impact, the duration, and the differences there may be between one type of intervention rather than another. Therefore, there emerges a need to strengthen and improve the quality standards of such interventions and their evaluation through rigorous experimental or quasi-experimental research design, such as process and outcome studies, in order to show the true extent of their function and effects. Furthermore, variations in effectiveness compared to face-to-face modalities also suggest the need for nuanced intervention delivery methods. In conclusion, the findings underscore the importance of prioritizing mental health support services within university settings and the critical need for comprehensive evidence-based mental health interventions, region-specific support systems tailored to the unique needs and challenges faced by university students. Providing accessible and effective mental health resources, including online interventions and counseling services, is crucial for mitigating the adverse effects of the pandemic on students' psychological wellbeing also in the long-term period. We argue that these issues become even more urgent considering the Global Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development that, within the goals number 3 and 4, stresses the need to promote the mental health and wellbeing of general population, especially youths, as well as to provide quality, equitable, and inclusive education for all students. In line with this, our findings call for the need to increase healthcare financing in university settings to guarantee and defend the student's health and wellbeing also promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

GC: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. GS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. ET: Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. FT: Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Investigation. MC: Funding acquisition, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This study was funded by University of Salerno (FARB Project “Heco-Ero”; Scientific Supervisor: MC).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The handling editor GC declared a past co-authorship with the authors FT and MC.

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Supplementary material

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Keywords: psychological wellbeing, Italian university students, COVID-19 pandemic, assessment, psychological counseling, systematic review

Citation: Celia G, Serio G, Trotta E, Tessitore F and Cozzolino M (2024) Psychological wellbeing of Italian students and clinical assessment tools at university counseling services during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review. Front. Psychol. 15:1388419. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1388419

Received: 19 February 2024; Accepted: 24 July 2024; Published: 13 August 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Celia, Serio, Trotta, Tessitore and Cozzolino. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Giovanna Celia, Giovanna.celia@unipegaso.it

† Present address: Giovanna Celia, Department of Human Sciences, Education and Sport, University of Pegaso, Napoli, Italy

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