research paper in english literature

How to write a Research Paper – Step by Step Guide

A Step-by-Step Guide to writing a research paper

Introduction:

Writing a research paper is a job that we all have to do in our academic life. A research paper represents the ideas of the person who writes it. In simple words, a research paper presents an original idea and substantiates it with logical arguments. Writing a research paper in the domain of English literature is very different compared to writing research articles in other domains. Literature inclines towards abstract thinking. In other subjects, one has to stick to the facts. Howsoever you try, disputing an idea of science becomes very difficult. On the other hand, to contradict an idea in the purview of literature, you just need a systematic flow of arguments (logical and valid) and it’s done! So, writing a research paper in the field of English literature becomes easy if arguments are strong, in a sequence and wisely crafted.

Step 1: Choose the topic of your research paper:

This is one of the most vital parts. Choosing a topic is a crucial choice to make and it has to be taken seriously. You have to choose the area of your interest in English literature and then narrow it down to the area of your expertise. You cannot write a paper on the topics which are wider than a Doctoral thesis! So, you have to be precise and wise while choosing your topic.

An example: Suppose a person has adequate knowledge about Matthew Arnold. Can he write a research article on Arnold alone? No! He will need to bring the topic to some specific idea related to Arnold. The possibilities may be in his prose or poetry writing. In certain states in India, students work on topics like “Matthew Arnold as a poet” and “Matthew Arnold as a great prose writer” which is invalid, injustice and academically a sin. It should not be encouraged! Someone being a poet cannot be a subject of a research article. Any special quality of someone’s poetry writing can certainly be an interesting topic of a research paper – now you must have the idea. ‘Hopelessness and Despair in the poetry of Matthew Arnold’ can be a topic for a brilliant research paper. The hint is very simple – narrow it down to the speciality and you will have your topic ready!

Read in detail – How to choose a research topic? 

Step 2: Collect information – primary and secondary sources:

Now that you have selected a topic for your research paper, you should find ‘credible sources’ that substantiate your ‘paper’s purpose’. Sources are divided into two major categories – primary and secondary. Primary sources are the materials produced by the people who feature in your topic. In the case of our example above, poetry by Matthew Arnold and other writings by him will be primary sources. Secondary sources are the writings ‘about the topic and anything related to the topic’. Therefore, you have to browse the internet, visit a library, check your bookshelves and do anything that will bring you information about the topic and anything that relates to the topic.

Step 3: Plan your research article:

Before you begin writing the paper, it’s always wise to have a clear plan in your mind. Planning a research paper in the domain of English literature should always begin with a clear ‘purpose of research’ in your mind. Why are you writing this paper? What point do you want to make? How significant is that point? Do you have your arguments to support the point (or idea) that you want to establish? Do you have enough credible sources that support the arguments you want to make in the body of the paper? If all the answers are positive, move to the next step and begin writing the drafts for your paper.

Step 4: Writing the first draft of your research paper:

Now it comes to writing the paper’s first draft. Before you begin writing, have a clear picture of your paper in your mind. It will make the job easier. What does a research paper look like? Or, rather, what’s the ideal structure of a research paper?

Beginning – Introduce your idea that drives the research paper. How do you approach that idea? What is your paper – an analysis, review of a book or two ideas compared or something else. The introduction must tell the story of your research in brief – ideas, a highlight or arguments and the glimpse of conclusion. It is generally advised that the introduction part should be written in the end so that you have the final research paper clearly justified, introduced and highlighted at the beginning itself.

Middle – And here goes the meat of your paper. All that you have to emphasise, euphemise, compare, collaborate and break down will take place in the middle or the body of your research paper. Please be careful once you begin writing the body of your paper. This is what will impact your readers (or the examiners or the teachers) the most. You have to be disciplined, systematic, clever and also no-nonsense. Make your points and support them with your arguments. Arguments should be logical and based on textual proofs (if required). Analyse, compare or collaborate as required to make your arguments sharp and supportive to the proposition that you make. The example topic of a research paper that we chose somewhere above in this article – Hopelessness and Despair in the Poetry of Matthew Arnold will require the person writing this paper to convince the readers (and so on) that actually Arnold’s poetry gives a sign of the two negative attitudes picked as the topic. It would be wise to analyse the works (and instances from them, to be specific) The Scholar Gypsy, Empedocles on Etna, Dover Beach and others that support the proposition made in the topic for research. You can use primary and secondary sources and cite them wisely as required. You have to convince the readers of your paper that what you propose in the purpose of the research paper stands on the ground as a logical and valid proposition.

End – Or the conclusion of a research paper that should be written wisely and carefully. You can use a few of your strongest arguments here to strike the final balance and make your proposition justified. After a few of your strongest arguments are made, you can briefly summarise your research topic and exhibit your skills of writing to close the lid by justifying why you are proposing that you have concluded what you began. Make sure that you leave the least possible loopholes for conjecture after you conclude your paper.

Reference: You can use two of the most used styles (or rather only used) to give a list of references in your paper – APA or MLA. Whatever you choose needs to be constant throughout the paper.

To summarise, here is what a research paper should look like:

• Introduction
• A list of References

Step 5: Read & re-read your draft: It gives you the chance to judge your research paper and find the possible shortcomings so that you can make amends and finalise your paper before you print it out for your academic requirements. While you read your first draft, treat it with a purpose to find contradictions and conjecture points as much as possible. Wherever you find the chances of contradiction possible, you have to make those arguments forceful and more logical and substantiate them to bypass the fear of being contradicted (and defeated). Let us be clear – it is English literature we are dealing with and there will be contradictions. Don’t fear it. However, make sure your arguments are not defeated. The defeat means your paper will not hold up to the scrutiny of the experts. And this is why you need to read and re-read the first draft of your literature research paper.

Step 6: Finalise & print your research paper: After reading your paper 1 or 2 times, you should be sure what needs to be changed and otherwise. Finalise it so that it appears the best and sounds good to be the final version. Print your work in the best possible quality and you are done! If there is a verbal question-answer associated with the paper you prepare, make sure you understand it completely and are ready for the questions from any possible side of your topic.

This was our step-by-step guide to writing a research paper in the field of English literature. We hope you have found it useful. We will write more articles associated with the concept – such as choosing a research topic, building arguments, writing powerful introductions. Make sure you subscribe to our website so that you are notified whenever we post a new article on English Literature Education! All the best with your paper!

More guides on How to Subjects: 

How to Study Poetry?

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Have something to say? Add your comments:

9 Comments . Leave new

Thank you so much, explanation about research work is a nice manner. (private information retracted)

Very well written article! Thanks for this. I was confused about my research paper. I am sure I can do it now.

Quite resourceful. thank you.

Very nice reseach paper

It was very nice reading, helpful for writing research paper.

Thanks for your kind sharing of the information

Normally, I don’t leave any replies after reading a blog, but I couldn’t help this time. I found this blog very useful. So, I’m writing my research paper and I’ve been racking my brain and the internet for a good topic, plus trying to learn how to write a research paper. Thank you so much for putting this up!

I want to work on The French Revolution and its impact on romantic poetry. Please help in this regard.

Thanks a lot for the information.

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Literary Theory and Criticism

Home › Journal › Top Scopus Indexed Journals in English Literature

Top Scopus Indexed Journals in English Literature

By NASRULLAH MAMBROL on June 15, 2020 • ( 0 )

1. English Historical Review -(OXFORD) (https://academic.oup.com/ehr/pages/About)

2. ASIATIC: IITUM Journal of English Language & Literature ( https://journals.iium.edu.my/asiatic/index.php/AJELL )

3. English for Specific Purposes ( https://www.journals.elsevier.com/english-for-specific-purposes )

4. The Australian Association for the Teaching of English (AATE) ( https://www.aate.org.au/journals/english-in-australia )

5. English in Education (Wiley) ( https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17548845 )

6. English World-Wide | A Journal of Varieties of English ( https://benjamins.com/catalog/eww )

7. European Journal of English Studies– Taylor & Francis Online ( https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/neje20/current )

8. Journal of English for Academic Purposes – Elsevier B.V. ( https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-english-for-academic-purposes )

9. Journal of English Linguistics- SAGE Journals ( https://journals.sagepub.com/home/eng )

10. Research in the Teaching of English-NCTE ( https://www2.ncte.org/resources/journals/research-in-the-teaching-of-english/ /)

11. The English Classroom – Regional Institute of English ( http://www.riesielt.org/english-classroom-journal )

12. World Englishes (Wiley Blackwell) ( https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1467971x )

13. English Language & Linguistics – Cambridge Core ( https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/english-language-and-linguistics )

14. English Today-The International Review of the English Language-Cambridge Core ( https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/english-today )

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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English Literature: Resources for Graduate Research

• Articles on Your Topic
• Books on Literary History, Theory, Criticism & More
• Novels, Poems & Other Primary Texts

What is a literature review?

How to conduct a literature review, books at tufts & beyond.

• Historic Newspapers & More
• Reviews, Essays & More
• English & the Digital Humanities
• How to Find Cited Material
• Citing Your Sources This link opens in a new window
• Getting Items that Tufts Doesn't Own
• Copyright & Publication This link opens in a new window

"A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge on and/or methodological  approaches to a particular topic. They are secondary sources and discuss published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period.  Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area.

A literature review usually precedes a research proposal and may be just a simple summary of sources. Usually, however, it has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. 

A summary is a recap of important information about the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. Depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant of them.

Keep in mind that the main focus of an academic research paper is to develop a new argument, and a research paper will contain a literature review as one of its parts. In a research paper, you use the literature as a foundation and as support for a new insight that you contribute. The focus of a literature review, however, is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others without adding new contributions."

The following resource include a number of interesting tips on conducting literature reviews:

• The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It Valuable guidelines from the University of Toronto.
• Literature Reviews From UNC Chapel Hill, this site explains what literature reviews are and offer insights into the form and construction of literature reviews in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences.
• How to Write a Literature Review A comprehensive guide from UC Santa Cruz Libraries.
• Software Tools for a Literature Review A tutorial that explains how mind maps, pdf readers, and citation managers can be used for a literature review (see first part of the tutorial).
• Review of Literature A useful overview of literature reviews from UW-Madison.

This is a sample of books at Tufts and beyond that include helpful tips for conducting literature reviews and writing dissertations and theses.

• << Previous: Novels, Poems & Other Primary Texts
• Next: Historic Newspapers & More >>
• Last Updated: Aug 15, 2024 2:46 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.library.tufts.edu/EnglishGraduateResources

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Starkowski, Kristen (September 2021) – “Doorstep Moments: Close Encounters with Minor Characters in the Victorian Novel”

Rickard, Matthew (September 2021) – “Probability: A Literary History, 1479-1700”

Crandell, Catie (September 2021) – “Inkblot Mirrors: On the Metareferential Mode and 19th Century British Literature”

Clayton, J.Thomas (September 2021) – “The Reformation of Indifference: Adiaphora, Toleration, and English Literature in the Seventeenth Century”

Goldberg, Reuven L. (May 2021) – “I Changed My Sex! Pedagogy and the Trans Narrative”

Soong, Jennifer (May 2021) – “Poetic Forgetting”

Edmonds, Brittney M. (April 2021) – “Who’s Laughing Now? Black Affective Play and Formalist Innovation in Twenty-First Century black Literary Satire”

Azariah-Kribbs, Colin (April 2021) – “Mere Curiosity: Knowledge, Desire, and Peril in the British and Irish Gothic Novel, 1796-1820”

Pope, Stephanie (January 2021) – “Rethinking Renaissance Symbolism: Material Culture, Visual Signs, and Failure in Early Modern Literature, 1587-1644”

Kumar, Matthew (September 2020) – “The Poetics of Space and Sensation in Scotland and Kenya”

Bain, Kimberly (September 2020) – “On Black Breath”

Eisenberg, Mollie (September 2020) – “The Case of the Self-Conscious Detective Novel: Modernism, Metafiction, and the Terms of Literary Value”

Hori, Julia M. (September 2020) – “Restoring Empire: British Imperial Nostalgia, Colonial Space, and Violence since WWII”

Reade, Orlando (June 2020) – “Being a Lover of the World: Lyric Poetry and Political Disaffection after the English Civil War”

Mahoney, Cate (June 2020) – “Go on Your Nerve: Confidence in American Poetry, 1860-1960”

Ritger, Matthew (April 2020) – “Objects of Correction:  Literature and the Birth of Modern Punishment”

VanSant, Cameron (April 2020) – “Novel Subjects:  Nineteenth-Century Fiction and the Transformation of British Subjecthood”

Lennington, David (November 2019) – “Anglo-Saxon and Arabic Identity in the Early Middle Ages”

Marraccini, Miranda (September 2019) – “Feminist Types: Reading the Victoria Press”

Harlow, Lucy (June 2019) – “The Discomposed Mind”

Williamson, Andrew (June 2019) – “Nothing to Say:  Silence in Modernist American Poetry”

Adair, Carl (April 2019) – “Faithful Readings: Religion, Hermeneutics, and the Habits of Criticism”

Rogers, Hope (April 2019) – “Good Girls: Female Agency and Convention in the Nineteenth-Century British Novel”

Green, Elspeth (January 2019) – “Popular Science and Modernist Poetry”

Braun, Daniel (January 2019) – Kinds of Wrong: The Liberalization of Modern Poetry 1910-1960”

Rosen, Rebecca (November 2018) – “Making the body Speak: Anatomy, Autopsy and Testimony in Early America, 1639-1790”

Blank, Daniel (November 2018) – Shakespeare and the Spectacle of University Drama”

Case, Sarah (September 2018) – Increase of Issue: Poetry and Succession in Elizabethan England”

Kucik, Emanuela  (June 2018) – “Black Genocides and the Visibility Paradox in Post-Holocaust African American and African Literature”

Quinn, Megan  (June 2018) – “The Sensation of Language: Jane Austen, William Wordsworth, Mary Shelley”

McCarthy, Jesse D.  (June 2018) – “The Blue Period: Black Writing in the Early Cold War, 1945-1965

Johnson, Colette E.  (June 2018) – “The Foibles of Play: Three Case Studies on Play in the Interwar Years”

Gingrich, Brian P.  (June 2018) – “The Pace of Modern Fiction: A History of Narrative Movement in Modernity”

Marcus, Sara R.  (June 2018) – “Political Disappointment: A Partial History of a Feeling”

Parry, Rosalind A.  (April 2018) – “Remaking Nineteenth-Century Novels for the Twentieth Century”

Gibbons, Zoe  (January 2018) – “From Time to Time:  Narratives of Temporality in Early Modern England, 1610-1670”

Padilla, Javier  (September 2017) – “Modernist Poetry and the Poetics of Temporality:  Between Modernity and Coloniality”

Alvarado, Carolina (June 2017) – "Pouring Eastward: Editing American Regionalism, 1890-1940"

Gunaratne, Anjuli (May 2017) – "Tragic Resistance: Decolonization and Disappearance in Postcolonial Literature"

Glover, Eric (May 2017) – "By and About:  An Antiracist History of the Musicals and the Antimusicals of Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston"

Tuckman, Melissa (April 2017) – "Unnatural Feelings in Nineteenth-Century Poetry"

Eggan, Taylor (April 2017) – "The Ecological Uncanny: Estranging Literary Landscapes in Twentieth-Century Narrative Fiction"

Calver, Harriet (March 2017) – "Modern Fiction and Its Phantoms"

Gaubinger, Rachel (December 2016) – "Between Siblings: Form and Family in the Modern Novel"

Swartz, Kelly (December 2016) – "Maxims and the Mind: Sententiousness from Seventeenth-Century Science to the Eighteenth-Century Novel"

Robles, Francisco (June 2016) – “Migrant Modalities: Radical Democracy and Intersectional Praxis in American Literatures, 1923-1976”

Johnson, Daniel (June 2016) – “Visible Plots, Invisible Realms”

Bennett, Joshua (June 2016) – “Being Property Once Myself: In Pursuit of the Animal in 20th Century African American Literature”

Scranton, Roy (January 2016) – “The Trauma Hero and the Lost War: World War II, American Literature, and the Politics of Trauma, 1945-1975

Jacob, Priyanka (November 2015) – “Things That Linger: Secrets, Containers and Hoards in the Victorian Novel”

Evans, William (November 2015) – “The Fiction of Law in Shakespeare and Spenser”

Vasiliauskas, Emily (November 2015) – “Dead Letters: The Afterlife Before Religion”

Walker, Daniel (June 2015) – “Sociable Uncertainties: Literature and the Ethics of Indeterminacy in Eighteenth-Century Britain”

Reilly, Ariana (June 2015) – “Leave-Takings: Anti-Self-Consciousness and the Escapist Ends of the Victorian Marriage Plot”

Lerner, Ross (June 2015) – "Framing Fanaticism: Religion, Violence, and the Reformation Literature of Self-Annihilation”

Harrison, Matthew (June 2015) – "Tear Him for His Bad Verses: Poetic Value and Literary History in Early Modern England”

Krumholtz, Matthew (June 2015) – “Talking Points: American Dialogue in the Twentieth Century”

Dauber, Maayan (March 2015) – "The Pathos of Modernism: Henry James, Virginia Woolf, and Gertrude Stein (with a coda on J.M. Coetzee)”

Hostetter, Lyra (March 2015) – “Novel Errantry: An Annotated Edition of Horatio, of Holstein (1800)”

Sanford, Beatrice (January 2015) – “Love’s Perception: Nineteenth-Century Aesthetics of Attachment”

Chong, Kenneth (January 2015) – “Potential Theologies: Scholasticism and Middle English Literature”

Worsley, Amelia (September 2014) – “The Poetry of Loneliness from Romance to Romanticism”

Hurtado, Jules (June 2014) – “The Pornographer at the Crossroads: Sex, Realism and Experiment in the Contemporary English Novel”

Rutherford, James (June 2014) – "Irrational Actors: Literature and Logic in Early Modern England”

Wilde, Lisa (June 2014) – “English Numeracy and the Writing of New Worlds, 1543-1622”

Hyde, Emily (November 2013) – “A Way of Seeing: Modernism, Illustration, and Postcolonial Literature”

Ortiz, Ivan (September 2013) – “Romanticism and the Aesthetics of Modern Transport”

Aronowicz, Yaron (September 2013) – “Fascinated Moderns: The Attentions of Modern Fiction”

Wythoff, Grant (September 2013) – “Gadgetry: New Media and the Fictional Imagination”

Ramachandran, Anitha (September 2013) – "Recovering Global Women’s Travel Writings from the Modern Period: An Inquiry Into Genre and Narrative Agency”

Reuland, John (April 2013) – “The Self Unenclosed: A New Literary History of Pragmatism, 1890-1940”

Wasserman, Sarah (January 2013) – “Material Losses: Urban Ephemera in Contemporary American Literature and Culture”

Kastner, Tal (November 2012) – "The Boilerplate of Everything and the Ideal of Agreement in American Law and Literature"

Labella, John (October 2012) – "Lyric Hemisphere: Latin America in United States Poetry, 1927-1981"

Kindley, Evan (September 2012) – "Critics and Connoisseurs: Poet-Critics and the Administration of Modernism"

Smith, Ellen (September 2012) – "Writing Native: The Aboriginal in Australian Cultural Nationalism 1927-1945"

Werlin, Julianne (September 2012) – "The Impossible Probable: Modeling Utopia in Early Modern England"

Posmentier, Sonya (May 2012) – "Cultivation and Catastrophe:  Forms of Nature in Twentieth-Century Poetry of the Black Diaspora"

Alfano, Veronica (September 2011) – “The Lyric in Victorian Memory”

Foltz, Jonathan (September 2011) – “Modernism and the Narrative Cultures of Film”

Coghlan, J. Michelle (September 2011) – “Revolution’s Afterlife; The Paris Commune in American Cultural Memory, 1871-1933”

Christoff, Alicia (September 2011) – “Novel Feeling”

Shin, Jacqueline (August 2011) – “Picturing Repose: Between the Acts of British Modernism”

Ebrahim, Parween (August 2011) – “Outcasts and Inheritors: The Ishmael Ethos in American Culture, 1776-1917”

Reckson, Lindsay (August 2011) – “Realist Ecstasy: Enthusiasm in American Literature 1886 - 1938"

Londe, Gregory (June 2011) – “Enduring Modernism: Forms of Surviving Location in the 20th Century Long Poem”

Brown, Adrienne (June 2011) – “Reading Between the Skylines: The Skyscraper in American Modernism”

Russell, David (June 2011) – “A Literary History of Tact: Sociability, Aesthetic Liberalism and the Essay Form in Nineteenth-Century Britain”

Hostetter, Aaron (December 2010) – "The Politics of Eating and Cooking in Medieval English Romance"

Moshenska, Joseph (November 2010) – " 'Feeling Pleasures': The Sense of Touch in Renaissance England"

Walker, Casey (September 2010) – "The City Inside: Intimacy and Urbanity in Henry James, Marcel Proust and Virginia Woolf"

Rackin, Ethel (August 2010) – "Ornamentation and Essence in Modernist Poetry"

Noble, Mary (August 2010) – "Primitive Marriage: Anthropology and Nineteenth-Century Fiction"

Fox, Renee (August 2010) – "Necromantic Victorians: Reanimation, History and the Politics of Literary Innovation, 1868-1903"

Hopper, Briallen (June 2010) – “Feeling Right in American Reform Culture”

Lee, Wendy (June 2010) -- "Failures of Feeling in the British Novel from Richardson to Eliot"

Moyer, James (March 2010) – "The Passion of Abolitionism: How Slave Martyrdom Obscures Slave Labor”

Forbes, Erin (September 2009) – “Genius of Deep Crime:  Literature, Enslavement and the American Criminal”

Crawforth, Hannah (September 2009) – “The Politics and Poetics of Etymology in Early Modern Literature”

Elliott, Danielle (April 2009) – "Sea of Bones: The Middle Passage in Contemporary Poetry of the Black Atlantic”

Yu, Wesley (April 2009) – “Romance Logic: The Argument of Vernacular Verse in the Scholastic Middle Ages”

Cervantes, Gabriel (April 2009) – "Genres of Correction: Anglophone Literature and the Colonial Turn in Penal Law 1722-1804”

Rosinberg, Erwin (January 2009) – "A Further Conjunction: The Couple and Its Worlds in Modern British Fiction”

Walsh, Keri (January 2009) – "Antigone in Modernism: Classicism, Feminism, and Theatres of Protest”

Heald, Abigail (January 2009) – “Tears for Dido: A Renaissance Poetics of Feeling”

Bellin, Roger (January 2009) – "Argument: The American Transcendentalists and Disputatious Reason”

Ellis, Nadia (November 2008) – "Colonial Affections: Formulations of Intimacy Between England and the Caribbean, 1930-1963”

Baskin, Jason (November 2008) – “Embodying Experience: Romanticism and Social Life in the Twentieth Century”

Barrett, Jennifer-Kate (September 2008) – “ ‘So Written to Aftertimes’: Renaissance England’s Poetics of Futurity”

Moss, Daniel (September 2008) – “Renaissance Ovids: The Metamorphosis of Allusion in Late Elizabethan England”

Rainof, Rebecca (September 2008) – “Purgatory and Fictions of Maturity: From Newman to Woolf”

Darznik, Jasmin (November 2007) – “Writing Outside the Veil: Literature by Women of the Iranian Diaspora”

Bugg, John (September 2007) – “Gagging Acts: The Trials of British Romanticism”

Matson, John (September 2007) – “Marking Twain: Mechanized Composition and Medial Subjectivity in the Twain Era”

Neel, Alexandra (September 2007) – “The Writing of Ice: The Literature and Photography of Polar Regions”

Smith-Browne, Stephanie (September 2007) – “Gothic and the Pacific Voyage: Patriotism, Romance and Savagery in South Seas Travels and the Utopia of the Terra Australis”

Bystrom, Kerry (June 2007) – “Orphans and Origins: Family, Memory, and Nation in Argentina and South Africa”

Ards, Angela (June 2007) – “Affirmative Acts: Political Piety in African American Women’s Contemporary Autobiography”

Cragwall, Jasper (June 2007) – “Lake Methodism”

Ball, David (June 2007) – “False Starts: The Rhetoric of Failure and the Making of American Modernism, 1850-1950”

Ramdass, Harold (June 2007) – “Miswriting Tragedy: Genealogy, History and Orthography in the Canterbury Tales, Fragment I”

Lilley, James (June 2007) – “Common Things: Transatlantic Romance and the Aesthetics of Belonging, 1764-1840”

Noble, Mary (March 2007) – “Primitive Marriage: Anthropology and Nineteenth-Century Fiction”

Passannante, Gerard (January 2007) – “The Lucretian Renaissance: Ancient Poetry and Humanism in an Age of Science”

Tessone, Natasha (November 2006) – “The Fiction of Inheritance: Familial, Cultural, and National Legacies in the Irish and Scottish Novel”

Horrocks, Ingrid (September 2006) – “Reluctant Wanderers, Mobile Feelings: Moving Figures in Eighteenth-Century Literature”

Bender, Abby (June 2006) – “Out of Egypt and into bondage: Exodus in the Irish National Imagination”

Johnson, Hannah (June 2006) – “The Medieval Limit: Historiography, Ethics, Culture”

Horowitz, Evan (January 2006) – “The Writing of Modern Life”

White, Gillian (November 2005) – “ ‘We Do Not Say Ourselves Like That in Poems’: The Poetics of Contingency in Wallace Stevens and Elizabeth Bishop

Baudot, Laura (September 2005) – “Looking at Nothing: Literary Vacuity in the Long Eighteenth Century”

Hicks, Kevin (September 2005) – “Acts of Recovery: American Antebellum Fictions”

Stern, Kimberly (September 2005) – “The Victorian Sibyl: Women Reviewers and the Reinvention of Critical Tradition”

Nardi, Steven (May 2005) – “Automatic Aesthetics: Race, Technology, and Poetics in the Harlem Renaissance and American New Poetry”

Sayeau, Michael (May 2005) – “Everyday: Literature, Modernity, and Time”

Cooper, Lawrence (April 2005) – “Gothic Realities: The Emergence of Cultural Forms Through Representations of the Unreal”

Betjemann, Peter (November 2004) – “Talking Shop: Craft and Design in Hawthorne, James, and Wharton”

Forbes, Aileen (November 2004) – “Passion Play: Theaters of Romantic Emotion”

Keeley, Howard (November 2004) – “Beyond Big House and Cabin: Dwelling Politically in Modern Irish Literature”

Machlan, Elizabeth (November 2004) – “Panic Rooms: Architecture and Anxiety in New York Stories from 1900 to 9/11”

McDowell, Demetrius (November 2004) – “Hawthorne, James, and the Pressures of the Literary Marketplace”

Waldron, Jennifer (November 2004) – “Eloquence of the Body: Aesthetics, Theology, and English Renaissance Theater”

• Dalhousie University Libraries

English Literature

• Research step-by-step
• Dictionaries, encyclopedias, and more
• Find articles
• Primary sources
• Recommended websites
• Book reviews
• MLA citation
• Citation management

On this page...

Step 1: choose a topic, step 2: consult reference sources, step 3: grab some books, step 4: search for articles, step 5: collect, read, evaluate, and write what you have learned, step 6: cite your sources.

• Document delivery
• Exercises & training
• Arthurian Literature series
• ENGL 2232: Contemporary Science Fiction
• ENGL 3301: Graphic Novels This link opens in a new window
• CRWR 4010: Advanced Creative Writing - Poetry I

This page walks you through the basic steps of research. Keep in mind that the research process is actually quite messy, and you might find yourself jumping back and forth between the steps listed here. These steps are meant to orient you to the research process, but you do not necessarily have to follow this exact order:

• Choose a topic
• Consult reference sources
• Grab some books
• Search for articles
• Collect, read, evaluate, and write what you have learned
• Cite your sources

When choosing a topic, keep the following points in mind:

• Choose a topic that ACTUALLY interests you.
• Your topic is not set in stone. Once you start doing some initial research on your topic, you will probably decide to tweak it a bit.
• Pick a topic that is manageable. If your topic is too broad, it will be hard to condense it all into one university paper. But if your topic is too narrow, you may have a hard time finding enough scholarly research for your paper.
• Handout: Choosing a topic Check out this helpful handout on choosing a research topic!

Or, watch this incredibly useful video from North Carolina State University Library on choosing a topic:

When you first get started on a research project, you might not have very much prior knowledge of your topic. In that case, it's a great idea to start with some background information. The most heavily-used reference source in the world is Wikipedia, but as a student you also have access to many other excellent scholarly reference sources.

Jump to the "Dictionaries, encyclopedias, and more" page of this guide.

Time to get down to it! Books will help you get an even better handle on your topic. Books provide more in-depth information than reference sources, but are often much better for background information than journal articles. Keep the following in mind:

• Start by registering your Dal card as your library card. Fill out your registration form and bring it to the service desk at the Killam Library, or register online using our online form (this will take about 24 hours to process).
• Use the Novanet library catalogue to search for books on your topic.
• You can access ebooks immediately online; if you find a print book that interests you, write down the call number and visit the stacks!
• Check out this quick video: How to read a call number in 90 seconds
• Remember that in most cases you won't need to read the whole book!
• You may borrow print books for 3 weeks, and renew them twice. To renew books online, start here . Click "Guest," at the top right of the screen, and then "My library card." Log in with your barcode and password. You should see an overview of the books you have checked out, and an option to renew. You can also check out this quick video tutorial on renewing books .  

Jump to the "Find books" page of this guide.

Scholarly journals are specialized journals that publish new research on specialized topics. They are written FOR academics, researchers, and students to keep them aware of new developments in the field. They are written, for the most part, BY academics and researchers who are actively involved with the field of study. You can find scholarly articles in databases that the library subscribes to. Make sure to search in subject-specific databases (such as a history database), as well as multidisciplinary databases that include a wider scope of material.

Jump to the "Find journal articles" page of this guide.

• Handout: Identifying and reading scholarly works New to reading scholarly articles? Check out this helpful handout.

Or, check out this great video from Western Libraries:

Take very careful notes as you read your sources! This will help you trace themes and develop an argument. Check out the following two videos on writing a research paper, and make an appointment at the Dalhousie Writing Centre if you would like assistance with your writing.

• Dalhousie Writing Centre: Make an appointment
• Video tutorial: Writing a research paper, Part 1
• Writing Research Papers Part 2 Draft -- Revise -- Proof read -- References

Very important! When you use somebody else's words or ideas in your academic papers, you must to give credit to the original source. This is one of the reasons why keeping good notes is so important to the research process.

Jump to the MLA Citation page of this guide.

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• Last Updated: Sep 18, 2024 11:55 AM
• URL: https://dal.ca.libguides.com/English

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Literature Topics and Research

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

What kinds of topics are good ones?

The best topics are ones that originate out of your own reading of a work of literature, but here are some common approaches to consider:

• A discussion of a work's characters: are they realistic, symbolic, historically-based?
• A comparison/contrast of the choices different authors or characters make in a work
• A reading of a work based on an outside philosophical perspective (Ex. how would a Freudian read Hamlet ?)
• A study of the sources or historical events that occasioned a particular work (Ex. comparing G.B. Shaw's Pygmalion with the original Greek myth of Pygmalion)
• An analysis of a specific image occurring in several works (Ex. the use of moon imagery in certain plays, poems, novels)
• A "deconstruction" of a particular work (Ex. unfolding an underlying racist worldview in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness )
• A reading from a political perspective (Ex. how would a Marxist read William Blake's "London"?)
• A study of the social, political, or economic context in which a work was written — how does the context influence the work?

How do I start research?

Once you have decided on an interesting topic and work (or works), the best place to start is probably the Internet. Here you can usually find basic biographical data on authors, brief summaries of works, possibly some rudimentary analyses, and even bibliographies of sources related to your topic.

The Internet, however, rarely offers serious direct scholarship; you will have to use sources found in the library, sources like journal articles and scholarly books, to get information that you can use to build your own scholarship-your literary paper. Consult the library's on-line catalog and the MLA Periodical Index. Avoid citing dictionary or encyclopedic sources in your final paper.

How do I use the information I find?

The secondary sources you find are only to be used as an aid. Your thoughts should make up most of the essay. As you develop your thesis, you will bring in the ideas of the scholars to back up what you have already said.

For example, say you are arguing that Huck Finn is a Christ figure ; that's your basic thesis. You give evidence from the novel that allows this reading, and then, at the right place, you might say the following, a paraphrase:

According to Susan Thomas, Huck sacrifices himself because he wants to set Jim free (129).

If the scholar states an important idea in a memorable way, use a direct quote.

"Huck's altruism and feelings of compassion for Jim force him to surrender to the danger" (Thomas 129).

Either way, you will then link that idea to your thesis.

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• Knowledge Base
• Research paper

Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on September 5, 2024.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

The five steps in this article will help you put together an effective introduction for either type of research paper.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

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This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Scribbr’s paraphrasing tool can help you rephrase sentences to give a clear overview of your arguments.

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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Literature Research Paper Topics

This page provides a comprehensive guide to literature research paper topics , offering an extensive list divided into twenty categories, each with ten unique topics. Students can navigate the immense landscape of literature, including classical, contemporary, and multicultural dimensions, literary theory, specific authors’ studies, genre analyses, and historical contexts. From understanding how to choose the right topic to crafting an insightful literature research paper, this guide serves as a one-stop resource. Furthermore, iResearchNet’s writing services are presented, providing students with the opportunity to order a custom literature research paper with a range of impressive features, including expert writers, in-depth research, top-quality work, and guaranteed satisfaction. By exploring this page, students can find invaluable assistance and inspiration to embark on their literature research journey.

200 Literature Research Paper Topics

Literature is an expansive field that encompasses a multitude of subcategories. Below, we offer 200 literature research paper topics, neatly divided into twenty categories. Each of these themes presents a rich array of options to inspire your next research paper.

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• The representation of heroism in Homer’s “Iliad”
• The concept of fate in ancient Greek tragedies
• Female characters in Sophocles’ plays
• The importance of dialogue in Plato’s philosophical works
• The depiction of Gods in “The Odyssey”
• Tragic love in Virgil’s “Aeneid”
• Prophecy and divination in ancient Greek literature
• Wisdom in the works of Socrates
• The portrayal of Athens in Aristophanes’ comedies
• Stoicism in Seneca’s letters and essays
• Christian symbolism in Dante’s “Divine Comedy”
• The depiction of women in “The Canterbury Tales”
• Heroism in “Beowulf”
• The significance of dreams in medieval literature
• Religious conflict in “The Song of Roland”
• The concept of courtly love in “Tristan and Isolde”
• The role of magic in Arthurian literature
• The representation of chivalry in “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight”
• Life and death in “The Book of the Dead”
• The theme of rebellion in “The Decameron”
• The influence of humanism in Shakespeare’s plays
• Love and beauty in Petrarch’s sonnets
• The representation of monarchy in “The Faerie Queene”
• The depiction of the New World in “Utopia”
• The power of speech in “Othello”
• Metaphysical poetry and John Donne
• Tragedy and revenge in “Hamlet”
• Women in “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”
• The concept of the ideal ruler in Machiavelli’s “The Prince”
• Religion and superstition in “Macbeth”
• The use of satire in Jonathan Swift’s works
• Romantic love in “Pride and Prejudice”
• The depiction of the bourgeoisie in “Candide”
• The role of women in “Moll Flanders”
• The critique of society in “Gulliver’s Travels”
• The supernatural in “The Castle of Otranto”
• Enlightenment principles in “Persuasion”
• The concept of sensibility in “Sense and Sensibility”
• The epistolary form in “Dangerous Liaisons”
• The critique of colonialism in “Oroonoko”
• Romanticism in the works of Wordsworth and Coleridge
• The depiction of the working class in Dickens’ novels
• The portrayal of women in the Brontë sisters’ works
• The theme of isolation in “Frankenstein”
• The symbolism in Hawthorne’s “The Scarlet Letter”
• The role of nature in Thoreau’s “Walden”
• The representation of Paris in Hugo’s “Les Misérables”
• The conflict between passion and reason in “Anna Karenina”
• The exploration of the American South in Twain’s works
• The representation of the Industrial Revolution in literature
• The stream of consciousness technique in Joyce’s “Ulysses”
• The fragmentation of identity in Eliot’s “The Waste Land”
• The depiction of war in Hemingway’s works
• The influence of psychoanalysis on Woolf’s novels
• The depiction of the Lost Generation in Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby”
• The role of time in Faulkner’s “The Sound and the Fury”
• The absurd in Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis”
• The theme of alienation in Hesse’s “Steppenwolf”
• The exploration of gender in Barnes’ “Nightwood”
• The use of free indirect discourse in Flaubert’s “Madame Bovary”
• Metafiction in Calvino’s “If on a Winter’s Night a Traveler”
• The interplay of history and fiction in Pynchon’s “Gravity’s Rainbow”
• The critique of consumer culture in DeLillo’s “White Noise”
• The use of magic realism in Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude”
• The postcolonial perspective in Rushdie’s “Midnight’s Children”
• The exploration of language in Barth’s “The Sot-Weed Factor”
• The representation of postmodern society in Wallace’s “Infinite Jest”
• The theme of power in Foucault’s works
• The concept of the author in Barthes’ “The Death of the Author”
• The fragmentation of narrative in Auster’s “New York Trilogy”
• The theme of the American Dream in Steinbeck’s “The Grapes of Wrath”
• The use of dialect in Morrison’s “Beloved”
• The influence of transcendentalism on Emerson’s essays
• The theme of identity in Angelou’s “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings”
• The depiction of the Great Depression in Steinbeck’s works
• The conflict between individualism and society in Miller’s “Death of a Salesman”
• The representation of the South in O’Connor’s stories
• The influence of race and class in Baldwin’s “Go Tell It on the Mountain”
• The exploration of freedom in Salinger’s “The Catcher in the Rye”
• The theme of disillusionment in Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby”
• The role of the supernatural in Shakespeare’s plays
• The depiction of Victorian society in Austen’s novels
• The exploration of morality in Golding’s “Lord of the Flies”
• The theme of madness in Stoker’s “Dracula”
• The influence of the Romantic Movement on Wordsworth’s poetry
• The representation of London in Dickens’ novels
• The critique of colonialism in Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness”
• The exploration of the human condition in Woolf’s “To the Lighthouse”
• The theme of social class in Brontë’s “Wuthering Heights”
• The use of symbolism in Lewis Carroll’s “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland”
• The exploration of existentialism in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
• The theme of love and jealousy in Tolstoy’s “Anna Karenina”
• The representation of the Russian Revolution in Bulgakov’s “The Master and Margarita”
• The use of magical realism in Gogol’s “The Nose”
• The depiction of war in Tolstoy’s “War and Peace”
• The role of faith in Dostoevsky’s “The Brothers Karamazov”
• The exploration of freedom in Solzhenitsyn’s “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich”
• The theme of rebellion in Turgenev’s “Fathers and Sons”
• The representation of Siberia in Chekhov’s “Sakhalin Island”
• The use of satire in Ilf and Petrov’s “The Twelve Chairs”
• The portrayal of post-colonial society in Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart”
• The theme of identity in Coetzee’s “Disgrace”
• The exploration of gender roles in Aidoo’s “Anowa”
• The representation of apartheid in Gordimer’s “July’s People”
• The use of folklore in Tutuola’s “The Palm-Wine Drinkard”
• The depiction of urban life in Mwangi’s “Going Down River Road”
• The theme of corruption in Soyinka’s “King Baabu”
• The portrayal of women in Dangarembga’s “Nervous Conditions”
• The influence of Islam in Salih’s “Season of Migration to the North”
• The exploration of freedom in Ngugi’s “A Grain of Wheat”
• The portrayal of family dynamics in Tan’s “The Joy Luck Club”
• The exploration of historical memory in Ishiguro’s “Never Let Me Go”
• The theme of spirituality in Tagore’s “Gitanjali”
• The influence of political change in Ha Jin’s “Waiting”
• The depiction of society in Murakami’s “Norwegian Wood”
• The exploration of gender in Adichie’s “Purple Hibiscus”
• The theme of alienation in Lahiri’s “The Namesake”
• The representation of war in Hosseini’s “The Kite Runner”
• The portrayal of tradition and change in Roy’s “The God of Small Things”
• The exploration of culture and identity in Jin’s “A Free Life”
• The use of magical realism in Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude”
• The exploration of totalitarianism in Carpentier’s “The Lost Steps”
• The theme of death in Rulfo’s “Pedro Paramo”
• The influence of indigenous culture in Arguedas’ “Deep Rivers”
• The depiction of urban life in Bolaño’s “The Savage Detectives”
• The theme of revolution in Cortázar’s “Hopscotch”
• The representation of family dynamics in Allende’s “The House of the Spirits”
• The portrayal of political struggle in Neruda’s “Canto General”
• The exploration of time and memory in Borges’ “Ficciones”
• The influence of magical realism in Garcia Marquez’s “Love in the Time of Cholera”
• The exploration of gender roles in Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”
• The theme of independence in Bronte’s “Jane Eyre”
• The influence of society on women in Woolf’s “A Room of One’s Own”
• The depiction of family in Morrison’s “Beloved”
• The representation of women’s rights in Chopin’s “The Awakening”
• The portrayal of female resilience in Alcott’s “Little Women”
• The exploration of women’s psyche in Plath’s “The Bell Jar”
• The influence of feminism in Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale”
• The depiction of womanhood in Walker’s “The Color Purple”
• The portrayal of female friendships in Wharton’s “The Age of Innocence”
• The exploration of consciousness in Joyce’s “Ulysses”
• The influence of war on society in Hemingway’s “A Farewell to Arms”
• The representation of fragmented identity in Eliot’s “The Waste Land”
• The influence of industrialization in Lawrence’s “Sons and Lovers”
• The depiction of sexuality in Miller’s “Tropic of Cancer”
• The exploration of existentialism in Kafka’s “The Trial”
• The theme of individualism in Woolf’s “Mrs. Dalloway”
• The portrayal of colonialism in Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness”
• The exploration of language in Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot”
• Marxist criticism in “The Grapes of Wrath”
• Psychoanalytic criticism in “Hamlet”
• Feminist criticism in “The Yellow Wallpaper”
• Postcolonial criticism in “Wide Sargasso Sea”
• New Criticism and “The Road Not Taken”
• Queer Theory and “Giovanni’s Room”
• Structuralist criticism and “To the Lighthouse”
• Reader-Response criticism and “Don Quixote”
• Ecocriticism and “The Lorax”
• Postmodern criticism and “Infinite Jest”
• Existentialism in Camus’s “The Stranger”
• Utilitarianism in Dickens’s “Hard Times”
• Transcendentalism in Thoreau’s “Walden”
• Stoicism in Aurelius’s “Meditations”
• Nihilism in Dostoevsky’s “Notes from Underground”
• Absurdism in Ionesco’s “Rhinoceros”
• Idealism in Plato’s “The Republic”
• Empiricism in Locke’s “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding”
• Pragmatism in James’s “Pragmatism”
• Objectivism in Rand’s “Atlas Shrugged”
• The reflection of Victorian society in Dickens’s “Great Expectations”
• Critique of American Dream in Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby”
• Race relations in Morrison’s “Beloved”
• Exploration of societal norms in Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”
• Portrayal of post-war society in Heller’s “Catch-22”
• Examination of social class in Bronte’s “Wuthering Heights”
• The influence of societal change in Orwell’s “1984”
• Depiction of colonial society in Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart”
• Examination of gender roles in Chopin’s “The Awakening”
• Exploration of rural life in Hardy’s “Far From The Madding Crowd”
• The evolution of the fantasy genre in Tolkien’s “Lord of the Rings”
• The elements of mystery in Doyle’s “Sherlock Holmes”
• The origins of science fiction in Shelley’s “Frankenstein”
• The use of horror elements in King’s “The Shining”
• The definition of modern romance in Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”
• The impact of dystopian genre in Orwell’s “1984”
• The use of symbolism in the magical realism genre in Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude”
• The elements of satire in Swift’s “Gulliver’s Travels”
• The exploration of tragedy in Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”
• The structure of classic comedy in Wilde’s “The Importance of Being Earnest”
• The use of symbolism in works by Virginia Woolf
• Examination of themes across the novels of Toni Morrison
• Influence of historical context on the works of Charles Dickens
• Exploration of narrative style in the works of Ernest Hemingway
• Examination of William Shakespeare’s contribution to English literature
• The influence of personal life on the works of Sylvia Plath
• Comparison of themes across the poetry of Emily Dickinson
• Analysis of Fyodor Dostoevsky’s exploration of human psychology
• Examination of J.R.R. Tolkien’s creation and expansion of the fantasy genre
• The influence of postmodernism on the works of Thomas Pynchon

With this comprehensive list of topics across 20 different categories, students can find an array of literature research paper topics that align with their interests and academic objectives.

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Literature and the Range of Research Paper Topics It Offers

Literature is an art form that has the power to convey emotions, evoke feelings, and bring about a change in society. This dynamic nature makes it an ideal subject for research as it encompasses an expansive array of genres, periods, themes, and techniques. In a literature research paper, one can delve into numerous facets of this intricate art form, leading to an extensive range of topics for exploration.

Literature comes in various forms, including novels, short stories, plays, and poems. Each of these forms has unique characteristics, providing ample research paper topics. For instance, one can study the evolution of the novel, the structures and styles of different kinds of poetry, or the distinct elements of drama. Moreover, one can analyze specific works or authors, examining the usage of literary devices, narrative techniques, or character development.

Furthermore, literature is closely tied to culture and history. As a result, it serves as a rich source of information about the societies in which it was created. A literature research paper can explore how different periods in history influenced the literature of the time. Topics in this category can encompass the exploration of themes in specific literary periods such as Romanticism, the Victorian Era, Modernism, or Postmodernism.

Literature also plays a pivotal role in shaping and reflecting societal norms, values, and beliefs. Therefore, one can conduct research on how literature addresses various social issues such as gender, race, class, or power dynamics. For instance, feminist readings of literature, analyses of postcolonial literature, or studies on representation in literature could all make excellent research paper topics.

Moreover, literature is a global phenomenon. Each region has its unique literary traditions, styles, and themes, leading to a wealth of research paper topics. For example, students might choose to study African American literature, Latin American literature, European literature, or Asian literature. They could examine how different cultures and societies influence the narrative structures, themes, and characters in these texts.

Another exciting aspect of literature is its ability to experiment with language and form. Avant-garde movements, such as surrealism or postmodernism, often push the boundaries of what literature can do. In this regard, one could study the evolution of literary styles, the use of innovative narrative structures, or the role of intertextuality in literature.

Not to forget, literature does not operate in isolation. It often interacts with other forms of art and media. For example, research could focus on the adaptation of novels into films, the influence of visual arts on poetry, or the intersection of literature and music.

Finally, theoretical approaches to literature offer a plethora of research paper topics. From structuralism, psychoanalysis, and deconstruction, to reader-response theory, feminist theory, and queer theory, these lenses provide different ways to interpret and understand literature.

In conclusion, the study of literature is vast, spanning across time, geography, forms, and themes. Whether one is interested in specific literary works, authors, themes, periods, or theoretical approaches, literature provides a wide array of research paper topics. Each topic is a gateway to understanding not just the text itself, but also the wider world around us. The study of literature, therefore, is not only an exploration of the text, but also an investigation into human nature, societal structures, and cultural phenomena.

How to Choose Literature Research Paper Topics

Choosing a literature research paper topic can be as intriguing as the study of literature itself. However, with such a vast array of options, it might also seem overwhelming. Here are some tips to guide you through the process of selecting the ideal topic that aligns with your interests and academic requirements.

• Identify Your Area of Interest : Begin by identifying the aspect of literature that fascinates you the most. It could be a specific genre, literary period, author, literary technique, theme, or theoretical approach. Having an interest in your chosen area will fuel your curiosity, making the research process more enjoyable and engaging.
• Familiarity with the Subject : Choose a topic that you are familiar with or willing to learn about. If you select a subject you know little about, make sure you’re ready to spend time understanding its intricacies before you start your research.
• Scope of the Topic : Keep in mind the breadth and depth of the potential topic. While it should be narrow enough to manage within the constraints of your research paper, it should also be broad enough to provide ample material for research.
• Check the Available Resources : Before finalizing the topic, ensure there are enough scholarly resources available for your research. This includes academic articles, books, critical essays, and other primary and secondary sources.
• Relevance to Coursework : Your topic should align with the objectives of your coursework. It’s wise to reflect on what you have learned in your literature classes and try to incorporate that knowledge into your research.
• Unique Perspective : The best research papers offer a fresh perspective or new insight into a text or topic. Try to formulate a topic that allows you to explore an unconventional viewpoint or an understudied aspect of the text.
• Consider the Audience : Keep your audience in mind while choosing your topic. The level of complexity and the angle of your topic might vary depending on whether your audience comprises of your classmates, a panel of professors, or a broader academic community.
• Adaptability : Your topic should be flexible enough to adapt as you delve deeper into your research. It’s common to refine or reframe your research question as you discover new information.
• Interdisciplinary Approach : Consider topics that allow for an interdisciplinary approach. Literature frequently intersects with history, philosophy, psychology, and other disciplines, and these intersections often lead to enriching research.
• Consult with Your Advisor : Always consult with your academic advisor or professor before finalizing your topic. They can provide valuable feedback, guide you towards useful resources, and help you refine your research question.

In conclusion, choosing a literature research paper topic is a thoughtful process that involves introspection, preliminary research, and consultation. Remember, the journey of research is just as important as the destination. The process of choosing your topic, thus, should ignite curiosity and prepare you for the intellectual adventure that is to come. With careful consideration and planning, you can choose a literature research paper topic that is engaging, manageable, and academically rewarding.

How to Write a Literature Research Paper

The journey of crafting a literature research paper is a significant part of a student’s academic voyage. It involves the exploration of themes, characters, contexts, and literary techniques that make up the literary world. Here are ten tips to help you navigate the process of writing a literature research paper:

• Understanding the Assignment : Begin by thoroughly understanding your assignment. Note down the specific requirements regarding the length, format, citation style, and deadline. Make sure you understand the objective of the research paper and what is expected of you.
• Choosing the Topic : As mentioned in the previous section, choosing the right topic is crucial. Make sure your topic aligns with your interest, has ample scholarly resources, and fits the scope of your assignment.
• Preliminary Research and Thesis Statement : Conduct preliminary research to familiarize yourself with your topic. Based on your research, create a clear, concise, and arguable thesis statement. This will act as the backbone of your research paper, guiding your arguments and analysis.
• Creating an Outline : An outline will help you organize your thoughts and arguments systematically. It typically includes an introduction, body paragraphs for each argument or point of analysis, and a conclusion.
• In-Depth Research : Dig deeper into the topic, using a mix of primary and secondary sources. Primary sources in literature often refer to the text(s) you are analyzing, while secondary sources include scholarly articles, essays, and books that comment on these texts.
• Close Reading and Analysis : Engage in a close reading of the primary text(s). Look for symbols, motifs, themes, character development, plot structure, and literary devices. Your analysis of these elements should support your thesis statement.
• Writing the Draft : Start writing your paper based on the outline. Ensure each paragraph has a clear topic sentence and that your arguments are well-supported with evidence from the text(s). Use quotes sparingly and always explain their significance to your argument.
• Citations and Formatting : Follow the citation style specified in your assignment. Properly citing your sources avoids plagiarism and gives credit to the scholars whose work you are building upon. Be consistent with formatting rules related to margins, font size, headers, and footnotes.
• Revising and Editing : Always leave enough time for revising and editing. Revising involves looking at the overall structure, flow, clarity, and strength of your arguments. Editing involves fixing grammatical errors, punctuation, and spelling.
• Peer Review and Feedback : Have a classmate, friend, or mentor review your paper. They can provide fresh insights, point out unnoticed errors, and suggest improvements.

In conclusion, writing a literature research paper is a process that requires patience, diligence, and creativity. While the process may seem daunting, it offers an opportunity to delve deeper into the realm of literature, strengthening your analytical skills and understanding of the text. Remember, writing is a process of exploration and discovery, and every step brings you closer to a rewarding academic achievement.

iResearchNet Writing Services

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• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : iResearchNet prides itself on its team of professional writers who hold advanced degrees in literature and related fields. These writers have a profound understanding of both classic and contemporary literature and are proficient in various literary analysis techniques.
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• In-depth Research : The writers at iResearchNet conduct thorough and meticulous research. They explore a variety of sources to gather relevant and up-to-date information to build a strong foundation for your paper.
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• Top Quality : Quality is the topmost priority for iResearchNet. The company adheres to strict quality control measures to ensure that every paper maintains high academic standards.
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In conclusion, iResearchNet offers comprehensive and reliable writing services for your literature research paper needs. With our expert guidance, you can navigate the path of literary exploration with ease and confidence, knowing that your academic success is our prime concern. Trust iResearchNet to help you explore the depths of literature, synthesizing your insights into a stellar research paper.

Craft Your Outstanding Literature Research Paper with iResearchNet

Are you ready to take the plunge into the deep, enriching waters of literature? Do you yearn to craft an impactful literature research paper that leaves a lasting impression? Look no further, for iResearchNet is here to guide you every step of the way!

At iResearchNet, we truly believe in the transformative power of literature and its capacity to provoke thought, inspire action, and illuminate the human condition. When you choose us, you’re not simply selecting a writing service. You’re opting for a partnership, a collaboration, an intellectual journey in which we’ll be there for you at every bend and turn.

With us, you get more than a written paper. You get a comprehensive exploration of your chosen topic, peppered with original insights and backed by robust research. But more importantly, you get the assurance of high-quality work, timely delivery, and constant support. So, why wait? Let’s embark on this literary adventure together.

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Remember, the perfect literature research paper isn’t merely about presenting information. It’s about crafting a narrative, weaving a tapestry of ideas that resonate with your readers. It’s about taking a deep dive into the world of words and emerging with pearls of wisdom. That’s the kind of experience iResearchNet offers you. So, why settle for anything less?

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• Published: 14 September 2024

Mapping the extent of the literature and psychometric properties for the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) in community-dwelling older adults: a scoping review

• Cassandra D’Amore 1   na1 ,
• Lexie Lajambe 1   na1 ,
• Noah Bush 1 ,
• Sydney Hiltz 1 ,
• Justin Laforest 1 ,
• Isabella Viel 1 ,
• Qiukui Hao 1 &
• Marla Beauchamp 1  

BMC Geriatrics volume  24 , Article number:  761 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Identifying valid and accessible tools for monitoring and improving physical activity levels is essential for promoting functional ability and healthy aging. The Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) is a commonly used and recommended self-report measure of physical activity in older adults. The objective of this scoping review was to map the nature and extent to which the PASE has been used in the literature on community-dwelling older adults, including the evidence for its psychometric properties.

Seven electronic databases (MEDLINE (Ovid), Embase (Ovid), AMED (Ovid), Emcare (Ovid), CINAHL (EBSCO), Ageline (EBSCO)) were searched from inception to January 25, 2023. Studies were included if physical activity was part of the aim(s) and measured using the PASE, participants had a mean age of 60 years or older and lived in the community, and papers were peer-reviewed journal articles published in English. Pairs of independent reviewers screened abstracts, full-texts, and extracted data. Where possible, weighted mean PASE scores were calculated for different subgroups based on age, sex, and clinical population.

From 4,124 studies screened, 232 articles from 35 countries met the inclusion criteria. Most studies were cross-sectional (60.78%), completed in high-income countries (86.4%) and in North America (49.57%). A variety of clinical conditions were included ( n  = 21), with the most common populations being osteoarthritis ( n  = 13), Parkinson’s disease ( n  = 11), and cognitive impairment ( n  = 7). Psychometric properties of ten versions of the PASE were found. All versions demonstrated acceptable test-retest reliability. Evidence for construct validity showed moderate correlations with self-reported physical activity, fair to moderate with accelerometry derived activity and fair relationships with physical function and self-reported health. Pooled means were reported in graphs and forest plots for males, females, age groups, and several clinical populations.

The PASE was widely used in a variety of clinical populations and geographical locations. The PASE has been culturally adapted to several populations and evaluated for its reliability and convergent validity; however, further research is required to examine responsiveness and predictive validity. Researchers can use the weighted mean PASE scores presented in this study to help interpret PASE scores in similar populations.

OSF registration

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Peer Review reports

A pressing issue in the current healthcare system is the growing burden of chronic disease and multimorbidity associated with the world’s aging population [ 1 , 2 ]. There is an increasing number of older adults who require home care or housing options to support additional needs, including retirement homes, assisted living, or long-term care facilities [ 1 ]. Maintaining functional ability in later adulthood is a key public health priority and the promotion of physical activity (PA) is a central strategy for healthy aging initiatives [ 3 ]. Regular participation in PA has been shown to improve physical function, reduce impairments, promote independent living, and improve quality of life in older adults [ 4 ]. Physical activity can assist in maintaining cardiovascular, metabolic, and cognitive function; all of which reduce the risk of multimorbidity [ 5 , 6 , 7 ].

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines PA as “any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure” [ 8 ]. A growing body of evidence has demonstrated the importance of overall activity levels, including lighter intensity activities [ 9 ]. In addition to recommendations for moderate to vigorous activities, PA guidelines encourage changes in time allocation from sitting activities to light intensity activities, including standing [ 8 , 10 ]. Given the inclinations for lighter intensity activities in older ages (e.g., walking, gardening), clinicians and researchers must have tools to accurately assess and monitor the full spectrum of physical activities in this population.

Direct measures of PA (e.g., pedometers, accelerometers, and the gold standard of the doubly labelled water method) [ 11 ] can capture the full spectrum of activities. However, these measures can be more expensive, rely on equipment availability, and place a greater burden on participants [ 5 ]. Alternatively, self-report measures can be a low-cost, feasible tool for assessing and monitoring activity levels [ 12 ]. While not all questionnaires capture the same breadth of activities, the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) has been recommended for use in older adults for its inclusion of lighter intensity activities [ 5 ]. The PASE was designed to consider a greater number of activity domains more representative of the typical activities undertaken by older adults (e.g., gardening and household tasks) [ 13 ]. The questionnaire was developed for older adults (≥ 65), takes approximately 10 min to complete (10 questions), and asks participants to recall their activity over the last 7-days [ 13 , 14 ]. Activity types include sitting, walking, sport/recreation, exercise, occupational, and household [ 13 ]. A total score for PA can be calculated using these answers and the predetermined weights associated with each activity [ 13 ]. The PASE has been described as a suitable PA outcome measure for older adults who have multiple chronic conditions and is a recommended for measuring total PA in older adults based on evidence for its reliability and validity compared to other questionnaires [ 12 ].

To date, there has not been a comprehensive review of the populations and settings in which the PASE has been used. Rather, the literature on the PASE has focused on comparing the psychometric properties of multiple self-report measures of PA for specific populations. For example, Sattler et al. (2020) explored PA measures in healthy older adults and Garnett et al. (2019) in community-dwelling older adults with multiple chronic conditions. As part of their syntheses of all self-report PA measures both included a summary on the PASE, of ten and seven studies respectively [ 5 , 12 ]. As both these reviews recommend the use of the PASE, a more thorough exploration of the PASE with broader criteria is warranted. Further, the extent of the literature on its psychometric properties has not been thoroughly investigated. Therefore, the purpose of this scoping review was to map the nature and extent of the literature on the PASE in older populations (mean age 60) and to consolidate knowledge about the characteristics of studies using the PASE as an outcome measure, including available data on its psychometric properties. Our research questions were as follows:

To what extent has the PASE been used in older populations (e.g., number of studies, PASE administration, outcome operationalization from the PASE)?

What are the characteristics of studies that have used the PASE as an outcome measure (e.g., locations, sample characteristics, study designs)?

What is the nature and extent of the literature on the psychometric properties of the PASE in older populations (e.g., reliability, validity, cultural translation)?

The JBI guidelines for scoping reviews were followed in addition to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines (checklist available in Additional file 1 Table A1) [ 15 , 16 ]. This review protocol was registered with Open Science Framework ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/7BVHX ).

Search strategy

A broad search strategy was created with the assistance of a research librarian at the Health Sciences Library at McMaster University using the following key terms: “Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly”, “PASE”, “physical activity profile”, and “older”. Unique search strategies were developed for the following electronic databases: MEDLINE (Ovid), Embase (Ovid), Allied and Complementary Medicine Database (AMED; Ovid), Emcare (Ovid), CINAHL (EBSCO), Ageline (EBSCO). Databases were searched from inception to January 25 th , 2023. Backward citation searching was performed in Web of Science (Clarivate) for the original PASE article by Washburn and colleagues [ 13 ]. The complete search strategy for all databases is available in Additional file 1 Table A2. Reference lists of relevant systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and scoping reviews were screened and hand searched for additional articles.

Inclusion/exclusion criteria

To be included in this review studies must have populations consisting of older adults with a mean age greater than or equal to 60 years in line with the United Nations definition of older adults [ 17 ]. No restrictions were placed on sex, race or cultural background.

The overarching concept for this scoping review was the PASE; this included the original version and translated versions. Therefore, to be included studies must have incorporated PA in their aims and present results from the administration of the PASE. This criterion was further refined to specify that PASE must be included as a primary or secondary outcome (i.e., not just a covariate). The outcomes of interest to this review were the characteristics of the studies (e.g., cross-sectional vs prospective) and populations the PASE was used in (e.g., country, clinical populations, sex), mean total scores of the PASE, how the PASE was used (e.g., to look at relationships with PA, to determine intervention efficacy), as well as psychometric properties that have been evaluated.

Studies from any geographic location were included. After initial full-text screening the inclusion criteria was further refined to improve heterogeneity of included studies and ensure feasibility of the project due to the large number of results. The setting was restricted to designated community-dwelling populations which reflects the original context the PASE was designed in [ 13 ].

Studies were excluded if they were not written in English or if they were conference abstracts, presentations, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, scoping reviews, evidence maps, rapid reviews, literature reviews, narrative reviews, or critical reviews. Reviews were flagged and screened for additional citations.

Study selection

Results from the comprehensive literature search were organized in Endnote 20 (Clarivate, Philadelphia, USA) and uploaded to Covidence systematic review software (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia) for screening. Duplicated studies were removed using both programs prior to screening and any remaining were removed by hand. Prior to each phase of screening the reviewer team conducted pilot screening to improve agreement. For title and abstracts screening and full-text eligibility two independent reviewers (NB, LL, JL, IV, SH, and CD) confirmed the predetermined eligibility criteria. Due to the volume of full-text screening authors were not contacted for further details; where information for a given eligibility criteria was not reported or unclear the paper was excluded. Any disagreements during the abstract or the full-text review process were resolved by either consensus or arbitration by a third reviewer when necessary.

Data extraction and analysis

Data was extracted from the studies verbatim by two or more independent reviewers (NB, LL, JL, IV, SH, and CD). Modifications to the initial data extraction table made during the piloting process included the removal of details not necessary in a scoping review (e.g., funding sources, conflicts of interest) and the aims of this study (e.g., setting, recruitment methods). Additionally, separate columns were added to distinguish values calculated or extrapolated by reviewers versus authors (e.g., mean PASE scores, income classification). The following descriptive data was extracted: study details (geographical location, outcome measures, study design), population description (number of participants, mean age, sex, clinical population), PASE version and administration method, how the PASE was reported (e.g., mean vs categorical, subcategories vs full questionnaire), and psychometric properties reported.

Data was summarized in a descriptive manner through counts and percentages in tabular presentation. Weighted means and variances were calculated for total PASE scores across identified subgroups (sex, age, and clinical populations) where appropriate using the ‘metamean’ package in RStudio Team (R version 4.2.2, 2020, PBC, Boston, MA). In studies that reported only subgroup mean total PASE score or age, the authors combined the subgroup data using methods recommended in the Cochrane handbook [ 18 ]. Where possible, studies that provided median scores were converted to mean scores using the methodology developed by Wan et al. [ 19 ]. Studies that did not provide sufficient information for either transformation were omitted from some review syntheses. Studies were grouped by income based on the World Bank ratings from 2023 [ 20 ].

The database search produced 6,372 articles and hand searching citations produced another 24 articles for a total of 6,396. A total of 886 studies were assessed for full-text eligibility and 536 articles were found to use the PASE in older adults, 232 of which met all inclusion criteria (i.e., community-dwelling and the PASE was a primary/secondary outcome). An overview of the screening process can be found in PRISMA-ScR flow diagram (Fig.  1 ), and reasons for full-text study exclusions can be found in Additional file 2 Table A2.

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flow diagram. Searches run on January 25 th , 2023

Summary of PASE use

The PASE was used for a variety of reasons with the most common being to explore the effect of PA on a health outcome(s) (e.g., an association of PA type with all-cause mortality) [ 21 ], and the relationship of a determinant with PA (e.g., the association between walkability and walking time) [ 22 ]. Almost all the studies used the PASE in its entirety (96.55%). The studies that used partial aspects of PASE often focused on leisure time PA (e.g., walking, sport/recreation, and exercise) [ 23 , 24 , 25 ], and two studies focused on walking exclusively [ 26 , 27 ]. Most authors (93.97%) used total PASE scores (i.e., used provided activity weights). Nineteen studies (8.19%) included a measure other than central tendency for total PASE score (e.g., dichotomous, tertiles, quartiles, quintiles). Eleven studies did not use the PASE score but instead operationalized PA using different pieces of the PASE (e.g., frequency, time). Details on the use of PASE are summarized in Table  1 .

The PASE was primarily delivered in person (69.40%) followed by mail (11.21%); 45 studies were either unclear or did not report how the PASE was administered to participants. A total of 15 different versions or languages were reported; the most common version used was English (63.79%). Six studies did not report which version or language the PASE was delivered in. In many cases, only the seminal paper on the English version by Washburn et al. was cited, with no further clarification of the version or modifications made, including several papers from countries where the primary language is not English ( n  = 29).

Study characteristics

A summary of the study characteristics can be found in Table  2 . The PASE was used throughout the world; however, nearly half of the studies were completed in North America (49.57%). In total, studies from 35 different countries were included in this review; the most common countries outside of North America included China ( n  = 20), Australia ( n  = 19), and Japan ( n  = 10). Most studies were conducted in high-income countries (86.64%). The mean age for studies ranged from 60.00 [ 28 ] to 84.40 [ 29 ] with the majority (43.10%) falling between 70–74 years old. Most studies included mixed sex samples ( n  = 184), with only 17 looking at females and 22 at males. Fifty-three studies looked specifically at 21 clinical conditions (e.g., musculoskeletal, cognitive impairment, and cardiorespiratory). The 232 studies of community-dwelling older adults included 171,206 participants, with individual study samples ranging from 8 [ 30 ] to 14,881 [ 31 ]. Studies were published between 1993 [ 13 ] and 2023 [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]. The PASE was used in a variety of study designs, including cross-sectional studies (60.78%), prospective studies (25.43%), and experimental (12.07%).

Where possible, weighted means for different subgroups were summarised based on age, sex, and clinical population. Studies with a mean age between 60–64 years had the highest mean PASE scores (159.53 (95% CI 146.58, 172.49)) and studies with a mean age over 80 years old had the lowest mean PASE scores (67.17 (95% CI 51.95, 82.39)) (Fig.  2 , Forest plots available in Additional file 1 Figure B1-B5). Figure  3 presents forest plots for the combined total mean PASE score for female only studies ( n  = 13) 123.99 (95% CI 108.09, 139.88) [ 26 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 ] and male only studies ( n  = 14) 136.27 (95% CI 122.46, 150.09) [ 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 ]. Based on data availability, pooled means were created for the following clinical populations: cancer ( n  = 2) [ 28 , 66 ], Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) ( n  = 2) [ 67 , 68 ], cognitive impairment ( n  = 6) [ 33 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ], Diabetes ( n  = 3) [ 74 , 75 , 76 ], Osteoarthritis ( n  = 12) [ 46 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 ], and Parkinson’s disease (PD) ( n  = 10) [ 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 ]. Forest plots for clinical populations are available in Additional file 1 Figure B6.

Pooled Mean PASE scores by age groups

Pooled Mean PASE score forest plots for females(1) and males(2)

Psychometric properties of the PASE

Several papers evaluated the psychometric properties of the original PASE ( n  = 5) along with a number of validation studies ( n  = 14) for different translations and clinical populations (acute coronary event [ 98 ], COPD [ 68 ], Cancer [ 28 , 66 ], and Parkinson’s disease [ 89 ]). In total, ten different versions of the PASE were assessed for reliability and/or validity in community-dwelling older adults, including: English ( n  = 5) [ 13 , 14 , 66 , 98 , 99 ], Malay ( n  = 2) [ 100 , 101 ], Arabic ( n  = 1) [ 102 ], Chinese ( n  = 2) [ 68 , 103 ], Italian ( n  = 1) [ 104 ], Norwegian ( n  = 1) [ 105 ], Persian ( n  = 1) [ 106 ], Polish ( n  = 1) [ 107 ], Taiwanese ( n  = 2) [ 28 , 108 ], Turkish ( n  = 1) [ 109 ], and two studies did not report the version [ 65 , 89 ].

Sixteen studies reported on the test-retest reliability of the PASE, time frames ranging from 3 days [ 99 , 105 ] to 3–7 weeks [ 13 ] and sample sizes ranging from 18 [ 98 ] to 349 [ 100 ] (details available in Table  3 ). Across all versions of the PASE 12 studies reporting ICCs for the total score, only two fell below acceptable limits proposed in the COSMIN guidelines [ 110 ] (Malay version 0.49 (95% CI 0.37, 0.59) [ 100 ] and version NR 0.66 (95% CI 0.46–0.71) [ 89 ]). However, the majority of values were 0.90 and above ( n  = 8). Internal consistency was examined in seven versions and all Cronbach alpha’s fell within an acceptable range (0.70 (Arabic and Persian subcategory lowest) to 0.82 (Italian total score)). Only four studies examined measurement error. Alqarni et al. reported the minimal detectable change (MDC95) for PASE subcategories (9.0–23.6) [ 102 ] of the Arabic version and MDC95 for total scores were provided for the Chinese version (19.21) [ 68 ] and the Polish version (38.39) [ 107 ]. Two studies also included standard errors of measurement for the PASE total score (Chinese version 6.93 [ 68 ] and NR version 30.00 [ 89 ]).

Four studies stated they were exploring criterion validity; however, each used a different measurement tool as their gold standard for PA: pedometer (walking steps and energy expenditure) [ 68 ], Actigraph (activity counts/minutes) [ 28 ], International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) [ 109 ], doubly labeled water (total energy expenditure, energy expenditure/resting metabolic rate) and VO2max [ 65 ]. The PASE was significantly correlated to all but the doubly labelled water outcomes and VO2max [ 65 ]. During the development of the PASE Washburn et al. assessed the three aspects content validity by asking participants ( n  = 36) about the appropriateness of the items, the completeness (i.e., comprehensiveness), and the comprehensibility; results were used to inform the final version of the PASE [ 13 ]. Three additional studies assessed and reported acceptable content validity for the PASE across three different clinical groups: acute coronary events (English) [ 98 ], COPD (Chinese) [ 68 ], and cancer survivors (Taiwanese) [ 28 ]. Only the English version had responsiveness and minimal important difference (MID) reported and this was in a sample of individuals with lung cancer [ 66 ].

Construct validity was the most commonly assessed form of validity, predominantly exploring convergent validity (details available in Table  4 ). Physical function performance measures and self-report questionnaires were commonly cited, and relationships ranged from fair to moderate, including the Timed Up and Go ( r  = -0.45 to r  = -0.69) [ 102 , 106 , 107 ], Berg Balance ( r  = 0.20 to r  = 0.82) [ 14 , 104 , 107 ], and the physical function section of the Short Form-36 ( r  = 0.53 to r  = 0.58) [ 68 , 103 , 109 ]. Muscle strength was another common construct with poor to fair correlations; specifically, grip strength ( r  = 0.29 to r  = 0.43) [ 13 , 68 , 100 , 102 , 103 ], and lower limb strength ( r  = 0.18 to r  = 0.37) [ 13 , 66 , 103 ]. There were also several self-report measures examining general health ( r  = -0.12 to r  = 0.44) [ 13 , 68 , 98 , 100 , 103 ] and activities of daily living ( r  = 0.10 to r  = 0.78) [ 100 , 106 ]. The PASE demonstrated moderate correlations with the IPAQ ( r  = 0.65 to r  = 0.74) [ 68 , 107 , 109 ]. Five studies compared the PASE to a direct measure of PA (e.g., accelerometers and pedometers), including outcomes such as steps per day ( r  = 0.39 to r  = 0.61) [ 66 , 68 , 101 ] and activity counts ( r  = 0.43 to r  = 0.64) with fair to moderate correlations [ 28 , 99 , 101 ]. Only Bonnefoy et al. used the gold standard doubly labelled water, and they found no significant correlations [ 65 ].

To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first review to provide a comprehensive summary of the use of the PASE in community-dwelling older adults. The PASE has been used extensively to measure PA in older adults (536 primary papers before restricting to community-dwelling settings); however, it was mainly used in high-income countries with cross-sectional research designs. While strong evidence was summarized supporting test-retest reliability and construct validity, there was a paucity of evidence examining the PASE’s responsiveness, important change thresholds, and predictive validity. In addition, we have presented pooled means for different age groups and clinical populations to provide preliminary reference values to improve interpretations of total scores.

The PASE has been used extensively in community-dwelling older adults; 171,206 participants from 35 countries were included in this review. The PASE was developed in the United States, which is reflected in the greater uptake in North America and high-income countries [ 13 ]. However, the PASE has been used across five continents and in some middle-income countries ( n  = 8). Importantly, we have seen the validation of several translated versions including Arabic, Chinese, Malay, Persian, and Turkish. Furthermore, the application of the PASE to clinical and disease-specific populations has also occurred, and the high content validity in these populations is promising. The use of the PASE in persons with chronic conditions has been supported previously based on feasibility and psychometric properties [ 5 ]. While the literature summarized is extensive, more is available outside of community-dwelling populations not captured in this review, including further translations and validations (e.g., Nigerian translation) [ 111 ]. Our results show the PASE is a commonly used measure of worldwide but has been used sparingly in countries outside of North America and in lower-income countries. Decreasing the heterogeneity in how PA is measured is imperative for meaningful comparisons and data harmonization. Large numbers of self-report PA measures already exist, and previous work has recommended using these rather than creating more [ 12 , 112 ]. This review shows the large uptake of the PASE, presenting a suitable choice for research on older adults. However, it is important that psychometric measures are assessed for the population of interest.

Psychometric properties are essential for outcome measures to ensure their validity, reliability, and interpretability. Of the 232 studies included, 19 studies aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the PASE in community-dwelling older adults. According to COSMIN, most studies (12/15) found acceptable test-retest reliability for the PASE total score. However, there was variability between studies that was more pronounced between subcategories of activity types (e.g., ICC subcategory values 0.56–0.94 [ 99 ], 0.76–0.93 [ 106 ], 0.78–0.99 [ 107 ]), which may suggest more variation week to week in single activity types and less for overall activity. There was a paucity of evidence on measurement error, including MDC and standard error of measurement. Of the four studies reporting in this area, one only provided values for activity subcategories, not total score [ 102 ], and two were for clinical populations (COPD and Parkinson’s disease). The varying populations may explain the large difference in values (e.g., MDC95 = 38.4 (general) vs MDC95 = 19.2(COPD); and SEM = 30 (PD) vs SEM = 6.9 (COPD)). Establishing the minimal detectable change values is essential for ensuring differences are real and not from measurement error. In addition, none of the included studies reported minimal clinically important differences (MCID), another important parameter for interpreting change in score. This paucity of evidence must be addressed across versions in community-dwelling older adults to support further use and interpretability of the PASE.

The PASE was validated in community-dwelling older adults in ten different languages. Content validity is regarded as the most important psychometric measurement property [ 113 ]; however, other than the sentinel paper, only three included studies reported on the relevance, comprehensiveness, and comprehensibility [ 28 , 68 , 98 ]. As presented in these papers, PA appears to be influenced by cultural/societal norms, highlighting the importance and continued need to verify the content validity of PA questionnaires when validating in new populations [ 28 ]. Fair to moderate relationships between the PASE and performance-based measures of physical function and mobility, strength, and health outcomes were regularly reported for construct validity. Four studies stated they examined criterion validity, which compares the PASE score to the gold standard of the same construct. However, only one study used the commonly regarded gold standard of PA doubly labelled water and did not find a significant relationship [ 65 ]. The remaining three studies found moderate correlations (> 0.60) using more accessible measures of PA: a pedometer [ 68 ], accelerometer [ 28 ], and a questionnaire [ 109 ]. The PASE-Polish [ 107 ] demonstrated the highest correlation at 0.74 with the IPAQ, which has been validated in 12 different countries, including low-income countries and rural samples [ 114 ]. The IPAQ was the only PA questionnaire reported, and only two other studies compared direct measures of PA (i.e., accelerometers). The correlations with the IPAQ ranged from 0.65–0.74, whereas correlations with direct measures tended to be lower and more variable (e.g., activity counts 0.43–64, walking steps 0.39–0.61). Several PASE versions did not contain a measure of PA in their validity analysis ( n  = 3). Further studies investigating these metrics using a wider variety of measures of PA (e.g., different questionnaires and more direct measures) are needed to clarify these relationships.

No studies reported on longitudinal validity, demonstrating a great need for studies to evaluate the PASE’s predictive validity for important health outcomes in community-dwelling populations across the globe. Despite almost 20 studies using the PASE to measure change in PA, responsiveness, which is critical for ensuring the PASE can accurately reflect change over time, has not been reported in any of the included studies. Therefore, research is needed to explore the predictive validity and responsiveness of the PASE to inform whether the PASE can be used to predict important health outcomes (e.g., future falls, hospitalization) and change in PA (e.g., over time or through intervention) for community-dwelling older adults.

A noteworthy finding of this review was the reporting of pooled means by age, sex, and clinical population. Pooled PASE scores decreased with increasing age groups from < 65 (159.53 (95% CI 146.58, 172.49)) to the 80 years and older group (67.17 (95% CI 51.95, 82.39)). In general, this is consistent with the literature where levels of PA progressively decrease with age for both men and women [ 115 , 116 ]. Some clinical populations appeared to have greater decreases in PA than others (e.g., cognitive impairment 91.11 (95% CI 72.77, 109.40) vs osteoarthritis 129.53 (95% CI 110.40, 148.65)). Clinical groups also appear to be important in addition to age for PA level; for example, the studies in the cognitive impairment group were mostly younger age groups (5/6 less than 80 years old), but the mean PASE score was closer to the two oldest age groups. The provided reference data for age, sex, and clinical population can be used to improve the interpretability of PASE scores among similar populations of community-dwelling older adults. However, future research creating normative values for the PASE could further improve interpretability and uptake of this questionnaire.

There are several limitations of this scoping review that should be acknowledged. First, several eligibility criteria were placed on this review, resulting in papers related to the PASE being excluded. Specifically, studies were restricted to the English language, age of 60 years or older, and community-dwelling settings. These decisions were made for feasibility and to reflect the original PASE; however, they have limited our understanding of how far the PASE has been applied in different populations. With the robust search strategy reviewed by a health research librarian, we are confident that the summarized evidence accurately reflects the current literature for community-dwelling older adults. A second limitation is that only published studies were included, and grey literature was not considered, which opens the possibility that new and emerging research regarding the PASE was missed. Finally, several studies used data from the same databases/studies, resulting in the same or overlapping samples; we did not extract the information necessary to tease this apart. Therefore, pooled means will be biased toward samples included more than once. In addition, pooled mean PASE scores in clinical populations with only two studies should be interpreted cautiously due to limited sample sizes.

This review has identified areas for future consideration, including further expanding the validation of the PASE to middle- and low-income countries. A systematic review focused on the psychometric properties of the PASE with no setting restrictions may provide a valuable resource for researchers. Future investigations are needed on psychometric properties of the PASE, including thresholds of important change, responsiveness, and predictive validity for all versions of the PASE, as well as data on psychometric properties in specific clinical populations.

This review found that the PASE is a widely used PA measure among community-dwelling older adults, with evidence supporting its test-retest reliability and construct validity. The widespread use of a questionnaire increases the ability for data harmonization across studies and improves the ability to compare between studies. Further research is warranted to investigate the PASE’s ability to detect meaningful change (i.e., MDC, MCID) along with predictive validity and responsiveness. Pooled mean total PASE scores reported in this review can provide preliminary reference values for different age groups and clinical populations to help improve the interpretability of PASE scores until normative values are established.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].

Abbreviations

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

International Physical Activity Questionnaire - Short Form

• Physical activity

Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly

Parkinson’s Disease

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews

Minimal clinical important difference

Minimal detectable change

Intraclass correlation coefficient

Interquartile range

Standard deviation

Standard error of measurement

Timed Up and Go

World Health Organization

Not reported

Confidence Interval

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Acknowledgements

Ms. Neera Bhatnagar, a librarian at Health Sciences Library at McMaster University, for guiding the authors in the development of the search strategy.

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Cassandra D’Amore and Lexie Lajambe are co-first authors.

Authors and Affiliations

School of Rehabilitation Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Applied Health Sciences, McMaster University, 1400 Main St. West Hamilton, Room 403, Hamilton, ON, L8S 1C7, Canada

Cassandra D’Amore, Lexie Lajambe, Noah Bush, Sydney Hiltz, Justin Laforest, Isabella Viel, Qiukui Hao & Marla Beauchamp

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MB and CD conceptualized the research question; LL, NB, SH, JL, IV in consultation with Ms Bhatnagar and CD, QH, and MB created protocol and search strategies. NB, LL, SH, JL, IV and CD carried out screening and extracting papers. JL, CD and QH carried out analyses and all authors contributed to the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Marla Beauchamp .

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D’Amore, C., Lajambe, L., Bush, N. et al. Mapping the extent of the literature and psychometric properties for the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) in community-dwelling older adults: a scoping review. BMC Geriatr 24 , 761 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-024-05332-3

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Training healthcare professionals in assessment of health needs in older adults living at home: a scoping review

• Bente Hamre Larsen 1 ,
• Dagrunn Nåden Dyrstad 2 ,
• Helle K. Falkenberg 3 , 4 ,
• Peter Dieckmann 2 , 5 , 6 &
• Marianne Storm 1 , 7 , 8  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  1019 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Interprofessional assessment and management of health needs for older adults living at home can help prioritize community service resources and enhance health, yet there is a shortage of professionals with the necessary competencies. Therefore, support and training for healthcare professionals in community settings to assess older adults’ health with the aim of for health promotion are needed.

To identify and provide an overview of published papers describing approaches for training healthcare professionals in assessing physical, mental, and social health needs in older adults living at home.

A systematic literature search of the Cinahl, Medline, Academic Search Ultimate, Scopus, Embase, and British Nursing Index databases was performed. We considered studies focusing on the training of healthcare professionals in assessing a single or multiple health needs of older adults aged 65 and above living at home. We considered studies published between 1990 – and March 2024. The review evaluated qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies published in English-language peer-reviewed academic journals. A quality appraisal was conducted via the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT).

Twenty-three studies focused on training healthcare professionals to assess health needs and plan care for older adults living at home were included. The majority of the included studies combined teacher-driven pedagogical approaches consisting of educational sessions, written materials or e-learning, and more participant-engaging pedagogical approaches such as knowledge exchange or various forms of interactive learning. Healthcare professionals were trained to detect and manage single and multiple health needs, and some studies additionally incorporated interprofessional collaboration. Healthcare professionals were satisfied with the training content and it increased their confidence and competencies in health needs assessment and care planning for older adults. Moreover, some studies have reported that training interventions foster the implementation of new and effective ways of working and lead to positive outcomes for older adults.

Healthcare professionals were satisfied with a combination of participant-engaging and teacher-driven pedagogical approaches used to train them in assessing health needs and planning care for older adults living at home. Such training can lead to enhanced assessment skills and facilitate improvements in practice and health promotion for older adults. Future research is recommended on interprofessional simulation training for conducting structured and comprehensive health needs assessments of older adults living at home, as well as on the implementation of such assessments and health-promoting interventions.

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Introduction

The globally growing and diverse aging population will impact the sustainability of healthcare systems and the independent living of older adults. To support the health needs of older adults, the World Health Organization (WHO) underscores the necessity of effectively training the healthcare workforce [ 1 , 2 ]. However, the complexity of health needs in older adults, coupled with an increased risk of frailty and adverse health outcomes, challenges the provision of tailored care [ 3 ]. Healthcare professionals in homecare settings are well-positioned to assess the health needs of home-living older adults [ 4 , 5 ] and facilitate the interprofessional management of these needs within the community [ 5 ].

Health needs assessment should offer a comprehensive understanding of individuals’ physical, mental, and social health needs, and address the constantly changing needs with increasing age. The assessments aim to identify those who can benefit from healthcare services, such as health education, disease prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation [ 6 ]. The assessment can help set service priorities and allocate service resources effectively, guide clinical decision-making [ 7 ] and design targeted, health promoting interventions [ 4 , 7 , 8 , 9 ] to prevent or delay frailty [ 10 ], enhance overall outcomes for those with complex health needs [ 11 ] and enable them to remain at home for as long as possible [ 12 ]. Given its importance, the task of health needs assessment, is becoming increasingly crucial in homecare settings [ 13 ]. However, there is a scarcity of adequately trained professionals proficient in conducting interprofessional health needs assessments [ 4 , 5 , 9 , 14 , 15 ], including depression [ 16 ], cognitive function [ 17 ], social needs [ 18 ], sensory function (i.e. hearing and vision) [ 19 ], geriatric healthcare [ 20 , 21 ], and multidimensional frailty [ 22 , 23 ]. Frailty, as a dynamic state, affects an individual who experiences losses in one or more domains of human functioning (physical, mental, social) that are caused by the influence of a range of variables, and which increase the risk of adverse outcomes [ 24 ].

A comprehensive understanding of how to train healthcare professionals in health needs assessment of the physical, mental, and social health needs of older adults living at home is crucial. This review understands training as “planned and systematic activities designed to promote the acquisition of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes” [ 25 , p77]. Training can take place as “on-the-job training,” with practicing tasks with a mentor or receiving feedback, or through “off-the-job training,” in a classroom setting with lectures, discussions, and exercises [ 26 ]. It is essential to consistently update and expand knowledge and skills throughout healthcare professionals’ careers [ 27 ]. Mentorship and support are highly valued as pedagogical approaches [ 28 ]. Another approach is implementing interprofessional team-based training [ 29 ] focused on health needs assessment for older adults, which can be complemented by practical, supervised training with a mentor in real-world settings [ 9 ]. Interprofessional simulation training can support healthcare professionals developing communication and collaborative skills and improving patient outcomes [ 2 ]. Additionally, opportunities to share and exchange experiences and new learning with peers and seniors, along with tailored, role-focused teaching, are effective approaches training strategies in community healthcare [ 30 ]. Practical training through simulation, case studies, and role-playing influences skill development by creating experiences that promote individual understanding and learning [ 31 ] and it is based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural learning theory [ 32 ]. Tailored simulation training in use of systematic assessment tools enhanced nurses’ competencies to assess and treat complex symptoms among older adults in long-term care facilities [ 33 ].

Therefore, this scoping review aimed to identify and provide an overview of published papers describing approaches for training healthcare professionals in assessing physical, mental, and social health needs in older adults living at home. Three research questions guided the review: (1) what pedagogical approaches are used when training healthcare professionals to assess the health needs of older adults living at home, (2) what is the content and foci in the health needs assessment training provided in the studies, and (3) what are the outcomes of training reported by healthcare professionals and older adults living at home?

Scoping review design

This study followed the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology [ 34 ] for conducting and reporting scoping reviews built on Arksey and O’Malley’s framework [ 35 ]: (1) Define and align the objectives (2) develop and align the inclusion criteria with the objectives (3) describe the planned approach to evidence searching, selection, data extraction, and presentation of the evidence (4) search for the evidence (5) select the evidence (6) extract the evidence (7) analyze the evidence (8) present the results (9) summarize the evidence in relation to the purpose of the review, draw conclusions and note the implications of the findings [ 36 ]. In addition, the PRISMA-ScR [ 37 ] was used as a checklist to report the scoping review data charting, data synthesis and presentation of the data (Additional file 1).

Selection of studies

To be eligible for inclusion in the review, the study had to focus on the training of healthcare professionals in assessing physical, mental and social health needs [ 24 ], specifically assessing frailty, physical function, depression, cognition, social health, and sensory function of older adults aged 65 and above living at home [ 38 ]. Healthcare professionals from diverse fields were included, whether engaging in one-to-one interactions where individual healthcare professionals work directly with patients or working collaboratively in interprofessional teams of members from different professional backgrounds [ 29 ]. The review included qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies published in English-language peer-reviewed academic journals. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are specified in Table  1 below.

Search strategy

The authors and an experienced research librarian collaboratively developed the search strategy and search terms. The search strategy followed the recommendation of JBI [ 34 ]. In June 2022, a limited search of PubMed and CINAHL was conducted to identify relevant articles. To develop a more comprehensive search strategy, we subsequently analyzed the titles and abstracts of the retrieved papers, as well as the index terms used to describe the articles. A systematic literature search was performed on October 6, 2022, in the CINAHL (EBSCO), MEDLINE (EBSCO), Academic Search Ultimate (EBSCO), Scopus (Elsevier), Embase (OVID) and British Nursing Index (ProQuest) databases. The updated search was conducted on the 7th of March 2024. The search terms employed in the different databases to represent training healthcare professionals to assess health needs in older adults living at home are described in Table  2 . We considered studies published between 1990 – and March 2024. Ultimately, the reference lists of all included studies were reviewed to identify any additional studies aligned with the scoping review’s aim.

Identification and selection of studies

The search yielded a total of 2266 records. The study selection process is illustrated in Fig.  1 according to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) flow diagram [ 39 ]. The search results were uploaded into the citation management system EndNote, where duplicates were removed. A total of 1722 records remained for screening. We used the web application Rayyan [ 40 ] to screen studies for inclusion or exclusion. The screening involved all the authors working in pairs, independently assessing eligibility on the basis of the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Discrepancies were resolved through discussions until consensus by all authors in arranged meetings.

All the records were independently screened by the authors (BHL, DND, HKF, PD and MS), and 1452 records were excluded. Two hundred seventy abstracts were reviewed in blinded pairs, leading to the exclusion of 212 records. Next, the full texts of 58 studies were read. This process resulted in the exclusion of 38 studies whose reasons are provided in the flow chart. The remaining 20 studies were included in this review (Fig.  1 ).

The primary reason for exclusion was the lack of content related to training in health needs assessment  ( n  = 13) or incorrect populations ( n  = 12). Eight studies were excluded because they focused on training for medical or bachelor’s degree students. Additionally, four publications were not peer-reviewed studies ( n  = 4).

BHL and MS independently screened the reference lists from the 20 included studies to identify additional eligible studies. After all the blinded titles were read, 28 titles of records were identified for abstract review. Following this, 22 titles were excluded, leaving 6 abstracts included in the full-text examination. The full-text reading further excluded four studies because they did not focus on training in health needs assessment. Finally, two studies [ 41 , 42 ] were added to this scoping review, resulting in a total of 22 included studies.

An updated search was conducted on the 7th of March 2024, including publications from 2022 to 2024, following the procedure above. After removing duplicates, 173 titles and abstracts were screened for eligibility. The full texts of nine articles were read. Six studies were excluded because they did not include training for healthcare professionals. One had incorrect population, and the others were in a language other than English. This led to the inclusion of one new study [ 43 ], bringing the total number of included studies for the scoping review to 23.

Search results, study selection and inclusion process [ 39 ]

Extraction and analysis of the data

In line with the updated JBI methodological guidelines for scoping reviews [ 34 ], we extracted and coded descriptive details from the 23 included records. The extraction table covered the publication year, country of origin, study purpose, research design, study population, context/setting, training intervention content and assessment tools, pedagogical approaches and training duration, and outcomes for healthcare professionals and older adults. A test was conducted to ensure that the coauthors were aligned in their understanding of what type of data to extract for the table. Feedback from the test guided essential refinements to the extraction table before the authors collaborated to extract and organize pertinent information. We applied a basic thematic analysis to code the data and identify, analyze, and interpret patterns, ultimately deriving themes that addressed our research questions [ 44 , 45 ]. The analysis utilized NVivo 12 Pro software [ 46 ].

Quality appraisal

We performed a quality evaluation of the included studies via the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) in blinded pairs. This tool is designed for a structured and standardized evaluation of methodological quality and risk of bias in systematic reviews that include qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies [ 47 ]. Although quality evaluation is optional in a scoping review, it can provide valuable insights [ 48 ] and enhance the interpretability of the included studies [ 49 ].

All studies were evaluated according to five quality criteria specific to each research design (qualitative, quantitative descriptive, nonrandomized, randomized, and mixed methods studies). Each criterion received a response score of either “Yes,” indicating that the study met the quality criteria, or “No,” indicating that it did not meet the quality criteria or that it was unclear (see Table  4 ). It is discouraged to calculate an overall score. Any disagreements in scoring were resolved through discussion. The quality scores were not used to exclude articles from the review; instead, they were reported and discussed [ 49 ].

In accordance with the JBI scoping review guidance [ 44 ], the extracted data are presented in a table format (Tables  3 and 5 ) and a narrative summary is provided to respond to the three research questions. Table  3 provides a description of the study characteristics, while Table  5 outlines overarching categories along with relevant extracted information [ 44 ].

Characteristics of the included studies

Table  3 shows that the 23 studies were published between 1990- and 2023. Eight studies were conducted in the United States [ 16 , 42 , 43 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ], three in Canada [ 55 , 56 , 57 ], three in Australia [ 58 , 59 , 60 ], three in the United Kingdom [ 41 , 61 , 62 ], and one each in Ireland [ 63 ], Italy [ 64 ], Brazil [ 65 ], France [ 66 ], Singapore [ 67 ], and Belgium [ 68 ].

Ten studies meticulously examined training interventions tailored for primary nurses [ 43 , 50 , 51 , 54 , 55 , 60 , 61 , 63 , 66 , 68 ], one study specifically targeted the training of community health workers [ 65 ] and another presented an educational session tailored for case managers and agency supervisors [ 42 ]. The remaining studies indicated that training was provided to interprofessional teams or various distinct professions, such as nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, general practitioners, social workers and psychologists [ 16 , 41 , 52 , 53 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 62 , 64 , 67 ]. The study participants were in home healthcare or primary/community care [ 16 , 41 , 43 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 68 ], community and social services [ 42 , 64 ], mental health care [ 61 ], eldercare centers/daycare [ 67 ], residential settings [ 58 , 59 , 64 ], hospitals [ 53 , 56 ], rehabilitation [ 56 ] and acute care [ 61 ].

Quality evaluation results

The quality appraisal procedure revealed variations in the quality of the 23 included studies. The detailed quality evaluation results for each study are presented in Table  4 , and an overview of the methodological quality criteria is presented in Additional file 3.

Each study was evaluated on five criteria appropriate to its study design category. Overall, only one study, which was a mixed methods study, met al.l five quality criteria in the MMAT [ 62 ]. Additionally, one mixed methods study met four criteria [ 61 ], and another met three criteria [ 65 ]. The most common criterion that mixed methods studies failed to meet was 5.2: whether the different components of the study were effectively integrated to answer the research question. Among the quantitative randomized studies, one study met four quality criteria [ 50 ], whereas the other was of low quality, meeting only one criterion [ 59 ]. None of these studies met the quality criterion for proper randomization. In the quantitative nonrandomized studies, six met four criteria [ 41 , 55 , 56 , 58 , 64 , 68 ], one met three [ 63 ], and one met only one criterion [ 16 ], indicating low quality. All studies met the criterion regarding whether the intervention was administered as intended. The most common criteria they failed to meet were 3.3: whether there were complete data and 3.4: whether confounders were accounted for in the study design and analysis. Among the descriptive studies, seven met four criteria [ 42 , 43 , 54 , 57 , 60 , 66 , 67 ], one met three criteria [ 53 ], and two met only one criterion [ 51 , 52 ], demonstrating low quality.

The majority of these studies met the criterion regarding whether the measurements were appropriate. However, the criterion most studies did not meet (only one out of ten) was whether the risk of nonresponse bias was low. Notably, no qualitative methods studies were included in our scoping review.

Training interventions in assessment of older adults living at home

The next section presents a narrative overview of three major themes related to the three research questions. The themes concerned the training provided for healthcare professionals in assessing the physical, mental, and social health needs of older adults living at home: pedagogical approaches, content and foci of health needs assessment training for healthcare professionals and outcomes and evaluation of health needs assessment training for healthcare professionals and older adults living at home. The findings are summarized in Table  5 [ 44 ].

Pedagogical approaches

The included studies employed diverse pedagogical approaches to train healthcare professionals in assessing the health needs of older adults living at home. The spectrum of pedagogical approaches observed in the studies was categorized into teacher-driven and participant-engaging pedagogical approaches. Twenty-one studies [ 16 , 42 , 43 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 67 , 68 ] combined teacher-driven and participant-engaging pedagogical approaches, reflecting a multifaceted training strategy. Mayall et al. [ 41 ] opted for a more singular pedagogical approach, exclusively relying on lecture-based education, whereas the training method used in the Piau et al. [ 66 ] study remained unspecified. The training interventions varied in duration, from one-hour sessions [ 68 ] to an ongoing training program spanning 21 months [ 57 ]. In two studies, the specific duration of the training interventions was not specified [ 53 , 57 ]. The most common duration for training was 4–8 h [ 16 , 43 , 50 , 52 , 54 , 56 , 58 , 59 , 62 , 67 ].

Teacher-driven pedagogical approaches

Almost all studies utilized teacher-driven pedagogical approaches, including educational sessions, written materials or e-learning [ 16 , 41 , 42 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 67 , 68 ]. Educational sessions were evident in 14 studies [ 16 , 41 , 42 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 62 , 64 , 65 ], providing healthcare professionals with information about relevant topics through lectures [ 16 , 41 , 42 , 51 , 62 , 64 , 65 ], slides [ 16 , 64 ] and instructions [ 50 , 52 , 53 ], as well as demonstrations of the use of assessment tools [ 41 , 42 , 51 , 56 , 58 , 59 ]. Additionally, Abbasi et al. [ 57 ] and Quijano et al. [ 42 ] offered ongoing sessions during the post training implementation period.

Written materials were provided to the participants in nine studies [ 16 , 42 , 50 , 52 , 54 , 58 , 59 , 63 , 64 ]. This included training manuals containing examples and case studies [ 58 , 59 ], written documents about the training pack and the assessment forms [ 63 ], course textbooks and instruction manuals [ 64 ], educational materials including the program manual and articles [ 42 ], a CD-ROM (a data-disc for computer) containing written educational material [ 52 ] and toolkits derived from the educational material [ 16 , 50 , 54 ]. Brown et al. [ 54 ] reported that toolkits included key intervention components for seamless application of learned concepts [ 54 ]. Furthermore, some described follow-up emails to provide participants with information post training [ 50 , 54 ].

E-learning as a preplaying online module or videoclip appeared in nine studies [ 16 , 42 , 43 , 50 , 53 , 54 , 61 , 64 , 68 ]. Naughton et al. [ 61 ] delivered prerecorded lectures [ 61 ], Landi et al. [ 64 ] used video recordings presenting real cases to test participants’ assessments- and decision-making skills, and Quinlan and Ryer [ 43 ] offered online modules on aging epidemiology, fall risk factors, and age-friendly health systems [ 43 ]. Participants watched video recordings portraying late-life depression [ 42 , 53 , 54 ], and patient interactions illustrating approaches to depression assessment [ 50 , 54 , 68 ] via standardized questions and follow-up questions [ 16 ]. Professional actors were used in three studies [ 16 , 53 , 68 ].

Participant-engaging pedagogical approaches

The majority of the included studies utilized participant-engaging pedagogical approaches involving knowledge exchange or various forms of interactive learning [ 16 , 42 , 43 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 67 , 68 ].

Sixteen studies employed various forms of knowledge exchange such as discussion, questioning and coaching, between training participants and teachers [ 43 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 67 , 68 ]. Peer-to-peer learning and dialog facilitated the exchange of knowledge and insights [ 65 ], which enriched the overall learning experience [ 61 ]. The participants were included in discussions following lectures [ 55 ], after watching scripted videos [ 53 ], and during patient case reviews [ 56 , 67 ]. Additionally, three studies included both discussions and allowed participants questions [ 52 , 54 , 68 ]. Discussions allowed participants to delve into case management techniques [ 51 ], explore experiences related to assessing the health of older adults [ 54 , 60 , 64 ] and solve problems and discuss alternative strategies regarding depression screening [ 54 ]. A few studies have provided ongoing coaching in the post training phase to support healthcare professionals in applying newly acquired skills [ 42 , 55 , 57 ]. This included three months of feedback and support [ 42 ], mentorship for skill integration [ 57 ], and a six-month collaborative approach between resource staff and case managers involving home visits and clinical consultations [ 55 ].

Interactive training was employed in fifteen studies through skills training, role-playing, simulations, and hands-on training in real-world settings [ 16 , 42 , 43 , 51 , 52 , 54 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 ]. Skill training allows nurses to practice patient interviews and assessments and receive instructor feedback [ 54 ]. The participants practiced by assessing their colleagues’ health and responding to assessment [ 16 , 51 ], with faculty staff offering assistance, encouragement, and feedback throughout [ 51 ]. Landi et al. [ 64 ] provided practice exercises followed by presentations, and Quinlan and Ryer [ 43 ] provided a virtual training session in motivational interviewing technique and assessment. Roleplay as a teaching strategy was used to address practical aspects of administering depression screening [ 50 , 52 , 60 ], and Butler and Quayle [ 63 ] incorporated case scenarios, roleplay, and practical skills training for assessing depression in older adults [ 63 ]. Simulation training was used to immerse participants in the experience of living with sight and hearing impairments performing everyday tasks such as filling out forms or managing medications using sight impairment spectacles. Training was followed by a debriefing session [ 62 ]. Hands-on training in the assessment of older adults’ health in real-world settings was conducted in ten studies [ 42 , 51 , 54 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 64 , 65 ]. Healthcare professionals gained clinical experience through assessments of home dwelling older adults [ 55 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 64 , 65 ] and through participation in a rotational preceptorship for community health nurses. This enabled them to practice newly acquired assessment skills and collaborate in a real-life setting [ 51 ]. Additionally, two other studies emphasized practical training in communication with other professionals in real-world settings [ 58 , 59 ], while Brown et al. [ 54 ] encouraged participants to practice assessments in a real-world setting between educational sessions.

Content and foci of health needs assessment training for health care professionals

All the included studies offered insights into the content and foci of health neesd assessment training interventions for healthcare professionals. The studies were divided into those aimed at training healthcare professionals to understand and assess either single or multiple physical, mental, and social health needs in older adults living at home. Additionally, some training sessions focused on interprofessional collaboration.

Single health need assessment training

The focus of twelve studies involved enhancing the skills of healthcare professionals in assessing, planning and conducting interventions for a specific, single health need in older adults, with each addressing either the assessment of mental or physical health [ 16 , 41 , 43 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 68 ]. Two of these studies [ 43 , 62 ] focused solely on physical health factor training. Smith et al. [ 62 ] emphasized training in assessing and detecting sight and hearing impairments without specifying whether any assessment tools were used [ 62 ]. Quinlan and Ryer [ 43 ] provided fall risk assessment training, which included the use of assessment tools to evaluate the physical function of older adults and to assess their home environments. The other ten studies [ 16 , 41 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 63 , 68 ] focused on training to assess depression in older adults living at home. The training encompassed understanding and detecting the condition, and all of them included the use of assessment tools. Van Daele et al. [ 68 ] included skills such as actively listening to patients and motivating them to seek expert assistance when needed. Delaney et al. [ 16 ] incorporated skills in asking follow-up questions, and Mellor et al. [ 59 ] offered training in appropriate communication with older adults to identify masked, early signs of depression.

Multiple health needs assessment training

Eleven studies [ 42 , 50 , 51 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 61 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ] described training interventions for healthcare professionals aimed at assessing, planning, and conducting interventions for multiple health needs in older adults living at home. The training content ranged from learning to performing a holistic health assessment of older adults encompassing physical, mental, cognitive, and social factors [ 42 , 51 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 61 , 64 , 66 ] to a more nuanced assessment of two or three of these factors [ 50 , 65 , 67 ]. All studies described the use of assessment tools or checklists. A holistic assessment and understanding of older adults’ health context and needs enables interventions to be tailored to their health and care needs, priorities, and levels of frailty [ 57 ]. Within the realm of holistic assessment, only two of these studies addressed alcohol and medication usage [ 55 , 56 ], whereas two other studies focused on evaluating sensory status [ 57 , 66 ]. For studies with more nuanced assessment training, three studies [ 42 , 50 , 67 ] primarily tailored their training to focus on depression assessment and intervention in older adults, but Quijano et al. [ 42 ] also included training in assessing general physical health status, social function, and cognitive function. Sin et al. [ 67 ] included dementia assessment and Bruce et al. [ 50 ] addressed factors that commonly complicate depression in homecare patients, such as health conditions, disability in activities of daily living, and cognitive function. The training included how to ask follow-up questions and observe nonverbal language [ 50 ]. Neto et al. [ 65 ] provided training for healthcare professionals in rural areas to screen for geriatric risk factors such as caregiver overburden, general health, social health, risk of falling, or difficulties in activities of daily living.

Interprofessional collaboration and communication skills in health needs assessment training

Beyond the focus on training for assessing the health needs of older adults, sixteen studies [ 42 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 64 , 65 , 68 ] have incorporated training elements to increase interprofessional collaboration and communication skills among healthcare professionals. Health needs assessment training for interprofessional teams was evident in eight of the included studies [ 51 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 61 , 64 , 65 ]. Two studies [ 58 , 59 ] outlined an advanced session to teach skills for interacting with other healthcare providers, including general practitioners and mental health specialists, whereas Couser et al. [ 51 ] stressed the importance of effectively communicating the assessment results to physicians and other healthcare providers. Training in writing referrals was emphasized in ten studies [ 42 , 50 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 68 ]. In addition, Stolee et al. [ 55 ] trained healthcare professionals in writing reports and making recommendations to the referring case manager. Only two studies [ 61 , 65 ] included collaboration with family in their training programs. Naughton et al. [ 61 ] designed training programs to support healthcare professionals in navigating the complexities of collaboration with multidisciplinary teams, older adults, and their families. They also developed a network among nurses to facilitate the exchange of expertise, experience, and innovative ideas [ 61 ]. Neto et al. [ 65 ] aimed to increase the capacity of care workers to effectively collaborate with family caregivers and social services for dependent older adults in rural areas. Stolee et al. [ 55 ] provided training for case managers to extend this knowledge to their teams and strengthen connections with specialized geriatric services. Similarly, Abbasi et al. [ 57 ] emphasized team-based care delivery training, with active and holistic discussions among patients, caregivers, and interprofessional teams. Diverse skill sets within teams can effectively meet the holistic care needs of patients. In parallel, Piau et al. [ 66 ] focused on training nurses to collaborate with general practitioners to develop comprehensive care plans. Landi et al. [ 64 ] trained case managers who collaborated in supervised teams to assess older adults and present care plans. They watched videos of simulated team discussions to enhance their understanding of the assessment process and teamwork [ 64 ].

Evaluation and outcomes of health needs assessment training for healthcare professionals and older adults

All of the studies provided insight into the experiences or outcomes of healthcare professionals participating in the training interventions. This included their satisfaction and experiences with health needs assessment training, improved confidence and competencies in health assessment and care planning and shifts in work practices. Additionally, some studies have reported outcomes for older adults following health needs assessment training, such as appropriate referrals, tailored interventions, fall prevention, symptom reduction, and improved overall function. The evaluation of these outcomes relied to a small extent on models or frameworks, with only three studies incorporating them [ 43 , 61 , 62 ]. Smith et al. [ 62 ] utilized Kirkpatrick’s four-level training evaluation model to assess the relevance and impact of educational intervention. Naughton et al. [ 61 ] adopted Alvarez et al.’s (2004) framework of an integral model of training evaluation and effectiveness. Quinlan and Ryer [ 43 ] presented their findings following the Revised Standards for Quality Improvement Reporting Excellence (SQUIRE) framework.

Healthcare professionals’ satisfaction and experiences with assessment training

Ten studies provided insights into healthcare professionals’ experiences with participating in training interventions [ 16 , 41 , 43 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 65 ], where most of the participants expressed satisfaction with both the content and format of the courses. The participants in Brymer, Cormack and Spezowka [ 56 ] expressed a high level of satisfaction with the presenter’s content, pacing, and format, and in Mayall et al. [ 41 ], the training met the participants’ needs and expectations. The participants in Naughton et al. [ 61 ] particularly valued the peer-to-peer learning aspect, whereas Smith et al. [ 62 ] emphasized the effectiveness of simulations. Neto et al. [ 65 ] rated classroom sessions and supervised home visits very positively and found them useful. Furthermore, participants in four of the studies [ 16 , 60 , 61 , 65 ] offered suggestions to enhance the number of educational sessions. They suggested allocating more time for training [ 16 , 65 ], a greater focus on skills training [ 60 , 61 ], additional training in managing complex and technically challenging issues [ 65 ] and incorporating more time for case studies and discussions [ 16 ].

Improved confidence and competence in health assessment and care planning

Improvements in assessment competencies following training interventions among healthcare professionals were reported in nineteen studies [ 16 , 41 , 42 , 51 , 52 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ]. Among these, nine studies explicitly reported increased confidence among healthcare professionals in assessing older adults’ health needs [ 16 , 41 , 54 , 55 , 58 , 59 , 63 , 67 , 68 ]. The health need sassessment and use of assessment tools or checklists led to the identification of health needs. Quinlan and Ryer [ 43 ] noted that without screening in a fall prevention program, the identification of fall risk among older adults would be missed. Piau et al. [ 66 ] noted that a high proportion of assessments effectively identified frailty and suggested interventions and referrals. One comment was that they “were previously skirting around the problem, now asked about mental health directly” [ 61 , p. 33]. Naughton et al. [ 61 ] reported that performing a comprehensive geriatric assessment helped when raising issues with general practitioners because they were talking about their language. Nunn, Annells and Sims [ 60 ] acknowledged the use of Geriatric Depression Screening (GDS) tool raised awareness of depression. A total of 62.5% felt that the GDS helped identify depression that might otherwise be overlooked, but some questioned its universal usefulness [ 60 ]. Abbasi et al. [ 57 ] reported that having an evaluation framework helped healthcare professionals guide meaningful measures [ 57 ]. Conversely, some participants also expressed that they relied more on observation than direct questions when assessing depression [ 54 ]. According to Landi et al. [ 64 ], careful assessments is deemed essential for effective care planning, and Stolee et al. [ 55 ] emphasize the critical role of assessment training in identifying health needs and equitably distributing community service resources. Two studies reported one year of retention of knowledge and skills without the inclusion of a refresher course [ 54 , 62 ].

Twenty studies documented a better understanding of appropriate interventions and referrals [ 16 , 41 , 42 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ]. According to Delaney et al. [ 16 ], 50% of the participants noted that a key aspect they learned was understanding the significance of the assessment results and the corresponding interventions [ 16 ]. The participants in the study by Neto et al. [ 65 ] demonstrated significantly improved capacity in responding to the health and care needs of older adults. The participant reported increased confidence in making referrals and consulting resources [ 51 ], increased knowledge about managing depression, making referrals, and accessing available local services [ 41 ] and enhanced self-efficacy in providing care for older adults [ 16 , 58 ]. Nunn, Annells and Sims [ 60 ] reported that 50% of participants felt prepared to address older adults’ depression after training. Smith et al. [ 62 ] observed increased referral practices and improved ability to advise patients about sensory services, whereas Mellor et al. [ 59 ] noted a slight increase over time in specialist referrals, and senior staff reported increased confidence in interacting with health specialists.

Shift in healthcare professionals’ work practices after assessment training

The training intervention resulted in either a change or potential for change in work practices in ten studies [ 16 , 42 , 43 , 52 , 53 , 55 , 57 , 62 , 63 , 64 ]. Butler and Quayle [ 63 ] reported that prior to receiving training, nurses did not utilize any formal assessment measures to screen for depression in older adults. However, following training, some nurses continue to use screening measures for depression in their clinical practice [ 63 ]. Similarly, case managers in Stolee et al. [ 55 ] stated that the major change in their assessment practice was greater consistency in the use of assessment tools. Smith et al. [ 62 ] reported a shift in practice toward incorporating more detailed information about patients’ impairments and implementing supportive strategies, and in Marcus et al. [ 53 ], communication of depression screening results to patients, physicians, or mental health specialists became a standard protocol.

Landi et al. [ 64 ] reported that training was proven feasible and may be implemented on a broader scale, and Luptak et al. [ 52 ] outlined an implementation period of the ADAPT—Assuring Depression Assessment and Proactive Treatment protocol for depression care in rural healthcare—with the potential to achieve the outlined goals in various clinical settings [ 52 ]. Delaney et al. [ 16 ] reported that project participants were interested in implementing the program in their homecare setting and developed a train-the-trainer model. Abbasi et al. [ 57 ] provided results and experiences regarding the Seniors Community Hub (SCH) through the ADKAR (awareness, desire, knowledge, ability, reinforcement) evaluation framework to assist others interested in implementing a similar integrated care model [ 57 ]. Quinlan and Ryer [ 43 ] stated that fall assessment practices are currently implemented and continuous; similarly, Quijano et al. [ 42 ] reported that depression interventions continue to be offered by participating agency offices. On the other hand, Butler and Quayle [ 63 ] noted the challenge of implementing assessment tools due to competing demands such as holidays, working part-time or being too busy, and Sin et al. [ 67 ] outlined one participant with difficulties in applying new knowledge owing to manpower shortages and constraints in time and space.

Outcomes for older adults following the health needs assessment training

Seven studies [ 42 , 43 , 50 , 53 , 57 , 66 , 68 ] detailed outcomes for older adults following health needs assessment training for healthcare professionals. These outcomes included appropriate referrals, tailored interventions, fall prevention, symptom reduction, and improved overall function. Bruce et al. [ 50 ] highlighted that depressed older adults in the intervention group were more likely to receive appropriate referrals for mental health evaluation [ 50 ], aligning with findings where a minimal intervention significantly increased the detection of depression and further referrals to general practitioners [ 68 ]. The findings in two studies demonstrated that patients were referred to tailored resources designed to address their identified problems [ 53 , 57 ]. Furthermore, Quijano et al. [ 42 ] revealed that older adults’ awareness of seeking help and the significance of physical activity for maintaining health improved. Quinlan and Ryer [ 43 ] stated that after providing care plans to 83 older adults, most implemented fall prevention strategies during a two-week follow-up call with 29 older adults, with only one fall reported. Piau et al. [ 66 ] identified the main causes of frailty and reported effective intervention recommendations and referrals [ 66 ]. Most physicians in Stolee et al. [ 55 ] reported better general function for older adults due to comprehensive geriatric assessment. Findings in two studies [ 42 , 57 ] documented reductions in depression severity at the follow-up assessment due to appropriate referrals and interventions [ 42 , 57 ], and significantly more older adults felt better and experienced pain reduction, followed by increased activity [ 42 ]. Additionally, Abbasi et al. [ 57 ] reported a slight improvement in health-related quality of life, including mobility, usual activities, pain/discomfort, and anxiety and depression, suggesting enhanced function [ 57 ].

This scoping review provides insights into training interventions for healthcare professionals assessing the physical, mental, and social health needs of older adults living at home. The analysis of 23 studies revealed that nearly all training interventions used a multifaceted training strategy combining teacher-driven and participant-engaging pedagogical approaches to teach healthcare professionals theoretical and practical knowledge. Health needs assessment training focuses on the skills needed to conduct single or multiple health needs assessments in older adults. Interprofessional collaboration was an essential part of most training interventions. Multiple studies noted that participants were satisfied with the training content and had increased confidence and competencies in health needs assessment and care planning. Studies have also reported a shift in work practices for health care professionals and some included results have shown improved health outcomes for older adults.

Our study revealed that most of the included studies blended the use of teacher-driven and participant-engaging pedagogical approaches [ 16 , 42 , 43 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 67 , 68 ]. These approaches provide participants with confidence and competencies in health needs assessment [ 16 , 41 , 42 , 51 , 52 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ]. Skilled healthcare professionals are crucial in facilitating the implementation of health assessments for older adults [ 69 ]. Lectures can be highly effective for learning, especially when they stimulate thinking and active engagement. Their effectiveness depends on the lecturer’s skill and can be improved by incorporating learner feedback, performance results, self-reflection, and peer feedback [ 70 ]. Another way to improve lecture quality is by including interactive elements such as practical skill training, following John Dewey’s “learning by doing” philosophy [ 32 ]. In our review, we identified fifteen studies that utilized participant-engaging approaches such as skills training, role-playing, simulations, hands-on training in real-world settings [ 16 , 42 , 43 , 51 , 52 , 54 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 ], and sixteen studies employed discussion, questioning and coaching [ 43 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 67 , 68 ]. The integration of teacher-driven sessions, interactive training, and knowledge exchange resembles simulation training, which typically includes briefing, simulation exercises, and debriefing phases. These phases allow participants to reflect, enhance their learning, and deepen their educational experience [ 71 ]. Debriefing is a valuable tool for reflecting on and discussing experiences in training and real-world settings. This helps individuals and teams identify strengths, areas for improvement, and lessons learned, thereby enhancing learning and future performance [ 72 ]. However, effective debriefing relies on facilitators with strong skills to maximize learning outcomes [ 73 ].

The WHO advocates interprofessional simulation training to enhance healthcare professionals’ competencies and improve patient outcomes [ 2 ]. Even if several studies combined teacher-driven approaches, interactive training and knowledge exchange, our review included only one study utilizing simulation training [ 62 ]. Health needs assessment training for interprofessional teams was evident in eight of the studies included in our review [ 51 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 61 , 64 , 65 ]. Such training has been proven to provide valuable insights into the health of older adults, leading to improved care delivery [ 74 , 75 ], improved patient outcomes [ 76 ] and reduced hospitalization [ 74 ]. It can improve conflict management skills and team functioning [ 76 ] and play a critical role in equitably distributing community service resources [ 55 ]. Interprofessional simulation training is an engaging method for training clinical skills, procedures, teamwork, and communication in a safe, realistic environment [ 77 ]. It promotes critical thinking, reflection [ 78 ], and effective learning [ 79 ] enhancing the application of knowledge in clinical practice [ 80 ]. The use of participant engaging pedagogical approaches aligns with the sociocultural view of training, which emphasizes active engagement and collaboration in the learning process. It enables knowledge exchange and reflection, and participants can integrate their experiences with new information, internalize it, and construct new knowledge [ 32 , 81 ]. Practical training such as simulations, can push participants out of their comfort zones, foster collaborative learning and enrich the educational experience [ 82 ]. However, to achieve optimal learning, it is crucial to balance skill development with an appropriate level of challenge as learners acquire new concepts. At the same time, temporary support from more experienced learners should be available. This balance is known as the zone of proximal development, which represents the space between a learner’s current skill level and their potential skill level with guidance. Tasks within this zone promote growth [ 83 ].

Our review reports a distinction in training content with a focus on assessing single versus multiple health needs in older adults. Ten studies [ 16 , 41 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 63 , 68 ] focused solely on assessing depression. There is a strong correlation between late-life depression and reduced quality of life, as well as comorbidities such as physical illness, disability [ 58 , 84 ] and physical frailty [ 85 , 86 ]. However, single health need assessment training may inadvertently lead to the overlooking of broader health needs among older adults. A multiple health assessment of older adults is recommended [ 7 ], as it can serve as the foundation for developing holistic interventions to enhance overall health [ 10 , 12 , 87 , 88 , 89 ], promote health [ 90 ], foster positive health behaviors [ 91 ], and reduce frailty [ 92 , 93 ]. Our review included eight studies [ 42 , 51 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 61 , 64 , 66 ] providing training in physical, cognitive, mental, and social health needs assessment, alongside care planning on the basis of these assessments. Research indicates that both healthcare professionals and frail older adults participating in an interdisciplinary care approach were satisfied with the improved structure of care and appreciated the emphasis on health promotion [ 94 ]. On the other hand, a comprehensive health needs assessment is a multifaceted and complex intervention, with uncertainties surrounding its effectiveness and underlying mechanisms [ 95 ]. Some research findings indicate that there is no conclusive evidence that it reduces disability, prevents functional decline [ 96 ], impacts mortality, or supports independent living in older adults [ 97 ]. These results underscore the complexity and challenges in conducting and implementing comprehensive health needs assessments and tailoring interventions to promote health in older adults.

Our review revealed that almost all [ 16 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ] health needs assessment training programs included the use of assessment tools or checklists, leading to the identification of health needs. Only one of these studies reported that participants relied more on observation than on direct questioning when assessing depression [ 54 ]. Additionally, another study found that healthcare professionals using assessment tools felt that this approach led to asking overly personal and intrusive questions without first establishing trust or explaining the purpose of the assessment [ 98 ]. On the other hand, some older adults reported that using assessment tools made it difficult to discuss issues outside the predefined domains of the comprehensive health needs assessment [ 99 ]. Research indicates that current assessment practices heavily rely on professional judgment and intuition, and healthcare professionals in community settings often lack adequate knowledge and training regarding the health needs assessment of older adults [ 22 , 100 ]. This can be seen as problematic because these professionals are ideally positioned to assess older adults early in their health trajectories [ 105 ]. Proper assessment in these settings can facilitate the early recognition of functional decline [ 101 , 102 ] and vulnerability, enable timely intervention to mitigate frailty’s adverse effects [ 105 ], and support effective care planning [ 64 ]. Even if several healthcare professionals have endorsed the integration of frailty assessment tools into primary care [ 22 ], they need a simple, efficient assessment tool [ 105 ] that empowers them to identify older adults’ health needs [ 9 , 88 , 103 , 104 ]. This is particularly critical due to the essential role that assessments play in equitably distributing community service resources [ 105 ]. As such, this review underscores the importance of educating healthcare professionals in community care to effectively assess the physical, mental, and social health needs of older adults. Furthermore, understanding the learning process of healthcare professionals [ 78 ], evaluating the effects of training [ 106 ], and establishing evidence-based standards for skills training are crucial for high-quality teaching [ 107 ]. Additionally, further research is necessary to assess the feasibility, effectiveness, and acceptability of interprofessional interventions targeting multiple health needs aimed at health promotion [ 90 ] and experiences using comprehensive health assessment tools [ 108 ].

Methodological considerations

This review included studies employing various methods to obtain comprehensive insights into training healthcare professionals in assessing the health needs of older adults living at home [ 47 ]. We utilized a validated mixed-methods appraisal tool to assess the quality of the included studies [ 47 , 49 ]. We did not include reporting on screening questions regarding the clarity of the research question or whether the collected data addressed the research questions, as our review focused exclusively on empirical studies. Additionally, we chose not to calculate an overall score from the ratings of each criterion, as this practice is discouraged. We provide an overview of each study’s quality by presenting the ratings of each criterion [ 49 ]. Our findings revealed that only one study met all the quality criteria, fifteen studies met four criteria, three studies met three criteria, and four studies met only one criterion. High-quality studies employ rigorous and robust methods, leading to reliable and valid findings [ 109 ]. While most studies met 3–4 quality criteria, they provide a relatively strong evidence base and offer valuable insights, although some concerns remain. Several studies did not meet the quality criteria for nonresponse bias or complete outcome data. It is crucial to describe and evaluate a low response rate for its potential impact, as this can limit the generalizability of findings [ 110 ]. Many studies also failed to account for confounders in their design and analysis. Confounding factors may bias results by distorting the interpretation of findings [ 49 ], masking actual associations or creating false associations, potentially leading to incorrect conclusions [ 111 ]. The randomization of study subjects and rigorous statistical analyses can mitigate the impact of confounding variables [ 112 ]. Nonetheless, conducting a quality assessment increases awareness of these biases and limitations, thereby enhancing our confidence in the study findings.

Strengths and limitations

Our scoping review has several limitations. Initially, our search strategy involved the use of six databases and various relevant search terms related to training healthcare professionals in assessing the health needs of older adults. We excluded gray literature to focus on mapping existing published research and identifying any research gaps. The search was conducted by an experienced librarian. Despite our efforts to comprehensively map the research literature, we may have overlooked some studies. Second, our exclusion criteria, which encompassed, for example, general practitioners, students, and institutional settings, restricted the scope of the study. Additionally, we focused on health needs assessment, excluding studies that assessed the environment, an important factor in enabling older adults to stay at home as long as possible. However, based on the findings and limitations of the included studies, we believe our review provides valuable insights into the research context. These findings can inform future research, practice, policymaking, and the development of training programs for healthcare professionals in community settings to assess older adults’ health needs.

Healthcare professionals require training in assessing physical, mental, and social health needs in older adults living at home to ensure tailored interventions that enhance their health and independence. Our study revealed that healthcare professionals were satisfied with the combination of participant-engaging and teacher-driven pedagogical approaches when training in physical, mental, and social health needs assessment. Such training is beneficial and strengthens healthcare professionals’ confidence and competency in assessment and care planning for older adults living at home. Additionally, some studies reported that following health needs assessment training, there was a shift in work practices and improved health outcomes for older adults. We suggest that health needs assessment training programs are valuable for improving health and care for older adults living at home and contribute to increased sustainability in healthcare.

Furthermore, we propose additional research on interprofessional simulation training for the structured assessment of multiple health needs in older adults, ensuring comprehensive coverage of all significant health issues in these assessments. We also recommend research on the implementation of such assessments and health promoting interventions.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Acknowledgements

The authors express gratitude to librarian Kari Hølland, Division of Research, Stavanger University Library for performing the systematic literature searches.

This article stems from the research project “More good days at home - Advancing health promoting practices in municipal healthcare services for older recipients of homecare” (HEIME), specifically related to Work Package 3, “Simulation and training for health needs assessment in home-living older adults”. HEIME is funded by the Research Council of Norway (grant 320622), University of Southeastern-Norway, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Horten, Porsgrunn and Nome municipality (2021–2025). Dr. Grethe Eilertsen is the project director. Drs. Siri Tønnessen, Anette Hansen and Professor Marianne Storm are the principal researchers and work package leaders.

Open access funding provided by University of Stavanger & Stavanger University Hospital

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Bente Hamre Larsen & Marianne Storm

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Dagrunn Nåden Dyrstad & Peter Dieckmann

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Helle K. Falkenberg

USN Research Group of Older Peoples’ Health, University of South-Eastern Norway, Drammen, Norway

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All authors (BHL, DND, HKF, PD and MS) contributed to the design and development of the study, research questions, and literature search. BHL conducted the literature search in collaboration with MS and research librarian. All authors participated in the screening and quality assessment processes. Data analysis and manuscript writing and preparation was led by BHL in collaboration with MS. All authors were involved in reading, commenting and reviewing the text, and approving the final manuscript.

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Larsen, B.H., Dyrstad, D.N., Falkenberg, H.K. et al. Training healthcare professionals in assessment of health needs in older adults living at home: a scoping review. BMC Med Educ 24 , 1019 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-06014-9

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-06014-9

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