introduction for essay about yoga

Essay on Yoga for Students and Children

Yoga is an ancient art that connects the mind and body. It is an exercise that we perform by balancing the elements of our bodies. In addition, it helps us meditate and relax.

Moreover, yoga helps us keep control of our bodies as well as mind. It is a great channel for releasing our stress and anxiety . Yoga gained popularity gradually and is now spread in all regions of the world. It unites people in harmony and peace.

Origin of Yoga

Yoga essentially originated in the subcontinent of India. It has been around since ancient times and was performed by yogis. The term yoga has been derived from a Sanskrit word which translates to basically union and discipline.

In the earlier days, the followers of Hinduism , Buddhism, and Jainism practiced it. Slowly, it found its way in Western countries. Ever since people from all over the world perform yoga to relax their minds and keep their bodies fit.

Furthermore, after this popularity of yoga, India became known for yoga worldwide. People all over the world have started to realize the benefits of yoga. Several workshops are held and now there are even professional yogis who teach this ancient practice to people so they can learn about it.

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Benefits of Yoga

Yoga has numerous benefits if we look at it closely. You will get relief when you practice it regularly. As it keeps away the ailments from our mind and body. In addition, when we practice several asanas and postures, it strengthens our body and gives us a feeling of well-being and healthiness.

Furthermore, yoga helps in sharpening our mind and improving our intelligence . We can achieve a higher level of concentration through yoga and also learn how to steady our emotions. It connects us to nature like never before and enhances our social well-being.

In addition, you can develop self-discipline and self-awareness from yoga if practiced regularly. You will gain a sense of power once you do it consistently and help you lead a healthy life free from any problems. Anyone can practice yoga no matter what your age is or whichever religion you follow.

21st of June is celebrated as International Day of Yoga where people are made aware of the benefits of yoga. Yoga is a great gift to mankind which helps us keep better and maintain our health. You also develop a higher patience level when you practice yoga which also helps in keeping the negative thoughts away. You get great mental clarity and better understanding.

In short, yoga has several benefits. Everyone must practice it to keep their health maintained and also benefit from it. It is the secret to living a healthy and long life without the use of any artificial means like medicines or any other shortcuts of any kind.

FAQs on Yoga

Q.1 Write about the origin of Yoga.

A.1 If we look at the history, we see that Yoga originated in India. This ancient practice began when various yogis started performing yoga. Yoga translates to union and discipline and is derived from the Sanskrit language. The religious followers of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism used to practice it in the earlier days.

Q.2 What are the benefits of Yoga?

A.2 Yoga has not one but many benefits. It helps in keeping our mental and physical health intact. It helps us to connect to nature. Furthermore, your body becomes more flexible after consistent yoga practice and you also develop a great sense of self-discipline and self-awareness. In short, it improves our well-being and gives us better mental clarity.

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Essay on Yoga

Here we have shared the Essay on Yoga in detail so you can use it in your exam or assignment of 150, 250, 400, 500, or 1000 words.

You can use this Essay on Yoga in any assignment or project whether you are in school (class 10th or 12th), college, or preparing for answer writing in competitive exams.

Topics covered in this article.

Essay on Yoga in 150 words

Essay on yoga in 250-300 words, essay on yoga in 500-1000 words.

Yoga is an ancient practice originating from India, known for its physical, mental, and spiritual benefits. Combining physical postures, breathing techniques, and meditation, yoga promotes overall well-being. It enhances flexibility, strength, and balance while reducing stress and anxiety. Yoga cultivates mindfulness, improving focus and promoting inner peace. The ethical principles of yoga guide practitioners towards positive values such as compassion and truthfulness. It is inclusive and suitable for people of all ages and fitness levels. Yoga has gained global popularity and recognition, leading to the establishment of International Yoga Day on June 21st. It is a transformative practice that improves physical health, mental well-being, and spiritual growth. By embracing yoga, individuals can find harmony, balance, and inner peace, enhancing their overall quality of life.

Yoga is an ancient practice that originated in India and has gained global popularity for its numerous physical, mental, and spiritual benefits. It is a holistic discipline that combines physical postures, breathing techniques, meditation, and ethical principles to promote overall well-being.

The practice of yoga brings harmony between the body and mind, enhancing flexibility, strength, and balance. It improves physical fitness and promotes relaxation, reducing stress and anxiety. Regular practice of yoga helps to increase mindfulness, improve focus, and cultivate a sense of inner peace.

Yoga is not just a physical exercise but a way of life. It encourages self-discipline, self-awareness, and self-transformation. The ethical principles of yoga, known as the Yamas and Niyamas, guide practitioners toward compassion, truthfulness, contentment, and other positive values.

The beauty of yoga lies in its inclusivity. It can be practiced by people of all ages and fitness levels. Whether you are a beginner or an advanced practitioner, yoga offers a space for personal growth and self-exploration.

Yoga has transcended cultural boundaries and has become a global phenomenon. Its popularity is attributed to its effectiveness in promoting physical health, mental well-being, and spiritual growth. It has also been recognized by the United Nations, which declared June 21st as International Yoga Day, highlighting its significance as a holistic practice for humanity.

In conclusion, yoga is a transformative practice that benefits individuals physically, mentally, and spiritually. Its ancient wisdom and holistic approach make it a valuable tool for managing stress, improving fitness, and promoting overall well-being. By embracing yoga, individuals can cultivate a balanced and harmonious life, finding inner peace and contentment amidst the challenges of the modern world.

Title: The Transformative Power of Yoga – Cultivating Harmony in Body, Mind, and Spirit

Introduction :

Yoga, an ancient practice originating from India, has gained global popularity for its holistic approach to health and well-being. Combining physical postures, breathing techniques, meditation, and ethical principles, yoga offers a comprehensive system for cultivating harmony in body, mind, and spirit. This essay explores the origins and philosophy of yoga, its physical and mental benefits, and its profound impact on personal transformation.

Origins and Philosophy

Yoga traces its roots back thousands of years to ancient Indian civilization. It is deeply rooted in Hindu philosophy and encompasses various paths to self-realization. The word “yoga” comes from the Sanskrit word “yuj,” which means to unite or join. It refers to the union of the individual self (jiva) with the universal consciousness (Brahman).

The practice of yoga is guided by the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, a foundational text that outlines the philosophy and principles of yoga. Patanjali describes yoga as the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind, leading to a state of inner stillness and self-awareness.

Physical Benefits of Yoga

Yoga offers numerous physical benefits that contribute to overall health and well-being. The practice of asanas, or physical postures, improves flexibility, strength, and balance. It enhances body awareness, alignment, and posture, reducing the risk of injuries. Regular yoga practice can alleviate chronic pain, improve cardiovascular health, and enhance the functioning of the respiratory, digestive, and immune systems.

Mental and Emotional Benefits of Yoga

Beyond the physical realm, yoga provides profound mental and emotional benefits. The practice of pranayama, or breathing techniques, calms the nervous system, reduces stress, and promotes relaxation. Meditation cultivates mindfulness, improving focus, concentration, and emotional stability. Yoga fosters self-acceptance, self-compassion, and resilience, helping individuals navigate life’s challenges with greater ease. It promotes mental clarity, creativity, and a sense of inner peace.

Ethical Principles of Yoga

Yoga is not just a physical exercise but a way of life. It encompasses ethical principles known as the Yamas and Niyamas, guiding practitioners towards a virtuous and mindful existence. The Yamas include non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, moderation, and non-possessiveness. The Niyamas include purity, contentment, self-discipline, self-study, and surrender to a higher power. These principles encourage individuals to cultivate positive relationships, live with integrity, and embrace self-reflection and personal growth.

Personal Transformation and Spirituality

Yoga is a transformative practice that goes beyond the physical and mental realms, opening doors to spiritual growth and self-realization. It provides a path for individuals to connect with their inner selves and tap into their innate wisdom and intuition. The practice of yoga fosters a sense of interconnectedness, recognizing the oneness of all beings and the unity of the universe. It invites individuals to explore their spiritual nature and cultivate a deeper sense of purpose and meaning in life.

The Global Impact of Yoga

Yoga’s profound impact has transcended cultural boundaries, reaching people of diverse backgrounds and belief systems worldwide. It has gained recognition for its ability to improve physical health, mental well-being, and overall quality of life. In 2014, the United Nations declared June 21st as International Yoga Day, highlighting its global significance. On this day, people around the world come together to celebrate and practice yoga, emphasizing its role in promoting peace, harmony, and unity.

Conclusion :

Yoga is a transformative practice that offers a holistic approach to health and well-being. It harmonizes the body, mind, and spirit, fostering physical strength, mental clarity, and spiritual growth. Through the practice of asanas, pranayama, meditation, and ethical principles, individuals can experience profound personal transformation. Yoga’s impact extends beyond the individual, promoting global unity, peace, and interconnectedness. As more people embrace yoga, its benefits continue to ripple through society, creating a positive impact on individuals, communities, and the world at large. By cultivating inner harmony, practicing mindfulness, and embodying the principles of yoga, we can lead more fulfilling, balanced, and purposeful lives.

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Essay on Yoga

500+ words essay on yoga.

Yoga is an Art and Science of healthy living. It is a spiritual discipline based on an extremely subtle science, which focuses on bringing harmony between mind and body. The holistic approach of Yoga brings harmony to all walks of life. Yoga is also known for disease prevention, promotion of health and management of many lifestyle-related disorders. Through this Essay on Yoga, students will get to know the importance and benefits of performing yoga. By going through this essay , students will get different ideas on how to write an effective Essay on Yoga in English to score full marks in the writing section.

Meaning of Yoga

The word yoga literally means “to yoke” or “union”. More than just a practice of physical exercises, Yoga is the coming together of the individual self or consciousness, with the infinite universal consciousness or spirit. Yoga is a method of inquiry into the nature of the mind, which emphasises practice and direct experience. Yoga is an ancient art based on a harmonising system for development of the body, mind, and spirit. Yoga signifies the ‘integration of personality at the highest level. It includes various practices and techniques mentioned in the yogic literature and is collectively referred to as ‘Yoga’.

Importance of Yoga

Yoga encourages a positive and healthy lifestyle for the physical, mental and emotional health of children. Yoga helps in the development of strength, stamina, endurance and high energy at the physical level. It also empowers oneself with increased concentration, calm, peace and contentment at a mental level leading to inner and outer harmony. With the help of yoga, you can manage daily stress and its consequences.

Yoga brings stability to the body and the wavering mind. It increases the lubrication of joints, ligaments, and tendons of the body. Studies in the field of medicine suggest that Yoga is the only form of physical activity that provides complete conditioning to the body because it massages all the internal organs and glands. It reduces the risk of many diseases. Yoga can create a permanently positive difference in the lifestyle of anybody practising it on a regular basis.

Benefits of Yoga

Yoga is a perfect way to ensure overall health and physical fitness. The physical building blocks of yoga are posture (asana) and breath. Through meditation, and breathing exercises (called pranayama), you can banish all your stress and lead a healthy life. In fact, it is one of the best remedies known to humankind, for curing chronic ailments that are otherwise difficult to be cured by other medications. People suffering from backaches and arthritis are often suggested to do asanas that concentrate on the exercise of the muscles at strategic locations. Pranayamas are the best breathing exercises to increase the capacity of the lungs.

A series of poses held in time with breathing, helps every part of the body. Yoga increases strength, endurance, flexibility, and balance. It increases the ability to perform activities, provides more energy and gives a restful sleep. Performing yoga daily helps in building muscular strength. The different asanas make the body more flexible. Moreover, yoga prevents cartilage and joint breakdown, increases blood flow, and lowers blood sugar. The most important benefit of yoga are its application in relieving stress, fatigue, invigoration and vitality. Yoga works as an immunity booster and gives peace of mind.

The amazing thing about Yoga is that its positive effects on the health and mind are visible over time. Another speciality about Yoga is its wide choice of asanas. Depending upon your stamina and overall health, you can choose from mild pranayamas and asanas to high-intensity asanas. It is a medication without the actual use of medicines. Moreover, no visible side effects are associated with the practice of Yoga on a regular basis. All you need to know is the most appropriate asanas according to the ability and structure of your body. Also, you need to learn the right way of performing the asanas because any wrong attempt can cause sprains and injuries.

Yoga practice is safe and can bring many health benefits to practitioners. The beauty of Yoga is that it can be practised by anyone. It doesn’t matter how old you are or what shape you are in. Yoga increases an individual’s physical coordination and promotes better posture. It helps stimulate the circulatory system, the digestive process as well as the nervous and endocrine systems. Yoga is dynamite to make you feel younger, refreshed and energetic.

Yoga is the perfect example of holistic health because of its combination of mind and body. It has become more popular than ever, with celebrities, politicians, business people, and people from every walk of life currently practising. Yoga is a multidisciplinary tool extremely useful to purify the mind and body and gain control over our minds and emotions. It is the most popular means for self-transformation and physical well-being.

Frequently Asked Questions on Essay on Yoga

Why is yoga important.

Regular Yoga practice can help in body relaxation and flexibility. Relieves chronic stress and releases mental distress.

What are the benefits of Yoga?

Yoga makes the body flexible and improves breathing patterns. It can help build muscle strength and regulate blood flow. Practising yoga regularly thus helps keep diseases away and improves immunity

Mention a few easy Yoga poses.

Padmasana (sitting pose), tadasana (mountain pose), and balasana (Child’s pose) are three examples of yoga poses.

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Essay on Yoga for Students and Children

Yoga, an ancient practice originating in India, is more than just a physical exercise; it is a path to holistic well-being. In this essay, I will argue for the importance of yoga, discussing its profound physical, mental, and emotional benefits that make it a valuable practice for people of all ages

The Origins of Yoga

Yoga has been practiced for thousands of years. It was first mentioned in ancient Indian texts called the Vedas, and it has evolved over time into various forms and styles. Its deep roots in history and culture contribute to its significance today.

Physical Health Benefits

Yoga offers a wide range of physical health benefits. It improves flexibility, strength, and balance. Regular yoga practice can reduce the risk of injuries, increase joint mobility, and enhance overall physical fitness.

Mental Clarity and Focus

One of the key aspects of yoga is mindfulness and meditation. These practices help calm the mind, reduce stress, and improve concentration. Research has shown that yoga can boost cognitive functions and enhance mental clarity.

Emotional Well-being

Yoga promotes emotional well-being by reducing anxiety and depression. It encourages self-awareness and self-acceptance, helping individuals manage their emotions more effectively. This emotional balance is crucial for mental health.

Stress Reduction

In our fast-paced world, stress has become a common issue. Yoga offers powerful techniques to manage stress. It lowers cortisol levels (a stress hormone) and activates the relaxation response in the body, leading to a sense of calm.

Improved Posture

Many people today suffer from poor posture due to prolonged sitting and screen use. Yoga helps correct posture by strengthening the muscles that support the spine. This can alleviate back and neck pain.

Better Sleep

Sleep is vital for overall health, and yoga can improve sleep quality. The relaxation and breathing exercises in yoga can help individuals fall asleep faster and enjoy more restful sleep

Heart Health

Yoga has been shown to have a positive impact on heart health. It can lower blood pressure, reduce cholesterol levels, and improve circulation. These factors contribute to a healthier cardiovascular system.

Flexibility for All Ages

One of the great things about yoga is that it can be practiced by people of all ages and fitness levels. It is never too late to start, and its gentle approach makes it accessible to everyone.

Mind-Body Connection

Yoga emphasizes the mind-body connection, encouraging individuals to be present in the moment. This connection fosters self-awareness and self-acceptance, leading to a more balanced and fulfilling life.

Expert Opinions

Experts in the fields of health and wellness have recognized the value of yoga. Medical professionals, psychologists, and fitness instructors often recommend yoga as a complementary therapy to enhance physical and mental health.

Yoga in Schools

Yoga is increasingly being introduced in schools as a means to improve students’ focus, reduce stress, and enhance overall well-being. It provides tools for children to manage the challenges they face.

Conclusion of Essay on Yoga

In conclusion, yoga is a powerful practice that offers a multitude of physical, mental, and emotional benefits. Its origins in ancient India have paved the way for its popularity worldwide today. Whether you are looking to improve physical fitness, reduce stress, enhance mental clarity, or simply find balance in life, yoga can be a transformative tool. It is a practice that can benefit people of all ages and backgrounds, promoting holistic well-being and a greater sense of self. By incorporating yoga into our lives, we can embark on a journey of self-discovery, improved health, and a deeper connection between mind and body. Yoga is not just an exercise; it is a path to a happier and healthier life.

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Yoga Essay in English for Students and Benefits of Yoga

Yoga is a very ancient practice in India. It has lots of benefits for someone who does it regularly. It improves a person’s mental, emotional, and spiritual wellbeing. This article has yoga essays for Students.

October 19, 2023

Table of Contents

Yoga Essay: Yoga, a timeless practice rooted in India’s history and philosophy, offers a path to physical, mental, and spiritual harmony. Yoga’s holistic approach to health and well-being makes it a valuable tool for a healthier, happier life, supported by ongoing scientific research. In this article, we’ll give you Yoga essays.

Essay on Benefits of Yoga

Yoga, a millennia-old practice from India, combines physical, mental, and spiritual exercises, gaining global popularity. This essay explores yoga’s advantages and its integral role in people’s lives.

Physical Benefits

Enhanced Flexibility: Yoga increases flexibility, reducing injury risk.
Improved Strength: It promotes functional strength and posture.
Enhanced Balance: Yoga enhances coordination and stability, especially in older adults.
Pain Relief: It alleviates chronic pain conditions like back pain and arthritis.

Mental Benefits

Stress Reduction: Yoga lowers stress and promotes relaxation.
Mental Clarity: It sharpens focus and cognitive function.
Emotional Balance: Yoga fosters emotional awareness and management.
Improved Sleep: It aids in relaxation and better sleep.

Spiritual Benefits

Self-Discovery: Yoga encourages self-understanding and personal growth.
Connection: Some find spiritual connection through yoga.

General Well-Being

Weight Management: Yoga aids weight loss and balanced living.
Digestive Health: It improves digestion and gastrointestinal health.
Immune System Boost: Yoga strengthens the immune system.
Longevity: Practitioners report increased vitality and longer lives.

Yoga Essay in English

Introduction.

Yoga, an ancient practice from India, has become a global phenomenon, offering holistic well-being. This essay explores yoga’s history, its physical and mental benefits, and its modern relevance.

Historical Origins

Yoga’s roots lie in the Sanskrit word “yuj,” meaning unity. It began over 5,000 years ago and evolved into various disciplines.

Varieties of Yoga

Hatha Yoga: Focuses on postures and breathing.
Vinyasa Yoga: A dynamic flow of postures.
Ashtanga Yoga: A rigorous, sequenced practice.
Kundalini Yoga: Combines postures, meditation, and chanting.
Bikram Yoga: Involves a specific series in a heated room.

Physical and Mental Benefits

Yoga offers physical benefits like flexibility and strength. It promotes stress reduction, concentration, emotional stability, and self-awareness.

Relevance in the Modern World

In our fast-paced world, yoga offers a retreat from chaos, accessible to all, and continues to thrive in yoga studios, online classes, and wellness centres.

Yoga, a timeless practice, provides a path to well-being, whether improving fitness, reducing stress, or finding inner peace. Embrace yoga’s wisdom for a healthier, balanced life.

Importance of Yoga

Yoga’s holistic significance.

The importance of yoga transcends the realms of physical exercise and extends deep into the realms of holistic well-being both physically and mentally. This ancient practice which originated in India thousands of years ago has gained global recognition for its numerous benefits.

Physical Health Benefits

Enhances flexibility, strength and balance.
Improves circulation potentially alleviating chronic pain and reducing injury risk.
Emphasises deep and mindful breathing techniques enhancing lung capacity and overall vitality.

Mental Wellness

A powerful stress-reduction tool for managing anxiety and depression.

Encourages relaxation and mindfulness through meditative aspects.

Fosters inner peace and emotional stability essential in today’s fast-paced world.

Beyond the Physical and Mental

Instils discipline, patience and self-awareness.
Encourages individuals to connect with their inner selves.
Builds a harmonious relationship between mind and body.

In a well-being focused world, yoga is an invaluable practice that promotes holistic health making it an indispensable tool for those seeking a balanced and fulfilling life.

Yoga Essay in 300 words

Yoga, an ancient practice, endures as a holistic approach to well-being, with origins dating back over 5,000 years to the Indus Valley. It ranks among the world’s oldest forms of self-care and exercise, transcending cultural boundaries to attract millions of practitioners globally. This essay delves into yoga’s rich history, guiding principles, benefits, and its profound impact on the body, mind, and spirit.

The History of Yoga

Yoga’s history intertwines deeply with the spiritual and philosophical traditions of ancient India. Initially developed for spiritual awareness and self-realisation, the word “yoga” is rooted in the Sanskrit term “yuj,” signifying unity between the individual self (Atman) and universal consciousness (Brahman). Its history can be divided into the Vedic, classical, and modern eras, with Sage Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras during the classical period setting out the eight limbs of yoga, including ethical guidelines, physical postures (asanas), breath control (pranayama), and meditation techniques.

The Principles of Yoga

Yoga rests on fundamental principles:

Ahimsa (Non-Violence): Promoting kindness and respect for all living beings.
Satya (Truthfulness): Encouraging honesty in actions and words.
Asteya (Non-Stealing): Advocating contentment and avoiding theft.
Brahmacharya (Moderation): Emphasising balance in diet, behaviour, and thoughts.
Aparigraha (Non-Possessiveness): Focusing on detachment from material possessions and desires.

The Physical Benefits of Yoga

Yoga offers physical benefits, enhancing flexibility, strength, balance, posture, and overall bodily system functioning. Different asanas target various muscle groups, leading to a toned and supple body. It also contributes to improved circulatory, digestive, and immune system health while mitigating chronic pain.

The Mental and Emotional Benefits of Yoga

Mental and emotional benefits include stress reduction, enhanced mental clarity, emotional stability, and inner peace through meditation and mindfulness. Yoga fosters self-awareness, aiding individuals in understanding their thought patterns and emotions.

The Spiritual Benefits of Yoga

Yoga’s spiritual aspects persist, promoting a deeper connection with the self and, for some, unity with the universe through meditation and self-reflection.

Yoga, a profound practice uniting the body, mind, and spirit, draws from rich ancient Indian traditions. Its principles guide ethical living, mindfulness, and personal growth. Offering extensive physical, mental, and spiritual benefits, yoga is a valuable tool for holistic well-being, enabling individuals to attain harmony and unity within themselves and the world.

Yoga Essay in 150 words

Yoga, an ancient practice hailing from India, has garnered global acclaim due to its multifaceted advantages encompassing physical, mental, and spiritual aspects. It melds physical postures, controlled respiration, and meditative techniques. In a mere 150 words, an exhaustive portrayal of yoga proves challenging, yet we’ll explore its significance.

Yoga fosters physical well-being by enhancing flexibility, strength, and equilibrium. Mentally, it aids in stress reduction and heightened mindfulness. Additionally, it forges a connection to one’s inner self, cultivating self-awareness and inner tranquillity.

Furthermore, yoga’s versatility renders it accessible to individuals spanning various age groups and fitness levels. Its capacity to mitigate issues like anxiety, depression, and chronic pain has earned recognition. This practice also underscores the value of proper nutrition and relaxation, thereby advocating a healthful lifestyle.

In essence, yoga transcends the realm of mere exercise; it evolves into a lifestyle, nurturing harmony among body, mind, and spirit. Its transformative abilities and holistic well-being promotion are undeniable.

Short Essay on Yoga

Yoga, an ancient Indian practice, has transcended borders to become a worldwide sensation, with its profound impact on physical, mental, and spiritual well-being. Beyond a mere exercise routine, it’s a comprehensive way of life. This essay explores yoga’s essence and its significance today.

Origins of Yoga

Yoga’s roots stretch back thousands of years to the Indus Valley civilization, designed to unite the individual with universal consciousness (“yoga” means unity). Indian philosophical texts like the Yoga Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita underpin its philosophy.

Physical Health

Yoga significantly enhances physical health through postures improving flexibility, strength, and balance. Regular practice alleviates chronic pain, corrects posture, and boosts overall fitness. It also emphasises proper breathing techniques, increasing circulation and reducing stress.

Mental and Emotional Well-being

Yoga extends to mental and emotional well-being. Mindfulness and meditation cultivate self-awareness and emotional stability, reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. Breathing and meditation are vital tools for navigating modern life’s challenges.

Spiritual Growth

Yoga intertwines with spiritual growth, providing a path for self-discovery and a connection to higher consciousness. While not religious, it encourages self-realisation and understanding of life’s purpose.

Yoga in the Modern World

Today, yoga is accessible through studios, online classes, and resources, making it inclusive for diverse audiences.

Yoga isn’t merely physical exercise; it’s a holistic approach to body, mind, and spirit. In our complex world, it continues to guide individuals towards a healthier, more fulfilling life amidst chaos. Its global appeal is a testament to the enduring relevance of its ancient wisdom in our modern lives.

Yoga Essay FAQs

Yoga is not a religion but has its foundations in spirituality. It can be practised in a secular or spiritual context.

Consistency is crucial. Engaging in yoga 2-3 times a week can result in noticeable improvements.

Meditation is a fundamental aspect of yoga, contributing to mental clarity, concentration, and inner tranquillity.

Prenatal yoga classes are tailored to expectant mothers and provide safe poses and breathing techniques suitable for pregnancy.

Basic yoga necessitates minimal equipment - a mat, comfortable attire, and, optionally, yoga props such as blocks and straps.

An often mistaken belief is that yoga revolves exclusively around physical contortions, whereas, in truth, it encompasses a comprehensive approach.

Yoga is adaptable for individuals of all age groups, with adjusted positions available for both youngsters and older adults.

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International Yoga Day Essay

An Introduction to Yoga

Yoga is the ancient way to attain physical, mental, and spiritual practice. Primarily originating in India, the word 'yoga' is derived from Sanskrit, meaning to unite. This unity signifies the ultimate union of the body with consciousness and thus attaining definitive peace.

Recognizing the universal appeal of Yoga, on December 11 2014, the United Nations proclaimed June 21 to be marked as the International Day of Yoga.

It was first started by our present Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi. He celebrated Yoga Day for the first time on June 21 in 2015, after which Yoga Day started being celebrated all over the world on June 15, and it turned into International Yoga Day. Since then, Yoga Day has been celebrated every year by the Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga, Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, Sowa-Rigpa and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) in India.

As per the calendar, this date is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and the shortest in the Southern Hemisphere. Also, from the Yoga's perspective, this summer solstice marks the transition to Dakshinayana. Dakshinayana is the six-month tenure for the sun to travel to the south on the celestial sphere in between the Summer and the Winter solstice.

In today's times, this is practised in various forms across different parts of the world and is growing more and more popular. The main aim of celebrating International Day of Yoga is to raise awareness of the multitude of benefits of Yoga. However, Yoga is much more than just a mere physical activity.

As per one of the famous Yoga practitioners, late B. K. S. Iyengar, Yoga is the best way to cultivate and maintain a balanced attitude in daily life while bequeathing the best of performance skills in every action being made.

History of International Yoga Day

Yoga is a centuries-old practice that originated somewhere around 5,000 years ago in India. This was looked up as a process and technique to interconnect the mind, body and soul together and take a step closer to enlightenment. As this practice gained popularity in the West, this started to be termed an exercise and relaxation method. This was also associated with the claims to alleviate any existing physical injuries and chronic pains.

The idea to mark June 21 as International Yoga Day was first proposed by India's Prime Minister Narendra Modi on September 27, 2014. It was during his UN General Assembly speech where the resolution was introduced by India's Ambassador, Asoke Kumar Mukerji, to June 21 as International Yoga Day.

On June 21, 2015, i.e., when this day was first celebrated, more than 36,000 people from all over India joined Prime Minister Modi to perform 21 yoga postures, also called asanas, for 35 minutes at Rajpath, New Delhi. Shri Narendra Modi was further joined by other high-profile political and famous leaders across the globe.

What is Yoga?

Yoga is a process in which man tries to bring his mind, body and soul together. Yoga is a Sanskrit word meaning to meet or be united. Yoga originates from Indian culture. People have been practising Yoga since about 5000 years ago. Yoga does not have physical fitness primarily; in Yoga, people try to control their body and mind through mental focus and breathing methods.

If men teach Yoga, then they are called yogis, and if women teach, they are called yoginis. Yoga Sutra is a 2000-year-old book. This is the only book in which written evidence of Yoga has been found. This book is the oldest book about Yoga. Yogic philosophy is described in this book. A lot of methods have been conveyed about how someone can control their mind, their emotion, and merge into spirituality.

Yoga is divided into six branches, namely Hatha Yoga, Raja yoga, Karma yoga, Bhakti yoga, Jnana yoga, Tantra yoga. There are also seven chakras of yoga styles namely Sahasram chakra, Ajna chakra, Vishuddha chakra, Anahata chakra, Manipura chakra, Svadhishthana chakra, Muladhara chakra.

There are total 13 types of Yoga: Kundalini Yoga, Vinyasa Yoga, Hatha Yoga, Ashtanga Yoga, Yin Yoga, Iyengar Yoga, Bikram Yoga, Power Yoga, Sivananda Yoga, Restorative Yoga, Prenatal Yoga, Aerial Yoga, Acro Yoga.

Benefits of Yoga

Yoga is the only process in which you can exercise without any equipment. Not only that but in Yoga, you can drive away your diseases without any medicine.

With Yoga, you can increase the flexibility of your body. If there is flexibility in one's body, then the pain is much less in that body. Doing Yoga can relieve your pain.

If a person does Yoga for 20 to 30 minutes daily, then his body does not get tired throughout the day.

Yoga is very beneficial for children. Yoga is also helpful in calming the mind, and it is also helpful in showing the right attitude. Doing Yoga produces positive thoughts, and it also takes the mind to do the right thing

Muscles get strong by doing Yoga. By going to the gym, doing weight exercises also strengthen muscles, but when you do Yoga, your muscles become strong, and at the same time, it becomes flexible also, so there is no arthritis and back pain.

Doing Yoga keeps the mind calm. By doing this, anxiety does not come. Diseases like mental stress and hypertension remain away from the body.

Doing Yoga improves human posture.

Yoga helps bones remain strong, and there is no joint pain. Blood flow remains good by doing Yoga. It also improves the heart rate of the body and also boosts immunity. Not only this, but Yoga also helps in controlling blood pressure and controls blood sugar levels.

Weight loss is also very quick and easy due to Yoga. Yoga makes the person happy all the time. It enhances peace of mind which leads to good sleep.

Role of India to promote Yoga

Yoga originated in India. Yoga has been practised in India for about 5000 years; every person in India knows about Yoga very much in advance, people know its benefits, and it has been done before it became popular in the world. In his speech given in the UN, the current Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi, gave the idea of making International Yoga important.

He said in his speech," Yoga is an invaluable gift of India's ancient tradition. It embodies unity of mind and body; thought and action; restraint and fulfilment; harmony between man and nature; a holistic approach to health and well-being. It is not about exercise but discovering the sense of oneness with yourself, the world and nature. Changing our lifestyle and creating consciousness can help in well-being. Let us work towards adopting an International Yoga Day."

With this, the UN Assembly accepted this proposal and decided to celebrate International Yoga Day on June 21 every year. Also, there are several exercises being organized in the schools like writing International Yoga Day Essays for students in English and other vernacular languages.

Significance of Yoga

Shiva, also known as Adiyogi, is considered the originator and creator of Yoga. This was further brought to the masses by the Saptarishis. As per the Indian mythological story, Shiva sat in a meditating position for years. Then, seven people were impressed by his level of determination, so they decided to learn from him, and they sat still for more than 84 years.

After this, Lord Shiva noticed these 7 beings on the summer solstice day and transmitted the science of meditation to the Saptarishis (7 rishis).

International Yoga Day 2021: List of suggested Activities in India

To reach out to the people and induct them into the delightful world of Yoga, some of the activities suggested this year were:

Internal guidelines issuance within the offices with the background of the observation of the then International Day of Yoga. This can also be mentioned or displayed on the respective websites for awareness.

With social media platforms, cover the latest updates and details about International Yoga Day.

Preach the staff with Common Yoga Protocol and organize the online training programmes for these protocols

Ensure maximum participation for the Common Yoga Protocol in a COVID-19 compliant manner.

Circulate the relevant materials to all employees and associates to further share the awareness.

Organize related activities like online lectures sessions and workshops for Yoga experts.

Circulation of Yoga costumes, mats, and other related goodies to motivate all for Yoga practising and adoption.

Publish Yoga and specific articles across organizations with official e-newsletters, bulletins, magazines, and other publishings.

International Yoga Day Objectives

The main objective to adopt International Yoga Day is as mentioned below.

Promote enhanced mental and physical health advantages amongst the people.

Aware the public of Yoga's holistic advantages.

Promote awareness among people about Yoga's natural and amazing results.

Assist people to connect with nature while practising Yoga daily.

Reduction in the rate of fatal diseases across nations.

Unification of communities while devoting quality time for health from monotonous work routines.

Growth enhancement and development together to bring peace.

Encouraging people to eliminate negativity and embrace yoga asanas.

Triumph over bad mental and physical health.

Promote healthy living habits amongst the masses.

International Yoga Day is celebrated every June 21. It was introduced by our honourable Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi. It aims to provide mental health fitness, physical health fitness of mind, body and soul. It also rejuvenates our body and keeps us calm. On this day there are many activities that take place in school along with parents.

FAQs on International Yoga Day Essay

1. What is Yoga?

Yoga is a process in which man tries to bring his mind, body and soul together. Yoga is a Sanskrit word meaning to meet or be united. Yoga originates from Indian culture.

2. When was the first time International Yoga Day was celebrated?

It was first started by our present Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, who celebrated Yoga Day for the first time on June 21 in 2015, after which Yoga Day started being celebrated all over the world on June 15.

3. How Yoga is beneficial for children?

Yoga is very beneficial for children. Yoga helps calm the mind, and it is also helpful in showing the right attitude. Doing Yoga produces positive thoughts, and it also takes the mind to do the right things. That is why doing Yoga can improve the concentration of children in studies. It helps in focusing on the right path. Yoga improves mood swings and reduces stress levels. It also helps improve memory and helps them focus on what they are doing, along with improved sleep levels.

4. How can Yoga benefit our Body Physically?

With Yoga, the bones remain stronger than others, and there would be no joint pain. Yoga enables good blood flow to all the organs and improves heart functioning. Not only this, but Yoga also helps control blood pressure and blood sugar level along with boosting immunity. Yoga also helps weight loss quickly and strengthen muscles. Strengthening muscles is also done with the weight exercises at the gym, but with Yoga, the muscles become flexible at the same time with no further arthritis and back pain.

5. What is the best time to Practice Yoga?

Mornings are the best time to practice Yoga. When you start your day with Yoga, you will experience that you are staying more energetic and focused throughout the day. The prime reason is the fresh air in the morning. It helps you get mentally and physically prepared for the challenges awaiting the rest of the day. Also, after you awake, the muscles stay stiff in the morning. So, practising Yoga in the morning time would stretch your stiff muscles while adding flexibility.

6. What is the frequency of Yoga practice?

Depending on your availability and schedule, you can either join any yoga classes nearby or online, weekly or daily. Yoga practice daily for 15 minutes also would be very beneficial. The best thing about Yoga is that one can take up yoga classes as frequent as one needs. If anyone does not have time to attend classes, online yoga sessions are readily available for them. Just to ensure that while practising yoga at home, you have an appropriate atmosphere to breathe.

7. Which Yoga Style should one follow?

To start with beginners, one needs to be well- aware that there are various forms of Yoga to practice like meditative, fast-paced, slow-paced and restorative forms. These are some of the forms commonly used, and there are other forms as well. Each yoga style is different from others and so as to benefits. Choosing the right yoga style is dependent on factors like age, fitness goals, activity level, current activity level, temperament, time, and more. The beginners might need a lot more time to experiment with different yoga styles to decide the one meeting their needs.

8. How can I download reading material from Vedantu?

Accessing material from Vedantu is extremely easy and student-friendly. Students have to simply visit the website of Vedantu and create an account. Once you have created the account you can simply explore the subjects and chapters that you are looking for. Click on the download button available on the website on Vedantu to download the reading material in PDF format. You can also access all the resources by downloading the Vedantu app from the play store.

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Essay on Yoga: 100 Words, 200 Words

Updated on
Apr 3, 2024

In today’s fast-paced world, stress and anxiety have become a constant factor in everyone’s life. To recover from the stress, it is very important to find inner peace and maintain physical as well as mental wellness. The most ancient way to do this is by practising yoga. Yoga has become one of the first choices of people because of its effectiveness and effortless nature. This blog will deal with yoga, and its benefits and also answer the queries like “Essay on Yoga in 100 or 200 words”.

Table of Contents

1 Benefits of Yoga for Mental and Physical Health
2 Essay on Yoga in 100 Words
3 Essay on Yoga in 200 Words

Benefits of Yoga for Mental and Physical Health

In today’s age, a lot of people now prefer doing yoga and out time of their busy lives to focus on their mental and physical health.

Some of these benefits are:

One of the primary benefits of yoga is that it helps to lower the stress hormone cortisol. The practice encourages mindfulness and deep breathing and activates the relaxation response.
Many individuals who struggle with sleep find relief through yoga . Relaxation techniques and calming postures prepare the body for restful sleep.
Yoga emphasizes alignment and awareness of body positioning, which naturally translates to better posture. This is particularly beneficial for those who spend long hours sitting.
Yoga fosters a connection between the mind and body, allowing practitioners to better understand their emotions and healthily manage them.

Also Read: Essay On Subhash Chandra Bose for Students

Essay on Yoga in 100 Words

Yoga, an ancient practice from India, is a way to keep our bodies and minds healthy. It involves gentle exercises called poses that make our bodies flexible and strong.

Breathing deeply and calmly in yoga helps us feel relaxed and less stressed. Yoga isn’t just about moving our bodies; it’s also about calming our minds through meditation. By practising yoga regularly, we can have better posture, more focus, and less anxiety.

It’s something everyone can do, no matter how old they are. So let’s start making our lies the best from today onwards.

Essay on Yoga in 200 Words

Yoga, an ancient practice that originated in India, is a wonderful way to take care of our bodies and minds. It involves gentle movements and poses that help us become flexible and strong. The special breathing in yoga also brings calmness and reduces stress.

Meditation in yoga helps us think clearly and feel peaceful. This is helpful in our busy lives. Yoga has many benefits. It improves our posture, which is how we sit and stand. It makes our muscles stronger and our joints healthier. Yoga is not just for adults; kids and older people can do it too. It’s a practice for everyone.

By doing yoga regularly, we can stay fit and keep our minds in a good state. It’s like a journey where we can discover our strengths and weaknesses.

Also Read: Holi Essay: Free Sample Essays 100 To 500 Words In English

Simran Popli

An avid writer and a creative person. With an experience of 1.5 years content writing, Simran has worked with different areas. From medical to working in a marketing agency with different clients to Ed-tech company, the journey has been diverse. Creative, vivacious and patient are the words that describe her personality.

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Essay on Yoga

Essay generator.

Yoga, an ancient practice that has its roots in India, transcends beyond just physical postures and breath control; it is a holistic approach to achieving harmony between the body, mind, and spirit. In today’s fast-paced world, where stress and lifestyle diseases predominate, yoga emerges as a beacon of holistic health and mental well-being. This essay explores the essence of yoga, its types, benefits, and the profound impact it has on practitioners, making it an invaluable practice for individuals of all ages.

The Origins and Philosophy of Yoga

Yoga, derived from the Sanskrit word “Yuj,” means to unite or integrate. This ancient discipline, dating back over 5,000 years, was developed with the aim of unifying the individual consciousness with the universal consciousness, leading to a state of eternal bliss and liberation (Moksha). The foundational text of yoga, “The Yoga Sutras,” compiled by the sage Patanjali, outlines the eight limbs of yoga, guiding practitioners towards a disciplined life, ethical conduct, and spiritual enlightenment.

The Eight Limbs of Yoga

Yama (Ethical Standards) : Yama emphasizes moral virtues such as non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, and non-covetousness.
Niyama (Self-Discipline and Spiritual Observances) : This includes purity, contentment, self-discipline, self-study, and surrender to a higher power.
Asana (Postures) : Physical postures that enhance the body’s strength, flexibility, and health.
Pranayama (Breath Control) : Techniques aimed at mastering the respiratory process while recognizing the connection between the breath, the mind, and the emotions.
Pratyahara (Withdrawal of Senses) : Detachment from external stimuli to focus inward.
Dharana (Concentration) : Narrowing down the focus on a single mental object.
Dhyana (Meditation) : Uninterrupted flow of concentration, leading to a meditative state.
Samadhi (Liberation) : Merging the individual consciousness with the universal consciousness, achieving a state of bliss and enlightenment.

Types of Yoga

Yoga encompasses various styles, each catering to different preferences and objectives:

Hatha Yoga : Focuses on physical postures and is perfect for beginners, aiming at body and breath control to calm the mind.
Raja Yoga : Also known as “Royal Yoga,” it emphasizes meditation and strict adherence to the eight limbs of yoga.
Bhakti Yoga : The path of devotion, expressing love and devotion towards a personal deity.
Karma Yoga : The yoga of action, focusing on selfless service and actions without attachment to the results.
Jnana Yoga : The path of knowledge and wisdom, involving deep study and intellectual inquiry.
Kundalini Yoga : Aims to awaken the dormant energy at the base of the spine through specific sets of exercises, breathing techniques, and meditations.

Benefits of Yoga

The benefits of yoga extend far beyond physical fitness. It is a comprehensive practice that improves mental health, emotional stability, and spiritual growth:

Physical Benefits:

Improved Flexibility: Yoga involves a variety of poses and stretches that can help increase flexibility by loosening and lengthening muscles and improving joint mobility.
Enhanced Strength: Many yoga poses require you to support your body’s weight, which helps build and tone muscles, particularly in the core, legs, arms, and back.
Better Posture: Yoga promotes awareness of body alignment and encourages good posture, which can reduce strain on the spine and improve overall body mechanics.
Pain Relief: Yoga can help alleviate chronic pain conditions, such as lower back pain, arthritis, and migraines, by improving muscle strength, flexibility, and relaxation.

Mental Benefits:

Stress Reduction: Practicing yoga often incorporates relaxation techniques like deep breathing and meditation, which can reduce stress and promote a sense of calm and well-being.
Improved Concentration: Yoga involves mindfulness and concentration, which can enhance focus, attention span, and cognitive function.
Mood Enhancement: Regular yoga practice is associated with increased levels of the neurotransmitter GABA, which can help reduce anxiety and depression symptoms and promote a more positive mood.
Better Sleep: The relaxation techniques in yoga can improve sleep quality and help with insomnia by reducing stress and calming the mind.

Emotional Benefits:

Increased Self-Acceptance: Yoga encourages self-compassion and self-acceptance, promoting a positive self-image and self-esteem.
Stress Management: Yoga teaches tools and techniques for coping with stress and life’s challenges, leading to improved emotional resilience.
Enhanced Mindfulness: Yoga fosters mindfulness, allowing individuals to be more present in the moment and less preoccupied with worries about the past or future.
Greater Emotional Stability: Regular yoga practice can help individuals become more emotionally stable and less reactive to external stressors.

Overall Well-being:

Better Circulation: Yoga can improve blood circulation, leading to better oxygenation of tissues and improved overall cardiovascular health.
Detoxification: Certain yoga poses and breathing exercises are believed to aid in the detoxification of the body by stimulating lymphatic drainage and promoting the elimination of waste products.
Weight Management: While not primarily a weight loss practice, yoga can promote mindful eating habits and help maintain a healthy weight by reducing stress-related overeating.
Improved Digestion: Yoga poses and breathing techniques can enhance digestive functions and alleviate common gastrointestinal issues.

Incorporating Yoga into Daily Life

Incorporating yoga into one’s daily routine can seem daunting at first, but it begins with small, consistent steps. Starting with simple asanas and gradually incorporating pranayama and meditation can make the practice more approachable. It is not about perfection but about progress and personal growth. Finding a qualified teacher or joining a yoga community can provide support and guidance on this journey.

Yoga for Students

For students, in particular, yoga offers numerous benefits. It enhances physical health, making them more active and energetic. It improves concentration and memory, crucial for academic success. Moreover, yoga teaches discipline, patience, and perseverance, valuable life skills for personal and professional development.

In conclusion, Yoga is not merely a physical exercise; it is a profound science of achieving harmony between the body, mind, and spirit. Its holistic approach to health and well-being makes it an essential practice for individuals seeking a balanced life. By embracing yoga, one embarks on a transformative journey towards self-discovery, inner peace, and universal harmony. As we continue to navigate the challenges of modern life, the timeless wisdom of yoga offers a beacon of light, guiding us towards a healthier, more fulfilled existence.

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Essay on Yoga in English for Students and Children 1000+ Words

All important details about the Essay on Yoga in English are discussed in this article. In this article, we discuss all important topics such as the Introduction to Yoga, the Meaning of Yoga, the Types of Yoga, the Benefits of Yoga, the Origin of Yoga, and International Yoda Day 2023.

This long essay on yoga in English is suitable for students of classes 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, 11, and 12, and also for competitive exam aspirants. Read and enjoy the complete information about the essay on yoga benefits.

Essay on Yoga in English for Students & Children 1000+ Words

Yoga is a trend that has flourished over the years; Rather it has become a trendsetter in maintaining both physical and mental health. Each yogic activity is the key to improving flexibility, strength, balance, and achieving harmony. Yoga Portal is a platform to help people adopt, practice, and enjoy Yoga every day. It is a perfect gateway to discovering the best yoga resources, general yoga protocol training videos, and the latest yoga programs to participate in.

Meaning of Yoga

Yoga is a form of exercise to balance the body with the mind. It originated in ancient times and is practiced by yogis. Yoga uses exercise, meditation, and breathing techniques.

Introduction about Yoga

Yoga Essay in English – Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s proposal for the International Day for Yoga was adopted on 11 December 2014 by the United Nations (UN) with record support co-sponsored by 177 of the 193 member countries. June 21 is celebrated as the International Day of Yoga when people are made aware of the benefits of yoga.

Yoga is one of the oldest healthcare systems in India, under which physical and mental balance is maintained at the highest order. The word yoga in Sanskrit means “to unite” and hence yoga refers to a unified discipline.

History of Yoga

The practice of yoga began 5000 years ago during the Indus Valley Civilization in northern India. The Indus Valley Civilization is the suggested origin of yoga as several yoga positions are depicted in seals including the Pashupati seal.

Its first mention is found in ‘Rigveda’. Yoga was gradually developed by Brahmins who eventually documented their practices and beliefs in the Upanishads. Initially, yoga lessons and teachings were transferred orally from teachers to disciples. These were followed by Patanjali in the first century in the name of ‘Yoga Sutras’. The ‘Yoga Sutras’ are the most credited source of yoga, hence Patanjali is known as the ‘Father of Yoga’.

International Yoga Day June 21

The idea of an International Day of Yoga was first proposed by the current Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi, during his speech at the UNGA (United Nations General Assembly), on 25th September 2014. Following this initial resolution, UNGA held informal consultations on a draft resolution titled ‘International Day of Yoga’ on 14 October 2014.

India’s proposal for an International Day of Yoga received overwhelming support from 177 out of 193 members. June 21 was chosen as the day because it is the longest day in the Northern Hemisphere and holds special significance for many countries.

Origin of Yoga

The origins of yoga date back more than 4,000 years when Patanjali laid down the description of yoga, which has turned into a scientific method aimed at uniting the mind, body, and soul.

This union which comes through yoga is said to bring about not only physical benefits but mental benefits as well, taking the individual to a level that could not be reached by manipulating one factor alone.

Is yoga helpful during the COVID-19 lockdown?

This is the heritage of India. The word yoga comes from the Sanskrit word ‘yug’ which means ‘to join’, ‘to add’, ‘to unite’, or ‘to attach’. Thus, yoga is the union of mind, body, and spirit. It includes physical, mental, and spiritual exercises. Yoga is not only known to be beneficial for the heart and blood circulation, but its practice can provide the body with incredible immunity boosters to fight against COVID-19.

Types of Yoga

Yoga is one of the most popular physical practices worldwide and is the legacy of its followers who take an oath to it. Some of the important types of yoga are Hath Yoga , Iyengar Yoga, Kundalini Yoga, Vinyasa Yoga, Bikram Yoga, Hot Yoga, Jivamukti Yoga, Power Yoga, Aerial Yoga, etc.

Benefit of Yoga

People from all over the world perform yoga to relax and keep their bodies fit. People all over the world have started to realize the benefits of yoga.
Yoga exercises have electrifying impacts on the nervous system through their non-tiring physiological activities that bring about ease of body and mind. Unlike normal workouts that concentrate more on the inflation of the muscles, Yoga takes care of every little part of the anatomy.
The human body is a machine that continues to perform without any break, and the metabolic process creates toxins and waste products. Therefore, to maintain the purity of blood and elimination of toxins, both external and internal hygiene are indispensable.
The benefits of various yoga techniques have been considered to improve body flexibility, performance, stress reduction, attainment of inner peace, and self-realization.
Physical Benefit – It improves body flexibility, strong cardiovascular endurance, muscle strength, relaxation of muscle tension, weight control, increased energy level, increased immune system, etc.
Spiritual benefits include meaning, purpose, direction, inner peace of life, peace, and aesthetic pleasures.
Mental benefits include stress relief, avoidance of stress-related disorders, better decision-making skills, and more.

Body Massage through Yoga

Yoga is perhaps the only form of activity that massages all the internal glands and organs of the body in a profound way, including those such as the prostate that become externally stimulated during our entire lifetime. Yoga acts on different parts of the body in a great way. This stimulation and massage of the organs in turn benefit us by keeping diseases away and providing a foreshadowing at the first possible instance of a possible onset of disease or disorder.

Conclusion about Yoga

When we practice yoga we also develop a higher patience level which also helps in keeping away negative thoughts. It is not merely physical activity, as it enables a person to control mental, emotional, and spiritual thoughts.

It is very beneficial when we make yoga an essential part of our life and practice it on a daily basis. Everyone should practice it to live a healthy and long life.

Anyone can practice yoga, regardless of age or religion. In today’s stressful world, yoga can be a calming exercise and can prove to be an effective way to control lifestyle diseases that the world is struggling to fight. With the increasing number of pandemics and new viruses weakening the immune response of the human body, yoga has the potential to make mankind naturally healthier.

International Yoga Day Theme (2015-2022)

	Yoga for Humanity
	Yoga for Wellness
	Yoga at Home and Yoga with Family
	Yoga for Heart
	Yoga for Peace
	Yoga for Health
	Connect the Youth
	Yoga for Harmony and Peace

Essay On Yoga – 10 Lines, Short and Long Essay for Children

Key Points To Remember When Writing Essay On Yoga For Lower Primary Classes

The history and origin of yoga, why yoga is important for kids, 10 lines essay on yoga for kids, a paragraph on yoga for children, short essay on benefits of yoga for kids, long essay on importance of yoga for children, interesting facts about yoga for kids, what will your child learn from an essay on yoga.

Yoga is an ancient art that was discovered in India over 6000 years ago and was practised by most people in the olden days. However, with busy lives and tight schedules, the practice of yoga has seen a decline. An essay on yoga for classes 1, 2 and 3 will enable kids to highlight the importance of yoga and its benefits. Yoga is now prescribed for a healthy balance between the body, mind, and soul. Writing an essay is a great way of learning about the importance of yoga and reiterating the benefits for children. By reading and writing about Yoga as a route to fitness, children can learn how it benefits them and help them shape their health. Read to learn more about how to help your child write an essay about yoga.

Whenever we write about any topic, it is important to bear in mind that one needs to convey key points that will engage the reader. The points covered must be concise, clear, and pass a message to help the reader understand the subject and gain their attention. Here are a few points to you should know when writing an essay on yoga:

Emphasise the origin and history of yoga.
Stress about the health benefits of yoga.
Mention how yoga helps to balance the mind and relieve mental stress.
An articulate introduction and conclusion summarise all about yoga to capture the readers’ attention.

Yoga was pioneered in the Indian subcontinent and has been around for more than 6000 years. It was religiously practised by yogis, sadhus, and rishis. Derived from the Sanskrit word Yuj, the term yoga means discipline and union. Followers of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism follow yoga. The western world today patronises yoga as one of the best fitness mantras for not just a healthy body but a healthy soul.

Yoga for health and mind is what kids must be aware of whilst writing an essay or in general. From helping the body to be flexible to training the mind to stay calm, yoga is an elixir that can transform the lives of kids. From teaching discipline to reducing impulsivity, yoga is good for helping deal with challenging behaviours. Yoga also helps build muscle strength, increase appetite, and improve concentration in kids.

An essay for classes 1 and 2 on yoga should come under 10 lines. Children need to be precise and mention the crucial points when writing an essay on yoga. Below is a template that can help children get a head start:

Yoga originated in India from Hindu scriptures and is practised worldwide.
People have understood how yoga helps to exercise and calm the mind.
Yoga should not be viewed as just a form of exercise. It should be considered a mantra for a healthy, happy, and peaceful life.
By practising yoga one can find peace and good health.
Yoga is not just an exercise for the body but the mind and soul too.
By practising yoga, one can deal with several challenges, including stress and physical ailments.
Yoga helps make muscles flexible, reduces weight, and also improves the health of the skin.
Yoga helps develop patience and concentration, sharpens memory and brings peace into our lives.
June 21 is celebrated as International Yoga Day every year.
If one practises yoga every day, they are on the path to leading a well-balanced life.

Writing a short paragraph on yoga is different from writing an essay in bullet or numeric format. A paragraph on yoga must combine the introduction, main body, and conclusion. Below is a sample of a short paragraph on yoga:

An art that originated in India many years ago, yoga is now considered one of the best forms of exercise. People have understood the benefits of yoga as it provides good health, a calm mind, revived soul, and balanced life. Yoga can be practised by anyone. Children and adults can practise yoga in their lives. Yoga is a guaranteed way to achieve a balance of body, mind, and soul. International Yoga Day is celebrated every year in June, and several workshops and sessions are conducted worldwide to celebrate the art.

Children in lower primary classes can be expected to write an essay in 150 words. Not very different from writing a short paragraph, children have to be mindful about writing little more details. Below is a sample of an essay on yoga in 150 words:

Yoga is a form of exercise that is not just for those looking to stay fit and healthy but for those who seek harmony in their lives. A mixture of asanas and postures, yoga is aimed to help with flexibility, concentration, and calmness. From bending and stretching to meditation, yoga helps to regulate illnesses, reduce weight and also tackle issues like stress and anxiety. Yoga is the ideal medicine for those who like to lead healthy lives and also make a connection with body, mind, and spirit. Every year on 21 June, International Yoga Day is celebrated.

Class 3 students will be expected to have more knowledge about any given topic. An essay on yoga must be long enough with detailed bits of information to make an interesting read. To help your child learn how to write a long essay, read the template below:

Yoga is a precious art that has been passed on for ages. Originally from India, yoga has found acceptance and importance all over the world. Yoga is considered not just a form of exercise but a way of life. Yoga has far-reaching benefits to achieving perfect harmony in one’s life, from managing physical to mental health. A combination of asanas and postures, yoga is simple to learn and can help improve concentration levels and sharpen the brain. Yoga is said to have benefits when practised from a young age.

Yoga helps develop spiritual progress by balancing the mind and soul. From controlling senses to harmonising inner energy, yoga can develop mindfulness and eradicate stress and anxiety. Yoga is considered to be an alternate therapy to medication and treatment. Hatha yoga, shavasan, and pranayams are a few exercises that are very popular in yoga. The International Yoga Day celebrated on 21 June is widely considered by people as the best way to spread awareness about the goodness of yoga.

Some interesting facts about yoga that kids will love to know and will also help to make their essay more interesting are listed below:

Helps strengthen muscles and manage weight.
Helps increase concentration.
Helps sharpen memory.
Helps improve the health of internal organs
Helps develop self-discipline and awareness when practised regularly.

An essay on yoga will help children learn the importance of yoga in our daily life. The essay will help understand the key essence of yoga – the path to wellness and good health. Apart from just writing an essay and jotting down a few points, children will learn how an ancient practice, if followed with rigidity, could deeply impact our lives.

Yoga brings a sense of balance to and can cure many ailments whilst giving us a motto to strive hard to establish a balance between our inner and outer selves.

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Ashtanga Yoga: Definition, Principles, Practices & History

Since the late 1990s, Ashtanga has been considered one of the most popular forms of yoga in the Western world. Ashtanga centers on a vigorous physical practice that includes a series of poses linked together with breath to form a continuous sequence. The practice demands an intense level of physical strength, flexibility, and endurance, which explains why many people see it as a rigorous and challenging workout. Whether you’re just starting out in yoga, or looking for something new as your goals change, adding an Ashtanga yoga class to your daily workout is a good way to keep your mind and body healthy and strong.

What Is Ashtanga Yoga?

The word Ashtanga is comprised of two Sanskrit words, “Ashta” and “Anga.” “Ashta” refers to the number eight, while “Anga” means limb or body part. Therefore, Ashtanga is the union of the eight limbs of yoga, into one complete, holistic system. These eight-limbs of yoga represent the various branches of the philosophy of the yoga sutras that form the foundation in the Ashtanga Yoga School. The Ashtanga philosophy is to integrate all of the eight limbs of yoga, which include: Yama (moral codes), Niyama (self-discipline), Asana (posture), Pranayama (breath control), Pratyahara (sense withdrawal), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana ( meditation ), and Samadhi (oneness with the self).

Ashtanga is a very dynamic and athletic form of hatha yoga , made up of six series or levels, with a fixed order of postures. It is rooted in vinyasa , the flowing movements between postures, with a focus on energy and breath. While it is a very physical practice, it also promotes mental clarity and inner peace.

Ashtanga posture sequences

Usually, students begin an Ashtanga practice with five repetitions of Sun Salutation A and Sun Salutation B . This is followed by a set of standing poses, in 5 repetitions, then a set of seated poses . After you have mastered these three pose sequences, your instructor will guide you through the advanced series, Advanced A, and Advanced B, Advanced C, and D.

Where did Ashtanga Yoga begin?

Originally, Ashtanga Yoga was created by T. Krishnamacharya as an individualized practice for his young energetic student K. Pattabhi Jois in the early 20th century. The fast paced sun salutation movements are thought to have been influenced by the exercises of Indian wrestlers and gymnasts. Jois was a dedicated student, and he further refined and promoted this new style and soon began teaching others. These exhilarating and challenging posture flows were designed to purify the body to offer peace of mind, and eventually gave rise to many different styles of hot yoga , flow or Vinyasa Yoga, and power yoga.

The Ashtanga Yoga Research Institute, which promotes the teachings and trainings of Ashtanga, is located in Mysore, India. Pattabhi Jois’s grandson, R. Sharath Jois, is the current director of the institute and is the senior authority on the practice. There are many other famous Ashtanga yoga instructors teaching all over the world including David Swenson, Kino MacGregor , Richard Freeman, Maty Ezraty, Tim Miller, David Williams, Chuck Miller, and Tim Feldmann.

Key Principles and yoga practices

There are several key principles that underlie the practice of Ashtanga. This multiple-pronged approach promotes physical health and mental wellbeing. These five principles are necessary for a successful ashtanga practice.

Drishti: A specific drishti , or focal point, is used in each asana. This helps create a more focused and meditative practice.
Vinyasa: The core of the practice is synchronizing the breath to the sequence of postures and transitions in the series.
Bandha : The engagement of the bandhas, or body locks, is encouraged throughout the class to seal in the prana energy and create core stability.
Daily practice: A six-days-per-week routine is encouraged, with Saturday as the rest day. “Moon days,” the days on the full and new moon are also rest days, and women often refrain from practicing during menstruation.

What is the difference between Ashtanga and Vinyasa Yoga?

Ashtanga is a set sequence of asanas while vinyasa is more free-style and improvised. Ashtanga classes begin and end with the class chanting Sanskrit mantras. Vinyasa classes are more popular in gyms and yoga studios and are often heated and play music during the practice.

What is the purpose of Ashtanga?

The intensive physical processes in Ashtanga are all about pushing through mental blocks, and emotional baggage to cultivate mental clarity, mindful breathing, physical strength, flexibility, and endurance. The structure and frequency of the practice is designed to help you quickly improve your body and overall wellness. The set sequence of posture creates a strong framework that allows one to focus on the inner limbs of the yoga sutras.

Benefits Of Ashtanga Yoga

The benefits of Ashtanga yoga are numerous. It is known to be strenuous, so it is great for athletes and people that are looking for a good workout. Like most styles of hatha yoga , Ashtanga focuses on breath, poses, and meditation. A regular yoga practice can improve your flexibility, breathing, and balance. It can increase your stamina, bone density and muscle strength, control your bodyweight, lowers your blood pressure and relieve stress. The benefits of the Ashtanga yoga are not only limited to physical factors. It also helps mentally and spiritually by boosting mental clarity, creating mental calmness and developing better concentration in daily life.

Ashtanga classes

You will find two different types of classes: Ashtanga Led and Ashtanga Mysore. During Ashtanga Led classes, the participants are led by a teacher through the primary, intermediate and advanced series together.

Mysore-style Ashtanga is an open practice time where students move through the same sets of asanas in each sequence but at each students own pace. You will still have the guided help of a trained yoga teacher, but you will need to learn and memorize the asanas and sequences more in this studio class. You can expect to receive more personal attention and hands-on adjustments in a Mysore-style yoga class.

Can beginners do ashtanga yoga?

As it is complicated, precise and physically challenging, Ashtanga is not the best style of yoga for beginners to practice, but beginners are still welcome to start. Because it provides specific and structured movements, you’ll be able to clearly see your improvements and progress. It’s also helpful because the primary sequences start with the kinds of movements and poses that are better suited for beginners. The primary series, also known as Yoga Chikitsa, or Yoga Therapy, is it focuses on centering, and building up a strong and healthy body for the more challenging series that follows. With the emphasis on individual instruction in Mysore-style classes, it’s also great for knowing when you’re doing your asanas correctly.

Is Ashtanga for me?

If you’re a person who needs one-on-one individual instruction, you might benefit from Ashtanga classes. If you’re a seasoned yogi , or you want something that makes it easier to measure your progression in the movements, and is easy to modify the asanas to suit your needs, Ashtanga may be the style of yoga you need. It’s also great if you want to focus your yoga practice on building strength and physical health. Ashtanga can help everyone from beginner to more advanced yoga practitioners.

Ashtanga offers people a highly structured approach to asana practice. You’ll always know when you’re progressing, and be able to tailor your approach to best meet your needs. With regular practice it can bring flexibility, strength, and focus and can also improve your mental state, giving you increased focus and clarity.

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24 responses to “ashtanga yoga: definition, principles, practices & history”.

I’m not that much of an internet reader to be honest but your blogs really nice, keep it up! I’ll go ahead and bookmark your website to come back and read more about Ashtanga and the other styles and practices of yoga.

Thank you so much harika! We really loved reading this article. My interest in learning this method took me to various different committed teachers until I found Ulu yoga who are totally devoted to Ashtanga. They were like a breath of fresh air and are an expert skilled teaching team with emense wisdom that has clearly developed along with the method to now be able to offer well balanced up to date teachings

Great work!

Ashtanga Yoga originated in India from the teachings of a sage named Patanjali and continues to be practiced today. It evolved out of the Hatha Yoga tradition, which emphasizes proper breathing and body alignment. Ashtanga yoga is named after its founder, Sri K. Pattabhi Jois, who is widely revered for his knowledge of the human body and his ability to teach yoga to a wide range of abilities. Though Pattabhi Jois was exceptionally gifted as an instructor, he emphasized the necessity of teachers having the proper body alignment and breath control to properly teach this discipline.

Thanks. I was supposed to buy a book to know about Ashtanga yoga theoretically which costs around $25 & somehow i found it here 😇😇😇.

Thank you so much for sharing this information. This is a fantastic resource on what Ashtanga means, and why it’s so popular. I have recently started practicing Ashtanga Yoga and am loving it. I would like to know more about its history and principles.

Ashthanga Yoga is blessed by our tamil sithar Ayya Thirumoolar in his book Thirumandhiram, and not by somebody like T. Krishnamacharya as is told, The detailed verses for this Yoga is there in Thirumanthiram written by Thirumoolar some 3000 years back.

This is an amazing resource for anyone interested in learning more about Ashtanga Yoga. It has some good information regarding its history and principles. However, there are some inaccuracies. For example, it says that ‘Vinyasa’ is another form of Ashtanga. Actually, Vinyasa means flow. So, they are two different things.

I have always wanted to learn more about Ashtanga Yoga but didn’t know where to begin. Now I feel like I have a good understanding of what it entails.

I have been practicing Ashtanga Yoga since last 5 years. I am very much impressed by the information provided here. Thank You so much for sharing this wonderful knowledge.

Loved reading this blog. Simply written and it hit the nail on the head for me as l am in YTT.

I am definitely hooked fo years after this one.

You have done a wonderful job explaining what Ashtanga is. You have given us a clear picture of what Ashtanga Yoga means and the principles behind it.

This article is very well written and explains the history of Ashtanga Yoga in detail. I have been practicing Ashtanga Yoga since 2009 and find it extremely beneficial.

The information provided here was detailed and well-structured, providing me with even more clarity on t Ashtanga Yoga! Thanks for sharing!

This is a great article about Ashtanga Yoga. It was very informative and gave me some insight into the history of this practice. I found the information about the principles to be especially helpful for me as a beginner. Thanks for taking the time to write such a comprehensive guide – it’s exactly what I needed!

I love the way Ashtanga Yoga challenges my body and mind. It’s a great way to really take my practice to the next level

If you know anything about India and it’s culture, you’d know that no indian woman would let her teacher touch her like Jois was touching when he was doing adjusting. it seems that Jois managed to “sell” Athtanga only to naïve westerners that were willing to listing with very little critical thinking.

I’ve been practicing yoga for years, but I’ve never tried Ashtanga Yoga. This article convinced me to give it a go. I’m intrigued by the synchronized breath and movement and the challenge of the primary series.

It’s helpful to know the differences between Ashtanga Yoga and other types of yoga. Thank you for providing such a clear and concise guide.

This article has been a great resource for me to understand the history and philosophy behind Ashtanga Yoga

I found it fascinating to learn about the history and philosophy behind Ashtanga yoga. I was surprised to learn that Ashtanga yoga is actually a relatively modern form of yoga, having only been developed in the last century.

The idea of “vinyasa” – linking breath with movement – is emphasized in Ashtanga yoga. I am curious about how this specific breathing technique enhances the practice.

I can see why Ashtanga would be great for athletes looking for a good workout. It sounds like a perfect combination of physical intensity and mindfulness.

A six-days-per-week routine? That’s some serious commitment!

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Essay on Yoga for Health

Students are often asked to write an essay on Yoga for Health in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Yoga for Health

Introduction to yoga.

Yoga is an ancient practice from India that connects the mind, body, and spirit. It uses different poses, breathing techniques, and meditation to improve health.

Yoga and Physical Health

Yoga poses strengthen and tone muscles. They also improve balance, flexibility, and posture. Regular practice can help manage weight and promote cardiovascular health.

Yoga and Mental Health

Yoga reduces stress and anxiety by promoting relaxation. It improves concentration, memory, and sleep quality. It also boosts mood and self-esteem.

In conclusion, yoga is a holistic approach to health. It benefits both physical and mental health, making it a valuable habit for all.

250 Words Essay on Yoga for Health

Physical benefits of yoga.

Yoga’s physical benefits are numerous. It enhances strength, flexibility, and balance – crucial elements for maintaining physical health. Yoga also promotes better posture, reducing the risk of back and neck problems that are common in today’s sedentary lifestyle.

Mental and Emotional Benefits

Beyond physical health, yoga fosters mental and emotional well-being. It helps manage stress and anxiety by promoting relaxation and mindfulness. Regular practice of yoga can improve concentration, memory, and mood, contributing to overall mental health.

Yoga and Disease Prevention

Yoga’s holistic approach can aid in the prevention and management of various diseases. It can help regulate blood pressure, blood sugar levels, and cholesterol, reducing the risk of heart disease and diabetes. Yoga also aids digestion and boosts the immune system, further contributing to disease prevention.

In conclusion, yoga offers a comprehensive approach to health. Its practice can result in physical, mental, and emotional benefits, as well as disease prevention. As students, integrating yoga into your daily routine can help manage academic stress, improve concentration, and promote overall well-being. Remember, health is the real wealth.

500 Words Essay on Yoga for Health

Introduction.

Yoga, a practice with ancient roots tracing back to India, has become increasingly popular worldwide for its multifaceted benefits. As a holistic discipline, it combines physical postures, breath control, meditation, and ethical principles. This essay explores the impact of yoga on health, focusing on its physical, mental, and emotional benefits.

Yoga is also beneficial for cardiovascular health. The rhythmic breathing exercises, known as pranayama, can lower blood pressure and heart rate. Coupled with the cardiovascular demands of the asanas, yoga can improve heart health and reduce the risk of heart disease.

Beyond the physical realm, yoga has profound effects on mental and emotional health. Yoga’s meditative component encourages mindfulness, which can reduce stress and anxiety. By focusing on the present moment and the breath, yoga practitioners can achieve a state of calm and clarity.

Yoga and Cognitive Function

Emerging research suggests that yoga may boost cognitive function. The practice can improve concentration, memory, and cognitive flexibility. The meditative aspect of yoga has been linked to changes in brain structure, including increased grey matter density in areas associated with attention and memory.

Yoga as a Preventive Health Strategy

Given its wide-ranging health benefits, yoga can be an effective preventive health strategy. Regular practice can ward off various health issues, from heart disease to mental health disorders. Moreover, yoga’s emphasis on mindfulness can promote healthier lifestyle choices, such as a balanced diet and regular exercise.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

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a watercolor showing a camp of ascetics and animals

Figure 1. Mughals Visit an Encampment of “Sadhus,” from the St. Petersburg Album. India, Mughal dynasty, ca. 1635. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 46 x 29.5 cm. St. Petersburg Institute of Oriental Manuscripts, f.47r

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Figure 2. Akbar Watches a Battle between Two Rival Groups of Saṃnyāsīs at Thaneshwar. (left folio) By Basawan and Asi. India, Mughal dynasty, possibly Pakistan, 1590–95. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 38.1x 22.4 cm. Victoria and Albert Museum, IS.2:62-1896

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Figure 3. Akbar Watches a Battle between Two Rival Groups of Saṃnyāsīs at Thaneshwar. (right folio) By Basawan Asi. India, Mughal dynasty, possibly Pakistan, 1590–95. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 38.1x 22.4 cm. Victoria and Albert Museum, IS.2:62-1896

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Figure 4. Rāmānandī sādhus putting on ashes after bathing at the Ardh Kumbh Melā, Allahabad, February 1995; photo by James Mallinson

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Figure 5. Daśanāmī Nāgā Saṃnyāsīs processing to bathe at the Ardh Kumbh Melā, 1995; photo by James Mallinson

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Figure 6. Young Nāth sādhus at Jwalamukhi, November 2012, photo by James Mallinson

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Fig. 7 The Yogis at Gurkhattri, from Vaki’at-i Baburi (The Memoirs of Babur). By Gobind. India, Mughal dynasty, ca. 1590-3. ©The British Library Board, Or. 3714, f.197r

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Fig. 8 Babur’s 1519 Visit to Gurkhattri, from Vaki’at-i Baburi (The Memoirs of Babur) By Kesu Khurd. India, Mughal dynasty, ca. 1590-93. ©The British Library Board, Or. 3714, f.320v

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Figure 9. A Party of Kanphat Yogis Resting around a Fire. By Mas’ud. India, Mughal dynasty, 1630-40. Tinted drawing with gold; on an album leaf with inner border of marbled paper and an outer border of leaf-motifs in blue and gold; 22.4 x 13 cm (folio), 36.1 x 24 cm (page). © The British Library Board, Johnson Album, 22,15.

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Figure 10 Antelope horn kānphaṭā earring, Jvalamukhi, November 8, 2012; photo by James Mallinson

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Figure 11. Aughar and Kanphata Yogi, from Tashrih al-aqvam, p. 399. India, Hissar, Hansi Cantonment, 1825. Manuscript, watercolor; 31.5 x 22 cm (folio). The British Library Board, Add.27255, f.399b

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Figure 12 Jālandharnāth at Jalore. By Amardas Bhatti. India, Rajasthan, Marwar, Jodhpur, ca. 1805–10. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper; 39 x 29 cm. Mehrangarh Museum Trust, RJS 4126

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Figure 13 Three Aspects of the Absolute, folio 1 from the Nath Charit. By Bulaki. India, Rajasthan, Jodhpur, 1823 (Samvat 1880). Opaque watercolor, gold, and tin alloy on paper; 47 x 123 cm. Mehrangarh Museum Trust, RJS 2399

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Figure 14 Nāth janeo, Bābā Bālaknāth Temple, April 2009; photo by James Mallinson

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Figure 15 Rāmānandī Nāgā at the Kumbh Mela, Haridwar, April 2010; photo by James Mallinson

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Figure 16a. Leader of the Saṃnyāsī troop, detail from Mughals Visit an Encampment of “Sadhus,” from the St. Petersburg Album, ca. 1635. St. Petersburg Institute of Oriental Manuscripts, f.47r (see fig. 1)

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Figure 16b. Detail from right folio of Akbar Watches a Battle between Two Rival Groups of Saṃnyāsīs at Thaneshwar. By Basawan Asi. India, Mughal dynasty, possibly Pakistan, 1590–95. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 38.1x 22.4 cm. Victoria and Albert Museum, IS.2:62-1896

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Figure 16c. Detail from left folio of Akbar Watches a Battle between Two Rival Groups of Saṃnyāsīs at Thaneshwar. By Basawan Asi. India, Mughal dynasty, possibly Pakistan, 1590–95. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 38.1x 22.4 cm. Victoria and Albert Museum, IS.2:62-1896

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Figure 16d. Detail from left folio of Akbar Watches a Battle between Two Rival Groups of Saṃnyāsīs at Thaneshwar. By Basawan Asi. India, Mughal dynasty, possibly Pakistan, 1590–95. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 38.1x 22.4 cm. Victoria and Albert Museum, IS.2:62-1896

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Figure 17 Rāmānandī sādhus putting on ashes after bathing at the Ardh Kumbh Melā, Allahabad, February 1995; photo by James Mallinson

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Figure 18 Detail, Saṃnyāsī with attendants. By Dhanrāj, 1595-1600. From the collection of Ludwig Habighorst

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Figure 20 Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsī Amar Bhāratī, who has held his arm in the air for forty years, Kumbh Mela, Allahabad, February 2013; photo © Cambridge Jones

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Figure 21 Rāmānandī Tyāgīs performing a Vedic fire sacrifice, Ardh Kumbh Mela, Allahabad, 2007; photo by James Mallinson

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Figure 22 Rāmānandī Tyāgī performing dhūni-tap at the Kumbh Mela, Haridwar, April 2010; photo by James Mallinson

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Figure 23 Rāmānandī Tyāgī khaṛeśvarī, Kota, November 2001; photo by James Mallinson

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Figure 24 Detail, Akbar Watches a Battle between Two Rival Groups of Saṃnyāsīs at Thaneshwar, 1590–95. Victoria and Albert Museum, IS.2:62-1896 (see fig. 2)

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Figure 25 Folio from the Gulshan Album. India, Mughal dynasty, first quarter of the 17th century. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 53.5 x 40 cm. Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Orientabteilung, Libri pict. A 117, f.6b

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Figure 26 Rāmānandī Tyāgī with “Rām Rām” written on his forehead, Kumbh Mela, Allahabad, February 2013; photo © Cambridge Jones

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James Mallinson

The earliest textual descriptions of yogic techniques date to the last few centuries BCE and show their practitioners to have been ascetics who had turned their backs on ordinary society. 1 These renouncers have been considered practitioners of yoga par excellence throughout Indian history. While ascetics, including some seated in meditative yoga postures, 2 have been represented in Indian statuary 3 since that early period, the first detailed depictions of Indian ascetics are not found until circa 1560 in paintings produced under the patronage of Mughal Emperor Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) and his successors. 4 These wonderfully naturalistic and precise images illuminate not only Mughal manuscripts 5 and albums but also our understanding of the history of yogis 6 and their sects. Scholars have argued for these paintings’ value as historical documents; 7 their usefulness in establishing the history of Indian ascetic orders bears this out. The consistency of their depictions and the astonishing detail they reveal allow us to flesh out—and, sometimes, rewrite—the incomplete and partisan history that can be surmised from Sanskrit and vernacular texts, travelers’ reports, hagiography, and ethnography. 8

The eleventh to the fifteenth centuries saw the composition of a corpus of Sanskrit works that teach the haṭha method of yoga, which places the greatest emphasis on physical practices. 9 The techniques of haṭha yoga—some of which were probably part of ascetic practice for more than a thousand years before they were taught in texts—became integral to subsequent formulations of yoga, including orthodox ones such as those found in the later “Yoga Upaniṣads.” 10 They form the basis of much of the yoga practiced around the world today.

Within the texts of the haṭha yoga corpus, we can identify two yogic paradigms. One, the older, is the tradition of the yogis described in our earliest sources and is linked to the physical practices of tapas —asceticism. It uses a variety of physical methods to control the breath and to arrest the downward flow and loss of semen, 11 which is said to be the essence of life. Control of breath and semen leads to control of the mind, as well as perfect health and longevity. In classical formulations of haṭhayoga —such as that found in the most influential text on the subject, the fifteenth-century Haṭhapradīpikā —a second paradigm, that of Tantric yoga, is superimposed onto this ancient ascetic method. As taught in its root texts, which were composed between the fifth and tenth centuries CE, Tantric yoga consists for the most part of meditations on a series of progressively more subtle elements, a progression represented in some Kaula Tantric texts from the tenth century onward by the visualization of the ascent of the serpent goddess Kuṇḍalinī through a series of wheels ( cakra s) or lotuses ( padma s) located along the body’s central column.

The ultimate goal of both of these yogic paradigms is liberation ( mokṣa ), which can be achieved while alive. Along the way various supernatural abilities or siddhi s are said to arise, ranging from mundane benefits such as overcoming hunger and thirst through the power of flight to the attainment of an immortal body. In the ancient ascetic tradition, these siddhi s are ultimately impediments to the final goal; in the Tantric tradition, they may be ends in themselves. 12

This mixing of yogic traditions suggests an ascetic milieu in which techniques were exchanged freely, a suggestion corroborated by the lack of emphasis on sectarianism in the texts of the early haṭhayoga corpus. The earliest text to teach a yoga explicitly called haṭha declares: “Whether a Brahmin, an ascetic, a Buddhist, a Jain, a Skull-Bearer or a materialist, the wise one who is endowed with faith and constantly devoted to the practice of [ haṭha ] yoga will attain complete success.” 13

Early Mughal paintings bear witness to an ascetic archetype. Yogis have long, matted hair and beards, are naked or nearly so—what cloth they do wear is ochre-colored—and smear their bodies with ashes. In addition to these long-attested ascetic attributes, Mughal-era yogis display some more recent traits: they wear hooped earrings, 14 sit around smoldering fires, 15 and drink suspensions of cannabis. 16 See, for example, some of the finest early Mughal depictions of Indian yogis—a single folio from the St. Petersburg Muraqqa‘ (Album), which shows a camp of ascetics (fig. 1) or two folios from a manuscript of the Akbarnāma showing a battle between two Saṃnyāsī suborders (figs. 2 and 3).

But although the two yogi traditions clearly interacted, sharing both theory and practice, their lineages remained distinct. 17 They were represented, in the case of the ancient tradition of celibate asceticism, by groups that today constitute sections of the Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsī and Rāmānandī ascetic orders, and, in the case of the tradition of Tantric adepts such as Matsyendra and Gorakṣa, 18 by groups that today constitute sections of an ascetic order now known as the Nāths. 19 These orders were only starting to be formalized in the early Mughal period. 20 Today they remain, together with the Sikh-affiliated Udāsins, the biggest ascetic orders in North India.

We know from external evidence that the ascetics depicted fighting in two folios (figs. 2, 3) from the Akbarnāma (1590–95) and those depicted in two folios (figs. 7, 8) from the Bāburnāma are from lineages belonging to the two separate yogi traditions.

Figures 2 and 3 depict a battle, witnessed by Emperor Akbar, that took place in 1567 on the banks of the bathing tank at Kurukshetra. The combatants belonged to two rival yogi suborders, and they were fighting over who should occupy the best place to collect alms at a festival. In his description of the battle, Akbarnāma author Abu’l Fazl called the combatants Purīs and Giris, which remain to this day two of the “ten names” of the Daśanāmī or “Ten-Named” Saṃnyāsīs. 21

Figures 7 and 8 are illustrations from a circa 1590 manuscript of the Bāburnāma and depict a visit Emperor Bābur made in 1519 to a monastery at Gurkhattri in modern-day Peshawar, Pakistan. The manuscript and its illustrations were made under the patronage of Akbar, who himself visited Gurkhattri twice in 1581, 22 so the illustrations are likely to depict the monastery and its inhabitants at that time. 23 Until the partition of India, Gurkhattri was an important center of the Nāth ascetic order, 24 and there is still a temple to Gorakṣa, its founder, at the site today. 25 This does not confirm that Gurkhattri was in the possession of Nāths at the time of either Bābur’s or Akbar’s visit—many such shrines have changed hands over time—and the inhabitants of Gurkhattri are not identified in the Bāburnāma as Nāths, but rather as jogī (s), 26 a vernacular form of the Sanskrit yogī, which can refer to ascetics of a variety of traditions. However, we can infer that they were Nāths 27 from three attributes that they do not share with the Saṃnyāsīs shown fighting at Kurukshetra in the Akbarnāma .

The first is the wearing of horns on threads around their necks. Today, the single most reliable indicator of Nāth membership is the wearing of such horns (see fig. 11). 28 Nāths now call their horns nāds , but they were formerly known as siṅgīs , and this appears to have been the case in the medieval period. In medieval Hindi literature siṅgīs are frequently mentioned among the accoutrements of yogis, and siṅgī -wearing yogis are sometimes identified as followers of Gorakṣa. 29 In keeping with their lack of sectarianism, Sanskrit texts on haṭha yoga, even those associated with Gorakṣa, make few mentions of sect-specific insignia, and none of siṅgī s, but other Sanskrit sources associate yogi followers of Gorakṣa with the wearing of horns. Thus an early sixteenth-century South Indian Sanskrit drama describes a Kāpālika ascetic as uttering “Gorakṣa, Gorakṣa” and blowing a horn, 30 and the tenth chapter of a Sanskrit narrative from Bengal dated to the second half of the sixteenth century or earlier 31 tells of the yogi Candranātha being awoken from his meditation by other yogis blowing their horns. 32 From the fourteenth to the sixteenth century travelers to the regions in which the earliest references to Gorakṣa are found 33 reported the use of horns by yogis. 34 The identification of ascetics who wear horns as Nāths is supported by a painting of the annual Urs festival of Mu’inuddin Chishti at Ajmer completed in the 1650s 35 and now in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. 36 At the bottom is a group of Hindu ascetics. The fourth and fifth figures from the right, who both sport siṅgī s, are identified on the painting itself as Matsyendra and Gorakṣa, the first human Nāth gurus.

The other two specifically Nāth attributes are the necklace and fillet worn by three of the ascetics in figure 8. At the end of the sixteenth century the Jesuit traveler Monserrate visited Bālnāth Ṭillā, a famous Nāth shrine in the Jhelum district of Pakistani Punjab, which was the headquarters of the order until the partition of India. 37 Describing the monastic inhabitants of the Ṭillā, Monserrate wrote, “The mark of [the] leader’s rank is a fillet; round this are loosely wrapped bands of silk, which hang down and move to and fro. There are three or four of these bands.” 38 This description seems to conflate two items of apparel often depicted in Mughal paintings of yogis: a simple fillet and a necklace, hanging from which are colored strips of cloth (Monserrate’s silk bands). 39 Neither of these is worn today, 40 but they serve to identify their wearers in Mughal paintings as Nāth yogis. 41

These indicators of membership of the Nāth order—the horns, fillets, and necklaces—enable us to identify ascetics in a large number of early Mughal paintings, including those depicted in this beautiful seventeenth-century painting of yogis (fig. 9), as Nāths. 42

Once members of the Nāth saṃpradāya have been identified, it is possible to note other attributes that Nāths do not share with the Saṃnyāsīs depicted in contemporaneous illustrations. These include the wearing of cloaks and hats, the accompaniment of dogs, and the use of small shovels for moving ash. The Saṃnyāsīs, meanwhile, in keeping with the renunciation implied by their name, do relatively little to embellish their archetypal ascetic attributes and are thus best distinguished by the absence of the specifically Nāth features noted above. 43 Indeed, in some cases, their renunciation is such that they are naked, which the Nāths never are. Figure 1, then, shows a Saṃnyāsī encampment.

There are fewer Mughal pictures of Saṃnyāsīs than of Nāths. 44 The north Indian ascetic Nāth traditions encountered by the Mughals were closely linked to the Sant tradition of holy men and, like them, believed in a formless, unconditioned god. This theological openness—which manifested in, among other things, a disdain for the purity laws adhered to by more orthodox Hindu ascetics—allowed them to mix freely with those such as the Muslim Mughals, who more caste-bound Hindu traditions would consider mleccha s (barbarians). 45 Furthermore the Nāths were not militarized, unlike the Saṃnyāsīs, whose belligerence would have proved an impediment to interaction with the Mughals. 46 The Nāths’ greater influence on the Mughal court is further borne out by the preponderance of their doctrines in Persian yoga texts produced during the Mughal period. 47

The criteria used above to identify the Nāths and Saṃnyāsīs in early Mughal paintings have been taken exclusively from sources contemporaneous with or older than the paintings themselves. This is because using modern ethnographic data to interpret these images has its pitfalls. By now the reader acquainted with the Nāths may have wondered why little mention has been made of earrings. Today, Nāths are renowned for wearing hooped earrings through the cartilages of their ears, which are cut open with a dagger at the time of initiation. 48

For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as kānphaṭā (split-eared), a pejorative term that they themselves eschew. Very few other ascetics today wear earrings of any sort and, to my knowledge, none wears them kānphaṭā -style. 49 The current exclusive association of Nāths wearing hooped earrings has led many scholars to take textual mentions or artistic depictions of such insignia as indications that the wearers are Nāths, but this is not always the case. In India, earrings have long been emblematic of both divinity 50 and rank. 51 Thus many representations of the Buddha show him with earlobes that are distended and pierced but empty, signifying his renunciation: he had abandoned the heavy jeweled earrings he wore as a royal prince. 52 In contrast, Mahāyāna bodhisattvas and Tantric adepts ( siddha s) were conceived of as sovereigns of their realms and are often described and depicted as wearing earrings (and other regal accoutrements). 53 These Hindu and Buddhist siddha s may have been the first ascetics to wear earrings; a related type of ascetic, the Kāpālika (Skull bearer), is often said to wear them. 54

In medieval vernacular texts contemporaneous with early Mughal paintings, earrings are almost always included (usually as mudrā ) in lists of yogi insignia. 55 Often they are associated with yogis who follow Gorakṣa. If we look at the ears in figures 1–3 and 7–9, however, we see two surprising features. First, almost all, whether they belong to Nāths or Saṃnyāsīs, sport earrings. Second, no earring goes through cartilage. Depictions of Saṃnyāsīs up to the eighteenth century often show them wearing earrings, and it is not until the late eighteenth or even early nineteenth century that we come across the first depictions of Nāths wearing earrings kānphaṭā -style. A fine example is a painting of two ascetics that illustrates a manuscript of the Tashrīḥ al-aḳvām, an account of various Indian sects, castes, and tribes commissioned by Colonel James Skinner and completed in 1825 (fig. 11). The ascetic on the left is identified in an expanded version of the picture from the same period as an Aughaṛ, i.e., a Nāth who is yet to take full initiation; the one on the right, who wears a siṅgī around his neck and kānphaṭā earrings, is a full initiate by the name of Śambhu Nāth. 56

Travelers from the sixteenth century onward commented on the wearing of earrings by yogis, 57 but there are no outsider reports of them being worn kānphaṭā -style until circa 1800. 58 The seventeenth-century poet Sundardās, whose earliest manuscript is dated 1684, 59 contrasts earring-wearing jogī s with jaṭā -growing Saṃnyāsīs ( pad 135) and elsewhere derides splitting the ears ( kān pharāi ) as a means of attaining yoga ( sākhī 16.23). 60 Since no paintings of yogis from the Mughal heyday (up to 1640) show split-eared yogis, it thus seems likely that the practice developed in the second half of the seventeenth century. The use of the pejorative name kānphaṭā, however, is not found until the second half of the eighteenth century, suggesting that the practice did not become widespread until then. The Nāths’ adoption of this extreme kānphaṭā style led to earrings in general being closely associated with the Nāth order, with the result that other ascetic orders eschewed the practice. 61

The received history of the Nāths is based on hagiography and has the twelfth-century Gorakṣa founding the order, complete with its twelve subdivisions, by putting earrings through the cartilages of his disciples’ ears. The order is said to have flourished until the eighteenth century or thereabouts and to have been in steady decline ever since. But close examination of the historical sources shows that the opposite is more likely. 62 The first organization to claim authority over all Nāth lineages was founded in 1906. 63 The Nāth saṃpradāya (Nāth order) often referred to in histories of yoga and yogis was in fact a variety of disparate orders that traced their lineages to one or another Tantric siddha . Thus Jālandharnāth was the tutelary deity of Maharaja Man Singh’s Jodhpur in the early nineteenth century, and Gorakṣa played a subsidiary role in the texts and paintings produced at Man Singh’s court 64 until late in his reign (1803–43). 65 The adoption of kānphaṭā -style earrings appears to have been part of the process of Gorakṣa’s becoming the titular head of the order and is always associated with Gorakṣa in legend. 66 The earliest image of Jālandharnāth from Man Singh’s reign, a painting of him at his seat in Jalore, shows him and his attendants wearing earrings in their earlobes (fig. 12). 67 In subsequent depictions of Nāths from the region, such as another of Jālandharnāth in a folio from the Nāth Carit (fig. 13), they sport kānphaṭā -style earrings. 68 The Nāth Carit identifies the previously preeminent Jālandharnāth with Gorakṣa. 69 Jālandharnāth was also identified with the Bālnāth of Bālnāth Ṭillā, which, as noted above, was known as Gorakh Ṭillā by the second half of the eighteenth century. 70

Just as the Nāths’ earrings changed as the result of changes in the Nāth saṃpradāya , so too did their horns. The siṅgī worn by Nāths today is a more complex affair than that depicted in Mughal painting, which appears to have been an antelope horn eight to ten centimeters long, worn on a short thread around the neck so that it rested on the upper part of the chest. Today’s siṅgī ensemble consists of a stylized miniature horn—more of a whistle—about three centimeters long and one centimeter in diameter, which is made from a variety of different materials, ranging from gold to plastic. It is worn around the neck with a ring ( pāvitrī ) and a rudrākṣa ( Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb.) seed on a long thread of spun black wool that hangs almost to the waist.

The Nāths call this ensemble either a selī or a janeo (fig. 14). The latter is a Hindi word for the yajñopavīta or “sacred thread” worn by twice-born Hindus, and suggests a clue to the changes in Nāth neckwear.

The watershed in the Nāths’ siṅgī configuration can be seen in paintings from Man Singh’s reign in Jodhpur. Figure 12 has Jālandharnāth and his companions wearing their stylized siṅgī s on short threads around their necks, without a ring or rudrākṣa seed, in the manner of those shown in figures 7, 8, and 9. Once the “mature archetype” of Jālandharnāth was established, 71 he and his companions were always shown wearing their siṅgī s (without a ring or rudrākṣa seed) on waist-length black threads, usually around their necks (in the same manner as the yogi in fig. 11) but sometimes over one shoulder and under the other in the manner of a brahmin’s sacred thread. 72 It seems that the newer, longer ensemble came about in imitation of the brahmanical janeo . During their heyday, the Jodhpur Nāth householders “began to adopt high-caste Hindu ways,” 73 and we see in texts commissioned by Man Singh an alignment between the previously unorthodox Nāth tradition and classical Hinduism. 74

The most significant fault line in Hindu theology is the division between Śaivas, who hold that the supreme being is Śiva or his consort, Devī, and Vaiṣṇavas, who hold that it is Viṣṇu or one of his incarnations ( avatāra s), usually Rāma or Kṛṣṇa. This division was at its most violent in the eighteenth century, when battles between the military wings of two yogi orders, the Śaiva Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsīs and Vaiṣṇava Vairāgīs (whose largest suborder is that of the Rāmānandīs), resulted in the deaths of thousands of ascetics. To this day, the sādhu camps at the triennial Kumbh Melā festivals are divided into the army of Śiva and the army of Rām (fig. 15). Mughal-era paintings of ascetics, however, show that the situation was somewhat different in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as we shall see below.

Nowadays the Nāths, like the Saṃnyāsīs, are overtly Śaiva, but the pictorial record indicates that this has not always been the case: Nāths are not shown sporting Śaiva insignia, such as rudrākṣa seeds or tripuṇḍra s (horizontal forehead markings made with ash) until the late eighteenth century. 75 The current Nāth janeo configuration, in which a ring and a rudrākṣa seed have been added to the long black thread and siṅgī, appears to be an innovation of the nineteenth century at the earliest. 76 The Nāths’ roots in Śaiva Tantric traditions make the absence of Śaiva insignia in Mughal depictions of them surprising; perhaps it is symptomatic of their devotion to a formless absolute, an attitude prevalent in North Indian ascetic orders in late medieval India. 77

But it is not only the Nāths who are free from Śaiva insignia in Mughal paintings; to my knowledge, no ascetic of any stripe wears the horizontal tripuṇḍra forehead marking or necklaces of rudrākṣa seeds. The unmistakable Śaiva denomination of today’s Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsīs makes the absence of Śaiva insignia in their Mughal depictions particularly surprising. In myths, Śiva is often portrayed as the yogi par excellence , with the result that asceticism and yoga have come to be thought of as originally Śaiva, and their non-Śaiva manifestations as adaptations of Śaiva traditions. But in our earliest sources, the association of asceticism and yoga with Śiva is by no means exclusive, 78 and Śaivism did not dominate subsequent teachings on yoga. 79 It is perhaps the association of asceticism with Śiva and the Śaiva affiliation of today’s Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsīs that have led scholars to assume that the ascetics in Mughal paintings are Śaivas. 80 Yet, as I have remarked, there are no Śaiva insignia in any Mughal pictures of ascetics. 81 On the contrary, many of the Saṃnyāsīs depicted therein sport on their foreheads the distinctive ūrdhvapuṇḍra V-shaped Vaiṣṇava marking. A large number of the Saṃnyāsīs fighting in figures 2 and 3 clearly have these markings (see details in 16b, 16c, 16d), as does the leader of the Saṃnyāsī troop (figs. 1, 16a). Other Mughal paintings of Saṃnyāsīs from the same period also show them wearing ūrdhvapuṇḍras (e.g. figures 18 and 19). 82

old man with a white beard and markings on his forehead

Vaiṣṇava features of Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsī identity are in fact legion. To this day, all Daśanāmī ascetics greet one another with the ancient Vaiṣṇava aṣṭākṣara (“eight-syllabled” mantra): oṃ namo nārāyaṇāya . Śaṅkarācārya, who was retroactively claimed to have founded their order, was Vaiṣṇava. 83 Three of their four pīṭha s or sacred centers—Dwarka, Puri, and Badrinath—are Vaiṣṇava places of pilgrimage. 84 Prior to the sixteenth century, the Daśanāmī nominal suffix Purī is found only on the names of Vaiṣṇava ascetics. 85 The tutelary deities of the two biggest akhāṛā s (regiments) of the Daśanāmīs today are Dattātreya and Kapila, both of whom are included in early lists of the manifestations of Viṣṇu. 86

It is the ūrdhvapuṇḍra s in these Mughal miniatures, however, and the absence of Śaiva insignia that provide us with the most compelling evidence that at least some of the groups that came to form the Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsī order were originally Vaiṣṇava. It is not clear how, when, or why the Daśanāmīs acquired an overarching Śaiva orientation, but it is likely to have been a result of the formalization of the order, in particular its affiliation with the southern Sringeri monastery and the concomitant attribution of its founding to Śaṅkarācārya, who by the seventeenth century had been rebranded a Śaiva. 87 During the seventeenth century, the three main ascetic orders of North India—the Daśanāmīs, Rāmānandīs, and Nāths—forged links with southern institutions as they staked claims to dominion over all of India. The Daśanāmīs joined forces with the Sringeri maṭha , whose teachings, a blend of Advaita and the sanitized form of Śaivism known as Śrīvidyā, they adopted. 88 As part of this process, both the Sringeri maṭha and the Daśanāmīs claimed Śaṅkarācārya as their founding guru. Together with Śaivism, the Daśanāmīs would have taken northward the antipathy between Śaivas and Vaiṣṇavas that had afflicted South India for at least five hundred years. It persisted in debates between different Brahmin and Saṃnyāsī factions, some of which were connected with the Sringeri maṭha , in Vijayanagar until its downfall in 1565 and, latterly, in Varanasi. 89

The rapid hardening of the Daśanāmīs’ Śaiva orientation over the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was likely to have been in reaction to the formation of their archrivals, the Rāmānandīs, ascetic worshipers of Viṣṇu’s Rām incarnation. Today, Rāmānandīs wear Vaiṣṇava ūrdhvapuṇḍra forehead markings like those depicted in the early Mughal portrayals of Saṃnyāsīs (figs. 17, 18, 19).

Indeed, one might contend that figure 1—whose subjects, unlike those in figures 2 and 3, are not identified in contemporaneous sources as Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsīs—portrays Rāmānandīs (or rather their forerunners, since the order was yet to be formalized or refer to itself as Rāmānandī). 90 But three features of the ascetics in figure 1 set them apart from today’s Rāmānandīs.

First, there is the ancient ūrdhvabāhu penance of permanently holding one or two arms in the air undertaken by the ascetic in the bottom left of the picture. Today this is the preserve of Daśanāmīs (fig. 20).

Rāmānandīs will not practice it because it is likely to permanently disfigure the body, rendering it unsuitable for the orthodox Vedic ritual acts that they, unlike the Saṃnyāsīs, perform (fig. 21).

Rāmānandīs prefer austerities such as dhūni-tap , sitting in the summer sun surrounded by smoldering cow-dung fires (fig. 22), or khaṛeśvarī , standing up for years on end (fig. 23).

Second, two of the ascetics, including the figure who has undertaken the ūrdhvabāhu penance, are naked. Rāmānandīs today are scornful of the Daśanāmīs’ nakedness, saying that it offends Lord Rām. 91 Third, the remaining ascetics wear ochre-colored cloth, unlike the Rāmānandīs, who wear white cloth, saying that the Daśanāmīs’ ochre robes are the color of the menstrual fluid of Pārvatī, Śiva’s consort. 92

Other features differentiate the Rāmānandīs from the Daśanāmīs, such as the former’s insistence on “pure” (i.e., lacking onion and garlic) vegetarian food, their taking of the nominal suffix -dāsa at initiation, their practice of orthodox rituals, and the associated preservation of the topknot when they have their heads shaved at initiatory and other ceremonies. These differences are all emblematic of the Rāmānandīs’ ultra-Vaiṣṇavism, a trait shared with other members of the “four traditions” ( cār saṃpradāya ) of Vaiṣṇavas, which were formalized in the seventeenth century and sought to unite North Indian devotional traditions with more established South Indian lineages. 93

If one puts these ultra-Vaiṣṇava traits aside, however, the Daśanāmīs and Rāmānandīs are remarkably similar, and not just because they both embody a shared ascetic archetype and lead almost identical lives. Their organization and initiation procedures are very close. 94 They both worship Hanumān and gods and sages associated with the ancient ascetic yoga tradition, such as Dattātreya and Kapila. 95 They share a secret vocabulary. 96 The nominal suffix – ānanda found in the names of early Rāmānandī gurus prior to the adoption of the suffix – dāsa is still used by certain subdivisions of the Daśanāmīs. 97 Both have a military unit ( akhāṛā ) called (Mahā) nirvāṇi.

Today, the Rāmānandīs are the largest ascetic order in India, and ascetics who worship Rāma have been part of the North Indian religious landscape since at least the twelfth century. 98 But our Mughal miniatures have shown us only Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsīs and Nāths. Where were the ascetic worshippers of Rāma hiding? A close inspection of Akbar Watches a Battle between Two Rival Groups of Saṃnyāsīs at Thaneshwar and a folio from Jahangir’s 1618 Gulshan Album tells us that they are right before our eyes: the forerunners of the Rāmānandīs were Saṃnyāsīs. 99 Some of the yogi warriors in the Akbarnāma depiction of the battle at Thaneshwar have, in addition to Vaiṣṇava insignia, words written on their bodies. Only one word— ramā— is discernible, on the chest of a Saṃnyāsī in the bottom right (figs. 2, 24). And we can see similar markings on the body of a Vaiṣṇava in a beautiful collage of paintings from the Gulshan Album, which depicts a Nāth yogi encountering a Vaiṣṇava ascetic very similar to the Thaneshwar Saṃnyāsīs (fig. 25). The words are not clearly written—one wonders how good the Devanāgarī orthography of the Mughal court painters was—but rāma is the most likely reading.

In matters of doctrine, the Saṃnyāsī tradition is most closely associated with the rigorous philosophies of Vedānta. Bhakti (devotion), however, has held an important, if overlooked, place in their teachings, 100 and some medieval North Indian Saṃnyāsī ācārya s were renowned for their devotion to Rām. 101 The formalization of the Saṃnyāsī order involved the incorporation of a broad variety of different renouncer traditions, whose followers considered themselves part of the ancient tradition of renunciation ( saṃnyāsa ). In the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the generic name for a renouncer, Saṃnyāsī, became associated with this formalized order. When the Rāmānandīs seceded from it in the course of their adoption of ultra-Vaiṣṇavism, their ascetics differentiated themselves from the Saṃnyāsīs by giving themselves the name Tyāgī, which is an exact Sanskrit synonym of Saṃnyāsī (fig. 26). In a similar fashion, as Nāth corporate identity solidified in the eighteenth century, the name Yogī came to be associated exclusively with the Nāths and was shunned by the Saṃnyāsīs and Rāmānandīs.

The Śaivism of the Daśanāmī Saṃnyāsīs and Vaiṣṇavism of the Rāmānandīs, while ostensibly responsible for a lengthy, and sometimes lethal, antipathy, should be taken with a pinch of salt. Doctrinal differences are highlighted in texts composed by the learned of both traditions but, as noted above, the rank-and-file yogis were (and remain) very similar, and their shared Sant heritage of anti-scholastic nirguṇabhakti is still prevalent today. The Śaiva and Vaiṣṇava denominations were adopted in the course of the consolidation of the two orders and provided a convenient ideological justification for what was in fact competition over resources rather than a dispute over doctrine. 102 Not only do the ascetics of both orders lead very similar lives, but many features of the two orders fly in the face of their supposed incompatibility. An important Saṃnyāsī commander of the late eighteenth century, when battles between the two orders were at their fiercest, was called Rāmānand Gosāīṃ. 103 At the 2010 Haridwar Kumbh Melā, I met a Saṃnyāsī called Rāmānand Giri in the Saṃnyāsīs’ Jūnā Akhāṛā. Recently, when making inquiries in Himachal Pradesh about historical religious affiliations, my informants were confused by my attempts to categorize local rulers or religious institutions as exclusively Vaiṣṇava or Śaiva. Taruṇ Dās Mahant, a householder Rāmānandī from Kullu, told me that “here the devotees of Rām all worship Śiva and the devotees of Śiva all worship Rām.” 104

There has long been confusion over the identity of the yogis depicted in Mughal and later paintings. This has resulted from a lack of understanding of the complex and constantly changing makeup of yogi sects in the early modern period, and the concomitant absence of terminological rigor in both Indian and foreign descriptions of yogis from the Mughal period to the present day. Yet a close reading of these pictures and other historical sources allows us to identify the sectarian affiliations of the depicted yogis and thereby to cast new light on their history and the nature of the yoga that they practiced. The pictures’ naturalism and the associated consistency of their depictions mean that seemingly insignificant details, such as the position of an earring, are of great significance.

Mughal-era and later paintings provide evidence for, and have inspired, many of the new ways of looking at Indian yogis and their history outlined in this essay. Doubtless some of the theories proposed will be rejected or refined in the light of further research—whether textual, ethnographic, or art historical—but the details shown in these beautiful images, which have hitherto been overlooked in histories of yoga and yogis, need to be addressed by historians. They bear testament to the fluidity of India’s religious landscape and the transformations undergone by her yogis as they adapted to the changes around them.

Author’s Note

I am grateful to Debra Diamond, Jane Lusaka, Bruce Wannell, Monika Horstmann, Arik Moran, Susan Stronge, Patton Burchett, Lubomír Ondračka, Anand Venkatkrishnan, Dominic Goodall, Jason Birch, Jerry Losty, Sunil Sharma, Péter-Dániel Szántó, Véronique Bouillier and Holly Shaffer for their useful comments on earlier drafts of this essay. Many of the arguments rehearsed had their first airing in a Mellon Foundation lecture I gave at Columbia University on September 29, 2011, at the kind invitation of Sheldon Pollock. I thank him and the audience there for their constructive criticism. I also received useful feedback from the members of the panel on “Yogis, sufis, devotees: religious/literary encounters in pre-modern and modern South Asia” at the European Conference on South Asian Studies in Lisbon, July 27, 2012. Many people have provided me with scans of images of yogis that I refer to in this essay. I would like to thank in particular Debra Diamond, who has sent hundreds of such scans my way. Ludwig Habighorst very kindly allowed me to use scans of pictures from his collection. Thanks too to Malini Roy, who has helped with my repeated requests to see images in the collection of the British Library.

Sekaśubhodaya of Halayudha Miśra, ed. and trans. Sukumar Sen, Bibliotheca Indica Series 286 (Kolkata: Asiatic Society, 1963), introduction, pp. x–xi. This text is a fictitious account of a Muslim shaykh ( seka ) overcoming yogis and brahmins.

Harimohan Mishra, the editor of the early fifteenth-century Maithili Gorakṣavijaya , suggests that siṅgīs may be referred to in that text’s third gīt although the reading is unclear (p. 28). The circa 1700 Siddhasiddhāntapaddhati , a Nāth sectarian text, includes siṃhanāda among the accoutrements of the yogi (5.15). Gorakṣavijaya of Vidyāpati, ed. Harimohan Miśra (Paṭnā: Bihār Rāṣtrabhāṣā Pariṣad, 1984). Siddhasiddhāntapaddhati of Gorakṣanātha, ed. M. L. Gharote and G. K. Pai (Lonavla: Lonavla Yoga Institute, 2005).

The earliest references to Gorakṣa are from South India, in particular the Deccan (Mallinson, “Nāth Saṃpradāya,” p. 411).

Mahdi Husain, The Reḥla of Ibn Battūta (Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1953), p. 166; George Percy Badger, The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India and Ethiopia, A.D. 1503 to 1508 . Translated from the original Italian Edition of 1510, with a Preface, by John Winter Jones, Esq., F.S.A., and edited, with notes and an introduction, by George Percy Badger (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1863), p. 112; Vasundhara Filliozat, Vijayanagar as seen by Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz (16th Century Portuguese Chroniclers) and others (Delhi: National Book Trust, 1999), p. 79; Mansel Longworth Dames, The Book of Duarte Barbosa. An account of the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean and their inhabitants, written by Duarte Barbosa, and completed about the year 1518 a.d., vol. 1 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1918), p. 231.

Elinor Gadon, “Note on the Frontispiece,” in The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India , ed. Karine Schomer and W. H. McLeod (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987), p. 420.

Victoria and Albert Museum, I.S. 94-1965.

See William R. Pinch, “Nāth Yogīs, Akbar, and Bālnāth Ṭillā,” in Yoga in Practice , ed. David Gordon White (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), pp. 273–88 for historical accounts of Bālnāth Ṭillā. The Ṭillā came to be known as Gorakh Ṭillā in the process of the various disparate Nāth lineages uniting under Gorakh (see Mallinson, “Nāth Saṃpradāya”). The earliest reference to it by this name that I have found is in the Saṃnyāsī Pūrṇ Purī’s translated account of his travels in the second half of the eighteenth century, in which it is referred to as “Gorakh-tala”). Pūrṇ Purī, “His account of his travels, published as ‘Oriental Observations, No. X—The Travels of Prán Puri, a Hindoo, who travelled over India, Persia, and Part of Russia,’” in The European Magazine and London Review 57 (1792, published in 1810), p. 269.

J. S. Hoyland, The Commentary of Father Monserrate, S. J., On His Journey to the Court of Akbar (London: Oxford University Press, 1922), p. 114.

Monserrate himself wrote: “Dignitatis insigne, est, infula bombycinis fasciolis, è fastigio, per gyrum infulae, ordine affixis, quae impendeant, et facile moueantur · tribus, quattuorue || ordinibus, a fastigio, ad extremam infulae oram, quae frontem cingit” ( Mongolicae Legationis Commentarius , p. 597). Hoyland (see n. 38) omits from his translation the last part of Monserrate’s description of the bands of silk: “ordinibus, a fastigio, ad extremam infulae oram, quae frontem cingit” (in rows, from the top to the edge of the fillet, they encircle the forehead). Curiously, although fillets matching Monserrate’s description are not found in contemporaneous images of Nāths, they are found in two more recent paintings. A late eighteenth-century painting of a “Kun Futta or Ear Bor’d Joguee” in the collection of the Yale Center for British Art (B1977.14.22254) depicts a Nāth ascetic wearing a conical hat from which hang strips of cloth (I thank Holly Shaffer for bringing this picture to my attention), and a similar headpiece is sported by Jālandharnāth in figure 12.

My enquiries among Nāths today about these insignia have drawn a blank, and despite their prominence in Mughal paintings I have not seen them in eighteenth-century or later depictions of Nāths.

Monserrate’s statement that these necklaces are the mark of senior Nāths is not borne out by Mughal paintings, in which young Nāths serving older yogis can be seen wearing them. I thank Debra Diamond for this observation.

Amongst the earliest examples (pre-1605) are the following: Prince and Princess Sadruddin Aga Khan collection M.286 (Sheila R. Canby, Princes, Poets, and Paladins: Islamic and Indian Paintings from the Collection of Prince and Princess Sadruddin Aga Khan [London: British Museum Press, 1998], p. 109; Rajesh Bedi and Ramesh Bedi, Sadhus: The Holy Men of India [Delhi: Brijbasi, 1991], p. 94 (this picture is said to be in the Jaipur Savai Man Singh II Museum, but staff there are currently unable to locate it—I thank Giles Tillotson for this information); British Library J.22,16; Gulshan Album, fol. 13b, no. 1, Stadstbibliothek; Chester Beatty Library Baḥr al-Ḥayāt manuscript (see cats. 9a–j, Yoga: The Art of Transformation); Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, 1988.27; Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard University, 2002.50.29; Chester Beatty Library, In 44.3; Chester Beatty Library, Yogavāsiṣṭha , In 05, f.304a; Chester Beatty Library, Mrigāvatī , In 37 f.25a, f.28b, f.44a; Walters W.596 f.22b (dated 1593, another illustration of the Bāburnāma description of Bābur’s visit to Gurkhattri); Bāburnama, Cynthia Hazen Polsky Collection, New York (see cat. 15a, Yoga: The Art of Transformation ); Bāburnama , Victoria and Albert Museum, IM 262-1913; Bāburnama , British Library, Or. 3714, f. 197r.

Saṃnyāsīs generally have bigger and longer jaṭā than Nāths, a distinction still found. Today’s Saṃnyāsīs and Rāmānandīs only shave their heads at initiation and the death of a guru, while many Nāths keep their hair short or shaven. An exception to the principle of Saṃnyāsīs being best identified by the absence of Nāth features is their consumption of cannabis. At the bottom left of fig. 1, members of the Saṃnyāsī camp are shown straining a paste of cannabis in preparation for drinking it. In contrast with their later reputation as heavy consumers of intoxicants, no Mughal depictions of Nāths show them using cannabis.

Although Nāths in Mughal depictions are never naked, later traditions do speak of naked Nāths. Thus tapasvī Nāths such as Raṇpatnāth and Māndhātānāth of Asthal Bohar and Amṛtnāth of Shekhavati are usually portrayed naked in hagiography and statuary (V. Bouillier, Itinérance et vie monastique: Les ascètes Nāth Yogīs en Inde contemporaine [Paris: Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme, 2008] plate 43 and p.267).

Early Mughal pictures of Saṃnyāsīs include the following (here I include pre-1650 pictures): San Diego Museum of Art, 1990:355; British Museum, 1941,0712,0.5; British Museum, 1920,0917,0.38; pl. 231 in The St. Petersburg Muraqqa‘ ; Two Ascetic s, Museum Rietberg Zürich; “Yogi with Servants,” reproduced on p. 118 of “Caricature and Satire in Indian Miniature Painting: From the Collection of Ludwig V. Habighorst” in Indian Satire in the Period of First Modernity , ed. Monika Horstmann and Heidi Pauwels (Wiesbaden: Harassowitz, 2012), pp. 117–32.

On the Nāths’ lack of observance of purity rules in the Mughal era, see Shea and Troyer, The Dabistān , p. 129; and Dames, The Book of Duarte Barbosa , p. 232.

Because of the perennial confusion caused by the ambiguity of the name yogi, various scholars have alleged that the Nāths were India’s first organized military order (see, e.g., David Lorenzen, “Warrior Ascetics in Indian History,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 98 [1978], p. 68; cf. Véronique Bouillier, “La Violence des Non-violents ou les Ascètes au Combat,” Puruṣārtha 16 (1993), p. 218, who is surely correct when she writes of non-Muslim ascetics, “Ce sont donc les Dasnāmī Sannyāsīs … qui sont les premiers à ainsi instaurer dans leurs rangs une branche combatante.” With some early localized exceptions, such as the warrior yogis in the service of the King of the Yogis on India’s west coast in the early sixteenth century (Badger, The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema , pp. 273–74) and the armies of yogis mentioned in two Sufi romances, the Padmāvati ( Jogī khaṇḍ ) and Kanhāvat of Malik Muhammad Jāyasī , ed. Parameśvarī Lāl Gupta (Vārāṇasī: Annapūrṇā Prakāśana, 1981), p. 342, there are no indications that Nāths were ever organized into fighting forces: they are not mentioned in the many accounts of battles between groups of ascetics from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century (see, e.g., Clark, The Daśanāmī-Saṃnyāsīs , pp. 61–64), or ever portrayed bearing weapons in our pictorial sources. Two or three Nāths are seen on the edges of the battle depicted in figures 2 and 3, but they are not involved in the action. There has long been friendly interaction between the Saṃnyāsīs and Nāths, and at some point it appears that certain Nāth lineages were absorbed into the Dasnāmīs, in particular into their Giri suborder (see n. 17 ). It may be that Saṃnyāsī military units were joined by some early isolated groups of militarized proto-Nāths, such as those encountered by Tavernier in 1640 (V. Ball, trans., Travels in India by Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Baron of Aubonne . Translated from the original French edition of 1676 with a biographical sketch of the Author, Notes, Appendices &c., 2 vols. [Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995], pp. 66–68), who were perhaps members of the army of the Malabar King of the Yogis exiled after the oppression of his monastery at Kadri by Veṅkāṭappa Nāyaka. A single warrior in the thick of the Akbarnāma depiction of the Thaneshwar battle can be seen wearing a siṅgī on a thread wrapped around his turban. Today, after being initiated, Nāths vow not to “keep dangerous weapons” (H. A. Rose, A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province , vol. 2 [Lahore: Superintendent, Government Printing, Punjab, 1911], p. 401) and the first Sanskrit Nāth text written after the formalization of the order, the Siddhasiddhāntapaddhati of Gorakṣanātha , ed. M. L. Gharote and G. K. Pai (Lonavla: Lonavla Yoga Institute, 2005), 6.94, scorns those who carry arms.

See Carl W. Ernst, “The Islamization of Yoga in the Amrtakunda Translations,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society , s. 3, vol. 13, no. 2 (2003), pp. 1–23; and Kazuyo Sakaki, “Yogico-tantric Traditions in the Ḥawd al-Ḥayāt,” Journal of the Japanese Association for South Asian Studies 7 (2005), pp. 135–56.

See Bouillier, “La Violence des Non-violents ou les Ascètes au Combat,” pp. 22–23, on the wearing of earrings by ascetic Nāths; and Daniel Gold, “Experiences of Ear-Cutting: the Significances of a Ritual of Bodily Alteration for Householder Yogis,” Journal of Ritual Studies 10, no. 1 (1996), pp. 91–112; Gold, “Nāth Yogis as Established Alternatives: Householders and Ascetics Today,” Journal of Asian and African Studies 34, no. 1 (1999), pp. 68–88; Gold, “Yogis’ Earrings, Householder’s Birth: Split Ears and Religious Identity among Householder Nāths in Rajasthan,” in Religion, Ritual and Royalty , ed. N. K. Singhi and Rajendra Joshi (Jaipur and New Delhi: Rawat Publications, 1999), pp. 35–53, on Rajasthani householder Nāths. See also Briggs, Gorakhnāth and the Kānphaṭa Yogīs , pp. 6–11; Hazārīprasād Dvivedī, Nāth Sampradāy (Ilāhābād: Lokbhāratī Prakāśan, 1996), pp. 15–16.

A few Rāmānandī Nāgās wear pendant earrings of tulsī wood and some Udāsin ascetics wear small, silver, stud earrings in the shape of a crescent moon. As far as I am aware, however, no Saṃnyāsīs wear earrings. Briggs, Gorakhnāth and the Kānphaṭa Yogīs , pp. 6–7, reports that members of the Gūḍara subsect of the Saṃnyāsīs wear kānphaṭā -style earrings and that their founder, Brahm Giri, is said to have been initiated into the practice of wearing earrings by Gorakhnāth; cf. Purī, Daśanām Nāgā Saṃnyāsī ,pp. 66–69; and Surajit Sinha and Baidyanāth Saraswati, Ascetics of Kashi: An Anthropological Exploration (Varanasi: N. K. Bose Memorial Foundation, 1978), pp. 93–94. A picture of a Gūḍara ascetic wearing hooped earrings through his earlobes can be seen on page 35 of the Riyaz-i al-mazdhib (British Library, APAC Add.24035), which was written and illustrated in 1812.

From the time of the second-century BCE Gudimalla liṅga (see, e.g., M. C. Choubey, Lakulīśa in Indian Art and Culture [Delhi: Sharada Publishing House, 1997], pl. 2), Indian deities have regularly been depicted as wearing earrings, which are usually hooped.

Mahābhārata 3.300–310 tells the story of the robbing of Karṇa’s magical earrings. Rāmāyaṇa 2.14.2 mentions young men wearing polished earrings. Manu includes earrings among the obligatory apparel of a follower of Viṣṇu ( Manusmṛti: with the Sanskrit Commentary Manvartha-Muktavali of Kulluka Bhatta , ed. J. L. Shastri [Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983], 4.3). Descriptions of the karṇavedha rite in which boys’ or girls’ ears are pierced are found in the following dharmaśāstra texts (I am grateful to Shingo Einoo for providing me with these references: Kauṣītaka Gṛhyasūtra 1.20.1-8 ( The Kauṣītaka Gṛhyasūtras, with the Commentary of Bhavatrāta , ed. T. R. Chintamani [New Delhi: Panini, 1982]); Bodhāyanagṛhyaśeṣasūtra 1.12 ( Bodhāyana Gṛhyasūtram of Bodhāyana Maharṣi , ed. L. Srinivasachar and R. Sharma Sastri, Oriental Research Institute Series No. 141 [Mysore: University of Mysore, Oriental Research Institute, 1983], pp. 1–127); Suśrutasaṃhitā sūtrasthāna 16.1-48 ( Suśrutasaṃhitā ḍalhaṇācāryakṛtanibandhasaṃgrahākhyaṭīkayā, Nṛpendranāthasenaguptena Balāicandrasenaguptena ca saṃpāditā saṃśodhitā prakāśitā ca , part 1 [Calcutta: C. K. Sen and Company Limited, 1937/38]); Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa 2.52.75cd-83 ( The Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇam (Delhi: Nag Pubishers, 1985); Vīramitrodaya 258, 5-263, 15 ( Vīramitrodaya. paribhāṣā, prakāśa by Mitra Miśra, ed. Pārvatīya Nityānanda Śarmā, Chokhamba Sanskrit Series, nos. 103 & 108 [Benares: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Book-depot, 1906. Strabo, drawing on Megasthenes, says that Indian philosophers, after thirty-seven years of asceticism, live “with less restraint” and wear “robes of fine linen, and rings of gold, but without profuseness, upon the hands and in the ears” (W. Falconer, trans., The Geography of Strabo , vol. 3 [London: Henry G. Bohn, 1857], p. 109). In Bāṇa’s Harṣacarita , which dates to the first half of the seventh century, kings are said to wear both “dangling pendants” and “ear-pendants in the form of leaves or scroll-work” (V. S. Agrawala, The Deeds of Harsha: Being a cultural study of Bāṇa’s Harshacharita [Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan, 1969], p. 187; both types of earring are illustrated on p. 188, figs. 83–85). In an early thirteenth-century account, Chag lo Chos rje dpal the younger, a Tibetan monk, reports that, “A sign of low caste was the absence of perforation (hole) in the ears. Others had holes in their ears.” (G. Roerich, The Biography of Dharmasvamin [Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1959], p. 85; I am grateful to Péter-Dániel Szántó for pointing out this reference to me).

Daud Ali, “Technologies of the Self: Courtly Artifice and Monastic Discipline in Early India,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 41, no. 2 (1998), p. 176, notes how the Cullavagga , a Pali vinaya text, prohibits monks from wearing earrings.

See, for example, the many depictions of bodhisattvas in Marilyn M. Rhie and Robert Thurman, Wisdom and Compassion: The Sacred Art of Tibet (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1991) and of siddha s in Rob Linrothe, ed. Holy Madness: Portraits of Tantric Siddhas (New York and Chicago: Rubin Museum of Art and Serindia Publications, 2006). Several of the siddha s depicted in thirteenth- to fourteenth-century carvings at the Panhale-Kaji caves in the Konkan wear hooped earrings in their earlobes (M. N. Deshpande, The Caves of Panhāle-Kāji (Ancient Pranālaka) [New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1986], pls. 29, 30, 58ABC, 59, 60, 61, 62). The carvings made in 1510–11 on the wall enclosing the temple complex at Shrishailam also depict various siddha s wearing earrings (see Richard Shaw, “Srisailam: Centre of the Siddhas,” South Asian Studies 13 [London: Oxford and IBH Publishing, 1997], figs. 10, 13).

Yāmuna’s Āgamaprāmāṇyam includes earrings among the six insignia of a Kāpālika (verse 83; cf. David Lorenzen, “A Parody of the Kāpālikas,” in Tantra in Practice, ed. David Gordon White [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000], p. 83, where an inscription from 1050 is cited in which a Mahāvratin, another name for a Kāpālika, is said to bear the six insignia). A Kāpālika yogi described in a verse ascribed to Kṛṣṇācāryapāda ( Siddha Caryāgīti 11), which can be dated to somewhere between the eighth and twelfth centuries, is said to wear earrings; cf. Siddha Caryāgīti 28.3; see Per Kvaerne, An Anthology of Buddhist Tantric Songs (Bangkok: Orchid Press, 1986). Earrings are said to be the distinguishing mark of Kāpālika practitioners in Nirmalamaṇi’s commentary on the Aghoraśivācāryapaddhati , Aghoraśivācāryaviracitā Kriyākramadyotikākhyā Paddhatiḥ, Nirmalamaṇiguru-viracitā Prabhākhyā Kriyākramadyotikāvyākhyā (Cidambaram, 1927), p. 447. In the Maitrāyaṇīyopaniṣad , ed. J. A. B. van Buitenen (The Hague: Mouton and Co., 1962), 7.8, Kāpālikas are said to wear red earrings (Alexis Sanderson, “The Śaiva Age,” in Genesis and Development of Tantrism , ed. Shingo Einoo [Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009], p. 179, n. 435; in the same note Sanderson cites examples from the Jayadrathayāmala and Picumata of earrings being among the six insignia of the Kāpālikas). The pupil of the Kāpālika follower of Gorakṣanātha in the early sixteenth-century Bhāvanāpuruṣottama is called Māyākuṇḍalin, “he who wears the earrings of Māyā.” He describes the fearsome dress of another Tantric practitioner, which includes earrings (pp. 98–101). In a long list of religious practices, Sundardās, a seventeenth-century follower of Dādū, mentions the wearing of earrings by Kāpālikas ( Sarvāṅgayogapradīpikā 1.18).

See, e.g., Miragāvatī 106c; Padmāvatī 12.1.6; Dādū pad s 213.2, 214.2; Gorakh pad s 19.3; Kabīr Granthāvalī pad 172.1, 175.2; Hardās pad s 61.1; Sundardās sākhī 16.23, pad s 135.1, 144.1; Gurugranth 6.16, 155.16, 208.2, 334.16, 359.18, 526.2, 730.11, 835.6, 856.19, 879.18, 908.11, 939.4, 939.6, 940.5, 940.11, 952.2, 970.14; Madhumālatī 172 (Behl and Weightman, p. 72).

The manuscript was completed in 1825. The same two yogis are accompanied by four more ascetics in a painting by Ghulam Ali Khan or an artist of his circle from circa 1820–25. All six ascetics are named in accompanying inscriptions. The larger painting is reproduced in Archeologie , Arts d’Orient , July 2, 1993, p. 61, no. 185; and Joachim K. Bautze, Interaction of Cultures: Indian and Western Painting 1780–1910. The Ehrenfeld Collection (Alexandria, VA: Art Services International, 1998), pp. 56–57. In the former, the ascetic on the left in the Tashrīḥ al-aḳvām picture is said to be called “Awglohl (?) Jogi”; in the latter, “Awgahal Jogi.” The ascetic on the right is likewise said to be called “Shandbu Nanha (Nâth ?) Jogi” and “Shanbu Nanha [?] Jogi.” The ascetic on the right is depicted on his own in a picture from a private collection reproduced in Christopher Bayly, ed. The Raj: India and the British 1600–1947 (London: National Portrait Gallery Publications, 1990), p. 223, pl. 283, in which his earrings are in the lobes of his ears, not kānphaṭā -style. On p. 323 of the Tashrīḥ al-aḳvām is a picture of a Sanpera or snake-charmer with earrings in the cartilages of his ears. Several snake-charmer castes claim affiliation with the Nāth tradition, which became an umbrella organization for a broad variety of religious specialists with roots in the tantric traditions. Snake-charmers have an old Tantric pedigree, as evinced by the Gāruḍa Tantras, on which see Michael J. Slouber, “Gāruḍa Medicine: A History of Snakebite and Religious Healing in South Asia” (PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2012). A slightly earlier picture (1815–20), also in the British Library collection (Add.Or.114), shows a “Kaun Fauttah (Beggar)” in Varanasi with earrings in the cartilages of his ears. The change in the position of the Nāths’ earrings is highlighted by a comparison between a circa 1605 painting of a Nāth group (Rajesh Bedi and Ramesh Bedi, Sadhus: The Holy Men of India [Delhi: Brijbasi, 1991], p. 94) and a nineteenth-century depiction of Nāths from Lucknow ( The Scholar’s Vision: The Pal Family Collection , [New York: Christies, 2008], pl. 252, pp. 38–39) at whose center is found a reworking of the earlier image. In the older painting the yogis’ earrings are worn in their earlobes and in the later one they are worn kānphaṭā -style. Pramod Chandra, “Hindu Ascetics in Mughal Painting,” in Discourses on Śiva: Proceedings of a Symposium on the Nature of Religious Imagery (Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1985), p. 312, also noticed the absence of kānphaṭā -style earrings in early Mughal pictures: “Actually, and rather surprisingly, I have yet to see an early Mughal representation of the split ear and I wonder what to make of it. Could it be possible that the practice is more modern than is commonly thought?”

In 1505 or 1506, Ludovico di Varthema met “the king of the Ioghe” somewhere on India’s west coast and reported that he wore jewels in his ears (Badger, The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema , p. 112). One hundred and twenty years later, Della Valle visited the then incumbent “king of the Gioghi” at Cadiri. He was much impoverished compared to his predecessor because of the predations of King Venkaṭappa Nāyaka, but still wore golden earrings: “in either ear hung two balls, which seemed to be of Gold, I know not whether empty, or full, about the bigness of a Musket bullet; the holes in his ears were large, and the lobes much stretched by the weight” (Edward Grey, The Travels of Pietro Della Valle in India: From the Old English Translation of 1664 by G. Havers , 2 vols. [London: The Hakluyt Society, 1892], pp. 350–51).

The Silsila-i jūgiyān reports that “whenever a jogi takes a disciple, he cuts open the side of the disciple’s ear and inserts a ring of whalebone (Hindi kachkara) or crystal or something else of this type” (Carl W. Ernst, “Accounts of yogis in Arabic and Persian historical and travel texts,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 33 [2007], p. 421). The earliest usage of the name kānphaṭā that I have found dates to the same period ( Travels of Prán Puri , p. 269, in which I take “Coonb’hatti” to be a transcription of kānphaṭā). Cf. the late eighteenth-century painting of a “Kun Futta or Ear Bor’d Joguee” in the collection of the Yale Center for British Art referred to in note 39; and F. V. Raper, “Narrative of a survey for the purpose of discovering the sources of the Ganges,” Asiatick Researches 11 (1810), p. 457: “The Jógis or Cánp’hatas are the disciples of Síva, as the Gosains; but, as the term Cánp’hata implies, they have a longitudinal slit in the cartilage of the ear, through which a ring, or plate, of horn, wood or silver, about the size of a crown piece, is suspended.”

Monika Horstmann, draft article “Emblems of Nāthyogīs,” May 2013.

The use of forms of the verb phaṭ/phaṛ/phāṛ in the context of ears strongly suggests the splitting of the cartilage rather than the piercing of the lobes, for which the usual terms are vernacular derivatives of Sanskrit karṇavedha/karṇachedana . I thank Monika Horstmann for this observation (personal communication, May 9, 2013).

Ascetics other than Nāths continued to wear hooped earrings into the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Ivan Stchoukine, Les Miniatures Indiennes de l’Époque des Grands Moghols au Musée du Louvre (Paris: Librairie Ernest Leroux, 1929), p. 78, describes an eighteenth-century picture from Kangra in the Louvre that depicts three Vaiṣṇava sādhu s, all of whom are wearing round earrings. Two Vairāgīs in a picture from Tamil Nadu dated 1830–35 and described in n. 93 both wear earrings. A depiction of the Saṃnyāsī Anūp Giri from the early part of the nineteenth century shows him wearing earrings (Pinch, Warrior Ascetics , p. 24). Two pictures from the late eighteenth century in the British Library appear to show Saṃnyāsīs wearing earrings: APAC J.45,37 and APAC Add.Or.2763.

For a reappraisal of the history of the Nāths, see Mallinson, “Nāth Saṃpradāya.

This is the “Great Council of the All-India Yogis of the Twelve Orders who Wear Ascetic Garb” (Akhil Bhāratavarṣīya Avadhūt Bheṣ Bārah Paṃth Yogī Mahāsabhā; see V. Bouillier, Itinérance et vie monastique: Les ascètes Nāth Yogīs en Inde contemporaine [Paris: Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme, 2008], pp. 25–32).

See, e.g., Debra Diamond, Catherine Glynn, Karni Singh Jasol, Garden and Cosmos: The Royal Paintings of Jodhpur (Washington, DC: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, 2008), p. 292.

E.g., commissions such as the Marwari Nāth Purāṇ in which Gorakṣa is raised to the level of a deity above other Nāth gurus (Viśveśvarnāth Reu, Nāth-caritr kī kathā aur uske ādhār par bane citroṃ kā vivaraṇ [Jodhpur: Jodhpur Government Press, 1937], pp. 3–4).

It may be that under the patronage of Maharaja Man Singh, who sponsored the gathering and copying of Nāth manuscripts from elsewhere in North India, the regional Jodhpur Nāth tradition established links with the expanding Gorakhnāthī tradition, with which it subsequently sought affiliation.

Diamond et al., Garden and Cosmos , cat. 33

E.g., the paintings of Nāth yogis performing āsanas on the walls of the Mahāmandir in Jodhpur dating to about 1815, and the paintings of Jālandharnāth and other Nāths reproduced in Diamond et al., Garden and Cosmos (cats. 32, 36, 37, 39, 40, 43, and 45) and Rosemary Crill, Marwar Painting: A History of the Jodhpur Style (Mumbai: India Book House, 1999), figs. 96, 122–26. The siddhas painted to illustrate the Siddhasiddhāntapaddhati in 1824 in Jodhpur have earrings in their earlobes, but this is probably because Jaina images were used as templates for the paintings (Debra Diamond, “Court Painting and Yogic Metaphysics in Nineteenth-Century Jodhpur,” in Court Painting in Rajasthan , ed. Andrew Topsfield [Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2000], pp. 139–46).

Diamond et al., Garden and Cosmos , p. 287.

See Diamond et al., Garden and Cosmos , pp. 146–49.

See the images of Nāths in yogic postures on the walls of the Mahāmandir in Jodhpur for examples of the selī being worn over the shoulder.

Daniel Gold, “The Instability of the King: Magical Insanity and the Yogi’s Power in the Politics of Jodhpur, 1803–1843,” in Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action , ed. David N. Lorenzen (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), p. 126.

E.g., the Nāth Purāṇ , a Marwari work in which the nine Nāths are said to be born from parts of various gods of classical Hinduism (Reu, Nāth-caritr , pp. 3–4).

The earliest depiction of Nāths with Śaiva insignia of which I am aware is a circa 1780 Kishangarh painting of four Nāths by a dhūni fire in front of a Śiva liṅga reproduced in Daniel J. Ehnbom, Indian Miniatures: The Ehrenfeld Collection (New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1985), pl. 75, in which the yogis all sport the Śaiva tripuṇḍra or horizontal forehead marking. The first overtly sectarian Nāth Sanskrit text, the Siddhasiddhāntapaddhati , which can tentatively be dated to approximately 1700, enjoins the yogi to wear the tripuṇḍra (5.16).

The first depictions of the complete janeo ensemble that I have seen date to the early twentieth century (Briggs, Gorakhnāth and the Kānphaṭa Yogīs , pls. III, IV, V, and XIII).

The lack of importance of Śaiva orientation to Nāth identity in the premodern era is demonstrated by occasional references to, and depictions of, Vaiṣṇava Nāths. The Nāth in figure 2 who holds a peacock-feather fan sports the Vaiṣṇava V-shaped forehead marking. Gorakh pad 12.6 says that King Rām ( rājā rām) pervades the body; thus one can know the place of Hari, i.e., Viṣṇu. Cf. Gorakh sākhī 162. Bhartṛhari is Gorakṣa’s disciple and a devotee of Nārāyaṇa in the eighteenth-century Bhartṛharinirveda (Louis H. Gray, “The Bhartṛharinirveda of Harihara, Now First Translated from the Sanskrit and Prākrit,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 25 [1904], pp. 197–230). Briggs, Gorakhnāth and the Kānphaṭa Yogīs , pp. 203–5, tells a version of the famous Nāth legend of Gopīcand in which five Vaiṣṇavas came to his initiation, dressed him in a loincloth, and put a “Rāma rosary” around his neck. When he breaks a fast, he says “Śrī Kṛṣṇa.” But there are many more references to Nāths worshiping Śiva, in particular as Ādinātha, “the primal Nāth.” Nāth conceptions of the absolute as formless are found throughout their texts, both Sanskrit and vernacular, and also in the circa 1650 Dabistān , in which Yogi followers of Gorakh are said to call god “Alíka [i.e., Alakh (< Skt. alakṣya ), “the imperceptible”] …They believe Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadeva to be subordinate divinities, but they are, as followers and disciples, addicted to Gorakhnāth; thus, some devote themselves to the one or the other of the deities” (Shea and Troyer, The Dabistān , vol. 2, pp. 127–28).

The epithet mahāyogī (the great yogi) is found in several places in the Mahābhārata , which can be dated to between 200 BCE and 300 CE. In some cases mahāyogī refers to Śiva, but in the majority it is applied either to Viṣṇu or to yogis with no Śaiva connections, such as Vyāsa and Mārkaṇḍeya. Furthermore, as noted by John L. Brockington, “Epic Yoga,” Journal of Vaiṣṇava Studies 14, no. 1 (2005), p. 123, yoga in the Mahābhārata is generally described in a Vaiṣṇava context.

The ninth- or early tenth-century Bhāgavatapurāṇa , a text central to many Vaiṣṇava traditions, contains lengthy descriptions of yoga practice (Friedhelm Hardy, Viraha-Bhakti: The early history of Kṛṣṇa devotion in South India [Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983], pp. 486–88). The circa thirteenth-century Dattātreyayogaśāstra , the earliest text to teach haṭha yoga, is a Vaiṣṇava work. Many late medieval works on haṭha yoga in Sanskrit and vernaculars were composed by Vaiṣṇavas, e.g., the Yogamārgaprakāśikā of Yugaladāsa, the Rājayoga attributed to Agastya, the Gheraṇḍasaṃhitā , and the Jogpradīpakā of Jayatarāma

E.g., Chandra, “Hindu Ascetics in Mughal Painting,” p. 312: “the Hindu ascetics represented in early Mughal painting seem primarily to be of Śaiva affiliation, ascetic life in this period thus being confirmed to have been dominated by the worshipers of Śiva in his various aspects.”

The earliest North Indian paintings of ascetics wearing Śaiva forehead markings that I have seen are late seventeenth-century Rajput miniatures (e.g., P. and D. Colnaghi, Indian Painting: Mughal and Rajput and a Sultanate Manuscript [London: Colnaghi and Co., 1978], pp. 50–51; Viśvāmitra’s tapas depicted in a seventeenth-century Rajput illustrated Rāmāyaṇa in the British Library [MS15295 f. 173]; The Seven Great Sages in the Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh 1343; fig. 7 in Debra Diamond’s essay in Yoga: The Art of Transformation ).

It may be that there were Śaivas among the unadorned Saṃnyāsīs depicted in Mughal paintings. The Pauṣkara , an earlier Śaiva Tantra, prescribes only the wearing of matted hair and ashes for ascetics, with the tripuṇḍra reserved for householders (s.v. tripuṇḍra in Tāntrikābhidhānakośa, Dictionnaire des terms techniques de la littérature hindoue tantrique, Vol. 3, ed. Marion Rastelli and Dominic Goodall, Beiträge zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens, no. 44 (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2013)). Verses in a pre-Mughal Tamil hymn by Campantar can be understood to contrast the simplicity of Śaiva markings with the complexity of Vaiṣṇava ones, implying that it is enough for a Śaiva simply to smear some ash on his body ( Mūvar Tēvāram Vol.1, Ñāṉacampantar, II.66 mantiram āvatu nīṟu, Publications de l’Institut Français d’Indologie (PIFI) 68-1, 1984). I thank Dominic Goodall for providing me with these references.

Vaiṣṇava forehead markings are also discernible on the Saṃnyāsīs depicted in a painting in the collection of the San Diego Museum of Art, 1990.355.

Clark, The Daśanāmī-Saṃnyāsīs , pp. 159–70.

The fourth pīṭha , Sringeri, is a seat of Smārta orthodoxy with Śaiva leanings, but in the process of the Daśanāmīs’ formalization is likely to have replaced the mixed Vaiṣṇava/Śaiva tīrtha of Rameshwaram, which is often grouped together with the other three in a system of four dhāma s or sacred abodes. Sringeri’s inland location—in contrast to the other dhāma s found at India’s geographical extremities—strengthens this hypothesis. None of the Daśanāmī Nāgā akhāṛā s has a center at Sringeri, but the biggest, the Jūnā Akhāṛā, has a maṭha at Rameshwaram (Clark, The Daśanāmī-Saṃnyāsīs , pp. 57–59).

E.g., Īśvara Purī, the mantra guru of the Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava guru Caitanya Mahāprabhu and Īśvara Purī’s guru Mādhavendra Purī. On other early Vaiṣṇava ascetics with the nominal suffix Purī, see Stuart Mark Elkman, Jīva Gosvāmin’s Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Movement (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986), pp. 16–17.

Sāttvatasaṃhitā 9.98–09 (Sanjukta Gupta, “Yoga and Antaryāga in Pāñcarātra,” in Ritual and Speculation in Early Tantrism: Studies in Honour of André Padoux [New York: New York University Press, 1992], p. 189); Lakṣmītantra , ed. V. Krishnamacharya (Madras: Adyar Library, 1959), 11.19–25.

The circa 1650 Dabistān appears to have been written partway through the transition. After listing the ten names of the suborders of the Saṃnyāsīs, it states, “They are frequently holy men, and abstain from eating flesh, and renounce all intercourse with women. This class follow the dictates of Datáteri [i.e., Dattātreya], whom they also venerate as a deity, and say that he is an incarnation of Naráyan [Narayana, a form of Vishnu].” Later, it is said that Śaṅkarācārya, “incarnation of Mahadeva,” is the head of their ascetic division (Shea and Troyer, The Dabistān, vol. 2, pp. 139–41). A famous verse attributed to Kabīr, but almost certainly postdating him by some centuries because of its mention of guns, Bījak Ramainī 69, in which fighting ascetics are scorned, associates yogi followers of Mahādeva (i.e., Śiva ) with Dattātreya.

On the Daśanāmīs association with the Sringeri maṭha, see Clark, The Daśanāmī-Saṃnyāsīs , pp. 177–226.

It was in Varanasi that the first Śaiva Daśanāmī text on haṭha yoga , the Śivasaṃhitā (circa fifteenth or sixteenth century), whose philosophical underpinning is the Śrīvidyā-inflected Advaita of the Sringeri maṭha , was composed. See Mallinson, “Śāktism and Haṭhayoga ,” for an analysis of the Śrīvidyā features of the Śivasaṃhitā . At 5.132 are found mentions of Viśvanātha and the Asī and Varaṇā Rivers, small tributaries of the Gaṅgā in Varanasi, pointing to the Śivasaṃhitā ’s having been composed in the city. The circa thirteenth-century Dattātreyayogaśāstra , a Vaiṣṇava work on haṭhayoga , is also likely to have been produced by forerunners of the Daśanāmī saṃpradāya (Mallinson, “Śāktism and Haṭhayoga”), and the Śivasaṃhitā (which borrows verses from the Dattātreyayogaśāstra ) may partly represent a Daśanāmī attempt to rebrand haṭhayoga as Śaiva.

The formalization of the Rāmānandī order is associated with the formation of their military subdivisions at the end of the seventeenth century and beginning of the eighteenth (Horstmann, “Power and Status”). Rāmānand, the supposed founder of the sect, is likely to have lived in the fifteenth century (Agrawala, The Deeds of Harsha ) and his grand-disciple Kṛṣṇa Dās Payohārī, who was a key figure in the formation of Rāmānandī identity, in the early sixteenth century, prior to the painting of figure 1 in 1630. Horstmann, “The Rāmānandīs of Galta,” p. 145, notes that the name Rāmānandī is not found as a self-designation until 1730, but it is used in the circa 1650 Dabistān in its description of varieties of Vairāgī ascetics (Shea and Troyer, The Dabistān , vol. 2, p. 180).

The Rāmānandīs’ disavowal of nakedness is somewhat specious. Members of their military divisions are (like their Daśanāmī equivalents) still called Nāgā (naked), and they and their Tyāgī brethren often sport loincloths that leave little to the imagination. Some Vaiṣṇava Nāgās still went naked in 1825, the time of the composition of the Tashrih al-aqvam (see Fig. 11), whose 101st chapter describes and depicts naked vaiṣṇava Vairāgī Nāgās. I thank Bruce Wannell for reading the text with me.

A turn-of-the-twentieth-century Rāmānandī Nāgā document states that members of the four Vaiṣṇava saṃpradāyas must give up their ochre garments and wear white after taking Nāgā vows (personal communication, Monika Horstmann, May 21, 2013).

On the four sampradāyas , see John Stratton Hawley, “The four sampradāys: ordering the religious past in Mughal North India,” South Asian History and Culture 2, no. 2 (April 2011), pp. 160–63, and, on the formulation in early eighteenth-century Jaipur of a Vedic Vaiṣṇavism in which ritual and bhakti were integrated, Monika Horstmann, “Theology and Statecraft,” ibid. pp. 75–104. Ascetics from Vaiṣṇava lineages other than the Rāmānandīs (and their Daśanāmī forebears) appear infrequently in Mughal and subsequent painting. An exception is a picture of a large group preparing bhāṅg , dated 1600–10 and reproduced in Andrew Topsfield, In the Realm of Gods and Kings: Arts of India (London: Philip Wilson Publishers, 1984). The ascetics (who can be identified because they wear nothing but loincloths) all have shaven heads; many wear necklaces that appear to be of tulasī ; some have ūrdhvapuṇḍra s on their upper arms; two have clubs (one is using his to grind the bhāṅg ); and none sports earrings. It seems likely that they are members of the Muṇḍī (i.e., “shaven-headed”) subdivision of the Vairāgīs mentioned in the Dabistān and said to have fought a battle with Saṃnyāsīs at Haridwar in 1640, “in which the latter were victorious and killed a great number of the Mundís: these men threw away their rosaries of Tulasi wood which they wear about their necks, and hung on their perforated ears the rings of the Jógís, in order to be taken for these sectaries” (Shea and Troyer, The Dabistān , vol. 2, pp. 196–97). It is uncertain whether this tradition, which is perhaps referred to at Dattātreyayogaśāstra 43, died out or adapted to become part of one of the cār saṃpradāy lineages. The presence of two dogs and absence of topknots indicates that their Vaiṣṇavism was not yet of the ultra-orthodox variety with which the cār saṃpradāy came to be associated. This story also provides us with the earliest attestation of Daśanāmīs being opposed to Vaiṣṇavas.

The organization of Vaiṣṇava lineages according to the cār saṃpradāy , despite involving claims to links to a southern tradition, was a phenomenon that originated in northwest India, in particular Jaipur. Their ultra-Vaiṣṇava features were not immediately adopted by Vaiṣṇava ascetics in the south. A Company School painting of two Vairāgīs (identified in a caption in English) in an album of pictures of various castes and occupations from Tamil Nadu and dated to 1830–35 shows them wearing saffron cloth and hooped earrings in their earlobes (British Museum 1884,0913,0.94).

Clark, The Daśanāmī-Saṃnyāsīs , p. 74, n. 63; p. 92, n. 42. In addition to Clark’s observations on their shared functionaries, both orders include regional officers called ( mahā ) maṇḍaleśvaras . See also Sinha and Saraswati, Ascetics of Kashi , p. 118, on how the lineages of both the Daśanāmīs and Rāmānandīs run from Nārāyaṇa to Śukadeva before diverging.

See Mallinson, “Śāktism and Haṭhayoga .”

Richard Burghart, “Secret Vocabularies of the ‘Great Renouncers’ of the Rāmānandī Sect,” in Early Hindu Devotional Literature in Current Research , ed. W. M. Callewaert, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 8 (Leuven: Departement Orientalistiek Katholieke Universiteit, 1980), pp. 17–30, details what he identified as the “secret vocabulary” of the Rāmānandīs, but almost all of the terms he notes are current among the Daśanāmīs (personal communication, Ved Giri, April 5, 2010, Jūnā Akhāṛā’s Terah Maḍhi camp, Haridwar Kumbh Melā).

The Rāmānandī Bālānandī Nāgās continue to append the suffix -ānanda to their post-initiatory names (personal communication, Monika Horstmann, May 21, 2013).

This is the date of the composition of the Agastyasaṃhitā (Hans Bakker, “An Old Text of the Rāma Devotion: The Agastyasaṃhitā,” in Navonmeṣa [Varanasi: M. M. Gopināth Kaviraj Centenary Celebration Committee, 1987], pp. 300–306).

Supporting this is the absence of differentiation between Saṃnyāsīs and ascetic followers of Rām—or Vaiṣṇava renouncers of any persuasion—prior to the seventeenth century. The earliest unequivocal distinction of this sort that I have found is in Maḥmūd Balkhī’s description of his travels. In 1625, he went to Gurkhattri where a “preceptor of the sect of jogīs” had a thousand disciples, including “jogis, sannyasis, bairagis etc.” (Iqbal Hussain, “Hindu Shrines and Practices as Described by a Central Asian Traveller in the First Half of the 17th Century,” in Medieval India 1: Researches in the History of India , ed. Irfan Habib [Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992], pp. 142–43). An exception may be a reference to rāmajana in the Padmāvatī (2.6), whose colophon says that it was composed in 1540 but whose oldest manuscript dates to 1657 (on the controversies surrounding the date of the Padmāvatī , see Thomas de Bruijn, “The Ruby Hidden in the Dust: A Study of the Poetics of Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s Padmāvat” [PhD diss., University of Leiden, 1996]). Several types of ascetic are mentioned in the verse: rikhesvara, sanyāsī, rāmajana, masavāsī, brahmacārī, digambara nāgā, sarasvatī, siddha, jogī, nirāsa, mahesvara, jaṅgama, jatī, śākta [the latter is not named as such but implied: koi eka parakhai debī sati ], sevarā , khevarā , bānaparastī , sidha , sādhaka and avadhūta . In the circa 1600 Gurugranth , jogī s , jatī s and vaiṣṇava s are contrasted (p. 867 17.2.2; cf. p. 960). The Dabistān (circa 1650) describes a well-established system of four traditions (the cār saṃpradāy ) of Vairāgīs, including Rāmānandīs, which is separate from the ten-fold division of the Saṃnyāsīs (Shea and Troyer, The Dabistān , vol. 2, pp. 184–97).

The sixteenth-century Advaitin Madhusūdana Sarasvatī taught bhakti as an alternative path to nondualism in works such as the Advaitasiddhi and Bhaktirasāyana (see Christopher Minkowski, “Advaita Vedānta in early modern history,” South Asian History and Culture 2, no. 2 [April 2011], p. 134). Cf. Hardy, Viraha-Bhakti , p. 32.

The fifteenth-century Rāmārcanacandrikā , a manual of Rāma worship, was written by one Ānandavana, a pupil of Mukundavana. The -vana nominal suffix is among the ten appended to the names of Daśanāmī or “ten-named” Saṃnyāsīs. Rāmatīrtha, a sixteenth-century Saṃnyāsī resident of Benares, is praised by his disciple Anantadeva as a great devotee of Rāma. I thank Anand Venkatkrishnan for sending me drafts of two unpublished essays, “Mīmāṃsā, Vedānta, and the Bhakti Movement,” (2012) and “Ritual, Reflection and Religion” (to appear in a forthcoming volume of South Asian History and Culture on “Scholar-Intellectuals in Early Modern India” edited by Venkatkrishnan, Rosalind O’Hanlon and Christopher Minkowski) in which he draws attention to these rāmabhakta Saṃnyāsīs. A significant difference between Rām-bhakti traditions, from the time of the twelfth-century Agastyasaṃhitā onward, and other Vaiṣṇava ascetic traditions is the former’s use of the six-syllabled Rām mantra as opposed to the eight-syllabled oṃ namo nārāyaṇāya. But the same sixteenth-century Saṃnyāsī teachers who had no difficulty with Rām-bhakti also admit to chanting the name of god, whether that be Hari or Rām (or Śiva, etc.), as a means to religious goals (Venkatkrishnan, “Mīmāṃsā, Vedānta, and the Bhakti Movement,” p.13).

The Daśanāmīs’ adoption of Śaivism went against a general trend in sixteenth- to eighteenth-century North India for older Śaiva traditions to be replaced or complemented by Vaiṣṇavism, a process often instigated, in legend at least, by Vaiṣṇava ascetics (on which see Arik Moran, “Toward a History of Devotional Vaishnavism in the West Himalayas: Kullu and the Ramanandis, c. 1500–1800,” The Indian Social and Economic History Review 50, no. 1 [January–March 2013]).

Pinch, Warrior Ascetics , p. 90.

Personal communication, October 27, 2012.

James Mallinson , PhD, is a Sanskritist from Oxford University whose work focuses on the history of yoga and yogis. His publications include The Ocean of the Rivers of Story by Somadeva (2007) and The Khecarīvidyā of Ādinātha (2007).

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Role of India to promote Yoga

Significance of Yoga

International Yoga Day 2021: List of suggested Activities in India

International Yoga Day Objectives

FAQs on International Yoga Day Essay